Crucifixion of Jesus

3447: 4995: 2953: 1917: 2505: 5097: 3106:(Golgotha)), which was the name of the place where Jesus was crucified. The text does not indicate why it was so designated, but several theories have been put forward. One is that as a place of public execution, Calvary may have been strewn with the skulls of abandoned victims (which would be contrary to Jewish burial traditions, but not Roman). Another is that Calvary is named after a nearby cemetery (which is consistent with both of the proposed modern sites). A third is that the name was derived from the physical contour, which would be more consistent with the singular use of the word, i.e., the place of "a skull". While often referred to as "Mount Calvary", it was more likely a small hill or rocky knoll. 5180: 5039: 4664:"The master appeared to him. He stopped praying, embraced him, and kissed him, saying, “Rabbi, I’ve found you. I heard of the sufferings you endured, and I was greatly troubled. You know my compassion. Because of this I wished, as I reflected upon it, that I would never see these people again. They must be judged for what they have done, for what they have done is not right.” The master said, “James, do not be concerned for me or these people. I am the one who was within me. Never did I suffer at all, and I was not distressed. These people did not harm me. Rather, all this was inflicted upon a figure of the rulers, and it was fitting that this figure should be by them." 4816: 5199: 2770: 5218: 3242: 18509: 5113: 179: 10262:"Wherefore he did not himself suffer death, but Simon, a certain man of Cyrene, being compelled, bore the cross in his stead; so that this latter being transfigured by him, that he might be thought to be Jesus, was crucified, through ignorance and error, while Jesus himself received the form of Simon, and, standing by, laughed at them. For since he was an incorporeal power, and the Nous (mind) of the unborn father, he transfigured himself as he pleased, and thus ascended to him who had sent him, deriding them, inasmuch as he could not be laid hold of, and was invisible to all" ( 601: 5152: 3230: 3864: 2041:

crucifixion (the third hour, or 9 a.m. – although it was probably as late as noon) and the centurion's report of Jesus's death. The Gospel of Luke's unique contributions to the narrative include Jesus's words to the women who were mourning, one criminal's rebuke of the other, the reaction of the multitudes who left "beating their breasts", and the women preparing spices and ointments before resting on the Sabbath. John is also the only one to refer to the request that the legs be broken and the soldier's subsequent piercing of Jesus's side (as fulfillment of

3587: 3140: 5129: 4498: 2080:, then gives a shout and dies. The curtain of the Temple is torn in two. Matthew follows Mark, but mentions an earthquake and the resurrection of saints. Luke also follows Mark, although he describes the rebels as common criminals, one of whom defends Jesus, who in turn promises that he (Jesus) and the criminal will be together in paradise. Luke portrays Jesus as impassive in the face of his crucifixion. John includes several of the same elements as those found in Mark, though they are treated differently. 7830:

Constantine with great reverence not long ago built up. Next, to the west one visits the connecting places Golgotha and the Anastasis; indeed the Anastasis is in the place of the resurrection, and Golgotha is in the middle between the Anastasis and the Martyrium, the place of the Lord's passion, in which still appears that rock which once endured the very cross on which the Lord was. These are separated places outside of Mount Sion, where the failing rise of the place extended itself to the north.

3774: 5078: 3654:, Emeritus Professor of Physics at the University of Oxford, stated that certain historical sources say that on the night of the Crucifixion "the moon had risen blood red," which indicates a lunar eclipse. He went on to confirm that as Passover takes place on the full moon calculating back shows that a lunar eclipse did in fact take place on the night of Passover on Friday, 3 April 33 AD which would have been visible in the area of modern Israel, ancient Judaea, just after sunset. 5058: 3056: 1054: 2517: 23491: 20604: 11944: 1992: 993: 528: 1686: 43: 23480: 20593: 18521: 5244: 5021: 985: 520: 3330:(100–165) explicitly says the cross of Christ was of two-beam shape: "That lamb which was commanded to be wholly roasted was a symbol of the suffering of the cross which Christ would undergo. For the lamb, which is roasted, is roasted and dressed up in the form of the cross. For one spit is transfixed right through from the lower parts up to the head, and one across the back, to which are attached the legs of the lamb." 3938: 3628:: "This darkness Thallus, in the third book of his History, calls, as appears to me without reason, an eclipse of the sun. For the Hebrews celebrate the Passover on the 14th day according to the moon, and the passion of our Saviour falls on the day before the Passover; but an eclipse of the sun takes place only when the moon comes under the sun." Christian apologist 1956:(Hebrew, Latin, and Greek), and then divided his garments and cast lots for his seamless robe. According to the Gospel of John, the Roman soldiers did not break Jesus's legs, as they did to the two crucified convicts (breaking the legs hastened the onset of death), as Jesus was dead already. Each gospel has its own account of Jesus's last words, 3647:. Historian David Henige dismisses this explanation as "indefensible". More objectively, astronomer Bradley Schaefer later found that the lunar eclipse would not have been visible at moonrise due to the brightness of the sky, and the umbra (the part that would be red) would not have been visible before it disappeared a few minutes later. 3643:

and of Passover) for half an hour. Some of the oldest manuscripts of Luke say "the sun was eclipsed" (23:45) at the time of the crucifixion. The authors suggest that this may be due to a scribe changing the word "moon" to "sun" to explain the darkness, or else that the word "eclipsed" just meant darkened or hidden, as in a passage of the

4786:. While in Japan, it is asserted that he traveled, learned, and eventually died at the age of 106. His body was exposed on a hilltop for four years. According to the customs of the time, Jesus's bones were collected, bundled, and buried in a mound. There is also a museum in Japan which claims to have evidence of these claims. 8607:(Westminster John Knox Press, 1987) pp. 104–105. The author suggests this possibly was designed to play down the suffering of Jesus and replace a cry of desperation with one of hope and confidence, in keeping with the message of the Gospel in which Jesus dies confident that he would be vindicated as God's righteous prophet. 3642:

considered the possibility that a lunar, rather than solar, eclipse might have taken place. They concluded that such an eclipse was visible in Jerusalem on the date of April 3, AD 33, that its peak was at 5:15 pm Jerusalem time, but that it was visible after sundown (the beginning of the Sabbath

