56:
1488:) is more specific than declaring it to be a member of the Archosauria, which would not exclude it from the Crocodilia branch. Basal branch names such as Avemetatarsalia are usually more obscure. However, not so advantageous are the facts that "Pan-Aves" and "Aves" are not the same group, the circumscription of the concept of "Pan-Aves" (synonymous with Avemetatarsalia) is only evident by examination of the above tree, and calling both groups "birds" is ambiguous.
20:
3215:
611:
1694:
2892:
598:
3227:
1422:. The last common ancestor of birds and crocodilians—the first crown group archosaur—was neither bird nor crocodilian and possessed none of the features unique to either. As the bird stem group evolved, distinctive bird features such as feathers and hollow bones appeared. Finally, at the base of the crown group, all traits common to extant birds were present.
1638:
the evolution of living organisms. Furthermore, they show that fossils that were considered to lie in their own separate group because they did not show all the diagnostic features of a living clade, can nevertheless be related to it by lying in its stem group. Such fossils have been of particular importance in considering the origins of the
984:
of the crown group and their closest living relatives. It follows from the definition that all members of a stem group are extinct. The "stem group" is the most used and most important of the concepts linked to crown groups, as it offers a means to reify and name paraphyletic assemblages of fossils
1637:
in their right order in a stem group allows the order of these acquisitions to be established, and thus the ecological and functional setting of the evolution of the major features of the group in question. Stem groups thus offer a route to integrate unique palaeontological data into questions of
1535:. Exactly what labyrinthodonts are in the stem group tetrapods rather than the corresponding crown group is uncertain, as the phylogeny of early tetrapods is not well understood. This example shows that crown and stem group definitions are of limited value when there is no consensus phylogeny.
1661:
easier to understand without invoking unusual evolutionary mechanisms; however, application of the stem group concept does nothing to ameliorate the difficulties that phylogenetic telescoping poses to evolutionary theorists attempting to understand both macroevolutionary change and the abrupt
1018:, the new groups should then be added to the group, as paraphyletic groupings are not natural. In any case, stem groupings with living descendants should not be viewed as a cohesive group, but their tree should be further resolved to reveal the full bifurcating phylogeny.
895:
organisms. In a tree analogy, it is the crown group and all branches back to (but not including) the split with the closest branch to have living members. The Pan-Aves thus contain the living birds and all (fossil) organisms more closely related to birds than to
1396:. If we follow the phylogenetic lineage leading to Neornithes to the left, the line itself and all side branches belong to the stem birds until the lineage merges with that of the crocodilians. In addition to non-crown group primitive birds like
834:
In this diagram, the clade labelled "Neornithes" is the crown group of birds: it includes the most recent common ancestor of all living birds and its descendants, living or not. Although considered to be birds (i.e. members of the clade Aves),
859:, were not descended from that ancestor although they lived later. Crown-Aves and Crown-Mammalia therefore differ slightly in content from the common definition of Aves and Mammalia. This has caused some confusion in the literature.
2485:
1425:
Under the widely used total-group perspective, the
Crocodylomorpha would become synonymous with the Crocodilia, and the Avemetatarsalia would become synonymous with the birds, and the above tree could be summarized as
1494:
are those in the lineage leading to living mammals, together with side branches, from the divergence of the lineage from the
Sauropsida to the last common ancestor of the living mammals. This group includes the
1565:, and are thus considered stem arthropods. The sorting of the Burgess Shale fauna into various stem groups finally enabled phylogenetic sorting of this enigmatic assemblage and also allowed for identifying
1678:, stem groups should be given the prefix "stem" (i.e. Stem-Aves, Stem-Arthropoda), however the crown group should have no prefix. The latter has not been universally accepted for known groups. A number of
842:
An alternative definition does not require any members of a crown group to be extant, only to have resulted from a "major cladogenesis event". The first definition forms the basis of this article.
1014:
Often, an (extinct) grouping is identified as belonging together. Later, it may be realized other (extant) groupings actually emerged within such grouping, rendering them a stem grouping.
1029:
perhaps constitute the most cited example of a stem group, as the phylogeny of this group is fairly well known. The following cladogram, based on Benton (2005), illustrates the concept:
702:, as a way of classifying living organisms relative to their extinct relatives in his "Die Stammesgeschichte der Insekten", and the "crown" and "stem" group terminology was coined by
2554:
Modern
Systematics of Insects. Part I. Principles of Systematics of Living Organisms and General System of Insects, with Classification of Primary Wingless and Paleopterous Insects
2002:
999:
Alternatively, the term "stem group" is sometimes used in a wider sense to cover any members of the traditional taxon falling outside the crown group. Permian synapsids like
726:
that are descended from the most recent common ancestor of living members will still be part of a crown group. For example, if we consider the crown-birds (i.e. all
904:
to the point where it merges with the crocodilian lineage, along with all side branches, constitutes pan-birds. In addition to non-crown group primitive birds like
1675:
327:
2118:
2219:
853:
are traditionally defined by their traits, and contain fossil members that lived before the last common ancestors of the living groups or, like the mammal
691:(birds) can be defined as a crown group, which includes the most recent common ancestor of all modern birds, and all of its extant or extinct descendants.
2522:
2520:
Patterson, C.; Rosen, D.E. (1977). "Review of ichthyodectiform and other
Mesozoic teleost fishes, and the theory and practice of classifying fossils".
711:
2307:
839:
and other extinct groups are not included in the crown group, as they fall outside the
Neornithes clade, being descended from an earlier ancestor.
1913:
2163:
642:
722:
It is not necessary for a species to have living descendants in order for it to be included in the crown group. Extinct side branches on the
250:
871:
to define groups necessitates other definitions than crown groups to adequately define commonly discussed fossil groups. Thus, a host of
1511:; the latter groups have traditionally and anatomically been considered mammals even though they fall outside the crown group mammals.
