Criminal Tribes Act

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exploitation and abuse due to their marginalised status, and they are often victimised by every one of them. They face the misuse of power by the police and the caste communities in the villages, who arrest or illegally confine them for crimes others commit. Women and children are not spared, as they become easy targets of the lustful and corrupt personnel in the law enforcing machinery and the landlords in the villages. As a result, women of these communities suffer from physical, emotional, and psychological trauma, perpetuating a cycle of marginalisation, vulnerability, and exploitation. The extent of these human rights violations is evident in the community survey, reflecting the urgent need for action to address this systemic issue (Borker 9). For example, a woman of the Nandiwale tribe, who makes a living selling utensils and cutlery, was subjected to a violent attack in the Indapur block of Pune district. She was accused of stealing silver spoons from a household and, without any inquiry, was stripped and beaten. Her belonging to a tribe that was once deemed criminal was deemed sufficient evidence of her guilt. Shockingly, the police did not even register a case in this matter (Borker 12).

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different reasons, such as crop failure and the nomadic lifestyle of certain tribes. During the 1860s, colonial lawmaking in Punjab was primarily aimed at addressing the issue of criminal activities by certain tribes, which presented a significant challenge for the provincial administration. These criminal tribes were often perceived as a social evil and a threat to the economic mainstay of the populace, which was agriculture. The colonial officials recognised the importance of maintaining law and order in the province and introduced various legal statutes, such as the Criminal Tribes Act (CTA), to achieve this goal. The CTA aimed to target the most accessible and visible suspects. These criminal tribes were already socially ostracised due to their lack of 'animal capital' or 'land capital,' which determined one's social status in pre-colonial Punjab. This social structure was formalised under the capitalist modes of production introduced by the colonial state (Safdar 20).

214: 31: 201:. In these texts, roads, mountain passes, and forest pathways are teemed with robber bands waiting to prey on merchants and travellers. They come from the forests, which are at the periphery of civilisation in Brahmanic cosmology. They are at 'the cosmic fringe, the wasteland, a socially negative space home to various outsiders to ordinary moral, ritual, legal, and social life.' Sage Manu wrote of them as living outside the village, wearing garments of the dead, eating their food from broken dishes, and wandering from place to place. Historian Divya Cherian in her eighteenth-century history of the 240: 271: 2626: 468:

shall be punished with rigorous imprisonment for a term which may extend to seven years, and shall also be liable to fine." Looking at the historical context of lawmaking in British India, it seems that creating laws was not only aimed at addressing social issues and served as a means for the imperial government to shape its image. Laws like the CTA were enacted to acknowledge and combat a widespread "social evil," and the act conveyed this message to the general public (Safdar 20).

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themselves destined by the usage of caste to commit crime and whose descendants will be offenders against law until the whole tribe is exterminated or accounted for in the manner of the thugs. When a man tells you that he is an offender against law, he has been so from the beginning, and will be so to the end, reform is impossible, for it is his trade, his caste, I may almost say his religion to commit crime.

355:) difficult to manage. They were all grouped together, and their subsequent generations were labelled a law and order problem for the state. Though various marginalised caste groups were added to the list, the colonial government used the category of 'tribe' for rhetorical and administrative purposes. This categorisation evoked qualities of 'wildness' and 'savagery' in the way that caste seemed to fail. 287:

provided the legal jurisprudence to understanding crime in India as an organised and hereditary in the person of a thug. The law allowed individuals to be convicted based solely on affiliation to a criminal group without evidence of having committed a crime. The first mention of a thuggee in the British archives is during murder investigations in 1809. In the Indian region of

938:(1952) (art. 2 (1)), and asked India to repeal the Habitual Offenders Act (1952) and effectively rehabilitate the denotified and nomadic tribes. According to the body, since much of 'Habitual Offenders Act (1952)' is derived from the earlier 'Criminal Tribes Act 1871', it doesn't show a marked departure in its intent, only gives the formed notified tribes a new name i.e. 256:, legal regulations allowed for punishment of an offender's family and village. It was rooted in the existing jurisprudence that criminality was hereditary in India and criminals were such by profession and belonged to like-minded fraternity. The growth of gang robbery by lowland villagers in the late eighteenth century was significantly due to the 870:(HOA) (1952) was enacted in the place of CTA; it states that a habitual offender is one who has been a victim of subjective and objective influences and has manifested a set practice in crime, and also presents a danger to society. The HOA effectively re-stigmatised the already marginalised "criminal tribes". 793:

Colonial authorities claimed that it was necessary for "eunuchs" to be registered under the Act to prevent them from kidnapping children and/or engaging in sodomy. In reality, there was little official evidence of any gender non-conforming communities in India kidnapping children, or of many children

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According to Indian penal code 1860, "Section 401: Punishment for belonging to a gang of thieves.—Whoever, at any time after the passing of this Act, shall belong to any wandering or other gangs of persons associated to committing theft or robbery habitually, and not being a gang of thugs or dacoits,

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Nevertheless, colonial rule advanced these stereotypes of congenital criminality to cement vertical power relations. In addition, contemporary discourse of crime in Britain also influenced perception and response in the larger colonies like India; class and caste seemed to converge in legal discourse

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have received considerable scholarly attention. (... There are) multiple meanings of the concept of the criminal caste itself and its multiple uses under colonial rule. Hundreds of communities were brought under the Criminal Tribes Act. In 1931, 237 tribes were under the act in the Madras Presidency

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This practice became controversial and did not enjoy the support of all British colonial officials. Henry Schwarz, a professor at Georgetown University specialising in the history of colonial and postcolonial India, wrote that this decades-long practice was reversed at the start of the 20th century

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Once a tribe was officially notified, its members had no recourse to repeal such notices under the judicial system. From then on, their movements were monitored through a system of compulsory registration and passes, which specified where the holders could travel and reside, and district magistrates