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Some ancient Christian writers considered the possibility that pagan commentators may have mentioned this event and mistook it for a solar eclipse, pointing out that an eclipse could not occur during the Passover, which takes place during the full moon when the moon is opposite the sun rather than in

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in John, since Roman timekeeping began at midnight and this would mean being before Pilate at the 6th hour was 6 a.m., yet others have rejected the arguments. Several scholars have argued that the modern precision of marking the time of day should not be read back into the gospel accounts, written at

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is the doctrine that the phenomenon of Jesus, his historical and bodily existence, and above all the human form of Jesus, was mere semblance without any true reality. Docetists denied that Jesus could have truly suffered and died, as his physical body was illusory, and instead saw the crucifixion as

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studied the likely circumstances of the death of Jesus in great detail. Zugibe carried out a number of experiments over several years to test his theories while he was a medical examiner. These studies included experiments in which volunteers with specific weights were hanging at specific angles and

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Modern biblical scholarship treats the account in the synoptic gospels as a literary creation by the author of the Mark Gospel, amended in the Luke and Matthew accounts, intended to heighten the importance of what they saw as a theologically significant event, and not intended to be taken literally.

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The assumption of the use of a two-beamed cross does not determine the number of nails used in the crucifixion and some theories suggest three nails while others suggest four nails. Throughout history, larger numbers of nails have been hypothesized, at times as high as 14 nails. These variations are

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Luke's gospel also describes an interaction between Jesus and the women among the crowd of mourners following him, quoting Jesus as saying "Daughters of Jerusalem, do not weep for me, but weep for yourselves and for your children. For behold, the days are coming when they will say, 'Blessed are the

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before his resurrection, celebrated on Sunday. Others have countered by saying that this ignores the Jewish idiom by which a "day and night" may refer to any part of a 24-hour period, that the expression in Matthew is idiomatic, not a statement that Jesus was 72 hours in the tomb, and that the many

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And their saying, "Indeed, we have killed the Messiah, Jesus the son of Mary, the messenger of Allah." And they did not kill him, nor did they crucify him; but rather, it was made to appear to them so. And indeed, those who differ over it are in doubt about it. They have no knowledge of it except

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In 2003, historians F. P. Retief and L. Cilliers reviewed the history and pathology of crucifixion as performed by the Romans and suggested that the cause of death was often a combination of factors. They also state that Roman guards were prohibited from leaving the scene until death had occurred.

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Aside from these women, the three Synoptic Gospels speak of the presence of others: "the chief priests, with the scribes and elders", two crucified criminals, to Jesus's right and left, "the soldiers", "the centurion and those who were with him, keeping watch over Jesus", passers-by, "bystanders",

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to drink. Both the Gospel of Mark and the Gospel of Matthew record that he refused this. He was then crucified and hanged between two convicts. According to some translations of the original Greek, the convicts may have been bandits or Jewish rebels. According to the Gospel of Mark, he endured the

1815:(John 19:20), was written in three languages (Hebrew, Latin, and Greek). They then divided his garments among themselves and cast lots for his seamless robe, according to the Gospel of John. The Gospel of John also states that, after Jesus's death, one soldier (named in extra-Biblical tradition as 4782:, Jesus Christ did not die on the cross at Golgotha. Instead his younger brother, Isukiri, took his place on the cross, while Jesus fled across Siberia to Mutsu Province, in northern Japan. Once in Japan, he became a rice farmer, married, and raised a family with three daughters near what is now 3743:

caused by it and by an earlier known quake in 31 BC. The authors concluded that either this was the earthquake in Matthew and it occurred more or less as reported, or else Matthew "borrowed" this earthquake which actually occurred at another time or simply inserted an "allegorical fiction".

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The consensus of scholarship is that the New Testament accounts represent a crucifixion occurring on a Friday, but a Thursday or Wednesday crucifixion have also been proposed. Some scholars explain a Thursday crucifixion based on a "double sabbath" caused by an extra Passover sabbath falling on

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The three more frequented exit gates are one on the west, another on the east, and a third on the north. As you enter the city from the northern side, the first of the holy places due to the condition of the directions of the streets is to the church which is called the Martyrium, which was by

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Although almost all ancient sources relating to crucifixion are literary, in 1968, an archeological discovery just northeast of Jerusalem uncovered the body of a crucified man dated to the 1st century, which provided good confirmatory evidence that crucifixions occurred during the Roman period

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Nero fastened the guilt and inflicted the most exquisite tortures on a class hated for their abominations, called Christians by the populace. Christus, from whom the name had its origin, suffered the extreme penalty during the reign of Tiberius at the hands of one of our procurators, Pontius

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There are several details that are only mentioned in a single gospel account. For instance, only the Gospel of Matthew mentions an earthquake, resurrected saints who went to the city and that Roman soldiers were assigned to guard the tomb, while Mark is the only one to state the time of the

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noted the verse is cited in Aramaic rather than the usual Hebrew, and that by the time of Jesus, this phrase had become a proverbial saying in common usage. Compared to the accounts in the other Gospels, which he describes as "theologically correct and reassuring", he considers this phrase

8881:"In the same hour, too, the light of day was withdrawn, when the sun at the very time was in his meridian blaze. Those who were not aware that this had been predicted about Christ, no doubt thought it an eclipse. You yourselves have the account of the world-portent still in your archives." 3841:, a French physician, and the chief surgeon at Saint Joseph's Hospital in Paris, hypothesized that Jesus relaxed his muscles to obtain enough air to utter his last words, in the face of exhaustion asphyxia. Some of Barbet's theories, such as the location of nails, are disputed by Zugibe. 3794:

The cardiovascular collapse theory is a prevalent modern explanation and suggests that Jesus died of profound shock. According to this theory, the scourging, the beatings, and the fixing to the cross left Jesus dehydrated, weak, and critically ill and this led to cardiovascular collapse.