561:
2049:
1905:
369:
2719:
New perspectives on the origin and early evolution of birds: proceedings of the
International Symposium in Honor of John H. Ostrom
2717:
Gauthier, J., and de
Queiroz, K. (2001). "Feathered dinosaurs, flying dinosaurs, crown dinosaurs, and the name Aves." Pp. 7-41 in
2830:
1963:
988:
While often attributed to
Jefferies (1979), Willmann (2003) traced the origin of the stem group concept to Austrian systematist
75:
2689:
1890:
556:
3025:
503:
1625:). It is generally taken to mean a side branch splitting off earlier on the phylogenetic tree than the group in question.
2721:(J. A. Gauthier and L. F. Gall, eds.). Peabody Museum of Natural History, Yale University, New Haven, Connecticut, U.S.A.
2552:
1657:. Their classification in stem groups to extant phyla, rather than in phyla of their own, is thought by some to make the
976:
the crown group itself (and therefore minus all living members of the pan-group). This leaves primitive relatives of the
635:
364:
195:
2985:
2383:
2190:
Willmann, Rainer (2003). "From
Haeckel to Hennig: the early development of phylogenetics in German-speaking Europe".
1981:
3065:
97:
2483:
Brysse, K. (2008). "From weird wonders to stem lineages: the second reclassification of the
Burgess Shale fauna".
937:
Pan-Mammalia consists of all mammals and their fossil ancestors back to the phylogenetic split from the remaining
845:
Often, the crown group is given the designation "crown-", to separate it from the group as commonly defined. Both
3070:
3003:
2322:
1967:
730:
birds and the rest of the family tree back to their most recent common ancestor), extinct side branches like the
354:
322:
2267:
1808:
3231:
3080:
3010:
2277:
1940:
1777:
576:
359:
2704:
Lauterbach, K-E. (1989): Das Pan-Monophylum – ein Hilfsmittel für die Praxis der Phylogenetischen Systematik.
1666:. Overemphasis on the stem group concept threatens to delay or obscure proper recognition of new higher taxa.
3253:
628:
615:
706:
in 1979. Though formulated in the 1970s, the term was not commonly used until its reintroduction in 2000 by
1546:
546:
675:
of the collection, and all descendants of the most recent common ancestor. It is thus a way of defining a
2990:
2897:
2853:
2823:
1585:, but phylogenetic analysis indicates that it falls outside the crown group, making it a stem priapulid.
1392:, all modern bird lineages back to their last common ancestor. The closest living relatives of birds are
672:
602:
1575:
are other early Cambrian to middle Cambrian faunas, appearing in Chengjiang to Burgess Shale. The genus
2295:
ancestry, the stem mammals arose in the late Triassic, slightly after the first appearance of dinosaurs
102:
31:
S1 of extinct species. The crown group C1 and the stem group S1 form the total group T1. T1 and C2 are
875:
have been defined to describe various branches of the phylogenetic tree relative to extant organisms.
3180:
3106:
1653:
The application of the stem group concept also influenced the interpretation of the organisms of the
468:
443:
423:
403:
80:
2781:
Budd, G. E. (2001), "Tardigrades as 'stem-group' Arthropods: the Evidence from the Cambrian Fauna",
458:
453:
428:
383:
349:
343:
332:
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1769:
571:
478:
473:
418:
379:
180:
2164:"A New Mitrate from the Upper Ordovician of Norway, and a New Approach to Subdividing a Plesion"
1755:
3258:
3219:
2943:
2816:
742:, so fall within the bird crown group. One very simplified cladogram for birds is shown below:
483:
438:
260:
155:
3195:
2873:
2213:
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581:
463:
408:
374:
287:
2397:"The origin(s) of extant amphibians: a review with emphasis on the "lepospondyl hypothesis""
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2790:
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2452:
2334:
2017:
1973:
981:
958:
433:
205:
90:
47:
1601:
has acquired several meanings over the years. One use is as "nearby group" (plesion means
8:
3075:
2957:
523:
513:
448:
413:
297:
200:
125:
60:
2794:
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2338:
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1854:
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2486:
Studies in History and Philosophy of Science Part C: Biological and Biomedical Sciences
2464:
2416:
2358:
2301:
2041:
1836:
1824:
1759:
1663:
1658:
1617:, whether that group is a crown group or not. The term may also mean a group, possibly
1528:
566:
498:
282:
210:
175:
2926:
2762:
2685:
2610:
2502:
2379:
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2140:
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2033:
1987:
1977:
1936:
1886:
1828:
1783:
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1733:
1725:
868:
267:
145:
135:
130:
2774:
2420:
1840:
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2798:
2754:
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2600:
2531:
2494:
2460:
2408:
2378:(1966): Vertebrate Paleontology. University of Chicago Press, Chicago; 3rd edition
2342:
2199:
2130:
2082:
2045:
2025:
1820:
1532:
302:
891:
is the crown group and all organisms more closely related to it than to any other
3116:
1622:
1215:
1085:
1050:
255:
245:
107:
2498:
3090:
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1959:
1765:
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1606:
1515:
1504:
1500:
1410:
916:
703:
337:
240:
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2580:
2558:
2135:
2087:
55:
3247:
3085:
3055:
2962:
2839:
2354:
1787:
1654:
1542:
1398:
1241:
1015:
900:(their closest living relatives). The phylogenetic lineage leading back from
765:
656:
488:
160:
2802:
3190:
3136:
3131:
3126:
3111:
2919:
2914:
2766:
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2144:
2096:
2037:
1832:
1737:
1717:
1679:
1618:
1610:
1566:
1557:
1288:
1120:
993:
992:(1914), and it was discussed and diagrammed in English as early as 1933 by
989:
977:
969:
892:
727:
695:
680:
508:
493:
277:
272:
190:
32:
1484:
An advantage of this approach is that declaring Theropoda to be birds (or
2878:
2734:
2557:(in Russian). St. Petersburg, Russland: Lan'. p. 336. Archived from
2434:
2119:"Meaning of the Name Tetrapoda in the Scientific Literature: An Exchange"
2068:"Use of Well-Known Names in Phylogenetic Nomenclature: A Reply to Laurin"
1804:
1628:
1433:
1404:
1393:
1156:
1149:
1137:
1007:
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assemblage composed of the members of a pan-group or total group, above,
910:
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723:
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518:
235:
185:
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1267:
1254:
1177:
1130:
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1001:
942:
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are still descended from the most recent common ancestor of all living
699:
688:
292:
215:
170:
150:
64:
2412:
2272:(4th ed.). Fort Worth: Brooks/Cole Thomson Learning. p. 61.
