25:
2808:
2794:
2832:
2820:
318:
interest rates. The cross-sectional study has the advantage that it can investigate the effects of various demographic factors (age, for example) on individual differences; but it has the disadvantage that it cannot find the effect of interest rates on money demand, because in the cross-sectional study at a particular point in time all observed units are faced with the same current level of interest rates.
258:, in which differences in social and environmental influences are treated as developmental changes due to ageing. Since the occurrence of differences is consistent with the division of generations and ethnic groups, that is, a group of people experiencing a common historical event is affected by a common influence, it is difficult to obtain the causal relationship of the event.
254:
consumption may be incorrectly reported by an individual wishing to reduce their personal feelings of guilt. Such bias may be less in routinely collected statistics, or effectively eliminated if the observations are made by third parties, for example taxation records of alcohol by area.In addition, there may be
297:
of residuals. It also has the advantage that the data analysis itself does not need an assumption that the nature of the relationships between variables is stable over time, though this comes at the cost of requiring caution if the results for one time period are to be assumed valid at some different
253:
Most case-control studies collect specifically designed data on all participants, including data fields designed to allow the hypothesis of interest to be tested. However, in issues where strong personal feelings may be involved, specific questions may be a source of bias. For example, past alcohol
159:
in that they aim to provide data on the entire population under study, whereas case-control studies typically include only individuals who have developed a specific condition and compare them with a matched sample, often a tiny minority, of the rest of the population. Cross-sectional studies are
217:
The use of routinely collected data allows large cross-sectional studies to be made at little or no expense. This is a major advantage over other forms of epidemiological study. A natural progression has been suggested from cheap cross-sectional studies of routinely collected data which suggest
317:
of individuals or families. In contrast, an intertemporal analysis of money demand would use data on an entire country's holdings of money at each of various points in time, and would regress that on contemporaneous (or near-contemporaneous) income, total financial wealth, and some measure of
266:
Cross-sectional studies can contain individual-level data (one record per individual, for example, in national health surveys). However, in modern epidemiology it may be impossible to survey the entire population of interest, so cross-sectional studies often involve secondary analysis of data
284:
between infant mortality and family income at the city level, while still being true that there is a strong relationship between infant mortality and family income at the individual level. All aggregate statistics are subject to compositional effects, so that what matters is not only the
275:
in the United States. Recent census data is not provided on individuals, for example in the UK individual census data is released only after a century. Instead data is aggregated, usually by administrative area. Inferences about individuals based on aggregate data are weakened by the
280:. Also consider the potential for committing the "atomistic fallacy" where assumptions about aggregated counts are made based on the aggregation of individual level data (such as averaging census tracts to calculate a county average). For example, it might be true that there is no
246:, other variables that affect the relationship between the putative cause and effect. For example, data only on present alcohol consumption and cirrhosis would not allow the role of past alcohol use, or of other causes, to be explored. Cross-sectional studies are very susceptible to
285:
individual-level relationship between income and infant mortality, but also the proportions of low, middle, and high income individuals in each city. Because case-control studies are usually based on individual-level data, they do not have this problem.
209:, including questions about the past, but they often rely on data originally collected for other purposes. They are moderately expensive, and are not suitable for the study of rare diseases. Difficulty in recalling past events may also contribute bias.
200:
of acute or chronic conditions, but cannot be used to answer questions about the causes of disease or the results of intervention. Cross-sectional data cannot be used to infer causality because temporality is not known. They may also be described as
241:
Routinely collected data does not normally describe which variable is the cause and which is the effect. Cross-sectional studies using data originally collected for other purposes are often unable to include data on
267:
collected for another purpose. In many such cases, no individual records are available to the researcher, and group-level information must be used. Major sources of such data are often large institutions like the
222:
and trials which cost much more and take much longer, but may give stronger evidence. In a cross-sectional survey, a specific group is looked at to see if an activity, say
3409:
293:
In economics, cross-sectional analysis has the advantage of avoiding various complicating aspects of the use of data drawn from various points in time, such as
516:
484:
2870:
305:âthe amounts that various people hold in highly liquid financial assetsâat a particular time upon their income, total financial wealth, and various
230:. If alcohol use is correlated with cirrhosis of the liver, this would support the hypothesis that alcohol use may be associated with cirrhosis.
1929:
2434:
2584:
2208:
849:
160:
descriptive studies (neither longitudinal nor experimental). Unlike case-control studies, they can be used to describe, not only the
3162:
3158:
1982:
488:
by Coggon, Rose, and Barker, Chapter 8, "Case-control and cross-sectional studies", BMJ (British
Medical Journal) Publishing, 1997
3208:
3166:
3154:
2421:
2863:
188:
differ from both in making a series of observations more than once on members of the study population over a period of time.