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stating that "the fourteenth of Nisan (7 April) of the year 30 AD is, apparently in the opinion of the majority of contemporary scholars as well, far and away the most likely date of the crucifixion of Jesus." Another preferred date among scholars is Friday, 3 April, AD 33.

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Paul is the earliest surviving source to document Jesus' death by crucifixion as his conversion occurred two years after this event. Paul's chronology is used as part of dating the crucifixion. However, the earliest detailed accounts of the death of Jesus are contained in the four

3177:". The Gospel of Matthew also mentions several women being present, among them Mary Magdalene, Mary, mother of James and the mother of Zebedee's children. Although a group of women is mentioned in Luke, neither is named. The Gospel of John speaks of women present, among them the 5347:, p. 339) states that these "two facts in the life of Jesus command almost universal assent" and "rank so high on the 'almost impossible to doubt or deny' scale of historical facts" that they are often the starting points for the study of the historical Jesus. 1948:

torment of crucifixion from the third hour (between approximately 9 a.m. and noon), until his death at the ninth hour, corresponding to about 3 p.m. The soldiers affixed a sign above his head stating "Jesus of Nazareth, King of the Jews" which, according to the

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In verse 19:17 and 19:18, only a third person plural verb is used ("they"), it is not clear whether this refers to the high priests (οἱ ἀρχιερεῖς) to whom Pilate delivered Jesus in 19:15–16, or to the soldiers (οὖν στρατιῶται) who crucified Jesus according to

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wrote, describing the day of the crucifixion, "A most terrible darkness fell over all the world, the rocks were torn apart by an earthquake, and many places both in Judaea and the rest of the world were thrown down. In the third book of his Histories,

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barren and the wombs that never bore and the breasts that never nursed!' Then they will begin to say to the mountains, 'Fall on us,' and to the hills, 'Cover us.' For if they do these things when the wood is green, what will happen when it is dry?"

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from the dead. In each Gospel these five events in the life of Jesus are treated with more intense detail than any other portion of that Gospel's narrative. Scholars note that the reader receives an almost hour-by-hour account of what is happening.

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performed a number of crucifixion experiments by using ropes to hang human subjects at various angles and hand positions. His experiments support an angled suspension, and a two-beamed cross, and perhaps some form of foot support, given that in an

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events during the crucifixion. Mark mentions a period of darkness in the daytime during Jesus's crucifixion, and the Temple veil being torn in two when Jesus dies. Luke follows Mark; as does Matthew, additionally mentioning an earthquake and the

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to the execution of Jesus by Pilate to be genuine, and of historical value as an independent Roman source. Eddy and Boyd state that it is now "firmly established" that Tacitus provides a non-Christian confirmation of the crucifixion of Jesus.

3605:(or the whole world) is "darkened for three hours," from the sixth to the ninth hour (noon to mid-afternoon). There is no reference to darkness in the Gospel of John account, in which the crucifixion does not take place until after noon. 6886: 2895:

14), during the governorship of Pontius Pilate (who ruled AD 26–36). Various approaches have been used to estimate the year of the crucifixion, including the canonical Gospels, the chronology of the life of Paul, as well as different

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says that Jesus remained with the apostles for 40 days, whereas the account in the Gospel of Luke makes no clear distinction between the events of Easter Sunday and the Ascension. Most biblical scholars agree that the author of Luke

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teaches that the crucifixion of Jesus was part of the atonement and a "redeeming ransom" both for the effect of the fall of Adam upon all humankind and "for the personal sins of all who repent, from Adam to the end of the world."

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Cyclopaedia of Biblical, theological, and ecclesiastical literature: Volume 7 John McClintock, James Strong – 1894 "... he lay in the grave on the 15th (which was a 'high day' or double Sabbath, because the weekly Sabbath

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Now there was about this time Jesus, a wise man, ... He drew over to him both many of the Jews and many of the Gentiles ... And when Pilate, at the suggestion of the principal men amongst us, had condemned him to the

3294:). The latter means wood (a live tree, timber or an object constructed of wood); in earlier forms of Greek, the former term meant an upright stake or pole, but in Koine Greek it was used also to mean a cross. The Latin word 4968:. And a number of Marian devotions also involve the presence of the Virgin Mary in Calvary, e.g., Pope John Paul II stated that "Mary was united to Jesus on the Cross". Well known works of Christian art by masters such as 3067:

The precise location of the crucifixion remains a matter of conjecture, but the biblical accounts indicate that it was outside the city walls of Jerusalem, accessible to passers-by and observable from some distance away.

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has Jesus address these women as "daughters of Jerusalem", thus distinguishing them from the women whom the same gospel describes as "the women who had followed him from Galilee" and who were present at his crucifixion.

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to destroy Jesus, while the earthly Jesus was regarded as a prophet, Jesus himself was an immaterial being that can not be killed. Accordingly, Lucifer failed and Jesus's sufferings on the cross were only an illusion.

8207:, that unless, saith He, they shall set their hope on Him, war shall be waged against them for ever. Moses therefore pileth arms one upon another in the midst of the encounter, and standing on higher ground than any 4607:, voluntary death, and resurrection, Jesus defeated Satan and death, and arose victorious. Therefore, humanity was no longer bound in sin, but was free to rejoin God through the repentance of sin and faith in Jesus. 3621:, who lived in the 2nd century AD, as having written "with regard to the eclipse in the time of Tiberius Caesar, in whose reign Jesus appears to have been crucified, and the great earthquakes which then took place". 10710: 3894:

people are reunited with God and receive new joy and power in this life as well as eternal life. Thus the crucifixion of Jesus along with his resurrection restores access to a vibrant experience of God's presence,

4626:, believing that all sinners are the authors and ministers of Jesus's crucifixion, and admonishes Christians that their own guilt is greater when they sin with knowledge of Jesus, than when others sin without it. 4428:) based on the plan of God. For Paul the "power of the cross" is not separable from the resurrection of Jesus. Furthermore, Paul highlighted the idea that Jesus on the cross defeated the spiritual forces of evil " 2849:

estimated that he died in his late 20s. Another relevant archaeological find, which also dates to the 1st century AD, is an unidentified heel bone with a spike discovered in a Jerusalem gravesite, now held by the