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testified, "When we speak of professional criminals, we...(mean) a tribe whose ancestors were criminals from time immemorial, who are themselves destined by the usage of caste to commit crime, and whose descendants will be offenders against the law, until the whole tribe is exterminated or accounted

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Despite previous regulations, until 1871, no community or caste were collectively classified as criminal. In 1871-72, the upper castes convicts featured more in proportion to their population compared to the backward castes. However, after the revolt of 1857, the propensity of the Indigenous tribes

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Simultaneously, the late nineteenth century was an important turning point for British legal discourse with far reaching political and ideological consequences. Public interest in criminality was growing; crime and criminals increasingly became part of popular fact and fiction. Several reasons were

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The British government was able to summon a large amount of public support, including the nationalist press, for the excesses committed, because the Criminal Tribes Act was posed widely as a social reform measure which reformed criminals through work. However, when they tried to make a living like

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When the colonial state annexed Punjab, it posed numerous challenges due to its geographical location and proximity to Afghanistan and the restive northern regions of India. The crime statistics of the 1860s were inconsistent, with occasional fluctuations that colonial administrators attributed to

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In 1908, special 'settlements' were constructed for the notified tribes where they had to perform hard labour. With subsequent amendments to the Act, punitive penalties were increased, and fingerprinting of all members of the criminal tribe was made compulsory, such tight control according to many

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An inquiry was set up in 1883, to investigate the need for extending the Act to the rest of India, and received an affirmative response. 1897 saw another amendment to the Act, wherein local governments were empowered to establish separate "reformatory" settlements, for tribal boys from age four to

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describing the involved thugs as strongly leagued together, organised, ancient, and secretive. In the same year, another report by Judge T. Brooke to Dowdeswell further defined thuggee as 'a crime in which unsuspecting travelers were approached in disguise, strangled with a scarf or catgut string,

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administrative reforms rather than changes in the economic production patters. The reforms altered land revenue obligations and tenant-landlord relations as well as the police and judicial systems in colonial India. The Regulation XII of 1793 legislated that 'wandering' communities could be put to

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and Bavris communities. Archival records show the anxiety of Rathor administrators who viewed these communities as inclined to steal and raid villages. While other communities in the kingdom also engaged in raiding, they were not classified as inherently criminal. Therefore, Cherian argues that it

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Over the course of the century since its passing, the criminal identity attached to certain tribes by the Act, was internalised not just by the society, but also by the police, whose official methodology, even after repeal of the Act, often reflected the characteristics of manifestation of an era

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The colonial government prepared a list of "criminal castes", and all members registered in these castes by caste-census were restricted in terms of regions they could visit, move about in or people they could socialise with. In certain regions, entire caste groups were presumed guilty by birth,

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with five qualities--strangulation, secrecy, organisation, antiquity, and religiosity. These distinguished them from other categories of criminality and provided the basis of the 1836 act. Nevertheless, these understandings and common parlance precedes British arrival in India. The Thuggee Act

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Under these acts, ethnic or social communities in India were defined as "addicted to the systematic commission of non-bailable offences" such as thefts, and were registered by the government. Adult males of the groups were forced to report weekly to local police, and had restrictions on their

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amateur ethnographers believed that Indian castes, because of their strictures against intermarriage, represented pure racial types, and they concocted the notion of racially inferior criminal castes or 'criminal tribes', inbred ethnic groups predisposed to criminal behavior by both cultural

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Women from de-notified and nomadic communities were victimised after CTA and often faced severe human rights violations and abuse of power by various actors, including law enforcement authorities, politicians, landlords, and the village communities. These women are particularly vulnerable to

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The special feature of India is the caste system. As it is, traders go by caste. A family of carpenters will be carpenters, a century or five centuries...Viewed from this angle, the meaning of professional is clear. It means tribes whose ancestors were criminal from time immemorial, who are

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for their so-called "criminal tendencies". As a result, anyone born in these communities across the country was presumed as a "born criminal", irrespective of their criminal precedents. This gave the police sweeping powers to arrest them, control them, and monitor their movements.

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which saw, for example, the categorisation of castes as being "agricultural" or "martial" as a means of facilitating the distribution of property or recognising which groups were loyal to the colonial government and therefore suitable for military recruitment, respectively.

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The Act was repealed in August 1949, which resulted in 2,300,000 tribals being decriminalised. The committee appointed in the same year by the central government to study the utility of the existence of this law, reported in 1950 that the system violated the spirit of the

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Terming entire communities as criminals, barbarians, vagabond, or thieves is rooted in Indian caste discrimination. Anthropologist Anastasia Piliavsky argues that the stereotype of 'criminal tribes' has a deep history and predates colonial legislation in India. She adds,

392:, a senior official, to undertake 'a great stock-taking' after hundred years of British rule in India. He noted that India had become a 'more secure, more prosperous' country and 'thing, dakaiti, and predatory castes suppressed' amongst other achievements. 965:

recommended that same reservations as available to Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes be extended to around 110 million people of denotified, nomadic or semi-nomadic tribes in India; the commission further recommended that the provisions of the

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denouncing the Act commented, "The monstrous provisions of the Criminal Tribes Act constitute a negation of civil liberty. No tribe be classed as criminal as such and the whole principle out of consonance with all civilised principles."

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classify them on the basis of their usefulness to the state. Observable differences became inherent tendencies. When combined with poorly understood Indian notions of community, such tendencies became essential, unchanging certainties.

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in 1947, thirteen million people in 127 communities faced search and arrest if any member of the group was found outside the prescribed area. The Criminal Tribes Act 1924 was repealed in August 1949 and former "criminal tribes" were

775:. The label "eunuch" was used as a catchall term for anyone thought not to conform to traditional British ideals of masculinity, though in reality most of the communities classified as "eunuchs" did not identify as male or female. 225:

Authors of ancient treatises, Mughal rulers, European travellers in precolonial India, and itinerant groups (today and in the past) all called on the idea of hereditary robber tribes to pursue a wide range of distinctive purposes.

