359:), that victims are not heard, that the public is excluded and that convicted criminals receive too lenient sentences." Additionally, the process has been blamed for increased rates of imprisonment in countries where the majority of incarcerated individuals plead guilty without going to trial. "Cases that are resolved through plea bargaining, scholars estimate that about 90 to 95 percent of both federal and state court." The process of plea bargaining can undercut efforts to conduct a fair trial because the prosecution's case is never tested by the defense's legal representation in court. Moreover, in nations where
139:. In the United Kingdom are trying to make a 24/7 in home treatment where a patient would be more comfortable than taking them hospital they would be uncomfortable and could cause them to get worse. In Canada there are 24/7 crisis units available. The units are available to children, adolescents, adults with a addiction or mental health crisis, or any love ones of the people in distress, can meet with a member of the addiction and mental health team, can get referral to the appropriate services, risk assessment, help getting mental health services.
63:
to the world, police officers will be informed when they are being investigated, will be told who they will be interrogated by. Medium-term would shift the financial burden of paying civilian payouts to the police department insurance policy and the police officer their self to pay the sum of money instead of taxpayer dollars. Long-term making policing more about the community then it being the police vs the community, doing research on how to improve law enforcement and the local community.
203:, or super maximum-security confinement, also poses a threat to the mental health of prison inmates. Studies taking place in the United States, Canada, Denmark, Germany, and South Africa report that those who experience solitary confinement experience "anxiety, fatigue, confusion, paranoia, depression, hallucinations, headaches, and uncontrollable trembling." The
75:(US) that the person being stopped may be involved in criminal activity. Critics of this practice argue that police apply standards of reasonable suspicion to stop citizens unevenly, often targeting individuals based on race. During these stops, police may choose to search the individual for illegal weapons or other items, such as drugs or drug paraphernalia.
248:, are often not effectively addressed by prison healthcare staff due to strains on the healthcare system. WHO emphasizes that improving healthcare in prisons ensures the health of the broader communities surrounding prisons because most imprisoned people will eventually be released into their communities, and many of them move between both settings.
320:, “Legal aid plays a crucial role in enabling people to navigate the justice system, to make informed decisions, as well as to obtain justice remedies. Legal aid makes a critical connection between populations and their justice systems and provides guidance on how to navigate the often difficult-to-understand justice system.”
328:
high caseloads for lawyers or a shortage of qualified lawyers; and limited availability of legal aid for those residing in rural areas or for members of vulnerable populations (e.g. internationally displaced people). These issues result in unequal access to legal aid within individual countries and across the globe.
389:
is the effort to change perceived injustices in the lengths of criminal sentences. It is a component of the larger concept of criminal justice reform. In the U.S. criminal justice system, sentencing guidelines are criticized for being both draconian and racially discriminatory. Additionally, they are
367:
are not evaluated at trial, meaning the adequacy of a given system of public defense is not established. The balance of power tends to be in the prosecution's favor, so the accused may choose to plea bargain in the face of a significant prison sentence rather than risk a guilty verdict at trial.