3791:) to blood and water coming out when Jesus's side was pierced with a spear, physician William Stroud proposed the ruptured heart theory of the cause of Christ's death which influenced a number of other people. 6541: 4994: 3346:

usually four nails would be depicted, with the feet side by side. After the Renaissance most depictions use three nails, with one foot placed on the other. Nails are almost always depicted in art, although

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states that the Sanhedrin 43a reference to Jesus can be confirmed not only from the reference itself, but from the context that surrounds it. Sanhedrin 43a relates that Yeshu had been condemned to death by

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Thursday dusk to Friday afternoon, ahead of the normal weekly Sabbath. Some have argued that Jesus was crucified on Wednesday, not Friday, on the grounds of the mention of "three days and three nights" in

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The Gospel of Luke is the only gospel to omit the detail of the sour wine mix that was offered to Jesus on a reed, while only Mark and John describe Joseph actually taking the body down off the cross.

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view, Jesus's death is of central importance, and Jesus willingly sacrificed himself after his resurrection as an act of perfect obedience as a sacrifice of love which pleased God. By contrast, the

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Paul's Christology has a specific focus on the death and resurrection of Jesus. For Paul, the crucifixion of Jesus is directly related to his resurrection and the term "the cross of Christ" used in

10177: 10050: 21668: 3310:, which was certainly earlier than 135, and may have been of the 1st century AD, the time when the gospel accounts of the death of Jesus were written, likened it to the letter T (the Greek letter 4461:

Jesus could have successfully argued for his innocence, but instead submitted to crucifixion in obedience to the Father. This Christological theme continued into the 20th century, both in the

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describes the darkness account as typical of "Jewish eschatological imagery of the day of the Lord", and says that those interpreting it as a datable eclipse are "barking up the wrong tree".

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Although the question of the equivalence of the identities of Yeshu and Jesus has at times been debated, many historians agree that the above 2nd-century passage is likely to be about Jesus,

10072: 1807:, was crucified at the 3rd hour (9 a.m.), and died by the 9th hour of the day (at around 3:00 p.m.). During this time, the soldiers affixed a sign to the top of the cross stating " 5364:, p. 145): "That he was crucified is as sure as anything historical can ever be, since both Josephus and Tacitus ... agree with the Christian accounts on at least that basic fact. 4516:

as to how salvation is granted to humanity. These interpretations vary widely in how much emphasis they place on the death and resurrection as compared to Jesus's words. According to the

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Another issue of debate has been the use of a hypopodium as a standing platform to support the feet, given that the hands may not have been able to support the weight. In the 17th century

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the amount of pull on each hand was measured, in cases where the feet were also secured or not. In these cases the amount of pull and the corresponding pain was found to be significant.

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This image of darkness over the land would have been understood by ancient readers, a typical element in the description of the death of kings and other major figures by writers such as

2684:. Anyone who can say anything in his favour, let him come forward and plead on his behalf." But since nothing was brought forward in his favour he was hanged on the eve of the Passover. 19280: 19117: 3488:

for "My God, My God, why have you forsaken me?"). Aramaic linguist Steve Caruso said Jesus most likely spoke Galilean Aramaic, which would render the pronunciation of these words:

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without being put on the cross, but that God transformed another person to appear exactly like him and to be then crucified instead of him. This view is attested in an account by

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Jesus is still before Pilate at the sixth hour. Scholars have presented a number of arguments to deal with the issue, some suggesting a reconciliation, e.g., based on the use of

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was hanged. For forty days before the execution took place, a herald went forth and cried, "He is going forth to be stoned because he has practised sorcery and enticed Israel to

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Soldiers broke the legs of the other two crucified men, but not Jesus's legs (this fulfilled a prophecy), but did pierce his side with a spear (this fulfilled another prophecy).

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Some scriptures identified as Gnostic reject the atonement of Jesus's death by distinguishing the earthly body of Jesus and his divine and immaterial essence. According to the

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likewise comments that he finds "no persuasive argument against attributing to the Jesus of Mark/Matt the literal sentiment of feeling forsaken expressed in the Psalm quote".

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may be viewed as his abbreviation of the message of the gospels. For Paul, the crucifixion of Jesus was not an isolated event in history, but a cosmic event with significant

3121:, has been attested since the 4th century. A second site (commonly referred to as Gordon's Calvary), located further north of the Old City near a place popularly called the 10702: 2983:

whom the Roman soldiers order to carry the cross after Jesus initially carries it but then collapses, while the Gospel of John just says that Jesus "bears" his own cross.

3555:, have been the subject of a wide range of Christian teachings and sermons, and a number of authors have written books specifically devoted to the last sayings of Christ. 293: 7430: 4378:"agent Christology" the submission of Jesus to crucifixion is a sacrifice made as an agent of God or servant of God, for the sake of eventual victory. This builds on the 2814:

is the confirmation by more than one source, including multiple non-Christian sources, and the criterion of coherence argues that it fits with other historical elements.

10494: 1972:, an earthquake, the tearing of the sanctuary's veil and the resurrection of saints (in the Gospel of Matthew). Following Jesus's death, his body was removed from the 2934:

a time when no standardization of timepieces, or exact recording of hours and minutes was available, and time was often approximated to the closest three-hour period.

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are used to determine the historicity of the elements of the New Testamentical narratives, and help to establish the crucifixion of Jesus as a historical event. The

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is the affirmation of the belief that the death of Jesus by crucifixion happened "with the foreknowledge of God, according to a definite plan". In this view, as in

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A widespread earthquake of magnitude at least 5.5 has been confirmed to have taken place in the region between AD 26 and 36. This earthquake was dated by counting

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the following of assumption. And they did not kill him, for certain. (157) Rather, Allah raised him to Himself. And ever is Allah Exalted in Might and Wise. (158)

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Most Islamic traditions categorically deny that Jesus physically died, either on a cross or another manner. This denial is asserted in the Quran, which states:

3446: 22234: 18902: 18493: 18488: 10407: 8252: 7771: 2056:(1 Corinthians 15:4), Jesus was raised from the dead ("on the third day" counting the day of crucifixion as the first) and according to the canonical gospels, 14597: 12948: 12233: 10943:

Dennis, John (2006). "Jesus' Death in John's Gospel: A Survey of Research from Bultmann to the Present with Special Reference to the Johannine Hyper-Texts".