985:
that otherwise do not fit into systematics based on living organisms.
23:
C1 and C2 are crown groups of extant species within the clade T – the
19:
3200:
3164:
3159:
3154:
3049:
2931:
2758:
2536:
1809:"A critical reappraisal of the fossil record of the bilaterian phyla"
1639:
1562:
1527:, our nearest relatives among the fishes. In addition to a series of
1508:
1415:
1202:
1190:
1098:
1040:
946:
925:
735:
551:
165:
85:
2396:
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1859:
1693:
1551:
1524:
1520:
1496:
1485:
1110:
938:
921:
541:
140:
2581:"Walcott, the Burgess Shale, an rumours of a post-Darwinian world"
1541:
constitute a group that has seen attention in connection with the
2443:
2266:
Czaplewski, Terry A. Vaughan, James M. Ryan, Nicholas J. (2000).
1643:
1011:
are stem mammals in the wider sense but not in the narrower one.
957:"Stem group" redirects here. For stem groups in mathematics, see
850:
684:
668:
2808:
2891:
1647:
1634:
1577:
1021:
872:
597:
2003:"Transformation and diversification in early mammal evolution"
980:, back along the phylogenetic line to (but not including) the
671:
composed of the living representatives of the collection, the
3020:
2948:
2157:
1614:
1461:
862:
846:
676:
1883:
Glorified Dinosaurs: The Origin and Early Evolution of Birds
1272:
1227:
749:
739:
731:
1293:
928:
as well as an assortment of non-crocodilian animals like
867:
The cladistic idea of strictly using the topology of the
2394:
1629:
Palaeontological significance of stem and crown groups
2441:
and the reconstruction of the arthropod stem-group".
2887:
2519:
1803:
1561:
have some, though not all, features associated with
1519:
are the animals belonging to the lineage leading to
2635:
2523:Bulletin of the American Museum of Natural History
2395:Marjanović, David; Laurin, Michel (1 March 2013).
1756:"The Origin of Chordates — A Methodological Essay"
1597:has a long history in biological systematics, and
2668:
2578:
2323:"Saving the stem group—a contradiction in terms?"
2218:: CS1 maint: DOI inactive as of September 2024 (
1750:
1724:(in German). Frankfurt am Main: Waldemar Kramer.
3245:
945:). Pan-Mammalia is thus an alternative name for
2662:
1914:University of California Museum of Paleontology
1885:, Sydney: University of New South Wales Press,
1569:as the closest living relatives of arthropods.
920:, therefore, pan-group birds would include all
16:Monophyletic closure of a set of living species
2116:
717:
679:, a group consisting of a species and all its
2824:
2478:
2476:
2474:
1964:"Appendix: Classification of the vertebrates"
1669:
636:
2306:: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (
1958:
1954:
1952:
1744:
1022:Examples of stem groups (in the wider sense)
2780:
2247:
2000:
804:(modern birds, some extinct like the dodo)
2831:
2817:
2482:
2471:
2433:
2265:
2151:
1874:
1799:
1797:
1716:
1682:have opted to apply this approach anyway.
1581:has more or less the same build as modern
863:Other groups under the crown group concept
643:
629:
2653:
2604:
2535:
2241:
2203:
2134:
2086:
1949:
1710:
2733:
2638:"Breakthrough on the Cambrian Explosion"
2427:
2320:
2232:
2226:
2189:
2065:
18:
2676:. South Hadley, Massachusetts: Meanma.
1880:
1794:
1761:The Origin of Major Invertebrate Groups
3246:
2255:, University of Chicago Press, Chicago
1531:, they also include some of the early
2812:
2674:Paramphibia: A New Class of Tetrapods
2550:
2369:
1152:
1133:
3226:
1621:, defined by primitive traits (i.e.
2117:Laurin, M.; Anderson, J.S. (2004).
13:
2727:
2465:10.1111/j.1502-3931.1996.tb01831.x
1930:
1825:10.1111/j.1469-185X.1999.tb00046.x
1722:Die Stammesgeschichte der Insekten
14:
3270:
2838:
3225:
3214:
3213:
3066:Phylogenetic comparative methods
2890:
2737:(2001), "Climbing Life's Tree",
2205:10.1016/j.cladistics.2003.09.001
1935:(2nd ed.). Detroit: U-X-L.
1855:"DNA yields dodo family secrets"
1692:
1588:
610:
609:
596:
54:
28:
3071:Phylogenetic niche conservatism
2711:
2698:
2629:
2572:
2544:
2513:
2388:
2321:Donoghue, Philip C. J. (2005).
2314:
2259:
2183:
2110:
2059:
1523:from their divergence from the
1414:, stem group birds include the
1374:birds' closest living relatives
603:Evolutionary biology portal
1994:
1924:
1906:"UCMP Glossary: Phylogenetics"
1898:
1847:
952:
562:Creation–evolution controversy
316:History of evolutionary theory
24:
1:
1933:U-X-L encyclopedia of science
1704:
694:The concept was developed by
2636:McMenamin, M. A. S. (2013).