3329:
3245:
844:
544:
3110:
1448:
596:
3080:
3394:
2856:
2231:
2123:
68:
46:
39:
3367:
2836:
2409:
2283:
2467:
2128:
1873:
1244:
834:
3174:
3212:
2934:
2518:
1730:
1537:
1426:
1384:
1458:
3360:
3045:
2761:
1720:
623:
500:
3399:
3339:
2312:
2261:
2246:
2236:
2105:
1977:
1944:
1770:
1725:
1555:
3303:
3275:
3204:
2958:
2824:
2656:
2457:
2381:
1682:
1436:
1105:
569:
272:
3353:
3029:
2541:
2513:
2508:
2256:
2015:
1921:
1901:
1809:
1520:
1338:
821:
693:
133:
3414:
3404:
3148:
2273:
2041:
1762:
1687:
1616:
1545:
1465:
1453:
1323:
1311:
1304:
1012:
733:
196:
Cross-sectional studies involve data collected at a defined time. They are often used to assess the
3419:
3086:
3034:
2914:
2756:
2523:
2386:
2071:
2036:
2000:
1785:
1227:
1136:
1095:
1007:
698:
537:
33:
3132:
3002:
2980:
2949:
2924:
2907:
2665:
2278:
2218:
2155:
1793:
1777:
1515:
1377:
1367:
1217:
1131:
314:
309:. Each data point is for a particular individual or family, and the regression is conducted on a
3283:
3120:
3041:
2703:
2633:
2426:
2363:
2118:
2005:
1002:
899:
806:
685:
584:
227:
50:
3389:
3124:
2919:
2883:
2728:
2670:
2613:
2439:
2332:
2241:
1967:
1851:
1710:
1702:
1592:
1584:
1399:
1295:
1273:
1232:
1197:
1110:
1085:
1040:
979:
939:
741:
564:
2848:
3090:
2651:
2226:
2175:
2151:
2113:
2031:
2010:
1962:
1841:
1819:
1788:
1697:
1574:
1525:
1443:
1416:
1372:
1328:
1090:
866:
746:
185:
156:
145:
137:
122:
8:
2997:
2929:
2798:
2723:
2646:
2327:
2091:
2084:
2046:
1954:
1934:
1906:
1639:
1505:
1500:
1490:
1482:
1300:
1261:
1151:
1141:
1050:
829:
785:
703:
628:
530:
114:
3250:
3200:
3015:
2944:
2902:
2812:
2623:
2477:
2373:
2322:
2198:
2095:
2079:
2056:
1833:
1567:
1550:
1510:
1421:
1316:
1278:
1249:
1209:
1169:
1115:
1032:
718:
713:
454:
372:
327:
310:
294:
277:
243:
141:
492:
3324:
3288:
3255:
3180:
3102:
2879:
2807:
2718:
2688:
2680:
2500:
2491:
2416:
2347:
2203:
2188:
2163:
2051:
1992:
1858:
1846:
1472:
1389:
1333:
1256:
1100:
1022:
801:
675:
462:
446:
407:
364:
347:
Schmidt, CO; Kohlmann, T (2008). "When to use the odds ratio or the relative risk?".
3098:
3019:
2973:
2968:
2743:
2698:
2462:
2449:
2342:
2317:
2251:
2183:
2061:
1669:
1562:
1495:
1408:
1355:
1174:
1045:
839:
723:
638:
605:
438:
399:
376:
356:
82:
3293:
3116:
3071:
2660:
2404:
2266:
2193:
1868:
1742:
1715:
1692:
1661:
1288:
1283:
1237:
967:
618:
206:
180:, or PRR). They may be used to describe some feature of the population, such as
2150:
496:
by
William M. K. Trochim, Web Center for Social Research Methods, copyright 2006
3319:
3240:
3192:
2985:
2897:
2609:
2604:
1067:
997:
643:
223:
149:
90:
360:
3383:
3298:
3265:
3260:
2766:
2733:
2596:
2557:
2368:
2337:
1801:
1755:
1360:
1062:
889:
653:
648:
450:
268:
255:
169:
165:
390:
Lee, James (1994). "Odds Ratio or
Relative Risk for Cross-Sectional Data?".
218:
hypotheses, to case-control studies testing them more specifically, then to
136:, in order to sort out the existence and magnitude of causal effects of one
3140:
3024:
2708:
2641:
2618:
2533:
1863:
1159:
1057:
992:
934:
919:
856:
811:
403:
368:
306:
302:
219:
86:
466:
411:
3334:
3188:
3061:
3051:
2751:
2713:
2396:
2297:
2159:
1972:
1939:
1431:
1348:
1343:
987:
944:
924:
904:
894:
663:
301:
An example of cross-sectional analysis in economics is the regression of
281:
247:
3136:
3128:
3094:
3056:
2963:
1597:
1077:
777:
708:
658:
633:
553:
458:
426:
197:
181:
173:
161:
3196:
3184:
1750:
1602:
1222:
1017:
929:
914:
909:
874:
226:
consumption, is related to the health effect being investigated, say
129:
442:
3230:
1266:
884:
761:
756:
751:
238:
Routine data may not be designed to answer the specific question.
117:
that analyzes data from a population, or a representative subset,
3235:
2771:
2472:
94:
2693:
1674:
1648:
1628:
879:
670:
202:
2878:
522:
613:
155:
In medical research, cross-sectional studies differ from
427:"The Cohort as a Concept in the Study of Social Change"
144:
of interest at a given point in time. They differ from
132:, cross-sectional studies typically involve the use of
2435:
Autoregressive conditional heteroskedasticity (ARCH)
184:of an illness, but cannot prove cause and effect .