327:
In 2016, the UN identified several key issues in ensuring legal aid for citizens of nations that responded to the Global Study on Legal Aid: a lack of specific legislation on legal aid; a need for increased public awareness of the availability of legal aid; overburdened legal aid systems resulting in
62:
practices. The
Brookings Institution organizes police reform into three categories: short-term, medium-term, long-term. Short-term hold Police officers accountable for there actions. The Law Enforcement Bill of Rights protects officers from losing their jobs, having their personal information put out
207:
notes that, "Negative health effects can occur after only a few days and may in some cases persist when isolation ends." Due to the exacerbation of mental health issues in prisoners who held in solitary confinement, such prisoners may have difficulty adjusting to society once their prison sentences
158:
In many countries, prison conditions are such that the health and safety of prisoners cannot be guaranteed. At worst, imprisonment can directly threaten the lives of convicted individuals. Efforts to improve prison conditions are aimed at protecting prisoners and prison employees. Such efforts also
354:
Plea bargaining is useful for both the defense and the prosecution as it spares both from spending the resources needed to conduct a trial. Additionally, defendants may be sentenced with shorter prison terms or lesser fines than they would if they were found guilty at trial. However, critics argue
215:
Finally, proponents of prison reform argue that healthcare services and sanitary conditions in prisons must be improved. According to
Wallace and Papachristos, "A number of studies have shown that incarceration is highly detrimental to health and has lasting, negative health consequences for the
196:
indicate that prison overcrowding was associated with an increase in incidents of self-strangulation/hanging. Working in the United States, Huey and McNulty found that "overcrowding is a strong predictor of heightened suicide and may threaten security and safety within prisons more generally by
106:
duties. Relevant duties of a traffic officers would be making sure that goods being transported are safe, checking licensing is up to date, making sure
Vehicle operators are not impaired by anything. Qualifications include a law enforcement degree, diploma, certification. There will training in
256:
Justice reinvestment involves redirecting money from prisons to funding the social and physical infrastructure of places with high levels of incarceration. Reductions in incarceration may include risk and need assessments, sentence reductions, intermediate and graduated sanctions to
1185:
323:
The UN charges member governments with the responsibility of providing legal counsel to citizens, especially the poor, “so as to enable them to assert their rights and where necessary call upon the assistance of lawyers.”
839:
Wolff, Hans; Casillas, Alejandra; Perneger, Thomas; Heller, Patrick; Golay, Diane; Mouton, Elisabeth; Bodenmann, Patrick; Getaz, Laurent (2016). "Self-harm and overcrowding among prisoners in Geneva, Switzerland".
343:
is the process by which the accused may negotiate with the prosecution for a lesser sentence by admitting partial guilt or by taking full responsibility for the crime committed. This process renders a
351:
during the 1800s, it “rapidly spread to many other criminal justice systems including civil law countries such as
Germany, France and Italy. It has now been used even in international criminal law.”
180:
recognizes prison overcrowding as a health threat to both prisoners and prison employees. Overcrowded prisons are high-risk environments for the transmission of diseases such as
449:
131:
Another suggestion involves sending specially trained social workers to respond to situations caused by mental health or substance abuse problems. An example is the
289:
led to an 18% reduction in the number of major offences reported, 34% reduction in non-domestic violence assaults reported, and an 8% drop in the overall rate of
71:
Some jurisdictions, including the United States and United
Kingdom, give their police force the power to stop citizens based on the reasonable grounds (UK) or
701:
169:
677:
390:
cited as the main contributor to the growing and excessive prison population known as mass incarceration. One avenue of reform is the concept of the
123:. Community mediators do not interfere with family issues such as divorce, separation, custody or estates, don't handle issues that involve money.
159:
attempt to minimize the collateral effects of imprisonment that continue to affect convicted individuals after their sentences have been served.
1474:
883:
Huey, Meredith P.; McNulty, Thomas L. (2005). "Institutional
Conditions and Prison Suicide: Conditional Effects of Deprivation and Overcrowding".
188:. Additionally, overcrowding has negative effects on prisoners' mental health. Results from a study conducted at the prison of Champ-Dollon in
1266:
115:
There have also been suggestions for police to be replaced by community mediators in minor interpersonal disputers. This is often called
647:
1364:
42:. Criminal justice reform can take place at any point where the criminal justice system intervenes in citizens’ lives, including
212:
work to raise awareness of the negative effects of solitary confinement and call for an end to the use of solitary confinement.
595:
474:
749:
348:
1128:"A review of prison health and its implications for primary care nursing in England and Wales: the research evidence"
979:
927:
85:
as a policing reform. This was done following research, which found that the searches had been a major cause of the
1519:
1509:
1049:
Wallace, Danielle; Papachristos, Andrew V. (2014). "Recidivism and the
Availability of Health Care Organizations".