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to his son, written some time after AD 73 but before the 3rd century AD. The letter includes no Christian themes and the author is presumed to be neither

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Keith Maxwell not only analyzed the medical aspects of the crucifixion, but also looked back at how Jesus could have carried the cross all the way along

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insisted that Jesus was truly born and was truly crucified and wrote that those who held that Jesus only seemed to suffer only seemed to be Christians.

17837: 17317: 15665: 3390:) without fracturing any bones. Another theory suggests that the Greek word for hand also includes the forearm and that the nails were placed near the 17059: 5038: 20640: 19772: 18212: 8497: 6918: 5179: 9375: 4405:, the cross is not viewed as a scandal, for the crucifixion of Jesus "at the hands of the lawless" is viewed as the fulfillment of the plan of God. 1753:, and is broadly accepted as one of the events to have most likely occurred during his life. There is no consensus among historians on the details. 18558: 18287: 10076: 6845: 5268: 5128: 2883:

There is no consensus regarding the exact date of the crucifixion of Jesus, although it is generally agreed by biblical scholars that it was on a

20093: 17027: 4941: 4610: 3504:. Since other verses of the same Psalm are cited in the crucifixion accounts, some commentators consider it a literary and theological creation. 2745:, which states: "they killed him not, nor crucified him, but so it was made to appear to them , ... Nay, Allah raised him up unto Himself". 1562: 14592: 13610: 7370: 3762:

and Biblical scholars. In 2006, Matthew W. Maslen and Piers D. Mitchell reviewed over 40 publications on the subject with theories ranging from

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rituals Christians ate the body and drank the blood of their God, interpreting the symbolic ritual as cannibalism by Christians. References:

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writers who speak of the shape of the particular gibbet on which Jesus died invariably describe it as having a cross-beam. For instance, the

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The approximate period of his death (c. CE 30, plus or minus one or two years) is confirmed by the requirements of the chronology of Paul.

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The approximate period of his death (c. CE 30, plus or minus one or two years) is confirmed by the requirements of the chronology of Paul.

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bearing the cross, a crowd of people mocking Jesus along with the other two crucified men, darkness from the 6th to the 9th hour, and the

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Davies, W. D.; Sanders, E.P. (2008). "20. Jesus: From the Jewish Point of View". In Horbury, William; Davies, W.D.; Sturdy, John (eds.).

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Davies, W. D.; Sanders, E.P. (2008). "20. Jesus: From the Jewish Point of View". In Horbury, William; Davies, W.D.; Sturdy, John (eds.).

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hold the view that a single upright stake was used. The Greek and Latin words used in the earliest Christian writings are ambiguous. The

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states that there is "broad consensus" among scholars regarding the nature of an authentic reference to the crucifixion of Jesus in the

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presented a novel approach at the end of the 19th century, in which the crucifixion scene was portrayed from the perspective of Jesus.

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Schaefer, B. E. (July 1991). Glare and celestial visibility. Publications of the Astronomical Society of the Pacific, 103, 645–660.

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roughly according to the manner in which the crucifixion of Jesus is described in the gospels. The crucified man was identified as

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High priests complained to Pilate: "Don't write "King of the Jews", but that this man claimed to be king of the Jews." Pilate: "

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While scholars agree on the historicity of the crucifixion, they differ on the reason and context for it. For example, both

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In Mark, Jesus is crucified along with two rebels, and the sun goes dark or is obscured for three hours. Jesus calls out to

1916: 23287: 21675: 20362: 20098: 18616: 18551: 17509: 17405: 16970: 11557: 11301: 9215: 7422: 4660:, Jesus appeared to James after apparently being crucified and stated that another person had been inflicted in his place: 3278: 2926: 2918: 1594: 718: 10680: 10270: 8260: 4402: 4387: 2504: 23325: 21870: 20402: 20232: 19140: 18887: 18371: 18269: 18156: 16689: 16380: 15401: 14913: 14447: 13898: 12012: 10566: 7678: 4548: 4521: 3224: 1557: 487: 9983: 9265: 2563:" is about the crucifixion of Jesus, while others place less value in the letter, given the ambiguity in the reference. 21468: 21371: 20061: 19558: 19167: 18892: 18409: 17711: 17462: 17152: 16303: 13879: 12726: 11882: 10337: 10316: 10295: 10232: 9010: 6273: 6218: 6187: 6156: 5602: 5572: 5466: 5405: 5298: 4567: 2803: 1709: 969: 15690: 14617: 13635: 12963: 23520: 23211: 22310: 22107: 20044: 19646: 19293: 19127: 18578: 17541: 17035: 15374: 14908: 12165: 11164: 11060: 11004: 10933: 10862: 10843: 10786: 10766: 10623: 10595: 10518:. Jahrgang 1997 diagonal-Verlag Ursula Spuler-Stegemann Der Engel Pfau zum Selbstvertändnis der Yezidi p. 14 (German) 10034: 9943: 9923: 9903: 9879: 9859: 9839: 9793: 9766: 9746: 9723: 9703: 9683: 9663: 9628: 9444: 9339: 9251: 8684: 8414: 8394: 8371: 8351: 8331: 8306: 8283: 7707: 7545: 7501: 7481: 7459: 7255: 7233: 7189: 7034: 6871: 6817: 6720: 6699: 6667: 6647: 6635: 6610: 6590: 6570: 6535: 6511: 6490: 6466: 6413: 6367: 6344: 5768: 5676: 5627: 5554: 5534: 5077: 4793:, Jesus is thought of as a "figure of light" who could not be crucified. This interpretation could be taken from the 4729: 502: 178: 10536: 10411: 7765: 4952:

The presence of the Virgin Mary under the cross, mentioned in the Gospel of John, has in itself been the subject of

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Devotions based on the process of crucifixion, and the sufferings of Jesus are followed by various Christians. The

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were defined as "some sort of compensation to be rendered for the injury" with respect to the sufferings of Jesus.

