751:
545:, a small amount of controlled water on the interior is deemed acceptable. Controlled water penetration is defined as water that penetrates beyond the inner most vertical plane of the test specimen, but has a designed means of drainage back to the exterior. AAMA Voluntary Specifications allow for controlled water penetration while the underlying ASTM E1105 test method would define such water penetration as a failure. To test the ability of a curtain wall to withstand water penetration in the field, an ASTM E1105 water spray rack system is placed on the exterior side of the test specimen, and a positive air pressure difference is applied to the system. This set up simulates a wind driven rain event on the curtain wall to check for field performance of the product and of the installation. Field quality control and assurance checks for water penetration has become the norm as builders and installers apply such quality programs to help reduce the number of water damage litigation suits against their work.
39:
474:. This means that over the span of a couple of floors, the curtain wall will expand and contract some distance, relative to its length and the temperature differential. This expansion and contraction is accounted for by cutting horizontal mullions slightly short and allowing a space between the horizontal and vertical mullions. In unitized curtain wall, a gap is left between units, which is sealed from air and water penetration by gaskets. Vertically, anchors carrying wind load only (not dead load) are slotted to account for movement. Incidentally, this slot also accounts for live load deflection and
27:
562:
are designed to limit deflection of the glass (which may break under excessive deflection), and to ensure that the glass does not come out of its pocket in the mullion. Deflection limits are also necessary to control movement at the interior of the curtain wall. Building construction may be such that there is a wall located near the mullion, and excessive deflection can cause the mullion to contact the wall and cause damage. Also, if deflection of a wall is quite noticeable, public perception may raise undue concern that the wall is not strong enough.
101:
131:
963:
999:, which is a gap between the floor and the curtain wall, is essential to slow the passage of fire and combustion gases between floors. Spandrel areas must have non-combustible insulation at the interior face of the curtain wall. Some building codes require the mullion to be wrapped in heat-retarding insulation near the ceiling to prevent the mullions from melting and spreading the fire to the floor above. The firestop at the perimeter slab edge is considered a continuation of the
120:
674:
607:
566:
given curtain wall is anchored at 12-foot (144 in) floor heights. The allowable deflection would then be 144/175 = 0.823 inches, which means the wall is allowed to deflect inward or outward a maximum of 0.823 inches at the maximum wind pressure. However, some panels require stricter movement restrictions, or certainly those that prohibit a torque-like motion.
1027:. The fire leapfrogged up the tower by shattering the glass and then consuming the aluminum framing holding the glass. Aluminum's melting temperature is 660 °C, whereas building fires can reach 1,100 °C. The melting point of aluminum is typically reached within minutes of the start of a fire.
953:
Most curtain wall glazing is fixed, meaning that there is no access to the exterior of the building except through doors. However, windows or vents can be glazed into the curtain wall system as well, to provide required ventilation or operable windows. Nearly any window type can be made to fit into a
565:
Deflection limits are typically expressed as the distance between anchor points divided by a constant number. A deflection limit of L/175 is common in curtain wall specifications, based on experience with deflection limits that are unlikely to cause damage to the glass held by the mullion. Say that a
940:
is provided in an area where mechanical equipment located inside the building requires ventilation or fresh air to operate. They can also serve as a means of allowing outside air to filter into the building to take advantage of favorable climatic conditions and minimize the usage of energy-consuming
561:
in an aluminum mullion compared to a similar steel section under a given load. Building specifications set deflection limits for perpendicular (wind-induced) and in-plane (dead load-induced) deflections. These deflection limits are not imposed due to strength capacities of the mullions. Rather, they
172:
timber structures effectively had an early version of curtain walls, for their frames supported loads that allowed the walls themselves to serve other functions, such as keeping weather out and allowing light in. When iron began to be used extensively in buildings in late 18th-century
Britain, such
659:
are often referred to as "high-performance" curtain walls. While these curtain wall systems are more energy-efficient than older, single-glazed versions, they are still significantly less efficient than opaque (solid) wall construction. For example, nearly all curtain wall systems, thermally-broken
355:
principle theorizes that equilibrium of air pressure between the outside and inside of the "rainscreen" prevents water penetration into the building. For example, the glass is captured between an inner and an outer gasket in a space called the glazing rebate. The glazing rebate is ventilated to the
1058:
Stainless steel curtain walls require no coatings, and embossed, as opposed to abrasively finished, surfaces maintain their original appearance indefinitely without cleaning or other maintenance. Some specially textured matte stainless steel surface finishes are hydrophobic and resist airborne and