1168:
316:
is necessary for guaranteeing that their interaction with the criminal justice system is fair. According to the
273:. The money saved through these policies may be invested in addiction treatment, additional probation officers,
797:
1306:
822:
355:
that the process is coercive and that "defendants lose the procedural safeguards of a trial (most of all the
329:
265:
violations, treatment of substance addictions, changing sentencing guidelines, post-release supervision, and
943:
216:
ex-prisoner, their immediate social connections, and the larger community." Communicable diseases such as
725:
1482:
176:
reports that "the number of prisoners exceeds official prison capacity in at least 115 countries." The
173:
81:
members of public without evidence of crime (also known as stop-and-search) was heavily reduced in the
1514:
1001:
439:
434:
347:
unnecessary, allowing both the defense and the prosecution to move to the sentencing stage. Although
204:
177:
132:
648:"LSE research into the causes of the 2011 riots leads to reform of police 'stop and search' powers"
356:
498:
282:
1336:
Malone, Carlie (2020). "Plea
Bargaining and Collateral Consequences: An Experimental Analysis".
429:
286:
237:
165:
poses a substantial risk to prisoners' health and safety. In spite of the 1955 adoption of the
633:
1307:"Negotiated History: The Historical Record in International Criminal Law and Plea Bargaining"
209:
116:
102:
There have been suggestions for unarmed police or civilian officers to take over some or all
522:
107:
driving commercial
Vehicles, pass a fitness test, Pass questionnaires, and a physical exam.
1237:
278:
208:
are finished. Based on these issues, organizations such as Penal Reform
International and
200:
72:
1085:
773:
8:
1289:
Compendium of United Nations standards and norms in crime prevention and criminal justice
444:
399:
266:
233:
162:
1166:
549:; Stenson, Kevin; Don, David (2004). "IN PROPORTION: Race, and Police Stop and Search".
1431:
1423:
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900:
621:
576:
407:
403:
391:
381:
274:
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infect prison inmates at a higher rate than they infect the general population. In the
86:
35:
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across the globe work to ameliorate these issues an ensure access to legal aid.
312:
For accused persons facing trial in a criminal justice system, access to competent
31:
27:
23:
1062:
454:
364:
344:
317:
229:
166:
136:
103:
82:
47:
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or alternative sentencing or non-custodial sentence is a collective name in
1153:
1112:
944:"WMA - The World Medical Association-WMA Statement on Solitary Confinement"
869:
340:
217:
185:
1449:
1410:
1393:
562:
193:
1427:
1286:
1264:
580:
302:
290:
270:
39:
965:
Solitary Confinement : Lived Experiences and Ethical Implications
571:
402:
who has been convicted of committing an offence, other than through a
313:
262:
43:
1026:"Key facts about detention and why it is a core human rights issue"
823:"Health in Prisons: A WHO Guide to the Essentials in Prison Health"
281:, and behavioral health service. A justice reinvestment project in
245:
241:
225:
221:
181:
78:
1167:
World Healthcare Organization Regional Office for Europe (2019).
702:"Become a Highway Traffic Officer | Saskatchewan Highway Patrol"
1214:"Justice reinvestment in Australia: A review of the literature"
596:"Theresa May announces reform of police stop-and-search powers"
258:
189:
59:
774:"U.N. Standard Minimum Rules for the Treatment of Prisoners"
726:"NHS England » Crisis and acute mental health services"
1169:"Status report on prison health in the WHO European Region"
838:
475:"A better path forward for criminal justice: Police reform"
450:
Indigenous Peoples and the Canadian Criminal Justice System
1481:. State Government of Victoria, Australia. Archived from
820:
398:
for all the different ways in which courts can punish a
363:
legal aid for defendants is required, cases prepared by
58:
Police reform describes the various proposals to change
1126:
Condon, Louise; Hek, Gill; Harris, Francesca (2006).
1084:
Watson, Roger; Stimpson, Anne; Hostick, Tony (2004).
1083:
920:
Solitary Confinement: Social Death and its Afterlives
170:
Standard Minimum Rules for the Treatment of Prisoners
980:"Solitary Confinement, Public Safety, and Recdivism"
545:
1048:
922:. University of Minnesota Press. pp. xi–xii.
349:plea bargaining was developed in the United States
1287:United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime (2016).
1265:United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime (2016).
594:Travis, Alan; editor, home affairs (2014-04-30).