2235:Die vorzeitlichen Saugetiere
1916:. 2009-11-12. Archived from
878:
547:Evolution as fact and theory
7:
2991:Phylogenetic reconciliation
2898:Evolutionary biology portal
2854:Computational phylogenetics
2499:10.1016/j.shpsc.2008.06.004
2437:(1996). "The morphology of
2066:Anderson, Jason S. (2002).
1685:
1031:
718:Contents of the crown group
673:most recent common ancestor
10:
3275:
2579:Conway Morris, S. (2009).
1674:As originally proposed by
1670:Stem groups in systematics
1549:, including the enigmatic
956:
687:descendants. For example,
582:Nature-nurture controversy
27:– which also contains the
3209:
3181:Phylogenetic nomenclature
3173:
3147:
3099:
3041:
2978:
2907:
2885:
2846:
2655:10.1525/bio.2013.63.10.14
2606:10.1016/j.cub.2009.08.046
2237:, G. Fischer Verlag, Jena
2136:10.1080/10635150490264716
2088:10.1080/10635150290102447
1881:Chiappe, Luis M. (2007),
1459:
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799:
786:
779:
761:
754:
469:Evolutionary neuroscience
444:Evolutionary epistemology
424:Evolutionary anthropology
404:Applications of evolution
1972:(3rd ed.). Oxford:
1969:Vertebrate Palaeontology
1758:. In House, M.R. (ed.).
1388:The crown group here is
700:phylogenetic systematics
459:Evolutionary linguistics
454:Evolutionary game theory
429:Evolutionary computation
25:total group or pan-group
3061:Molecular phylogenetics
3011:Distance-matrix methods
2859:Molecular phylogenetics
2803:10.1078/0044-5231-00034
2253:Vertebrate Paleontology
1770:Systematics Association
1292:(including the extinct
1271:(including the extinct
572:Objections to evolution
479:Evolutionary psychology
474:Evolutionary physiology
419:Evolutionary aesthetics
398:Fields and applications
380:History of paleontology
3081:Phylogenetics software
2995:Probabilistic methods
2944:Long branch attraction
2682:10.13140/2.1.2569.0401
2208:(inactive 2024-09-23).
1931:ed, Rob Nagel (2001).
504:Speciation experiments
484:Experimental evolution
439:Evolutionary economics
261:Recent human evolution
119:Processes and outcomes
36:
2874:Evolutionary taxonomy
2783:Zoologischer Anzeiger
2708:, no 223, pp 139–156.
2706:Zoologischer Anzeiger
1910:www.ucmp.berkeley.edu
1807:; Jensen, S. (2000).
1676:Karl-Ernst Lauterbach
788:other extinct groups
464:Evolutionary medicine
409:Biosocial criminology
375:History of speciation
288:Evolutionary taxonomy
251:Timeline of evolution
22:
3254:Evolutionary biology
3033:Three-taxon analysis
2939:Phylogenetic network
2001:Luo, Zhe-Xi (2007).
1976:. pp. 389–403.
1974:Blackwell Publishing
1863:. London. 2002-02-28
1772:. pp. 443–447.
1764:. London; New York:
982:last common ancestor
959:isoclinism of groups
698:, the formulator of
434:Evolutionary ecology
48:Evolutionary biology
3076:Phylogenetic signal
2795:2001ZooAn.240..265B
2751:2001Natur.412..487B
2597:2009CBio...19.R927C
2457:1996Letha..29....1B
2339:2005Pbio...31..553D
2030:10.1038/nature06277
2022:2007Natur.450.1011L
2016:(7172): 1011–1019.
667:is a collection of
536:Social implications
524:Universal Darwinism
514:Island biogeography
449:Evolutionary ethics
414:Ecological genetics
360:Molecular evolution
298:Transitional fossil
126:Population genetics
42:Part of a series on
3004:Bayesian inference
2999:Maximum likelihood
2551:Kluge, N. (2000).
2123:Systematic Biology
2075:Systematic Biology
1813:Biological Reviews
1699:Biology portal
1664:Cambrian explosion
1659:Cambrian explosion
1545:fauna. Several of
1529:lobe-finned fishes
704:R. P. S. Jefferies
567:Theistic evolution
499:Selective breeding
211:Parallel evolution
176:Adaptive radiation
37:
3241:
3240:
2986:Maximum parsimony
2979:Inference methods
2927:Phylogenetic tree
2691:978-1-893882-20-1
2670:McMenamin, M.A.S.
2591:(20): R927–R931.
2413:10.5252/g2013n1a8
2233:Abel, O. (1914),
2160:Jefferies, R.P.S.
1892:978-0-86840-413-4
1752:Jefferies, R.P.S.