573:
required to keep deflection limits under the specification. Another way to limit deflections in a given section is to add steel reinforcement to the inside tube of the mullion. Since steel deflects at one-third the rate of aluminum, the steel will resist much of the load at a lower cost or smaller
494:
Since the curtain wall is at the exterior of the building, it becomes the first line of defense in a bomb attack. As such, blast resistant curtain walls are designed to withstand such forces without compromising the interior of the building to protect its occupants. Since blast loads are very high
389:
is defined as the weight of structural elements and the permanent features on the structure. In the case of curtain walls, this load is made up of the weight of the mullions, anchors and other structural components of the curtain wall, as well as the weight of the infill material. Additional dead
1054:
thermoset coatings have good resistance to environmental degradation and require only periodic cleaning. Recoating with an air-dry fluoropolymer coating is possible but requires special surface preparation and is not as durable as the baked-on original coating. Anodized aluminum frames cannot be
329:
Very similar to a stick system, a ladder system has mullions which can be split and then either snapped or screwed together consisting of a half box and plate. This allows sections of curtain wall to be fabricated in a shop, effectively reducing the time spent installing the system onsite. The
1042:
Curtain walls and perimeter sealants require maintenance to maximize service life. Perimeter sealants, properly designed and installed, have a typical service life of 10 to 15 years. Removal and replacement of perimeter sealants require meticulous surface preparation and proper detailing.
338:
Unitized curtain walls entail factory fabrication and assembly of panels and may include factory glazing. These completed units are installed on the building structure to form the building enclosure. Unitized curtain wall has the advantages of: speed; lower field installation costs; and
598:. This often affects the selection of materials and sizes for design of the system. The allowable bending strength for certain aluminum alloys, such as those typically used in curtain wall framing, approaches the allowable bending strength of steel alloys used in building construction.
779:. 1/4 inch glass is typically used only in spandrel areas, while insulating glass is used for the rest of the building (sometimes spandrel glass is specified as insulating glass as well). The 1 inch insulation glass is typically made up of two 1/4-inch lites of glass with a
261:
or glazing tape were substituted for the glazing compound. Some designs included an outer cap to hold the glass in place and to protect the integrity of the seals. The landmarks of curtain wall design as it came to dominate construction were the very different systems used by the
490:
in
Oklahoma City, Oklahoma, has spawned much of the current research and mandates in regards to building response to blast loads. Currently, all new federal buildings in the U.S. and all U.S. embassies built on foreign soil must have some provision for resistance to bomb blasts.
442:
and wind induced building sway because of the space provided between the glazing infill and the mullion. In tests, standard curtain wall systems are typically able to withstand up to three inches (76 mm) of relative floor movement without glass breakage or water leakage.
1011:
compartments to avoid fire and smoke migrations beyond each engaged compartment. A curtain wall by its very nature prevents the completion of the compartment (or envelope). The use of fire sprinklers has been shown to mitigate this matter. As such, unless the building is
295:
offer the unique advantage of being able to be easily extruded into nearly any shape required for design and aesthetic purposes. Today, the design complexity and shapes available are nearly limitless. Custom shapes can be designed and manufactured with relative ease. The
879:
Thin blocks (3 to 4 inches (76 to 102 millimetres)) of stone can be inset within a curtain wall system. The type of stone used is limited only by the strength of the stone and the ability to manufacture it in the proper shape and size. Common stone types used are:
216:
as the earliest such building. The extensive glass walls allowed light to penetrate further into the building, utilizing more floor space and reducing lighting costs. Oriel
Chambers comprises 43,000 sq ft (4,000 m) set over five floors without an
210:, are characterised by their extensive use of glass in their facades. Toward the courtyards they boasted metal-framed glass curtain walls, which makes them two of the world's first buildings to include this architectural feature. Oriel Chambers is listed in the
418:
study is performed on large or unusually-shaped buildings. A scale model of the building and the surrounding vicinity is built and placed in a wind tunnel to determine the wind pressures acting on the structure in question. These studies take into account
577:
Deflection in curtain wall mullions also differs from deflection of the building structure, whether concrete, steel, or timber. Curtain wall anchors must be designed to allow differential movement between the building structure and the curtain wall.
161:
to support large loads. The exterior walls could be non-load bearing, and thus much lighter and more open than load-bearing walls of the past. This gave way to increased use of glass as an exterior façade, and the modern-day curtain wall was born.