786:," while suspicious eunuchs performed in public and wore what British officials classified as female clothes. The Criminal Tribes Act banned all behaviour considered "suspicious," warning that anyone found engaging in traditional 878:

Many of these denotified tribes continued to carry considerable social stigma from the Act, and come under the purview of the new 'Prevention of Anti-Social Activity Act' (PASA). Many of them have been denied the status of

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visited the Aziz Nagar settlement unofficially and provided food and basic necessities to affected people there. Jambulinga Mudaliar vehemently opposed the Criminal Tribes Act, but only the Criminal Tribes Act against the

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also provided for new social and political discussions. One school of thought attributed crime to genetic traits transmitted over generations. It provided for a deflection from serious enquiries to the causes of crime.

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Yang, A. A. (1985). Dangerous Castes and Tribes: The Criminal Tribal Act and the Magahiya Dogs of Northeast India. In A. A. Yang (Ed.), Crime and Criminality in British India (pp. 108-127). Tucson: University of Arizona

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to revolt, and with weapons was duly noted by the British colonial officers. T. V. Stephens, the chief architect of the 1871 law, and a member of the Law and Order Commission, while presenting his diabolic law, said,

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by P. Kerim Friedman and Shashwati Talukdar on a Chhara tribal theatre group in Ahmedabad, India. The community after being notified as 'natural criminals' in 1871 were imprisoned in a labour camp near the town.

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the hypnotism of this bias is extraordinary and leaves scores of learned and talented historians tone-deaf to voices that were there before, during, and after the Europeans reached, and quit the subcontinent.

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looted, and hidden.' The same definition was emphasised in Richard Sherwood's report in 1819 as well as that these groups were highly diverse, involving multiple castes, religions, and ethnicities. In 1830,

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The land pirates of India: An account of the Kuravers, a remarkable tribe of hereditary criminals, their extraordinary skill as thieves, cattle-lifters & highwayman & c, and their manners &

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McLane, J. R. (1985). Bengali Bandits, Police and Landlords after the permanent settlement. In A. A. Yang (Ed.), Crime and Criminality in British India (pp. 26-47). Tucson: University of Arizona Press.

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be applicable to these tribes also. Today, many governmental and non-governmental bodies are involved in the betterment of these denotified tribes through various schemes and educational programs.

934:(CERD), noted that "the so-called denotified and nomadic which are listed for their alleged 'criminal tendencies' under the former Criminal Tribes Act (1871), continue to be stigmatised under the 967: 958: 410:, which included castes within their scope. This terminology was preferred for various reasons, including Muslim sensitivities that considered castes by definition Hindu, and preferred 210:

was 'a complex of factors--landlessness, poverty, and the resultant martial weakness--in addition to a hereditary association with theft that led to a caste's perception as criminal.'

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Andrew J. Major (1999), State and Criminal Tribes in Colonial Punjab: Surveillance, Control and Reclamation of the 'Dangerous Classes', Modern Asian Studies, 33(3), pp. 657–688

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for in manner of thugs". While very few officials expressed concern about endowing the police with too much power, most British administrators approved of the draconian measures.

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Many of the tribes were "settled" in villages under the police guard, whose job was to ensure that no registered member of the tribe was absent without notice. Also imposition of

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were arrested under the Criminal Tribes Act and formed the Aziz Nagar settlement. The oppressed people in the Aziz Nagar settlement were without even basic facilities and food.

585:, gypsies, hill and forest dwelling tribes, they did not conform to the prevailing European standards of living, which involved settled agriculture and waged labour. Those with 440:

as well, bringing entire India into the jurisdiction of this law. The revised version of the act then affected 1,400,000 people belonging to the nomadic communities, especially

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Rahul Ashok Kamble, Ritesh Kumar, and Arnab Chowdhury. (2023). '‘Ostracized by law’: The sociopolitical and juridical construction of the ‘criminal tribe’ in Colonial India.''

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argues that moral and material progress was demanded to be at a faster pace through a set of new social and political policies in the colonies. She also notes that after the

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Historian Jessica Hinchy argues that the laws also repositioned families in space; it geographically redistributed and immobilised population on the basis of family units.

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has suggested that because many of these tribes were small communities of poor, low-caste and nomadic people living on the fringes of the society, living as petty traders,

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The Aziz Nagar settlement in South Arcot District was opened on 22 September 1913 to deal with the so-called criminal tribes of the Madras presidency, including Veppur

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in the villages since 1929 urging the people to defy the CTA, the number of tribes listed under the CTA was reduced. Other provincial governments soon followed suit.

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Hundreds of Hindu communities were brought under the Criminal Tribes Act. By 1931, the colonial government listed 237 criminal castes and tribes under the act in the

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Kaaval Kottam (காவல் கோட்டம்): by Su. Venkatesan. Published by Tamizhini. Winner of Sahitya Academy Award for 2011. Describes the Thathanoor Kallar and their lives.

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S Nigam (1990). "Disciplining and Policing the "Criminals by Birth", Part 1: The Making of a Colonial Stereotype – The Criminal Tribes and Castes of North India".

931: 2165:"Interface between the State and Marginalized Communities: A Critical Study on Police Behaviour towards Denotified and Nomadic Tribe's Women in Maharashtra" 2485: 2182:

Gannon, Shane (2011). "Exclusion as Language and the Language of Exclusion: Tracing Regimes of Gender through Linguistic Representations of the "Eunuch"".

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anonymously published an article which sealed the understanding that it was a religious practice. Sleeman, thereafter, wrote three books on the thuggees.