1897:
3410:Mathematical and quantitative methods (economics)
519:Cornell University College of Veterinary Medicine
3381:
261:
1983:Multivariate adaptive regression splines (MARS)
346:
205:. Cross-sectional studies may involve special
2864:
538:
313:drawn at one point in time from the entire
2871:
2857:
583:
545:
531:
1196:
69:Learn how and when to remove this message
16:Type of study based on universal sampling
3163:Preventable fraction among the unexposed
3159:Attributable fraction for the population
32:This article includes a list of general
3167:Preventable fraction for the population
3155:Attributable fraction among the exposed
148:, in which the behavior of one or more
3382:
2509:KaplanâMeier estimator (product limit)
349:International Journal of Public Health
2852:
2582:
2149:
1896:
1195:
965:
582:
526:
424:
392:International Journal of Epidemiology
3330:Correlation does not imply causation
3246:Animal testing on non-human primates
2819:
2519:Accelerated failure time (AFT) model
18:
2831:
2114:Analysis of variance (ANOVA, anova)
966:
389:
13:
2209:CochranâMantelâHaenszel statistics
835:Pearson product-moment correlation
38:it lacks sufficient corresponding
14:
3431:
510:
2830:
2818:
2806:
2793:
2792:
2583:
486:Epidemiology for the Uninitiated
233:
23:
2468:Least-squares spectral analysis
494:Research Methods Knowledge Base
3213:Pre- and post-test probability
2935:Patient and public involvement
1449:Mean-unbiased minimum-variance
552:
418:
383:
340:
1:
2762:Geographic information system
1978:Simultaneous equations models
333:
262:Weaknesses of aggregated data
212:
191:
3340:Sex as a biological variable
1945:Coefficient of determination
1556:Uniformly most powerful test
504:by Michelle A. Saint-Germain
431:American Sociological Review
288:
7:
3304:Intention-to-treat analysis
3276:Analysis of clinical trials
3205:Specificity and sensitivity
2959:Randomized controlled trial
2514:Proportional hazards models
2458:Spectral density estimation
2440:Vector autoregression (VAR)
1874:Maximum posterior estimator
1106:Randomized controlled trial
321:
273:Centers for Disease Control
119:at a specific point in time
10:
3436:
2274:Multivariate distributions
694:Average absolute deviation
477:
134:cross-sectional regression
3348:
3313:Interpretation of results
3312:
3274:
3223:
3173:
3147:
3109:
3079:
3070:
3046:Nested caseâcontrol study
2996:
2943:
2890:
2788:
2742:
2679:
2632:
2595:
2591:
2578:
2550:
2532:
2499:
2490:
2448:
2395:
2356:
2305:
2296:
2262:Structural equation model
2217:
2174:
2170:
2145:
2104:
2070:
2024:
1991:
1953:
1920:
1916:
1892:
1832:
1741:
1660:
1624:
1615:
1598:Score/Lagrange multiplier
1583:
1536:
1481:
1407:
1398:
1208:
1204:
1191:
1150:
1124:
1076:
1031:
1013:Sample size determination
978:
974:
961:
865:
820:
794:
776:
732:
684:
604:
595:
591:
578:
560:
425:Ryder, Norman B. (1965).
361:10.1007/s00038-008-7068-3
3395:Cross-sectional analysis
2915:Academic clinical trials
2757:Environmental statistics
2279:Elliptical distributions
2072:Generalized linear model
2001:Simple linear regression
1771:HodgesâLehmann estimator
1228:Probability distribution
1137:Stochastic approximation
699:Coefficient of variation
152:is traced through time.
103:cross-sectional analysis
3133:Relative risk reduction
2981:Adaptive clinical trial
2925:Evidence-based medicine
2908:Adaptive clinical trial
2417:Cross-correlation (XCF)
2025:Non-standard predictors
1459:LehmannâScheffĂ© theorem
1132:Adaptive clinical trial
53:more precise citations.
3121:Number needed to treat
2813:Mathematics portal
2634:Engineering statistics
2542:NelsonâAalen estimator
2119:Analysis of covariance
2006:Ordinary least squares
1930:Pearson product-moment
1334:Statistical functional
1245:Empirical distribution
1078:Controlled experiments
807:Frequency distribution
585:Descriptive statistics
502:Cross-Sectional Design
228:cirrhosis of the liver
3125:Number needed to harm
3012:Cross-sectional study
2964:Scientific experiment
2920:Clinical study design
2729:Population statistics
2671:System identification
2405:Autocorrelation (ACF)
2333:Exponential smoothing
2247:Discriminant analysis
2242:Canonical correlation
2106:Partition of variance
1968:Regression validation
1812:(JonckheereâTerpstra)
1711:Likelihood-ratio test
1400:Frequentist inference
1312:Locationâscale family
1233:Sampling distribution
1198:Statistical inference
1165:Cross-sectional study
1152:Observational studies
1111:Randomized experiment
940:Stem-and-leaf display
742:Central limit theorem
517:Study Design Tutorial
178:prevalence risk ratio
99:cross-sectional study
3091:Cumulative incidence
2652:Probabilistic design
2237:Principal components
2080:Exponential families
2032:Nonlinear regression
2011:General linear model
1973:Mixed effects models
1963:Errors and residuals