276:'s curtain wall is one of the most important aspects of his architectural design. Mies first began prototyping the curtain wall in his high-rise residential building designs along Chicago's lakeshore, achieving the look of a curtain wall at
280:. He finally perfected the curtain wall at 900–910 Lake Shore Drive, where the curtain is an autonomous aluminum and glass skin. After 900–910, Mies's curtain wall appeared on all of his subsequent high-rise building designs, including the
633:
of the curtain wall. However, since the thermal break interrupts the aluminum mullion, the overall moment of inertia of the mullion is reduced and must be accounted for in the structural analysis and deflection analysis of the system.
737:
refers to the large panels that are inserted into the curtain wall between mullions. Infills are typically glass but may be made up of nearly any exterior building element. Some common infills include metal panels, louvers, and
521:
is the air which passes through the curtain wall from the exterior to the interior of the building. The air is infiltrated through the gaskets, through imperfect joinery between the horizontal and vertical mullions, through
405:
blowing on the building. Wind pressure is resisted by the curtain wall system since it envelops and protects the building. Wind loads vary greatly throughout the world, with the largest wind loads being near the coast in
527:
225:(1886) features a thin, non-load-bearing copper skin. Extensive use of glass became required for large factory buildings to allow light for manufacture, sometimes making it seem like they had all glass facades.
458:
are not typically an issue in curtain walls, since curtain walls are designed to be vertical or slightly inclined. If the slope of a wall exceeds 20 degrees or so, these loads may need to be considered.
356:
exterior so that the pressure on the inner and outer sides of the outer gasket is the same. When the pressure is equal across this gasket, water cannot be drawn through joints or defects in the gasket.
637:
Thermal conductivity of the curtain wall system is important because of heat loss through the wall, which affects the heating and cooling costs of the building. On a poorly performing curtain wall,
621:
of heat. This translates into high heat loss through aluminum (or steel) curtain wall mullions. There are several ways to compensate for this heat loss, the most common way being the addition of
871:
construction (providing a dark enclosed space behind the transparent or translucent glass). Shadow box construction creates a perception of depth behind the glass that is sometimes desired.
300:
curtain wall in
California, designed by architectural firm Hornberger and Worstel and developed by JMI Realty, is an example of a unitized curtain-wall system with integrated sunshades.
50:
is an exterior covering of a building in which the outer walls are non-structural, instead serving to protect the interior of the building from the elements. Because the curtain wall
146:, supporting much or all of the load of the entire structure. The nature of the materials resulted in inherent limits to a building's height and the maximum size of window openings.
1059:
rain-borne pollutants. This has been valuable in the
American Southwest and in the Mideast for avoiding dust, as well as avoiding soot and smoke staining in polluted urban areas.
945:
systems. Curtain wall systems can be adapted to accept most types of louver systems to maintain the same architectural sightlines and style while providing desired functionality.
73:
within the building. However, glass also makes the effects of light on visual comfort and solar heat gain in a building more difficult to control. Other common infills include
750:
920:, and panels consisting of metal sheets bonded to rigid insulation, with or without an inner metal sheet to create a sandwich panel. Other opaque panel materials include
1393:
590:) available to a particular material is not related to its material stiffness (the material property governing deflection); it is a separate criterion in curtain wall
65:
Curtain walls may be designed as "systems" integrating frame, wall panel, and weatherproofing materials. Steel frames have largely given way to aluminum extrusions.
569:
Deflection in mullions is controlled by different shapes and depths of curtain wall members. The depth of a given curtain wall system is usually controlled by the
530:(AAMA) is an industry trade group in the U.S. that has developed voluntary specifications regarding acceptable levels of air infiltration through a curtain wall.
510:, which is meant to break but not separate from the mullions. Similar technology is used in hurricane-prone areas for impact protection from wind-borne debris.
1452:
1447:
1016:, fire may still travel up the curtain wall, if the glass on the exposed floor is shattered from heat, causing flames to lick up the outside of the building.
343:
within an interior climate-controlled environment. The economic benefits are typically realized on large projects or in areas of high field labor rates.
126:, Liverpool, 1866. Extensive use is made of floor-to-ceiling glass, enabling light to penetrate deeper into the building, thus maximizing floor space.
1240:
928:. Terracotta curtain wall panels were first used in Europe, but only a few manufacturers produce high quality modern terracotta curtain wall panels.