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work on roads or otherwise forcibly settled down. British officials were encouraged to compile lists of these attributes pertaining to each community and,

2655:, by Bhawani Shanker Bhargava. Published by Published for the Ethnographic and Folk Culture Society, United Provinces, by the Universal Publishers, 1949. 2625:, Editors: John Marriott and Bhaskar Mukhopadhyay, Advisory Editor: Partha Chatterjee. Published by Pickering and Chatto Publishers, 2006. Full text of 740:

Though it was primarily directed at tribal communities, various incarnations of the Criminal Tribes Act also included provisions limiting the rights of

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and hill tribes. Other major British census based caste groups that were included as criminal-by-birth under this Act included Ahir, Bowreah, Budducks,

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reiterates the precolonial roots of 'criminal tribes.' The erstwhile Rathor state attributed an inherent tendency towards animal killing and crimes of

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states that the criminal-by-birth castes under this Act included initially gujjar and lodhis but expanded by the late 19th century to include most of

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In the coming decades, to evade prosecution under the Act, many of these notified tribes took up nomadic existence, living on the fringes of society.

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Tolen, R. J. (1991). Colonizing and Transforming the Criminal Tribesman: The Salvation Army in British India. American Ethnologist, 18(1), 106-125.

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of India who continue to face its legacy through continued alienation and stereotyping with the policing and judicial systems and media portrayal.

2463: 1110:"'People are Trapped in History and History is Trapped Inside Them': Exploring Britain's Racialized Colonial Legacies in Criminological Research" 400:

The Criminal Tribes Act was one of the many laws passed by the British colonial government that applied to Indians based on their religion and

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Mark Brown (2001), Race, science and the construction of native criminality in colonial India. Theoretical criminology, 5(3), pp. 345–368

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initiated by the Act, a century ago, where characteristic of crimes committed by certain tribes were closely watched, studied and documented.

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were removed from their care, despite the fact that most of the children did not have any other legal guardians and had been adopted into the

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Piliavsky also summarises these as socio-political decisions with varied purposes, prior to colonial legislations and subsequent list-making,

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Cherian, D. (2022). Merchants of Virtue: Hindus, Muslims, and Untouchables in Eighteenth-Century South Asia. University of California Press.

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Reid, D. (2017). On the Origin of Thuggee: Determining the Existence of Thugs in Pre-British India. The Ascendant Historian, 4(1), 75-84.

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Under the Criminal Tribes Act, a eunuch could be either "respectable" or "suspicious." Respectable eunuchs did not engage in "kidnapping,

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discussed the injustices stemming from the legislative and social prejudices meted to these tribes in present India. A 2017 Tamil film,

2865: 962: 328:, many tribal chiefs were labelled traitors and considered rebellious. One of the important persons who participated in the revolt was 2379: 1024:, who has been working with these communities for over three decades. Devi's work was influential in the 2005 short documentary movie 1721:

Nigam, S. (1990). "Disciplining and Policing the "Criminals by Birth", Part 2: The Development of a Disciplinary System, 1871–1900".

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Piliavsky, A. (2015). The “Criminal Tribe” in India before the British. Comparative Studies in Society and History, 57(2), 323–354.

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The Who's who in Madras A Pictorial Who's who of Distinguished Personages, Princes, Zemindars and Noblemen in the Madras Presidency

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Bates, Crispin (1995). "Race, Caste and Tribe in Central India: the early origins of Indian anthropometry". In Robb, Peter (ed.).

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Abraham, S. (1999). Steal or I'll Call You a Thief: 'Criminal' Tribes of India. Economic and Political Weekly, 34(27), 1751-1753.

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to commit crime and whose dependants will be offenders against the law, until the while tribe is exterminated or accounted for...

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recommended repeal of the 1952 Habitual Offenders Act in February 2000. Later in March 2007, the UN's anti-discrimination body

601: 2265:

Hinchy, Jessica (3 April 2014). "Obscenity, Moral Contagion and Masculinity: Hijras in Public Space in Colonial North India".

706:, Gahsees Boayas, Dharees, Sowakhyas. and One such measure was the Criminal Tribes Act of 1871, under the provisions of which 363:

arrested, children separated from their parents, and held in penal colonies or quarantined without conviction or due process.

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Radhakrishna, M. (2001). Dishonoured by History: 'Criminal Tribes' and British Colonial Policy. Hyderabad: Orient Longman.

2911: 2791:"Ethnology and Colonial Administration in Nineteenth-Century British India: The Question of Native Crime and Criminality" 2446: 2425: 619:

Because it came to be thought that behavior was hereditary rather than learned, crime became ethnic, and what was merely

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Ancient and medieval literature from the Indian subcontinent have mentions of outlawed tribes. These include the Vedic

130:. The Act went through several amendments in the next decade, and, finally, the 1924 version incorporated all of them. 2886: 2760: 2746: 2732: 2718: 2704: 2686: 2672: 2361: 2338: 1950: 1885: 1856: 1806: 1626: 1311: 1288: 1047: 710:(Mina)were placed in the first list of the Act in 1872 in Patiala and East Punjab States Union, Rajasthan and Punjab 564: 899:, which reserves seats for them in government jobs and educational institutions, thus most of them are still living 546: 2926: 2916: 2753:

Notes On Criminal Tribes Residing In Or Frequenting The Bombay Presidency, Berar, And The Central Provinces (1882)

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Schwarz, H. (2010). Constructing the criminal tribe in colonial India: Acting like a thief. USA: Wiley-Blackwell.

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The History of railway thieves: With illustrations & hints on detection (The criminal tribes of India series)

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Khan, Shahnaz (2016). "Trans* Individuals and Normative Masculinity in British India and Contemporary Pakistan".

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with the proclamation that people "could not be incarcerated indefinitely on the presumption of bad character".

426: 147: 839:, to look into the matter of 'criminal tribes'. In 1949, after a long campaign led by Communist leaders such as 77: 1009:

depicts the still existing prejudice and abuse of "denotified tribes" in Indian police, politics, and society.

542: 2667:, by Anand A. Yang. Published for the Association for Asian Studies by the University of Arizona Press, 1985. 1326:"'Ostracized by law': The sociopolitical and juridical construction of the 'criminal tribe' in Colonial India" 942:, hence the stigma continues so does the oppression, as the law is being denounced on two counts, first that " 790:

activities like public dancing or dressing in women's clothing would be arrested and/or forced to pay a fine.