1940:Confounding variable
1842:Bayesian probability
1820:Van der Waerden test
1810:Ordered alternative
1575:Multiple comparisons
1454:RaoâBlackwellization
1417:Estimating equations
1373:Statistical distance
1091:Factorial experiment
624:Arithmetic-Geometric
404:10.1093/ije/23.1.201
186:Longitudinal studies
157:case-control studies
146:time series analysis
138:independent variable
123:cross-sectional data
3400:Observational study
2998:Observational study
2930:Real world evidence
2884:experimental design
2724:Official statistics
2647:Methods engineering
2328:Seasonal adjustment
2096:Poisson regressions
2016:Bayesian regression
1955:Regression analysis
1935:Partial correlation
1907:Regression analysis
1506:Prediction interval
1501:Likelihood interval
1491:Confidence interval
1483:Interval estimation
1444:Unbiased estimators
1262:Model specification
1142:Up-and-down designs
830:Partial correlation
786:Index of dispersion
704:Interquartile range
307:demographic factors
244:confounding factors
150:economic aggregates
115:observational study
3284:Riskâbenefit ratio
3251:First-in-man study
3201:Case fatality rate
3042:Caseâcontrol study
3016:Longitudinal study
2744:Spatial statistics
2624:Medical statistics
2524:First hitting time
2478:Whittle likelihood
2129:Degrees of freedom
2124:Multivariate ANOVA
2057:Heteroscedasticity
1869:Bayesian estimator
1834:Bayesian inference
1683:KolmogorovâSmirnov
1568:Randomization test
1538:Testing hypotheses
1511:Tolerance interval
1422:Maximum likelihood
1317:Exponential family
1250:Density estimation
1210:Statistical theory
1170:Natural experiment
1116:Scientific control
1033:Survey methodology
719:Standard deviation
328:Longitudinal study
311:statistical sample
295:serial correlation
278:ecological fallacy
176:(sometimes called
142:dependent variable
3377:
3376:
3325:Survivorship bias
3289:Systematic review
3256:Multicenter trial
3219:
3218:
3209:Likelihood-ratios
3181:Clinical endpoint
3149:Population impact
3103:Period prevalence
2880:Clinical research
2846:
2845:
2784:
2783:
2780:
2779:
2719:National accounts
2689:Actuarial science
2681:Social statistics
2574:
2573:
2570:
2569:
2566:
2565:
2501:Survival function
2486:
2485:
2348:Granger causality
2189:Contingency table
2164:Survival analysis
2141:
2140:
2137:
2136:
1993:Linear regression
1888:
1887:
1884:
1883:
1859:Credible interval
1828:
1827:
1611:
1610:
1427:Method of moments
1296:Parametric family
1257:Statistical model
1187:
1186:
1183:
1182:
1101:Random assignment
1023:Statistical power
957:
956:
953:
952:
802:Contingency table
772:
771:
639:Generalized/power
101:(also known as a
79:
78:
71:
3427:
3415:Research methods
3405:Nursing research
3224:Trial/test types
3099:Point prevalence
3077:
3076:
3020:Ecological study
3003:EBM II-2 to II-3
2974:Open-label trial
2969:Blind experiment
2945:Controlled study
2873:
2866:
2859:
2850:
2849:
2834:
2833:
2822:
2821:
2811:
2810:
2796:
2795:
2699:Crime statistics
2593:
2592:
2580:
2579:
2497:
2496:
2463:Fourier analysis
2450:Frequency domain
2430:
2377:
2343:Structural break
2303:
2302:
2252:Cluster analysis
2199:Log-linear model
2172:
2171:
2147:
2146:
2088:
2062:Homoscedasticity
1918:
1917:
1894:
1893:
1813:
1805:
1797:
1796:(KruskalâWallis)
1781:
1766:
1721:Cross validation
1706:
1688:AndersonâDarling
1635:
1622:
1621:
1593:Likelihood-ratio
1585:Parametric tests
1563:Permutation test
1546:1- & 2-tails
1437:Minimum distance
1409:Point estimation
1405:
1404:
1356:Optimal decision
1307:
1206:
1205:
1193:
1192:
1175:Quasi-experiment
1125:Adaptive designs
976:
975:
963:
962:
840:Rank correlation
602:
601:
593:
592:
580:
579:
547:
540:
533:
524:
523:
471:
470:
422:
416:
415:
387:
381:
380:
344:
111:prevalence study
107:transverse study
83:medical research
74:
67:
63:
60:
54:
49:this article by
40:inline citations
27:
26:
19:
3435:
3434:
3430:
3429:
3428:
3426:
3425:
3424:
3420:Social research
3380:
3379:
3378:
3373:
3344:
3308:
3270:
3215:
3169:
3143:
3117:Risk difference
3105:
3066:
3000:
2992:
2947:
2939:
2903:Trial protocols
2886:
2877:
2847:
2842:
2805:
2776:
2738:
2675:
2661:quality control
2628:
2610:Clinical trials
2587:
2562:
2546:
2534:Hazard function
2528:
2482:
2444:
2428:
2391:
2387:BreuschâGodfrey
2375:
2352:
2292:
2267:Factor analysis
2213:
2194:Graphical model
2166:
2133:
2100:
2086:
2066:
2020:
1987:
1949:
1912:
1911:
1880:
1824:
1811:
1803:
1795:
1779:
1764:
1743:Rank statistics
1737:
1716:Model selection
1704:
1662:Goodness of fit
1656:
1633:
1607:
1579:
1532:
1477:
1466:Median unbiased
1394:
1305:
1238:Order statistic
1200:
1179:
1146:
1120:
1072:
1027:
970:
968:Data collection
949:
861:
816:
790:
768:
728:
680:
597:Continuous data
587:
574:
556:
551:
513:
508:
480:
475:
474:
443:10.2307/2090964
423:
419:
388:
384:
345:
341:
336:
324:
298:point in time.