486:
Accidental explosions and terrorist threats have brought on increased concern for the fragility of a curtain wall system in relation to blast loads.
234:
867:
glass is used in areas to hide a column or spandrel beam or shear wall behind the curtain wall. Another method of hiding spandrel areas is through
622:
229:
541:
is defined as water passing from the exterior of the building to the interior of the curtain wall system. Sometimes, depending on the building
378:
The loads imposed on the curtain wall are transferred to the building structure through the anchors which attach the mullions to the building.
364:
A curtain wall system must be designed to handle all loads imposed on it as well as keep air and water from penetrating the building envelope.
1030:
Fireman knock-out glazing panels are often required for venting and emergency access from the exterior. Knock-out panels are generally fully
69:
is typically used for infill because it can reduce construction costs, provide an architecturally pleasing look, and allow natural light to
695:
863:
glass in a curtain wall. Spandrel or vision glass may also contain translucent glass, which could be for security or aesthetic purposes.
317:) between floors vertically and between vertical members horizontally. Framing members may be fabricated in a shop, but installation and
761:
is by far the most common curtain wall glazing type. It can be manufactured in an almost infinite combination of color, thickness, and
1367:
1050:. Care must be taken when cleaning areas around anodized material as some cleaning agents will destroy the finish. Factory applied
1129:
1004:
1401:
1055:"re-anodized" in place but can be cleaned and protected by proprietary clear coatings to improve appearance and durability.
1003:
of the floor slab. The curtain wall itself, however, is not ordinarily required to have a rating. This causes a quandary as
330:
drawbacks of using such a system is reduced structural performance and visible joint lines down the length of each mullion.
38:
617:
Relative to other building components, aluminum has a high heat transfer coefficient, meaning that aluminum is a very good
88:
and movement and design requirements such as thermal expansion and contraction; seismic requirements; water diversion; and
277:
1438:
1397:
1326:
721:
1154:
703:
805:
values. In Europe, triple-pane insulating glass infill is now common. In
Scandinavia, the first curtain walls with
471:
34:, China, demonstrating the relationship between the inner load-bearing structure and an exterior glass curtain wall
1489:
142:
Historically, buildings were constructed of timber, masonry, or a combination of both. Their exterior walls were
84:
Unlike storefront systems, curtain wall systems are designed to span multiple floors, taking into consideration
1289:"Minimum Design Loads for Buildings and Other Structures," American Society of Civil Engineers, 2005; Chapter 7
1280:"Minimum Design Loads for Buildings and Other Structures", American Society of Civil Engineers, 2005; Chapter 6
699:
1104:
1479:
917:
904:. To reduce weight and improve strength, the natural stone may be attached to an aluminum honeycomb backing.
185:
were built, the building blocks of structural understanding were laid for the development of curtain walls.
1034:
glass to allow full fracturing of the panel into small pieces and relatively safe removal from the opening.
20:
1353:
High
Performance Window Systems and their Effect on Perimeter Space Commercial Building Energy Performance
1247:
1020:
1019:
Falling glass can endanger pedestrians, firefighters and firehoses below. An example of this is the 1988
263:
641:
may form on the interior of the mullions. This could cause damage to adjacent interior trim and walls.
70:
913:
58:
beyond its own dead load weight, it can be made of lightweight materials. The wall transfers lateral
1298:"Design of Buildings to Resist Progressive Collapse," UFC 4-023-03, U.S. Department of Defense, 2009
921:
684:
558:
273:
212:
1307:
Testing is typically conducted by an independent third party agency using the ASTM E-783 standard.
1457:
1024:
688:
390:
loads imposed on the curtain wall may include sunshades or signage attached to the curtain wall.
318:
207:
115:
and built in 1864, it is the world's first building to feature a metal-framed glass curtain wall.
112:
62:
upon it to the main building structure through connections at floors or columns of the building.
660:
or otherwise, have a U-value of 0.2 or higher, which is equivalent to an R-value of 5 or lower.
254:
was attached to the mullions with asbestos- or fiberglass-modified glazing compound. Eventually
1474:
1083:
1000:
434:
in a curtain wall system are limited to the interstory drift induced on the building during an
174:
1484:
1108:
1013:
848:
817:
802:
570:
554:
487:
313:
The vast majority of ground-floor curtain walls are installed as long pieces (referred to as
649:
630:
496:
297:
251:
8:
1031:
595:
475:
154:
66:
55:
26:
1218:
1246:(Press release). Wausau, Wisconsin: Wausau Window and Wall Systems. n.d. Archived from
1200:
645:
626:
182:
89:
812:
Larger thicknesses are typically employed for buildings or areas with higher thermal,
1422:
McGuire, Michael F., "Stainless Steel for Design
Engineers", ASM International, 2008.