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everybody else, they did not find work outside the settlement because of public prejudice and ostracisation.

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The Criminal Tribes: A Socio-economic Study of the Principal Criminal Tribes and Castes in Northern India

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lifestyles were seen as a menace to 19th century society and required control, or at least surveillance.

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cited for criminality, including alcohol, poverty, urbanisation, overcrowding, and decline in morality.

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depicting some members of a nomadic tribe as dacoits. The second season of the Indian streaming series

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Suspects forever: Members of the "denotified tribes" continue to bear the brunt of police brutality

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Repeal the Habitual Offenders Act and affectively rehabilitate the denotified tribes, UN to India

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Customary strangers: new perspectives on peripatetic peoples in the Middle East, Africa, and Asia

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living in gender non-conforming communities. The few children that were found to be living with

2931: 2080: 2034: 888: 624: 2350: 1795: 1615: 1554:

Safdar, A (April 2020). "Criminalizing the Natives: A Study of the Criminal Tribes Act, 1871".

761:" to refer to the many, often unrelated gender non-conforming communities in India, including 1845: 1559: 1300: 1277: 301: 134: 866:

A massive crime wave after the criminal tribes were denotified led to a public outcry. The

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for such people had already been initiated by mid-19th century by social reformers, such as

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Kapadia, K. M. (1952). The Criminal Tribes of India. Sociological Bulletin, 1(2), 99-125.

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In postcolonial India, movies have been made on these communities with varied depictions.

8: 860: 282:

set the legal precedent for the Criminal Tribes Act 1871. Colonial records characterises

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and other areas in 1876, and updated to the Criminal Tribes Act 1911, which included the

2713:, by Martine van Woerkens, tr. by Catherine Tihanyi. University Of Chicago Press. 2002. 2249:

A Collection of Acts passed by the Governor General of India in Council in the Year 1871

115:(CTA). This criminalised entire communities by designating them as habitual criminals. 2862:

National Commission for denotified, Nomadic & Semi-nomadic Tribes, Official website

2812: 2290: 2199: 2019: 1738: 1703: 1349: 900: 749: 620: 609: 352: 2525: 2772: 2756: 2742: 2728: 2714: 2700: 2682: 2668: 2598: 2479: 2357: 2334: 2294: 2282: 2207: 2191: 2164: 2131: 2091: 2045: 1946: 1922: 1881: 1852: 1802: 1764: 1742: 1707: 1666: 1622: 1527: 1502: 1474: 1442: 1377: 1353: 1341: 1307: 1284: 1131: 996: 714: 459:

It was subsequently extended to the rest of British India, in part or its entirety.

449: 437: 336: 202: 158: 127: 123: 2408: 2380:"The Adivasis of India – A History of Discrimination, Conflict, and Resistance" 270: 2844: 2802: 2696: 2577: 2563: 2552: 2356:, by Jennifer Terry, Jacqueline Urla. Published by Indiana University Press, 1995. 2311: 2274: 2151:

alone. The concept of the criminal castes drew on a number of different discourses.

1914: 1730: 1695: 1333: 1306:, by Joseph C. Berland, Aparna Rao. Published by Greenwood Publishing Group, 2004. 1121: 1012:

At least two short films have made on the situation of denotified tribes in India.

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Deviant Bodies: Critical Perspectives on Difference in Science and Popular Culture

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The colonial government found the demarcation between wandering criminal tribes,

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Professor Henry Schwarz notes that, as early as 1772, under the governorship of

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community because they were orphans or unwanted by their biological families.

340: 2875: 2567: 2412: 2286: 2195: 2095: 2081:"The Criminal Tribes (Denotified) Settlements in Madras Presidency – A Study" 2049: 2035:"The Criminal Tribes (Denotified) Settlements in Madras Presidency – A Study" 1926: 1918: 1345: 1135: 840: 832: 687: 646:

and Piramalai Kallar, in South Arcot district. Some of the peoples of Veppur

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Suspect Identities: A History of Fingerprinting and Criminal Identification

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Suspect identities: a history of fingerprinting and criminal identification

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police posts on the villages with history of "misconduct" was also common.

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Who are the Chharas? – Rehabilitation of Chharas, a De-Notified Tribe

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Kamble, Rahul Ashok; Kumar, Ritesh; Roy Chowdhury, Arnab (27 April 2023).

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Civilising Natures: Race, Resources and Modernity in Colonial South India

1059: 1016:(2001) by Shashwati Talukdar in based on the life of social activist and 1005: 827:

In January 1947, Government of Bombay set up a committee, which included

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identification. The Criminal Tribes Act and its provisions used the term

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Scheduled Caste and Scheduled Tribe (Prevention of Atrocities) Act, 1989

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scholars was placed to ensure that no future revolts could take place.

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A Government of Bengal, CID pamphlet, on Gobinda Dom's Gang, under the

1983:

Year of Birth – 1871: Mahasweta Devi on India's Denotified Tribes

1471:

Constructing the criminal tribe in colonial India: acting like a thief

2623:

Britain in India, 1765–1905, Volume 1: Justice, Police, Law and Order

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Dishonoured by History: "Criminal Tribes" and British Colonial Policy

1851:, by Muzammil Quraishi. Published by Ashgate Publishing, Ltd., 2005. 1621:, by Louis A. Knafla. Published by Greenwood Publishing Group, 2002. 1418: 828: 616:(1807–1877), who was the first to coin the term "dangerous classes". 313: 292: 2829:

Gupta, Charu (18 May 2007). ''Viranganas' and Reinvention of 1857.'