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stating that there can be no doubt that this narrative of the execution in the Talmud refers to Jesus of Nazareth.

2053: 1969: 1629: 12958: 4744:(that is the body). While Jesus ascended from his body, Yaldabaoth and his followers thought Jesus to be dead. In 3366:

The placing of the nails in the hands, or the wrists is also uncertain. Some theories suggest that the Greek word

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Fotheringham, J.K. (1934). "The evidence of astronomy and technical chronology for the date of the crucifixion".

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as the "unceasing effort to stand beside the endless crosses on which the Son of God continues to be crucified."

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The Gospel of Matthew mentions an account of earthquakes, rocks splitting, and the opening of the graves of dead

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support the historicity of the crucifixion, but contend that Jesus did not foretell his own crucifixion and that

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The Nag Hammadi Library After Fifty Years: Proceedings of the 1995 Society of Biblical Literature Commemoration

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The Nag Hammadi Library After Fifty Years: Proceedings of the 1995 Society of Biblical Literature Commemoration

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Tacitus' characterization of "Christian abominations" may have been based on the rumors in Rome that during the

3185:"the crowds that had assembled for this spectacle", and "his acquaintances". The two criminals are described as 48: 23560: 23555: 23414: 22663: 22578: 22284: 22252: 22079: 21998: 21429: 21199: 21115: 21006: 20505: 20217: 19904: 19874: 19854: 19794: 19584: 19300: 18838: 18830: 18742: 18603: 18583: 18046: 17665: 17312: 17304: 17292: 17096: 15967: 15476: 15468: 14814: 14031: 11729: 11552: 11393: 10434: 6001: 5720: 4861:

which is today one of the most widely recognized Christian symbols was used from the earliest Christian times.

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Meier, John P. (2006). "How do we decide what comes from Jesus". In Dunn, James D. G.; McKnight, Scot (eds.).

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The Nag Hammadi Scriptures: The Revised and Updated Translation of Sacred Gnostic Texts Complete in One Volume

6910: 5020: 4031: 2559:, and "the wise king" of the Jews. Some scholars see little doubt that the reference to the execution of the " 23515: 23221: 22543: 22274: 22264: 22028: 21685: 21483: 21453: 21294: 21145: 21098: 20836: 19879: 19869: 19195: 19066: 18964: 18661: 18341: 17920: 17895: 17504: 15148: 14056: 13869: 13242: 11818: 11435: 11296: 10945: 4566:

In the Roman Catholic tradition this view of atonement is balanced by the duty of Roman Catholics to perform

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A number of theories to explain the circumstances of the death of Jesus on the cross have been proposed by

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The Gospel of Luke does not include the aforementioned exclamation of Jesus mentioned in Matthew and Mark.

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nor Christian. The letter refers to the retributions that followed the unjust treatment of three wise men:

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also views the crucifixion as a historical event, but provides his own explanation and background for it.

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1966; 14:30–40), Davis CT (The Crucifixion of Jesus: The passion of Christ from a medical point of view.

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Belief in the redemptive nature of Jesus's death predates the Pauline letters, to the earliest days of

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The only words of Jesus on the cross mentioned in the Mark and Matthew accounts, this is a quotation of

3189:(variously translated as robbers, rebels or thieves) and further discussed in the Gospel of Luke as the 2604:, it originally consisted of an authentic nucleus with a reference to the execution of Jesus by Pilate. 23545: 23535: 23407: 23369: 22856: 21478: 21346: 21150: 20387: 20185: 19839: 19491: 19457: 19416: 18355: 17380: 17219: 15649: 14576: 14308: 13874: 13141: 12701: 12403: 12331: 11966: 11669: 11572: 11502: 11263: 11193: 9956: 5657: 5568: 4011: 3998: 2842: 2807: 2544: 1013: 649: 7205: 5503: 4783: 3374: 2073:

as a follow-up volume to the Gospel of Luke account, and the two works must be considered as a whole.

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Rosenblatt, Samuel (December 1956). "The Crucifixion of Jesus from the Standpoint of Pharisaic Law".

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considered a number of analytical scenarios of that topic. In the 20th century, forensic pathologist

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sects, believing Jesus did not have a physical substance, denied that he was crucified. In response,

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and Andrew C. Clark, "Apostleship: Evidence from the New Testament and Early Christian Literature,"

7824: 4436:), thus highlighting the idea of victory of light over darkness, or good over evil, through Christ. 23430: 23335: 23330: 23145: 23110: 23036: 22992: 22987: 22784: 22610: 22455: 22352: 22347: 22279: 22247: 22142: 21822: 21635: 21128: 21064: 20607: 20543: 20465: 20436: 20056: 20051: 19929: 19829: 19814: 19799: 19641: 19462: 19352: 19270: 19094: 19071: 19022: 18695: 18247: 17822: 17339: 17011: 16983: 16759: 16486: 15050: 14464: 13955: 13523: 13171: 12738: 12721: 12388: 12368: 11751: 11624: 11425: 11363: 9467: 4351:

The accounts of the crucifixion and subsequent resurrection of Jesus provide a rich background for

3804:, physician William Edwards and his colleagues supported the combined cardiovascular collapse (via 3158: 3151: 3134: 2826: 2810:

argues that Christians would not have invented the painful death of their leader. The criterion of

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Paradise Reconsidered in Gnostic Mythmaking: Rethinking Sethianism in Light of the Ophite Evidence

9297: 9115: 9093: 8638: 8627: 8592: 8581: 8570: 8455: 8060: 7804: 7800: 7796: 7749: 7719: 7622: 7596: 7585: 7581: 6053: 6049: 6026: 5973: 5969: 5950: 5927: 5912: 5893: 5889: 5874: 5870: 5851: 5836: 5832: 5798: 5732: 4815: 4485:(and the water from the side of Jesus) shed at the crucifixion had a cleansing nature, similar to 3788: 3705:, and describes how these resurrected saints went into the holy city and appeared to many people. 3241: 2729:

that Jesus was not crucified and that those who thought they had killed him had mistakenly killed

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translation of "place of a skull", the explanation given in all four Gospels of the Aramaic word

2846: 2769: 2605: 2573: 2560: 1843: 1808: 1677: 1634: 1409: 1258: 789: 543: 469: 83: 16296: 4865:, who died in 165, describes it in a way that already implies its use as a symbol, although the 3378:) for hand includes the wrist and that the Romans were generally trained to place nails through 2401:

Bystander offered Jesus wine vinegar and said: "Now let's see if Elijah comes to take him down."