291:
264:
236:
215:
207:data collection
194:
113:) is a type of
75:
64:
58:
55:
45:Please help to
44:
28:
24:
17:
12:
11:
5:
3433:
3423:
3422:
3417:
3412:
3407:
3402:
3397:
3392:
3375:
3374:
3372:
3371:
3368:List of topics
3364:
3357:
3349:
3346:
3345:
3343:
3342:
3337:
3332:
3327:
3322:
3320:Selection bias
3316:
3314:
3310:
3309:
3307:
3306:
3301:
3296:
3291:
3286:
3280:
3278:
3272:
3271:
3269:
3268:
3263:
3258:
3253:
3248:
3243:
3241:Animal testing
3238:
3233:
3227:
3225:
3221:
3220:
3217:
3216:
3193:Mortality rate
3179:
3177:
3171:
3170:
3153:
3151:
3145:
3144:
3115:
3113:
3107:
3106:
3085:
3083:
3074:
3068:
3067:
3065:
3064:
3059:
3054:
3049:
3039:
3038:
3037:
3032:
3022:
3008:
3006:
2994:
2993:
2991:
2990:
2989:
2988:
2986:Platform trial
2978:
2977:
2976:
2971:
2966:
2955:
2953:
2941:
2940:
2938:
2937:
2932:
2927:
2922:
2917:
2912:
2911:
2910:
2905:
2898:Clinical trial
2894:
2892:
2888:
2887:
2876:
2875:
2868:
2861:
2853:
2844:
2843:
2841:
2840:
2828:
2816:
2802:
2789:
2786:
2785:
2782:
2781:
2778:
2777:
2775:
2774:
2769:
2764:
2759:
2754:
2748:
2746:
2740:
2739:
2737:
2736:
2731:
2726:
2721:
2716:
2711:
2706:
2701:
2696:
2691:
2685:
2683:
2677:
2676:
2674:
2673:
2668:
2663:
2654:
2649:
2644:
2638:
2636:
2630:
2629:
2627:
2626:
2621:
2616:
2607:
2605:Bioinformatics
2601:
2599:
2589:
2588:
2576:
2575:
2572:
2571:
2568:
2567:
2564:
2563:
2561:
2560:
2554:
2552:
2548:
2547:
2545:
2544:
2538:
2536:
2530:
2529:
2527:
2526:
2521:
2516:
2511:
2505:
2503:
2494:
2488:
2487:
2484:
2483:
2481:
2480:
2475:
2470:
2465:
2460:
2454:
2452:
2446:
2445:
2443:
2442:
2437:
2432:
2424:
2419:
2414:
2413:
2412:
2410:partial (PACF)
2401:
2399:
2393:
2392:
2390:
2389:
2384:
2379:
2371:
2366:
2360:
2358:
2357:Specific tests
2354:
2353:
2351:
2350:
2345:
2340:
2335:
2330:
2325:
2320:
2315:
2309:
2307:
2300:
2294:
2293:
2291:
2290:
2289:
2288:
2287:
2286:
2271:
2270:
2269:
2259:
2257:Classification
2254:
2249:
2244:
2239:
2234:
2229:
2223:
2221:
2215:
2214:
2212:
2211:
2206:
2204:McNemar's test
2201:
2196:
2191:
2186:
2180:
2178:
2168:
2167:
2143:
2142:
2139:
2138:
2135:
2134:
2132:
2131:
2126:
2121:
2116:
2110:
2108:
2102:
2101:
2099:
2098:
2082:
2076:
2074:
2068:
2067:
2065:
2064:
2059:
2054:
2049:
2044:
2042:Semiparametric
2039:
2034:
2028:
2026:
2022:
2021:
2019:
2018:
2013:
2008:
2003:
1997:
1995:
1989:
1988:
1986:
1985:
1980:
1975:
1970:
1965:
1959:
1957:
1951:
1950:
1948:
1947:
1942:
1937:
1932:
1926:
1924:
1914:
1913:
1910:
1909:
1904:
1898:
1890:
1889:
1886:
1885:
1882:
1881:
1879:
1878:
1877:
1876:
1866:
1861:
1856:
1855:
1854:
1849:
1838:
1836:
1830:
1829:
1826:
1825:
1823:
1822:
1817:
1816:
1815:
1807:
1799:
1783:
1780:(MannâWhitney)
1775:
1774:
1773:
1760:
1759:
1758:
1747:
1745:
1739:
1738:
1736:
1735:
1734:
1733:
1728:
1723:
1713:
1708:
1705:(ShapiroâWilk)
1700:
1695:
1690:
1685:
1680:
1672:
1666:
1664:
1658:
1657:
1655:
1654:
1646:
1637:
1625:
1619:
1617:Specific tests
1613:
1612:
1609:
1608:
1606:
1605:
1600:
1595:
1589:
1587:
1581:
1580:
1578:
1577:
1572:
1571:
1570:
1560:
1559:
1558:
1548:
1542:
1540:
1534:
1533:
1531:
1530:
1529:
1528:
1523:
1513:
1508:
1503:
1498:
1493:
1487:
1485:
1479:
1478:
1476:
1475:
1470:
1469:
1468:
1463:
1462:
1461:
1456:
1441:
1440:
1439:
1434:
1429:
1424:
1413:
1411:
1402:
1396:
1395:
1393:
1392:
1387:
1382:
1381:
1380:
1370:
1365:
1364:
1363:
1353:
1352:
1351:
1346:
1341:
1331:
1326:
1321:
1320:
1319:
1314:
1309:
1293:
1292:
1291:
1286:
1281:
1271:
1270:
1269:
1264:
1254:
1253:
1252:
1242:
1241:
1240:
1230:
1225:
1220:
1214:
1212:
1202:
1201:
1189:
1188:
1185:
1184:
1181:
1180:
1178:
1177:
1172:
1167:
1162:
1156:
1154:
1148:
1147:
1145:
1144:
1139:
1134:
1128:
1126:
1122:
1121:
1119:
1118:
1113:
1108:
1103:
1098:
1093:
1088:
1082:
1080:
1074:
1073:
1071:
1070:
1068:Standard error
1065:
1060:
1055:
1054:
1053:
1048:
1037:
1035:
1029:
1028:
1026:
1025:
1020:
1015:
1010:
1005:
1000:
998:Optimal design
995:
990:
984:
982:
972:
971:
959:
958:
955:
954:
951:
950:
948:
947:
942:
937:
932:
927:
922:
917:
912:
907:
902:
897:
892:
887:
882:
877:
871:
869:
863:
862:
860:
859:
854:
853:
852:
847:
837:
832:
826:
824:
818:
817:
815:
814:
809:
804:
798:
796:
795:Summary tables
792:
791:
789:
788:
782:
780:
774:
773:
770:
769:
767:
766:
765:
764:
759:
754:
744:
738:
736:
730:
729:
727:
726:
721:
716:
711:
706:
701:
696:
690:
688:
682:
681:
679:
678:
673:
668:
667:
666:
661:
656:
651:
646:
641:
636:
631:
629:Contraharmonic
626:
621:
610:
608:
599:
589:
588:
576:
575:
573:
572:
567:
561:
558:
557:
550:
549:
542:
535:
527:
521:
520:
512:
511:External links
509:
507:
506:
498:
490:
481:
479:
476:
473:
472:
437:(6): 843â861.