1283:, by Gayatri Reddy. Published by University of Chicago Press, 2005. 516: 1903:"Conjugality, Colonialism and the 'Criminal Tribes' in North India" 959:

National Commission for Denotified, Nomadic and Semi-Nomadic Tribes

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The first CTA, the Criminal Tribes Act 1871, was applied mostly in

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The Strangled Traveler: Colonial Imaginings and the Thugs of India

2251:. Calcutta: Office of Superintendent of Government Printing. 1872. 914:. Today the social category generally known as the denotified and 1945:, by Simon A. Cole. Published by Harvard University Press, 2002. 683: 445: 283: 1441:. Cambridge, MA, USA: Harvard University Press. pp. 67–72. 480:

The castes and tribes "notified" under the Act were labelled as

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Legible Bodies: Race, Criminality and Colonialism in South Asia

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Shrikant Gopichand Borkar; Amrapali Jambhulkar (22 June 2022).

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Shanlax International Journal of Arts, Science & Humanities

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Shanlax International Journal of Arts, Science & Humanities

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https://journals.uvic.ca/index.php/corvette/article/view/17067

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Denotified and Nomadic Tribes in Maharashtra by Motiraj Rathod

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With Respect to Sex: Negotiating Hijra Identity in South India

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Parmar, Alpa; Earle, Rod; Phillips, Coretta (16 August 2022).

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Rachel Tolen (1995). Jennifer Terry; Jacqueline Urla (eds.).

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Religion and personal law in secular India a call to judgment

1499:

Development of scheduled castes and scheduled tribes in India

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The Indian Constitution--: A Case Study of Backward Classes

2741:, by S.T. Hollins. Published by Nidhi Book Enclave. 2005. 946:", and second that it negates a valuable principle of the 2634:, by M. Pauparao Naidu. Higginbothams. 4th edition. 1915. 1801:, by Kavita Philip. Published by Orient Blackswan, 2004. 1501:. Newcastle, UK: Cambridge Scholars. pp. 25, 23–28. 757:

The Criminal Tribes Act of 1871 created the category of "

2681:, by Nicole Rafter. University of Illinois Press. 1998. 2641:, by William John Hatch. Pub. J.B. Lippincott Co. 1928. 2627:

Criminal Tribes' Act, 1871, Act XXVII (1871) pp. 227–239

1323: 2755:, by E. J. Gunthorpe. Kessinger Publishing, LLC. 2008. 2002: 489:

were required to maintain records of all such people.

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Crime, gender, and sexuality in criminal prosecutions

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Committee on the Elimination of Racial Discrimination

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Branded by Law: Looking at India's Denotified Tribes

2499:"Paruthi Veeran – Ameer's Passion continues..." 2386:. People's Union for Civil Liberties. Archived from 910:

The new Act simply relists the "Criminal Tribes" as

448:, and Korachas. In the same year, it was applied in 2769:

The hollow crown: ethnohistory of an Indian kingdom

1107: 918:includes approximately 60 million people in India. 2351:Colonizing and Transforming the Criminal Tribesman 462: 274:Colonial depiction of thugs attacking a traveller. 2661:, by Y. C. Simhadri. Published by National, 1979. 1976: 2873: 2484:: CS1 maint: bot: original URL status unknown ( 1365: 1363: 1871: 1869: 1376:. Delhi: Oxford University Press. p. 227. 234: 2795:The British Journal for the History of Science 1665:. Indiana University Press. pp. 184–189. 1464: 1462: 414:as a more generic term that included Muslims. 1538:criminal tribes are destined by the usage of 1492: 1490: 1360: 600:The measure was a part of a wider attempt at 475: 366: 164: 2727:, by Clare Anderson. Berg Publishers. 2004. 2466:. Archived from the original on 18 June 2009 2426:Panel favours reservation for nomadic tribes 2142:Certain prominent groups, most notably the 2130:. Indiana University Press. pp. 84–88. 2125: 2121: 2119: 1875: 1866: 1754: 1752: 1422:, Volume 19 – Issue 12, 8–21 June 2002. 822: 142:in 1952, when the Act was replaced with the 2510:"Mahasweta Devi: Witness, Advocate, Writer" 2377: 1723:Indian Economic & Social History Review 1688:Indian Economic & Social History Review 1459: 1432: 1430: 1428: 921: 891:(OBC), which would have allowed them avail 754:in particular were targeted under the Act. 663:Padayachi of the South Arcot was repealed. 545:. Unsourced material may be challenged and 217:Svetambara giving instructions, c. 1750–60. 2866:Ministry of Social Justice and Empowerment 1846:The Criminal Tribe Act (Act XXVII of 1871) 1487: 963:Ministry of Social Justice and Empowerment 417:The Act was initially applied only to the 29: 2806: 2333:. Fairleigh Dickinson Univ Press, 1971. 2116: 1749: 1660: 1526:. Routledge. pp. 176, 107, 165–188. 1515: 1473:. USA: Wiley-Blackwell. pp. 99–101. 1125: 1014:Mahasweta Devi: Witness, Advocate, Writer 630: 565:Learn how and when to remove this message 433:eighteen years, away from their parents. 1761:Democracy and dictatorship in South Asia 1425: 944:all human beings are born free and equal 269: 238: 212: 150:started releasing lists of such tribes. 2514:Documentary Educational Resources (DER) 1685: 1661:K. Parker (2001). Gerald Larson (ed.). 1611: 1609: 1468: 1205: 193:, ancient and medieval storytelling of 2874: 2665:Crime and criminality in British India 2526:"Der Documentary: Acting like a thief" 2264: 2181: 1900: 1849:Muslims and Crime: A Comparative Study 1841: 1839: 1837: 1553: 1496: 1404: 1402: 1400: 1273: 1271: 748:individuals and communities in India. 2788: 2766: 2260: 2258: 2223: 2221: 2068:. Pearl Press,1938. 1938. p. 59. 1782: 1780: 1758: 1720: 1521: 1369: 595: 506: 2699:. Published by Penguin Books, 2001. 2227: 2078: 2032: 1606: 1454:tradition and hereditary disposition 1436: 1156: 1154: 873: 805: 543:adding citations to reliable sources 510: 2947:Persecution of LGBTQ people in Asia 2184:Journal of the History of Sexuality 1956: 1834: 1397: 1268: 492: 103:Since the 1870s, various pieces of 13: 2616: 2255: 2218: 2175: 1777: 1114:The British Journal of Criminology 730:Impact on third gender communities 14: 2963: 2855: 1880:. Orient Blackswan. p. 161. 1373:The Concept of Race in South Asia 1151: 388:The British Government appointed 2771:. University of Michigan Press. 928:National Human Rights Commission 515: 501: 343:, travelling tradesmen, nomads, 122:, before it was extended to the 37:Criminal Tribes Act (VI of 1924) 2659:The Ex-criminal Tribes of India 2518: 2503: 2492: 2456: 2437: 2419: 2402: 2371: 2344: 2323: 2301: 2240: 2156: 2102: 2072: 2056: 2026: 1967:The Imperial Gazetteer of India 1933: 1894: 1825: 1816: 1789: 1714: 1679: 1654: 1645: 1636: 1597: 1588: 1579: 1547: 1317: 1294: 1278:Colonialism and Criminal Castes 1259: 1250: 1241: 1232: 1223: 1214: 1199: 1190: 1181: 1172: 463:Colonial lawmaking in the 1860s 2831:Economic and Political Weekly, 2542: 1963:Punjab – Police and Jails 1163: 1142: 1101: 1092: 1083: 1074: 1065: 1038: 702:, Dasads, Nonias, Moosaheers, 24:The Criminal Tribes' Act, 1871 1: 2849:10.1080/02757206.2023.2204866 2378:C. R. Bijoy (February 2003). 1524:Penal power and colonial rule 1338:10.1080/02757206.2023.2204866 1080:Piliavsky (2015), p. 329-330. 1032: 903:and in sub-human conditions. 111:were collectively called the 2922:Human rights abuses in India 2892:Legislation in British India 2739:The Criminal Tribes in India 2279:10.1080/10357823.2014.901298 2110:"Criminal tribe act history" 1876:Radhakrishna, Meena (2001). 952:innocent until proven guilty 235:History of the colonial laws 107:legislation in India during 16:Legislation in British India 7: 2897:Repealed Indian legislation 1763:. Praeger. pp. 53–54. 973: 436:In 1911, it was enacted in 291:, the magistrate report of 231:and legislations in India. 10: 2968: 2912:Denotified tribes of India 1822:Radhakrishna (2001), pg. 2 1735:10.1177/001946469002700302 1700:10.1177/001946469002700201 1651:Radhakrishna (2001), pg. 1 1594:Abraham (1997), p. 1752-3 1256:Radhakrishna (2001), pg. 1 1247:Radhakrishna (2001), pg. 2 1238:Radhakrishna (2001), pg. 1 1229:Radhakrishna (2001), pg. 2 1220:Radhakrishna (2001), pg. 1 847:, and Forward Bloc leader 733: 669: 656:T. M. Jambulingam Mudaliar 476:Labelling and restrictions 367:Proposal and justification 295:to the Commander-in-Chief 247: 165:Communities as 'criminals' 2942:LGBTQ-related legislation 2902:Legal history of Pakistan 2842:History and Anthropology. 2808:10.1017/S0007087403005004 2582:10.1017/S0010417515000055 2308:Bania Arrested for Spying 2247:"Act No. XXVII of 1871". 1089:Cherian (2022), p. 94-95 1071:Piliavsky (2015), p. 344. 849:U. Muthuramalingam Thevar 823:Post-independence reforms 608:Elsewhere the concept of 91: 83: 73: 51: 44: 28: 23: 2887:Indian caste legislation 2767:Dirks, Nicholas (1993). 