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being torn from top to bottom. The Synoptic Gospels also mention several witnesses, including a

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follows a number of stages based on the stages involved in the crucifixion of Jesus, while the

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New Revised Standard Version; New International Version renders "...this was a righteous man".

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citing studies by Bucklin R (The legal and medical aspects of the trial and death of Christ.

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Fair play: diversity and conflicts in early Christianity: essays in honour of Heikki Räisänen

6315: 5323: 4873: 4851: 4779: 4703: 4552: 4036: 3900: 3891: 3178: 3166: 3011: 3007: 2596: 2418: 2376: 2316: 2301: 2293: 2117: 1944: 1909: 1497: 1303: 1288: 1212: 1101: 1066: 1037: 1006: 907: 688: 678: 661: 656: 639: 431: 408: 275: 170: 18282: 8823: 7139:"Are These Nails From Jesus' Crucifixion? New Evidence Emerges, but Experts Are Unconvinced" 5140: 4505: 2802:

and his crucifixion are considered to be the two most certain historical facts about Jesus.

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focuses much more on the moral content of Jesus's teaching, and sees Jesus's death as a

3586: 2737:, or someone else in his place. They hold this belief based on various interpretations of 8: 23484: 23460: 23445: 23364: 23354: 23340: 23320: 23310: 23280: 23260: 23189: 22920: 22749: 22676: 22506: 22435: 22362: 22219: 22200: 21940: 21935: 21862: 21580: 21555: 21434: 21414: 21361: 21262: 21160: 21057: 21025: 20969: 20495: 20397: 20190: 20174: 19694: 19604: 19055: 18999: 18947: 18848: 18810: 18513: 18237: 18227: 18176: 18034: 18020: 17880: 17622: 17385: 17184: 16877: 16622: 16400: 16360: 16328: 15921: 15389: 15379: 15108: 14389: 14207: 14157: 14092: 13933: 13884: 13455: 13283: 12524: 12346: 12262: 12257: 12248: 12243: 12238: 12228: 12223: 12218: 11739: 11410: 11329: 11325: 11235: 9960: 9895: 8221: 5313: 5303: 5249: 5227: 5158: 4827: 4737: 4695: 4657: 4304: 4124: 3729: 3695: 3625: 3594: 3307: 3208: 2878: 2781: 2758: 2077: 1977: 1690: 1685: 1649: 1404: 1376: 1318: 1263: 1185: 988: 821: 727: 723: 523: 11027: 10468: 9180: 6002:"When Was Jesus Crucified? How Long on the Cross? Do the Gospels Contradict Each Other?" 4139: 3753: 23359: 23305: 23216: 23206: 22997: 22912: 22861: 22471: 22167: 21917: 21847: 21764: 21752: 21729: 21525: 21299: 21140: 21084: 21074: 20876: 20660: 20515: 20332: 19190: 19182: 18925: 18626: 18593: 18525: 18302: 18071: 17995: 17963: 17782: 17751: 17588: 17576: 17437: 17375: 17127: 16684: 16355: 16348: 16333: 16323: 16156: 16127: 16053: 15813: 15413: 15329: 15294: 15173: 15158: 15123: 15078: 14953: 14933: 14928: 14303: 14237: 14202: 14087: 14015: 13923: 13908: 13343: 13313: 13258: 13186: 12755: 12706: 12696: 12549: 12529: 12459: 12408: 12213: 12208: 12203: 12198: 12193: 12188: 12183: 12178: 12173: 11914: 11909: 11796: 11775: 11596: 11586: 11459: 11403: 11383: 11087: 11039: 10962: 10798:

The Jesus Legend: A Case for the Historical Reliability of the Synoptic Jesus Tradition

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John Masters Publishers, London, p. 5. The difference between the accounts is cited by

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Byrskog, Samuel (2011). "The Historicity of Jesus: How do we now that Jesus existed?".

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The Jesus Legend: A Case for the Historical Reliability of the Synoptic Jesus Tradition

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Tombs broke open, many dead came back to life and appeared to many people in Jerusalem.

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Bystander offered Jesus wine vinegar, others said: "Now let's see if Elijah saves him."

2149:

Jesus said to wailing women: "Don't weep for me, but for yourselves and your children."

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sometimes just tied the victims to the cross. The tradition also carries to Christian

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Early in the second century another reference to the crucifixion of Jesus was made by