417:
382:
355:(3): 165â167.
338:
337:
335:
332:
331:
330:
323:
320:
290:
287:
263:
260:
235:
232:
220:cohort studies
214:
211:
193:
190:
170:relative risks
166:absolute risks
91:social science
77:
76:
31:
29:
22:
15:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
3432:
3421:
3418:
3416:
3413:
3411:
3408:
3406:
3403:
3401:
3398:
3396:
3393:
3391:
3388:
3387:
3385:
3370:
3369:
3365:
3363:
3362:
3358:
3356:
3355:
3351:
3350:
3347:
3341:
3338:
3336:
3333:
3331:
3328:
3326:
3323:
3321:
3318:
3317:
3315:
3311:
3305:
3302:
3300:
3299:Meta-analysis
3297:
3295:
3292:
3290:
3287:
3285:
3282:
3281:
3279:
3277:
3273:
3267:
3266:Vaccine trial
3264:
3262:
3261:Seeding trial
3259:
3257:
3254:
3252:
3249:
3247:
3244:
3242:
3239:
3237:
3234:
3232:
3229:
3228:
3226:
3222:
3214:
3210:
3206:
3202:
3198:
3194:
3190:
3186:
3182:
3178:
3176:
3172:
3168:
3164:
3160:
3156:
3152:
3150:
3146:
3142:
3138:
3134:
3130:
3126:
3122:
3118:
3114:
3112:
3108:
3104:
3100:
3096:
3092:
3088:
3084:
3082:
3078:
3075:
3073:
3069:
3063:
3060:
3058:
3055:
3053:
3050:
3047:
3043:
3040:
3036:
3033:
3031:
3030:Retrospective
3028:
3027:
3026:
3023:
3021:
3017:
3013:
3010:
3009:
3007:
3004:
2999:
2995:
2987:
2984:
2983:
2982:
2979:
2975:
2972:
2970:
2967:
2965:
2962:
2961:
2960:
2957:
2956:
2954:
2951:
2950:EBM I to II-1
2946:
2942:
2936:
2933:
2931:
2928:
2926:
2923:
2921:
2918:
2916:
2913:
2909:
2906:
2904:
2901:
2900:
2899:
2896:
2895:
2893:
2889:
2885:
2881:
2874:
2869:
2867:
2862:
2860:
2855:
2854:
2851:
2839:
2838:
2829:
2827:
2826:
2817:
2815:
2814:
2809:
2803:
2801:
2800:
2791:
2790:
2787:
2773:
2770:
2768:
2767:Geostatistics
2765:
2763:
2760:
2758:
2755:
2753:
2750:
2749:
2747:
2745:
2741:
2735:
2734:Psychometrics
2732:
2730:
2727:
2725:
2722:
2720:
2717:
2715:
2712:
2710:
2707:
2705:
2702:
2700:
2697:
2695:
2692:
2690:
2687:
2686:
2684:
2682:
2678:
2672:
2669:
2667:
2664:
2662:
2658:
2655:
2653:
2650:
2648:
2645:
2643:
2640:
2639:
2637:
2635:
2631:
2625:
2622:
2620:
2617:
2615:
2611:
2608:
2606:
2603:
2602:
2600:
2598:
2597:Biostatistics
2594:
2590:
2586:
2581:
2577:
2559:
2558:Log-rank test
2556:
2555:
2553:
2549:
2543:
2540:
2539:
2537:
2535:
2531:
2525:
2522:
2520:
2517:
2515:
2512:
2510:
2507:
2506:
2504:
2502:
2498:
2495:
2493:
2489:
2479:
2476:
2474:
2471:
2469:
2466:
2464:
2461:
2459:
2456:
2455:
2453:
2451:
2447:
2441:
2438:
2436:
2433:
2431:
2429:(BoxâJenkins)
2425:
2423:
2420:
2418:
2415:
2411:
2408:
2407:
2406:
2403:
2402:
2400:
2398:
2394:
2388:
2385:
2383:
2382:DurbinâWatson
2380:
2378:
2372:
2370:
2367:
2365:
2364:DickeyâFuller
2362:
2361:
2359:
2355:
2349:
2346:
2344:
2341:
2339:
2338:Cointegration
2336:
2334:
2331:
2329:
2326:
2324:
2321:
2319:
2316:
2314:
2313:Decomposition
2311:
2310:
2308:
2304:
2301:
2299:
2295:
2285:
2282:
2281:
2280:
2277:
2276:
2275:
2272:
2268:
2265:
2264:
2263:
2260:
2258:
2255:
2253:
2250:
2248:
2245:
2243:
2240:
2238:
2235:
2233:
2230:
2228:
2225:
2224:
2222:
2220:
2216:
2210:
2207:
2205:
2202:
2200:
2197:
2195:
2192:
2190:
2187:
2185:
2184:Cohen's kappa
2182:
2181:
2179:
2177:
2173:
2169:
2165:
2161:
2157:
2153:
2148:
2144:
2130:
2127:
2125:
2122:
2120:
2117:
2115:
2112:
2111:
2109:
2107:
2103:
2097:
2093:
2089:
2083:
2081:
2078:
2077:
2075:
2073:
2069:
2063:
2060:
2058:
2055:
2053:
2050:
2048:
2045:
2043:
2040:
2038:
2037:Nonparametric
2035:
2033:
2030:
2029:
2027:
2023:
2017:
2014:
2012:
2009:
2007:
2004:
2002:
1999:
1998:
1996:
1994:
1990:
1984:
1981:
1979:
1976:
1974:
1971:
1969:
1966:
1964:
1961:
1960:
1958:
1956:
1952:
1946:
1943:
1941:
1938:
1936:
1933:
1931:
1928:
1927:
1925:
1923:
1919:
1915:
1908:
1905:
1903:
1900:
1899:
1895:
1891:
1875:
1872:
1871:
1870:
1867:
1865:
1862:
1860:
1857:
1853:
1850:
1848:
1845:
1844:
1843:
1840:
1839:
1837:
1835:
1831:
1821:
1818:
1814:
1808:
1806:
1800:
1798:
1792:
1791:
1790:
1787:
1786:Nonparametric
1784:
1782:
1776:
1772:
1769:
1768:
1767:
1761:
1757:
1756:Sample median
1754:
1753:
1752:
1749:
1748:
1746:
1744:
1740:
1732:
1729:
1727:
1724:
1722:
1719:
1718:
1717:
1714:
1712:
1709:
1707:
1701:
1699:
1696:
1694:
1691:
1689:
1686:
1684:
1681:
1679:
1677:
1673:
1671:
1668:
1667:
1665:
1663:
1659:
1653:
1651:
1647:
1645:
1643:
1638:
1636:
1631:
1627:
1626:
1623:
1620:
1618:
1614:
1604:
1601:
1599:
1596:
1594:
1591:
1590:
1588:
1586:
1582:
1576:
1573:
1569:
1566:
1565:
1564:
1561:
1557:
1554:
1553:
1552:
1549:
1547:
1544:
1543:
1541:
1539:
1535:
1527:
1524:
1522:
1519:
1518:
1517:
1514:
1512:
1509:
1507:
1504:
1502:
1499:
1497:
1494:
1492:
1489:
1488:
1486:
1484:
1480:
1474:
1471:
1467:
1464:
1460:
1457:
1455:
1452:
1451:
1450:
1447:
1446:
1445:
1442:
1438:
1435:
1433:
1430:
1428:
1425:
1423:
1420:
1419:
1418:
1415:
1414:
1412:
1410:
1406:
1403:
1401:
1397:
1391:
1388:
1386:
1383:
1379:
1376:
1375:
1374:
1371:
1369:
1366:
1362:
1361:loss function
1359:
1358:
1357:
1354:
1350:
1347:
1345:
1342:
1340:
1337:
1336:
1335:
1332:
1330:
1327:
1325:
1322:
1318:
1315:
1313:
1310:
1308:
1302:
1299:
1298:
1297:
1294:
1290:
1287:
1285:
1282:
1280:
1277:
1276:
1275:
1272:
1268:
1265:
1263:
1260:
1259:
1258:
1255:
1251:
1248:
1247:
1246:
1243:
1239:
1236:
1235:
1234:
1231:
1229:
1226:
1224:
1221:
1219:
1216:
1215:
1213:
1211:
1207:
1203:
1199:
1194:
1190:
1176:
1173:
1171:
1168:
1166:
1163:
1161:
1158:
1157:
1155:
1153:
1149:
1143:
1140:
1138:
1135:
1133:
1130:
1129:
1127:
1123:
1117:
1114:
1112:
1109:
1107:
1104:
1102:
1099:
1097:
1094:
1092:
1089:
1087:
1084:
1083:
1081:
1079:
1075:
1069:
1066:
1064:
1063:Questionnaire
1061:
1059:
1056:
1052:
1049:
1047:
1044:
1043:
1042:
1039:
1038:
1036:
1034:
1030:
1024:
1021:
1019:
1016:
1014:
1011:
1009:
1006:
1004:
1001:
999:
996:
994:
991:
989:
986:
985:
983:
981:
977:
973:
969:
964:
960:
946:
943:
941:
938:
936:
933:
931:
928:
926:
923:
921:
918:
916:
913:
911:
908:
906:
903:
901:
898:
896:
893:
891:
890:Control chart
888:
886:
883:
881:
878:
876:
873:
872:
870:
868:
864:
858:
855:
851:
848:
846:
843:
842:
841:
838:
836:
833:
831:
828:
827:
825:
823:
819:
813:
810:
808:
805:
803:
800:
799:
797:
793:
787:
784:
783:
781:
779:
775:
763:
760:
758:
755:
753:
750:
749:
748:
745:
743:
740:
739:
737:
735:
731:
725:
722:
720:
717:
715:
712:
710:
707:
705:
702:
700:
697:
695:
692:
691:
689:
687:
683:
677:
674:
672:
669:
665:
662:
660:
657:
655:
652:
650:
647:
645:
642:
640:
637:
635:
632:
630:
627:
625:
622:
620:
617:
616:
615:
612:
611:
609:
607:
603:
600:
598:
594:
590:
586:
581:
577:
571:
568:
566:
563:
562:
559:
555:
548:
543:
541:
536:
534:
529:
528:
525:
518:
515:
514:
505:
503:
499:
497:
495:
491:
489:
487:
483:
482:
468:
464:
460:
456:
452:
448:
444:
440:
436:
432:
428:
421:
413:
409:
405:
401:
397:
393:
386:
378:
374:
370:
366:
362:
358:
354:
350:
343:
339:
329:
326:
325:
319:
316:
312:
308:
304:
299:
296:
286:
283:
279:
274:
270:
269:Census Bureau
259:
257:
256:cohort effect
251:
249:
245:
239:
234:Disadvantages
231:
229:
225:
221:
210:
208:
204:
199:
189:
187:
183:
179:
175:
171:
167:
163:
158:
153:
151:
147:
143:
139:
135:
131:
126:
124:
120:
116:
112:
108:
104:
100:
96:
92:
88:
84:
73:
70:
62:
52:
48:
42:
41:
35:
30:
21:
20:
3390:Epidemiology
3366:
3359:
3352:
3141:Hazard ratio
3025:Cohort study
3011:
2835:
2823:
2804:
2797:
2709:Econometrics
2659: /
2642:Chemometrics
2619:Epidemiology
2612: /
2585:Applications
2427:ARIMA model
2374:Q-statistic
2323:Stationarity
2219:Multivariate
2162: /
2158: /
2156:Multivariate
2154: /
2094: /
2090: /
1864:Bayes factor
1763:Signed rank
1675:
1649:
1641:
1629:
1324:Completeness
1164:
1160:Cohort study
1058:Opinion poll
993:Missing data
980:Study design
935:Scatter plot
857:Scatter plot
850:Spearman's Ï
812:Grouped data
501:
493:
485:
434:
430:
420:
398:(1): 201â3.