1662:character of the
1623:symplesiomorphies
1481:
1480:
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1380:crown group birds
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869:phylogenetic tree
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653:
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344:Origin of Species
146:Natural selection
3266:
3229:
3228:
3217:
3216:
3016:Neighbor-joining
2970:Ghost population
2900:
2895:
2894:
2833:
2826:
2819:
2810:
2809:
2805:
2789:(3–4): 265–279,
2777:
2759:10.1038/35087679
2722:
2715:
2709:
2702:
2696:
2695:
2666:
2660:
2659:
2657:
2633:
2627:
2626:
2608:
2576:
2570:
2569:
2567:
2566:
2548:
2542:
2541:
2539:
2517:
2511:
2510:
2480:
2469:
2468:
2439:Opabinia regalis
2431:
2425:
2424:
2392:
2386:
2373:
2367:
2366:
2318:
2312:
2311:
2305:
2297:
2288:
2286:
2263:
2257:
2256:
2245:
2239:
2238:
2230:
2224:
2223:
2217:
2209:
2207:
2187:
2181:
2180:
2168:
2155:
2149:
2148:
2138:
2114:
2108:
2107:
2105:
2103:
2090:
2072:
2063:
2057:
2056:
2054:
2048:. Archived from
2007:
1998:
1992:
1991:
1986:. Archived from
1956:
1947:
1946:
1928:
1922:
1921:
1902:
1896:
1895:
1878:
1872:
1871:
1869:
1868:
1851:
1845:
1844:
1801:
1792:
1791:
1748:
1742:
1741:
1714:
1697:
1696:
1440:
1439:
1430:
1429:
1377:stem group birds
1261:
1260:
1234:
1233:
1209:
1208:
1184:
1183:
1127:
1126:
1117:
1116:
1092:
1091:
1057:
1056:
1047:
1046:
1037:
1036:
1032:
782:
781:
757:
756:
746:
745:
665:crown assemblage
645:
638:
631:
618:
613:
612:
605:
601:
600:
577:Level of support
370:Current research
355:Modern synthesis
350:Before synthesis
303:Extinction event
61:Darwin's finches
58:
39:
38:
3274:
3273:
3269:
3268:
3267:
3265:
3264:
3263:
3244:
3243:
3242:
3237:
3205:
3169:
3143:
3117:Symplesiomorphy
3095:
3037:
2974:
2903:
2896:
2889:
2883:
2847:Relevant fields
2842:
2837:
2730:
2728:Further reading
2725:
2716:
2712:
2703:
2699:
2692:
2667:
2663:
2648:(10): 834–835.
2634:
2630:
2585:Current Biology
2577:
2573:
2564:
2562:
2549:
2545:
2518:
2514:
2481:
2472:
2432:
2428:
2393:
2389:
2374:
2370:
2347:10.1666/04028.1
2319:
2315:
2299:
2298:
2284:
2282:
2280:
2264:
2260:
2246:
2242:
2231:
2227:
2211:
2210:
2188:
2184:
2166:
2156:
2152:
2115:
2111:
2101:
2099:
2070:
2064:
2060:
2052:
2005:
1999:
1995:
1984:
1957:
1950:
1943:
1929:
1925:
1904:
1903:
1899:
1893:
1879:
1875:
1866:
1864:
1853:
1852:
1848:
1802:
1795:
1780:
1749:
1745:
1715:
1711:
1707:
1691:
1688:
1680:paleontologists
1672:
1631:
1591:
1573:Stem priapulids
1539:Stem arthropods
1533:labyrinthodonts
1482:
1473:
1382:
1381:
1378:
1375:
1369:
1360:
1351:
1342:
1333:
1324:
1315:
1306:
1291:
1270:
1216:Tyrannosauridae
1168:
1086:Avemetatarsalia
1076:
1051:Crocodylomorpha
1024:
962:
955:
881:
865:
832:
823:
814:
720:
649:
608:
595:
594:
587:
586:
537:
529:
528:
399:
391:
390:
389:
317:
309:
308:
307:
256:Human evolution
246:History of life
230:
229:Natural history
222:
221:
220:
120:
112:
67:
17:
12:
11:
5:
3272:
3262:
3261:
3256:
3239:
3238:
3236:
3235:
3223:
3210:
3207:
3206:
3204:
3203:
3198:
3193:
3188:
3183:
3177:
3175:
3171:
3170:
3168:
3167:
3162:
3157:
3151:
3149:
3145:
3144:
3142:
3141:
3140:
3139:
3134:
3129:
3121:
3120:
3119:
3114:
3103:
3101:
3097:
3096:
3094:
3093:
3091:Phylogeography
3088:
3083:
3078:
3073:
3068:
3063:
3058:
3053:
3045:
3043:
3042:Current topics
3039:
3038:
3036:
3035:
3030:
3029:
3028:
3023:
3018:
3008:
3007:
3006:
3001:
2993:
2988:
2982:
2980:
2976:
2975:
2973:
2972:
2967:
2966:
2965:
2955:
2946:
2941:
2936:
2935:
2934:
2924:
2923:
2922:
2911:
2909:
2908:Basic concepts
2905:
2904:
2902:
2901:
2886:
2884:
2882:
2881:
2876:
2871:
2866:
2861:
2856:
2850:
2848:
2844:
2843:
2836:
2835:
2828:
2821:
2813:
2807:
2806:
2778:
2729:
2726:
2724:
2723:
2710:
2697:
2690:
2661:
2628:
2571:
2543:
2512:
2493:(3): 298–313.
2470:
2426:
2407:(1): 207–272.
2387:
2368:
2313:
2278:
2258:
2240:
2225:
2198:(6): 449–479.
2182:
2158:Craske, A.J.;
2150:
2109:
2081:(5): 822–827.
2058:
2055:on 2012-11-24.
1993:
1990:on 2008-10-19.
1982:
1948:
1941:
1923:
1920:on 2017-09-29.
1897:
1891:
1873:
1846:
1819:(2): 253–295.