60: 23396: 23275: 23181: 23105: 23004: 22977: 22896: 22844: 22794: 22553: 22521: 22516: 22511: 22501: 22491: 22440: 22092: 22011: 22006: 21960: 21900: 21769: 21565: 20950: 20871: 20809: 20475: 19711: 19036: 18916: 18683: 18639: 18471: 18376: 18151: 18137: 18111: 18096: 18000: 17985: 17915: 17905: 17774: 17706: 17607: 17571: 17467: 17106: 17006: 16797: 16725: 16530: 16190: 15905: 14482: 14441: 14287: 14177: 13990: 13960: 13945: 13928: 13889: 13841: 13328: 13201: 13176: 13151: 12393: 12373: 12299: 12289: 12284: 11989: 11877: 11824: 11696: 11562: 11482: 11373: 11358: 11353: 11313: 11268: 11253: 11160: 11134: 11104: 11056: 11000: 10981: 10966: 10929: 10912: 10908: 10877: 10858: 10839: 10820: 10801: 10782: 10762: 10742: 10619: 10591: 10390: 10369: 10333: 10312: 10291: 10228: 10030: 10009: 9939: 9919: 9899: 9875: 9855: 9835: 9789: 9762: 9742: 9719: 9699: 9679: 9659: 9624: 9601: 9542: 9515: 9479: 9335: 9247: 9196: 9164: 8964: 8939: 8777: 8754:. J.J. Toon; 1868. The Miracles Coincident With The Crucifixion, by H.P.B. pp. 86–89. 8680: 8410: 8390: 8367: 8347: 8327: 8302: 8279: 8176: 7843:"General Charles Gordon's Letters Discussing His Discovery of "Cavalry" in Jerusalem" 7816: 7703: 7647: 7561: 7541: 7521: 7497: 7477: 7455: 7395: 7316: 7251: 7229: 7209: 7185: 7061: 7030: 6893: 6867: 6813: 6789: 6734: 6716: 6695: 6663: 6643: 6631: 6606: 6586: 6566: 6531: 6507: 6486: 6462: 6429: 6409: 6386: 6363: 6340: 6319: 6269: 6241: 6214: 6183: 6152: 5764: 5716: 5693: 5672: 5623: 5598: 5550: 5530: 5507: 5462: 5456: 5431: 5401: 4961: 4748:, Peter talks with the savior whom the "priests and people" believed to have killed. 4581: 4458: 4368: 4023: 3817: 3644: 3639: 3402:. Ropes may have also been used to fasten the hands in addition to the use of nails. 3379: 3114: 2956: 2930: 2777: 2711: 2706: 2648: 2631: 2499: 2495: 2422: 1893: 1765: 1742: 1654: 1624: 1604: 1537: 1487: 1415: 1232: 1091: 1081: 894: 853: 749: 744: 701: 666: 634: 590: 393: 224: 112: 21955: 10975: 5064: 3712:

comments on the events: "Truly this man was the Son of God!" or "Truly this was the

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A Doctor at Calvary: The Passion of Out Lord Jesus Christ as Described by a Surgeon

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references to a resurrection on the third day do not require three literal nights.

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The people's rulers, soldiers (offered wine vinegar) and one criminal mocked Jesus.

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in three separate places. All four Gospels conclude with an extended narrative of

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Christians believe that Jesus's death was instrumental in restoring humankind to

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theories, assuming that the flow of water from the side of Jesus described in the

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Passersby, high priests, teachers of the law, elders and both rebels mocked Jesus.

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Humphreys, Colin J.; W. G. Waddington (December 1983). "Dating the Crucifixion".

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The wounded Word: A brief meditation on the seven sayings of Christ on the cross

3716:!". The Gospel of Luke quotes him as saying, "Certainly this man was innocent!" 3161:, some of whom are named. According to Mark, many women are present, among them 23345: 23245: 23041: 22930: 22876: 22809: 22789: 22548: 22389: 22229: 22215: 22190: 22185: 21976: 21950: 21880: 21695: 21597: 21592: 21575: 21515: 21409: 21356: 21185: 21105: 20954: 20490: 20419: 20267: 20202: 19988: 19978: 19964: 19949: 19629: 19524: 19408: 19387: 18921: 18800: 18775: 18747: 18678: 18482: 18307: 18101: 18076: 18040: 17980: 17973: 17968: 17958: 17812: 17797: 17736: 17612: 17602: 17358: 17224: 16824: 16789: 16579: 16525: 16491: 16478: 16463: 16458: 16213: 16195: 15993: 15899: 15891: 15868: 15803: 15289: 15163: 15138: 15113: 14659: 14409: 14368: 14212: 14187: 14162: 14036: 13677: 13583: 13439: 13318: 13303: 13288: 13237: 13015: 12671: 12645: 12534: 12514: 12504: 12336: 11947: 11887: 11746: 11647: 11507: 11497: 11492: 11487: 10263: 9276:

1970; 10:14–26), Mikulicz-Radeeki FV (The chest wound in the crucified Christ.

8257: 6257: 6230: 6202: 6171: 6140: 5754: 5448: 5258: 5103: 5087: 5030: 4680: 4623: 4533: 4413: 4383: 4129: 3957: 3739:(annual layers of sediment) between the disruptions in a core of sediment from 3691: 3315: 3249: 3190: 3170: 3162: 3097: 3031: 3026: 3003: 2991: 2901: 2730: 2665: 2414: 2372: 2309: 2305: 2023: 1949: 1870: 1863: 1812: 1804: 1523: 1482: 1462: 1333: 1298: 1150: 1071: 573: 355: 17675: 10558: 10528: 10435:"Programmes | From Our Own Correspondent | The Japanese Jesus trail" 8859:. Vol. 6. New York: The Christian Literature Publishing Co. p. 136. 7670: 6124:

Donald Guthrie, New Testament Introduction (Intervarsity, 1990), pp. 125, 366.

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typically hold a substitutionary view and in particular hold to the theory of

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This happened after noon on the Day of Preparation before Passover (19:14, 31)

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Jesus as a Figure in History: How Modern Historians View the Man from Galilee

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Evidence of Greek Philosophical Concepts in the Writings of Ephrem the Syrian

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in which Irenaeus refutes what he believes to be a heresy denying the death.

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there has been conflict between these two views within Western Christianity.

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In the synoptic narrative, while Jesus is hanging on the cross, the sky over

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An early non-Christian reference to the crucifixion of Jesus is likely to be

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Jesus & the Rise of Early Christianity: A History of New Testament Times

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Pilate et le gouvernement de la Judée: textes et monuments, Études bibliques

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Principles of Catholic Theology: Building Stones for a Fundamental Theology

9483: 8956: 6911:"St. Ignatius of Antioch to the Smyrnaeans (Roberts-Donaldson translation)" 6360:

Studying the Historical Jesus: Evaluations of the State of Current Research

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In an edition of the BBC Radio 4 programmed In Our Time entitled Eclipses,

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as an English name for the place is derived from the Latin word for skull (

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This happened at nine in the morning on the day of Passover (14:12, 15:25).

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Reading Matthew: A Literary and Theological Commentary on the First Gospel

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An Apology for the Bible: In a Series of Letters Addressed to Thomas Paine

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