395:
391:
385:
352:
348:
342:
303:money demand
300:
292:
265:
252:
240:
237:
216:
195:
177:
154:
127:
118:
110:
106:
102:
98:
87:epidemiology
80:
65:
56:
37:
3335:Null result
3294:Replication
3189:Infectivity
3111:Association
3062:Case report
3052:Case series
3035:Prospective
2837:WikiProject
2752:Cartography
2714:Jurimetrics
2666:Reliability
2397:Time domain
2376:(LjungâBox)
2298:Time-series
2176:Categorical
2160:Time-series
2152:Categorical
2087:(Bernoulli)
1922:Correlation
1902:Correlation
1698:JarqueâBera
1670:Chi-squared
1432:M-estimator
1385:Asymptotics
1329:Sufficiency
1096:Interaction
1008:Replication
988:Effect size
945:Violin plot
925:Radar chart
905:Forest plot
895:Correlogram
845:Kendall's Ï
282:correlation
248:recall bias
174:prevalences
164:, but also
51:introducing
3384:Categories
3137:Odds ratio
3129:Risk ratio
3095:Prevalence
3081:Occurrence
3057:Case study
2704:Demography
2422:ARMA model
2227:Regression
1804:(Friedman)
1765:(Wilcoxon)
1703:Normality
1693:Lilliefors
1640:Student's
1516:Resampling
1390:Robustness
1378:divergence
1368:Efficiency
1306:(monotone)
1301:Likelihood
1218:Population
1051:Stratified
1003:Population
822:Dependence
778:Count data
709:Percentile
686:Dispersion
619:Arithmetic
554:Statistics
334:References
315:population
213:Advantages
198:prevalence
192:Healthcare
182:prevalence
162:odds ratio
121:âthat is,
59:April 2009
34:references
3197:Morbidity
3185:Virulence
3087:Incidence
2085:Logistic
1852:posterior
1778:Rank sum
1526:Jackknife
1521:Bootstrap
1339:Bootstrap
1274:Parameter
1223:Statistic
1018:Statistic
930:Run chart
915:Pie chart
910:Histogram
900:Fan chart
875:Bar chart
757:L-moments
644:Geometric
451:0003-1224
289:Economics
130:economics
3361:Glossary
3354:Category
3231:In vitro
3072:Measures
2891:Overview
2799:Category
2492:Survival
2369:Johansen
2092:Binomial
2047:Isotonic
1634:(normal)
1279:location
1086:Blocking
1041:Sampling
920:QâQ plot
885:Box plot
867:Graphics
762:Skewness
752:Kurtosis
724:Variance
654:Heronian
649:Harmonic
369:19127890
322:See also
203:censuses
3236:In vivo
2825:Commons
2772:Kriging
2657:Process
2614:studies
2473:Wavelet
2306:General
1473:Plug-in
1267:L space
1046:Cluster
747:Moments
565:Outline
478:Sources
467:5846306
459:2090964
412:8194918
377:1908108
271:or the
224:alcohol
140:upon a
95:biology
47:improve
2694:Census
2284:Normal
2232:Manova
2052:Robust
1802:2-way
1794:1-way
1632:-test
1303:
880:Biplot
671:Median
664:Lehmer
606:Center
465:
457:
449:
410:
375:
367:
93:, and
36:, but
3175:Other
2318:Trend
1847:prior
1789:anova
1678:-test
1652:-test
1644:-test
1551:Power
1496:Pivot
1289:shape
1284:scale
734:Shape
714:Range
659:Heinz
634:Cubic
570:Index
455:JSTOR
373:S2CID
172:from
3014:vs.
2882:and
2551:Test
1751:Sign
1603:Wald
676:Mode
614:Mean
463:PMID
447:ISSN
408:PMID
365:PMID
168:and
97:, a
1731:BIC
1726:AIC
439:doi
400:doi
357:doi
128:In
81:In
3386::
3211:,
3207:,
3203:,
3199:,
3195:,
3191:,
3187:,
3183:,
3165:,
3161:,
3157:,
3139:,
3135:,
3131:,
3127:,
3123:,
3119:,
3101:,
3097:,
3093:,
3089:,
3018:,
461:.
453:.
445:.
435:30
433:.
429:.
406:.
396:23
394:.
371:.
363:.
353:53
351:.
250:.
125:.
109:,
105:,
89:,
85:,
3048:)
3044:(
3005:)
3001:(
2952:)
2948:(
2872:e
2865:t
2858:v
1676:G
1650:F
1642:t
1630:Z
1349:V
1344:U
546:e
539:t
532:v
469:.
441::
414:.
402::
379:.
359::
72:)
66:(
61:)
57:(
43:.
Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License. Additional terms may apply.