1793:
1778:
1766:Academic Press
1743:
1708:
1706:
1703:
1702:
1701:
1687:
1684:
1671:
1668:
1630:
1627:
1590:
1587:
1516:Stem tetrapods
1505:morganucodonts
1479:
1478:
1475:
1474:
1470:
1469:
1466:
1465:
1458:
1455:
1454:
1451:
1450:
1443:
1438:
1436:
1428:
1411:Confuciusornis
1384:
1383:
1379:
1376:
1373:
1372:
1370:
1366:
1365:
1362:
1361:
1357:
1356:
1353:
1352:
1348:
1347:
1344:
1343:
1339:
1338:
1335:
1334:
1330:
1329:
1326:
1325:
1321:
1320:
1317:
1316:
1312:
1311:
1308:
1307:
1303:
1302:
1299:
1298:
1285:
1282:
1281:
1278:
1277:
1264:
1259:
1257:
1251:
1250:
1247:
1246:
1237:
1232:
1230:
1224:
1223:
1220:
1219:
1212:
1207:
1205:
1199:
1198:
1195:
1194:
1187:
1182:
1180:
1174:
1173:
1170:
1169:
1165:
1164:
1161:
1160:
1153:
1146:
1145:
1142:
1141:
1134:
1125:
1123:
1115:
1113:
1107:
1106:
1103:
1102:
1095:
1090:
1088:
1082:
1081:
1078:
1077:
1073:
1072:
1069:
1068:
1061:
1055:
1053:
1045:
1043:
1035:
1023:
1020:
954:
951:
917:Confuciusornis
880:
877:
864:
861:
829:
828:
825:
824:
820:
819:
816:
815:
811:
810:
807:
806:
798:
795:
794:
791:
790:
785:
780:
778:
775:
774:
771:
770:
760:
755:
753:
744:
719:
716:
651:
650:
648:
647:
640:
633:
625:
622:
621:
620:
619:
606:
589:
588:
585:
584:
579:
574:
569:
564:
559:
557:Social effects
554:
549:
544:
538:
535:
534:
531:
530:
527:
526:
521:
516:
511:
506:
501:
496:
491:
486:
481:
476:
471:
466:
461:
456:
451:
446:
441:
436:
431:
426:
421:
416:
411:
406:
400:
397:
396:
393:
392:
388:
387:
377:
372:
367:
362:
357:
352:
347:
340:
335:
330:
325:
319:
318:
315:
314:
311:
310:
306:
305:
300:
295:
290:
285:
283:Classification
280:
275:
270:
265:
264:
263:
253:
248:
243:
241:Common descent
238:
236:Origin of life
232:
231:
228:
227:
224:
223:
219:
218:
213:
208:
203:
198:
193:
188:
183:
178:
173:
168:
163:
158:
153:
148:
143:
138:
133:
128:
122:
121:
118:
117:
114:
113:
111:
110:
105:
100:
94:
93:
88:
83:
78:
72:
69:
68:
59:
51:
50:
44:
43:
15:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
3271:
3260:
3259:Phylogenetics
3257:
3255:
3252:
3251:
3249:
3234:
3233:
3224:
3222:
3221:
3212:
3211:
3208:
3202:
3199:
3197:
3194:
3192:
3189:
3187:
3184:
3182:
3179:
3178:
3176:
3172:
3166:
3163:
3161:
3158:
3156:
3153:
3152:
3150:
3146:
3138:
3135:
3133:
3130:
3128:
3125:
3124:
3122:
3118:
3115:
3113:
3110:
3109:
3108:
3105:
3104:
3102:
3098:
3092:
3089:
3087:
3086:Phylogenomics
3084:
3082:
3079:
3077:
3074:
3072:
3069:
3067:
3064:
3062:
3059:
3057:
3056:DNA barcoding
3054:
3052:
3051:
3047:
3046:
3044:
3040:
3034:
3031:
3027:
3026:Least squares
3024:
3022:
3019:
3017:
3014:
3013:
3012:
3009:
3005:
3002:
3000:
2997:
2996:
2994:
2992:
2989:
2987:
2984:
2983:
2981:
2977:
2971:
2968:
2964:
2963:Ghost lineage
2961:
2960:
2959:
2956:
2954:
2950:
2947:
2945:
2942:
2940:
2937:
2933:
2930:
2929:
2928:
2925:
2921:
2918:
2917:
2916:
2913:
2912:
2910:
2906:
2899:
2893:
2888:
2880:
2877:
2875:
2872:
2870:
2867:
2865:
2862:
2860:
2857:
2855:
2852:
2851:
2849:
2845:
2841:
2840:Phylogenetics
2834:
2829:
2827:
2822:
2820:
2815:
2814:
2811:
2804:
2800:
2796:
2792:
2788:
2784:
2779:
2776:
2772:
2768:
2764:
2760:
2756:
2752:
2748:
2745:(6846): 487,
2744:
2740:
2736:
2732:
2731:
2720:
2714:
2707:
2701:
2693:
2687:
2683:
2679:
2675:
2671:
2665:
2656:
2651:
2647:
2643:
2639:
2632:
2624:
2620:
2616:
2612:
2607:
2602:
2598:
2594:
2590:
2586:
2582:
2575:
2561:on 2012-09-14
2560:
2556:
2555:
2547:
2538:
2533:
2530:(2): 85–172.