1501:
1086:"Prison health care: a review of the literature"
678:"4 ideas to replace traditional police officers"
1212:Matthew Willis, Madeleine Kapira (2018-05-11).
1125:
499:"Police powers to stop and search: your rights"
1362:
1211:
153:
984:University of Michigan Journal of Law Reform
750:"Mobile crisis response services | Vitalité"
593:
882:
473:Neily, Rashawn Ray and Clark (2021-04-30).
1267:"Global Study on Legal Aid: Global Report"
66:
1409:
1143:
570:
277:, victims' services, housing support and
92:
1291:. New York: United Nations. p. 317.
1274:United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime
1093:International Journal of Nursing Studies
917:
842:International Journal of Prisoner Health
197:undermining the well-being of inmates."
1391:
1304:
962:
251:
1502:
1335:
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307:
126:
110:
22:seeks to address structural issues in
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1207:
1205:
675:
472:
671:
669:
667:
371:
1363:Lindsey Devers (January 24, 2011).
1218:Australian Institute of Criminology
406:(serving a jail or prison term) or
267:courts specialized in mental health
97:
13:
1295:
1255:
1202:
821:World Health Organization (2007).
551:The British Journal of Criminology
335:
119:, and is practiced for example by
14:
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1479:Corrections, Prisons & Parole
1311:International Criminal Law Review
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527:LII / Legal Information Institute
1145:10.1111/j.1365-2702.2007.01799.x
142:
53:
1467:
1442:
1394:"Gideon's Problematic Promises"
1385:
1356:
1329:
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1186:"What is justice reinvestment?"
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911:
876:
832:
814:
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640:
587:
539:
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491:
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16:Criminal justice reform issues
1:
1105:10.1016/S0020-7489(03)00128-7
523:"Terry Stop / Stop and Frisk"
460:
330:Access to justice initiatives
296:
1365:"Plea and Charge Bargaining"
1063:10.1080/07418825.2012.696126
232:, chronic diseases, such as
7:
1305:Rauxloh, Regina E. (2010).
1132:Journal of Clinical Nursing
413:
154:Improving prison conditions
10:
1536:
1392:Steiker, Carol S. (2014).
1238:"New Evidence from Bourke"
1006:Penal Reform International
802:Penal Reform International
706:Government of Saskatchewan
676:Karma, Roge (2020-06-24).
375:
300:
174:Penal Reform International
146:
978:Gordon, Shira E. (2014).
854:10.1108/IJPH-04-2015-0009
440:Prison abolition movement
435:Police abolition movement
205:World Medical Association
178:World Health Organization
1323:10.1163/157181210X527091
897:10.1177/0032885505282258
357:presumption of innocence
24:criminal justice systems
1520:Criminal justice ethics
1510:Criminal justice reform
963:Polizzi, David (2017).
918:Guenther, Lisa (2013).
67:Banning random searches
34:, overcriminalization,
20:Criminal justice reform
430:Transformative justice
287:Indigenous Australians
271:substance abuse issues
234:respiratory conditions
93:Alternatives to police
1450:"Community sentences"
1338:Vanderbilt Law Review
1242:Just Reinvest NSW Inc
798:"Prison overcrowding"
301:Further information:
210:Amnesty International
117:violence interruption
1411:10.1162/DAED_a_00287
547:Waddington, P. A. J.
279:transitional housing
275:community sentencing
252:Justice reinvestment
201:Solitary confinement
73:reasonable suspicion
445:Restorative justice
308:Access to legal aid
127:Mobile crisis units
111:Community mediators
885:The Prison Journal
730:www.england.nhs.uk
632:has generic name (
563:10.1093/bjc/azh042
408:capital punishment
404:custodial sentence
392:community sentence
382:Community sentence
87:2011 England riots
36:mass incarceration
1485:on 25 August 2017
1051:Justice Quarterly
754:www.vitalitenb.ca
425:Defund the police
387:Sentencing reform
378:Sentencing reform
372:Sentencing reform
283:Bourke, Australia
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365:public defenders
104:traffic policing
98:Traffic officers
46:, policing, and
32:police brutality
28:racial profiling
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1344:: 1161–1208.
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