2568:10.1177/0038022919520203 1919:10.1177/0257643019900103 1901:Hinchy, Jessica (2020). 1585:Abraham (1997), p. 1753 1330:History and Anthropology 1098:Piliavsky (2015), p. 345 991:Theeran Adhigaaram Ondru 922:International opposition 720: 395: 243:Governor Warren Hastings 2927:Social history of India 2917:Discrimination in India 2679:Creating Born Criminals 2014:5 February 2009 at the 1469:Schwarz, Henry (2010). 948:criminal justice system 419:North-Western Provinces 382:James Fitzjames Stephen 2937:1870s in British India 2907:Legal history of India 2079:N. Neela; et al. 2033:N. Neela; et al. 1759:Stern, Robert (2001). 1616:Raj and Born Criminals 1603:Kapadia (1952), p. 99 1567:Cite journal requires 1497:Karade, Jagan (2014). 1301:Professional criminals 1206:Masters, John (1952). 1187:Reid (2017), p. 75-76 936:Habitual Offenders Act 889:Other Backward Classes 868:Habitual Offenders Act 831:, then Chief Minister 631:Resettlement of tribes 625:biological determinism 379: 275: 268: 244: 228: 218: 176: 144:Habitual Offenders Act 2833:42 (19): 1742. JSTOR 2416:, Mon, 19 March 2007. 2230:Hong Kong Law Journal 1831:Tolen (1991), pg. 107 1160:Schwarz (2010), p. 4 1148:Tolen (1991), pg. 108 1050:14 March 2009 at the 746:gender non-conforming 674:Professor of history 374: 302:William Henry Sleeman 273: 263: 242: 223: 216: 172: 153:Today, there are 313 78:Act No. XXVII of 1871 2789:Brown, Mark (2003). 2267:Asian Studies Review 1522:Brown, Mark (2014). 1437:Cole, Simon (2001). 1169:McLane (1985), pg.27 995:is based around the 539:improve this section 65:Criminal Tribes Act 2882:1871 in British law 2557:10.1525/luminos.139 2428:by Raghvendra Rao, 2329:Revankar, Ratna G. 1988:12 May 2014 at the 1786:Yang (1985), p.109 1642:Yang (1985), p.109 1265:Radhakrishna (2001) 1210:. The Viking Press. 1196:Reid (2017), p. 78 1178:Reid (2017), p. 79 1127:10.1093/bjc/azac058 1026:Acting Like a Thief 984:'s 2021 Tamil film 861:Indian constitution 853:led many agitations 610:Reformatory Schools 280:Thuggee Act of 1836 135:Indian independence 113:Criminal Tribes Act 2449:9 May 2008 at the 2320:, 18 January 2003. 2020:Harvard University 1998:indiatogether.org. 1907:Studies in History 901:Below Poverty Line 694:, Dormas, Gujjar, 621:social determinism 602:social engineering 596:Social engineering 507:Nomads vs settlers 359:movement imposed. 322:Meena Radhakrishna 297:William Dowdeswell 276: 245: 219: 2778:978-0-472-08187-5 2603:978-1-4051-2057-9 2434:, 21 August 2008. 2137:978-0-253-20975-7 1770:978-0-275-97041-3 1672:978-0-253-21480-5 1533:978-0-415-45213-7 1508:978-1-4438-1027-2 1480:978-1-4051-2057-9 1448:978-0-674-01002-4 1383:978-0-19-563767-0 997:Operation Bawaria 940:Denotified tribes 912:denotified tribes 874:Continued effects 806:Reform of the Act 715:Madras Presidency 623:till then became 575: 574: 567: 450:Bombay Presidency 438:Madras Presidency 203:Kingdom of Marwar 159:Denotified Tribes 148:state governments 128:Madras Presidency 124:Bengal Presidency 101: 100: 2959: 2820: 2810: 2782: 2537: 2536: 2534: 2532: 2522: 2516: 2507: 2501: 2496: 2490: 2489: 2483: 2475: 2473: 2471: 2460: 2454: 2453:26 January 2006. 2441: 2435: 2423: 2417: 2406: 2400: 2399: 2397: 2395: 2375: 2369: 2348: 2342: 2327: 2321: 2305: 2299: 2298: 2262: 2253: 2252: 2244: 2238: 2237: 2225: 2216: 2215: 2179: 2173: 2172: 2160: 2154: 2153: 2123: 2114: 2113: 2106: 2100: 2099: 2085: 2076: 2070: 2069: 2060: 2054: 2053: 2039: 2030: 2024: 2006: 2000: 1980: 1974: 1960: 1954: 1937: 1931: 1930: 1898: 1892: 1891: 1873: 1864: 1843: 1832: 1829: 1823: 1820: 1814: 1793: 1787: 1784: 1775: 1774: 1756: 1747: 1746: 1718: 1712: 1711: 1683: 1677: 1676: 1658: 1652: 1649: 1643: 1640: 1634: 1613: 1604: 1601: 1595: 1592: 1586: 1583: 1577: 1576: 1570: 1565: 1563: 1555: 1551: 1545: 1544: 1519: 1513: 1512: 1494: 1485: 1484: 1466: 1457: 1456: 1434: 1423: 1406: 1395: 1394: 1392: 1390: 1367: 1358: 1357: 1321: 1315: 1298: 1292: 1275: 1266: 1263: 1257: 1254: 1248: 1245: 1239: 1236: 1230: 1227: 1221: 1218: 1212: 1211: 1203: 1197: 1194: 1188: 1185: 1179: 1176: 1170: 1167: 1161: 1158: 1149: 1146: 1140: 1139: 1129: 1105: 1099: 1096: 1090: 1087: 1081: 1078: 1072: 1069: 1063: 1042: 885:Scheduled Tribes 881:Scheduled Castes 837:Gulzarilal Nanda 816:Jawaharlal Nehru 676:Ramnarayan Rawat 652:Piramalai Kallar 570: 563: 559: 556: 550: 519: 511: 493:Colonial support 33: 21: 20: 2967: 2966: 2962: 2961: 2960: 2958: 2957: 2956: 2952:Transgender law 2872: 2871: 2858: 2779: 2619: 2617:Further reading 2545: 2540: 2530: 2528: 2524: 2523: 2519: 2508: 2504: 2497: 2493: 2477: 2476: 2469: 2467: 2462: 2461: 2457: 2451:Wayback Machine 2442: 2438: 2424: 2420: 2407: 2403: 2393: 2391: 2390:on 16 June 2008 2376: 2372: 2349: 2345: 2328: 2324: 2306: 2302: 2263: 2256: 2246: 2245: 2241: 2226: 2219: 2180: 2176: 2161: 2157: 2138: 2124: 2117: 2108: 2107: 2103: 2083: 2077: 2073: 2062: 2061: 2057: 2037: 2031: 2027: 2016:Wayback Machine 2007: 2003: 1990:Wayback Machine 1981: 1977: 1961: 1957: 1938: 1934: 1899: 1895: 1888: 1874: 1867: 1844: 1835: 1830: 1826: 1821: 1817: 1794: 1790: 1785: 1778: 1771: 1757: 1750: 1719: 1715: 1684: 1680: 1673: 1659: 1655: 1650: 1646: 1641: 1637: 1614: 1607: 1602: 1598: 1593: 1589: 1584: 1580: 1568: 1566: 1557: 1556: 1552: 1548: 1534: 1520: 1516: 1509: 1495: 1488: 1481: 1467: 1460: 1449: 1435: 1426: 1407: 1398: 1388: 1386: 1384: 1368: 1361: 1322: 1318: 1299: 1295: 1276: 1269: 1264: 1260: 1255: 1251: 1246: 1242: 1237: 1233: 1228: 1224: 1219: 1215: 1204: 1200: 1195: 1191: 1186: 1182: 1177: 1173: 1168: 1164: 1159: 1152: 1147: 1143: 1106: 1102: 1097: 1093: 1088: 1084: 1079: 1075: 1070: 1066: 1052:Wayback Machine 1043: 1039: 1035: 1018:Magsaysay Award 976: 924: 876: 845:P. 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