2529:
2525:
2524:
2516:
2508:
2504:
2500:
2496:
2492:
2488:
2487:
2479:
2477:
2475:
2466:
2462:
2458:
2454:
2450:
2446:
2445:
2440:
2436:
2430:
2422:
2418:
2414:
2410:
2406:
2402:
2401:Geodiversitas
2398:
2391:
2385:
2384:0-7167-1822-7
2381:
2377:
2372:
2364:
2360:
2356:
2352:
2348:
2344:
2340:
2336:
2332:
2328:
2324:
2317:
2309:
2303:
2296:
2294:
2281:
2275:
2271:
2270:
2262:
2254:
2250:
2244:
2236:
2229:
2221:
2215:
2206:
2201:
2197:
2193:
2186:
2178:
2174:
2173:
2172:Palaeontology
2165:
2161:
2154:
2146:
2142:
2137:
2132:
2128:
2124:
2120:
2113:
2098:
2094:
2089:
2084:
2080:
2076:
2069:
2062:
2051:
2047:
2043:
2039:
2035:
2031:
2027:
2023:
2019:
2015:
2011:
2004:
1997:
1989:
1985:
1983:0-632-05637-1
1979:
1975:
1971:
1970:
1965:
1961:
1955:
1953:
1944:
1938:
1934:
1927:
1919:
1915:
1911:
1907:
1901:
1894:
1888:
1884:
1877:
1862:
1861:
1856:
1850:
1842:
1838:
1834:
1830:
1826:
1822:
1818:
1814:
1810:
1806:
1800:
1798:
1789:
1785:
1781:
1775:
1771:
1767:
1763:
1762:
1757:
1753:
1747:
1739:
1735:
1731:
1727:
1723:
1719:
1713:
1709:
1700:
1695:
1690:
1689:
1683:
1681:
1677:
1667:
1665:
1660:
1656:
1655:Burgess shale
1651:
1649:
1645:
1641:
1636:
1626:
1624:
1620:
1616:
1612:
1608:
1604:
1600:
1599:plesion group
1596:
1589:Plesion-group
1586:
1584:
1580:
1579:
1574:
1570:
1568:
1564:
1560:
1559:
1554:
1553:
1548:
1544:
1543:Burgess Shale
1540:
1536:
1534:
1530:
1526:
1522:
1518:
1517:
1512:
1510:
1506:
1502:
1501:mammaliaforms
1498:
1493:
1489:
1487:
1477:
1476:
1468:
1467:
1464:
1463:
1457:
1456:
1453:
1452:
1449:
1448:
1442:
1441:
1435:
1432:
1431:
1427:
1423:
1421:
1417:
1413:
1412:
1407:
1406:
1401:
1400:
1399:Archaeopteryx
1395:
1391:
1371:
1364:
1363:
1355:
1354:
1346:
1345:
1337:
1336:
1328:
1327:
1319:
1318:
1310:
1309:
1301:
1300:
1297:
1295:
1290:
1284:
1283:
1280:
1279:
1276:
1274:
1269:
1263:
1262:
1256:
1253:
1252:
1249:
1248:
1245:
1244:
1243:
1242:Archaeopteryx
1236:
1235:
1229:
1226:
1225:
1222:
1221:
1218:
1217:
1211:
1210:
1204:
1201:
1200:
1197:
1196:
1193:
1192:
1186:
1185:
1179:
1176:
1175:
1172:
1171:
1163:
1162:
1159:
1158:
1151:
1148:
1147:
1144:
1143:
1140:
1139:
1138:Hadrosauridae
1132:
1129:
1128:
1122:
1119:
1118:
1112:
1109:
1108:
1105:
1104:
1101:
1100:
1094:
1093:
1087:
1084:
1083:
1080:
1079:
1071:
1070:
1067:
1066:
1059:
1058:
1052:
1049:
1048:
1042:
1039:
1038:
1034:
1033:
1030:
1028:
1019:
1017:
1016:Cladistically
1012:
1010:
1009:
1004:
1003:
997:
995:
991:
986:
983:
979:
975:
971:
967:
960:
950:
948:
944:
940:
935:
933:
932:
927:
923:
919:
918:
913:
912:
907:
906:Archaeopteryx
903:
899:
894:
890:
886:
876:
874:
870:
860:
858:
857:
852:
848:
843:
840:
838:
837:Archaeopteryx
827:
826:
818:
817:
809:
808:
805:
803:
797:
796:
793:
792:
789:
784:
783:
777:
776:
773:
772:
769:
768:
767:
766:Archaeopteryx
759:
758:
751:
748:
747:
743:
741:
737:
733:
729:
725:
715:
713:
709:
705:
701:
697:
692:
690:
686:
682:
678:
674:
670:
666:
662:
658:
657:phylogenetics
646:
641:
639:
634:
632:
627:
626:
624:
623:
617:
607:
604:
599:
593:
592:
591:
590:
583:
580:
578:
575:
573:
570:
568:
565:
563:
560:
558:
555:
553:
550:
548:
545:
543:
540:
539:
533:
532:
525:
522:
520:
517:
515:
512:
510:
507:
505:
502:
500:
497:
495:
492:
490:
489:Phylogenetics
487:
485:
482:
480:
477:
475:
472:
470:
467:
465:
462:
460:
457:
455:
452:
450:
447:
445:
442:
440:
437:
435:
432:
430:
427:
425:
422:
420:
417:
415:
412:
410:
407:
405:
402:
401:
395:
394:
385:
381:
378:
376:
373:
371:
368:
366:
363:
361:
358:
356:
353:
351:
348:
346:
345:
341:
339:
336:
334:
333:Before Darwin
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161:Genetic drift
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26:
21:
3230:
3218:
3191:Sister group
3185:
3174:Nomenclature
3137:Autapomorphy
3132:Synapomorphy
3112:Plesiomorphy
3100:Group traits
3048:
2920:Cladogenesis
2915:Phylogenesis
2786:
2782:
2742:
2738:
2718:
2713:
2705:
2700:
2673:
2664:
2645:
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2574:
2563:. Retrieved
2559:the original
2553:
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2490:
2484:
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2371:
2330:
2327:Paleobiology
2326:
2316:
2290:
2283:. Retrieved
2268:
2261:
2252:
2243:
2234:
2228:
2214:cite journal
2195:
2191:
2185:
2176:
2170:
2153:
2129:(1): 68–80.
2126:
2122:
2112:
2100:. Retrieved
2078:
2074:
2061:
2050:the original
2013:
2009:
1996:
1988:the original
1968:
1960:Benton, M.J.
1932:
1926:
1918:the original
1909:
1900:
1882:
1876:
1865:. Retrieved
1858:
1849:
1816:
1812:
1760:
1746:
1721:
1712:
1673:
1652:
1632:
1619:paraphyletic
1611:sister group
1602:
1598:
1594:
1592:
1576:
1572:
1571:
1567:velvet worms
1558:Anomalocaris
1556:
1550:
1538:
1537:
1514:
1513:
1492:Stem mammals
1491:
1490:
1483:
1460:
1445:
1424:
1409:
1403:
1397:
1394:crocodilians
1387:
1289:Paleognathae
1287:
1266:
1240:
1239:
1214:
1189:
1155:
1136:
1121:Ornithischia
1097:
1063:
1026:
1025:
1013:
1006:
1000:
998:
990:Othenio Abel
987:
978:crown groups
973:
970:paraphyletic
965:
963:
936:
929:
915:
909:
905:
898:crocodilians
888:
884:
882:
866:
854:
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833:
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787:
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762:
721:
712:Sören Jensen
696:Willi Hennig
693:
664:
660:
654:
509:Sociobiology
494:Paleontology
342:
278:Biogeography
273:Biodiversity
191:Coextinction
181:Co-operation
156:Polymorphism
81:Introduction
3186:Crown group
3148:Group types
2879:Systematics
2451:(1): 1–14.
2376:Romer, A.S.
2249:Romer, A.S.
2102:28 December
1613:to a given
1499:as well as
1434:Archosauria
1405:Hesperornis
1157:Stegosauria
1150:Thyreophora
1131:Ornithopoda
1099:Pterosauria
1041:Archosauria
1008:Anteosaurus
994:A. S. Romer
953:Stem groups
911:Hesperornis
889:total group
724:family tree
708:Graham Budd
661:crown group
519:Systematics
328:Renaissance
206:Convergence
196:Contingency
186:Coevolution
3248:Categories
2864:Cladistics
2642:BioScience
2565:2011-12-31
2435:Budd, G.E.
2333:(4): 553.
2279:003025034X
2192:Cladistics
1942:0787654329
1867:2006-09-07
1805:Budd, G.E.
1779:0123574501
1730:B0000EGSML
1718:Hennig, W.
1705:References
1583:priapulids
1563:arthropods
1447:Crocodilia
1420:pterosaurs
1390:Neornithes
1268:Neognathae
1255:Neornithes
1178:Saurischia
1111:Dinosauria
1065:Crocodilia
1027:Stem birds
1002:Dimetrodon
966:stem group
943:Sauropsida
931:Marasuchus
926:pterosaurs
902:Neornithes
856:Haldanodon
802:Neornithes
689:Neornithes
293:Cladistics
216:Extinction
201:Divergence
171:Speciation
151:Adaptation
65:John Gould
29:stem group
3201:Supertree
3165:Polyphyly
3160:Paraphyly
3155:Monophyly
3127:Apomorphy
3107:Primitive
3050:PhyloCode
2932:Cladogram
2537:2246/1224
2363:198156530
2355:0094-8373
2302:cite book
2269:Mammalogy
1788:767789225
1640:tetrapods
1593:The name
1547:the finds
1521:tetrapods
1509:docodonts
1503:like the
1497:synapsids
1416:dinosaurs
1203:Theropoda
1191:Sauropoda
947:Synapsida
922:dinosaurs
885:pan-group
879:Pan-group
736:great auk
552:Dysgenics
268:Phylogeny
166:Gene flow
136:Diversity
131:Variation
3220:Category
3123:Derived
2869:Taxonomy
2775:27322225
2767:11484029
2735:Budd, G.
2672:(2015).
2615:19889363
2507:18761282
2421:67823991
2293:cynodont
2251:(1933),
2179:: 69–99.
2162:(1989).
2145:14965901
2097:12396594
2038:18075580
1962:(2005).
1860:BBC News
1841:39772232
1833:10881389
1768:for The
1754:(1979).
1720:(1969).
1686:See also
1633:Placing
1609:), i.e.
1603:close to
1552:Opabinia
1525:lungfish
1507:and the
1486:Pan-aves
1418:and the
939:amniotes
873:prefixes
616:Category
542:Eugenics
384:timeline
365:Evo-devo
323:Overview
141:Mutation
103:Evidence
98:Glossary
3232:Commons
2958:Lineage
2791:Bibcode
2747:Bibcode
2623:2723134
2593:Bibcode
2453:Bibcode
2444:Lethaia
2335:Bibcode
2291:From a
2285:27 July
2046:4317817
2018:Bibcode
1738:1612960
1648:animals
1644:mammals
1635:fossils
1595:plesion
1060:
851:mammals
752:
685:extinct
669:species
108:History
91:Outline
33:sisters
2773:
2765:
2739:Nature
2688:
2621:
2613:
2505:
2419:
2382:
2361:
2353:
2276:
2143:
2095:
2044:
2036:
2010:Nature
1980:
1939:
1889:
1839:
1831:
1786:
1776:
1736:
1728:
1646:, and
1578:Ottoia
893:extant
728:extant
681:extant
659:, the
614:
338:Darwin
3196:Basal
3021:UPGMA
2953:Grade
2949:Clade
2771:S2CID
2619:S2CID
2417:S2CID
2359:S2CID
2167:(PDF)
2071:(PDF)
2053:(PDF)
2042:S2CID
2006:(PDF)
1837:S2CID
1615:taxon
1607:Greek
1462:Birds
974:minus
968:is a
941:(the
847:birds
740:birds
677:clade
76:Index
2763:PMID
2686:ISBN
2611:PMID
2503:PMID
2380:ISBN
2351:ISSN
2308:link
2287:2013
2274:ISBN
2220:link
2141:PMID
2104:2011
2093:PMID
2034:PMID
1978:ISBN
1937:ISBN
1887:ISBN
1829:PMID
1784:OCLC
1774:ISBN
1734:OCLC
1726:ASIN
1555:and
1408:and
1273:dodo
1228:Aves
924:and
914:and
849:and
750:Aves
732:dodo
710:and
86:Main
2951:vs
2799:doi
2787:240
2755:doi
2743:412
2678:doi
2650:doi
2601:doi
2532:hdl
2528:158
2495:doi
2461:doi
2409:doi
2343:doi
2200:doi
2131:doi
2083:doi
2026:doi
2014:450
1821:doi
1605:in
1294:moa
1005:or
887:or
734:or
683:or
663:or
655:In
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