1332:
1322:
1192:
1078:
1073:
813:
806:
656:
591:
222:
143:
85:
995:
979:
901:
881:
821:
776:
762:
587:
281:
150:
59:
130:
1442:
1351:
1241:"Omni San Diego Hotel offers breathtaking Bay views through Wausau's curtainwall"
962:
618:
507:
420:
373:
340:
228:
An early example of an all-steel curtain wall used in the classical style is the
100:
789:
inch (13 mm) airspace. The air inside is usually atmospheric air, but some
625:. These are barriers between exterior metal and interior metal, usually made of
912:
Metal panels can take various forms including stainless steel, aluminum plate;
542:
292:
204:
192:
188:
165:
135:
123:
104:
916:
consisting of two thin aluminum sheets sandwiching a thin plastic interlayer;
495:
loads with short durations, the curtain wall response should be analyzed in a
1468:
1196:
1051:
411:
169:
1435:
1336:
470:
are induced in a curtain wall system because aluminum has a relatively high
1068:
983:
739:
638:
610:
178:
74:
1158:
971:
967:
852:
758:
415:
267:
1204:
423:
around corners and the effects of surrounding topography and buildings.
221:, which had only recently been invented and was not yet widespread. The
925:
893:
439:
435:
352:
742:
panels. Infills are also referred to as spandrels or spandrel panels.
557:
is about one-third that of steel. This translates to three times more
438:. In most situations, the curtain wall is able to naturally withstand
1047:
897:
790:
523:
455:
407:
288:
196:
119:
108:
673:
553:
One of the disadvantages of using aluminum for mullions is that its
51:
990:
975:
765:. For commercial construction, the two most common thicknesses are
255:
218:
885:
798:
500:
258:
247:
200:
158:
937:
889:
503:
testing performed prior to design completion and installation.
240:
78:
1183:
Yeomans, David (1998). "The pre-history of the curtain wall".
824:. In residential construction, thicknesses commonly used are
794:
31:
754:
Glass curtain wall on the hotel Andaz in
Singapore at sunset
92:
for cost-effective heating, cooling, and interior lighting.
942:
606:
402:
1436:
European
Commission's portal for efficient Curtain Walling
629:(PVC). These breaks provide a significant decrease in the
401:
is a normal force acting on the building as the result of
1458:
Understanding Curtain Wall & Window Wall differences
655:
Thermally-broken mullions with double- or triple-glazed
1368:"BSD-006: Can Highly Glazed Building Façades Be Green?"
775:
inch (6.4 mm) monolithic and 1 inch (25 mm)
19:
For the defensive walls around castles and towns, see
1147:
246:
Some of the first curtain walls were made with steel
42:
Curtain walls are also used on residential structures
488:
The bombing of the Alfred P. Murrah Federal Building
648:is provided in spandrel areas to provide a higher
1394:"Technical Report, Interstate Bank Building Fire"
414:specify the required design wind loads. Often, a
351:A common feature in curtain wall technology, the
1466:
1271:2006 International Building Code, Section 1602.1
528:American Architectural Manufacturers Association
478:in the floor slabs of the building structure.
1319:Window systems for high-performance buildings
1448:EN 13830: Curtain Walling - Product Standard
1316:
855:, or opaque, or in varying degrees thereof.
702:. Unsourced material may be challenged and
410:-prone regions. For each project location,
1386:
820:requirements, such as laboratory areas or
1178:
1176:
1046:Aluminum frames are generally painted or
1037:
722:Learn how and when to remove this message
303:
1350:Lee, Ivan Yun Tong (29 September 2010).
961:
749:
605:
129:
118:
99:
37:
25:
16:Outer non-structural walls of a building
1453:EN 13119: Curtain Walling - Terminology
1182:
1130:"Earliest curtain wall office building"
801:, may be used in order to offer better
346:
321:is typically performed at the jobsite.
1467:
1356:(MASc thesis). University of Waterloo.
1173:
1005:compartmentalization (fire protection)
239:department store on Leipziger Straße,
149:The development and widespread use of
1105:"Britain's top 10 maverick buildings"
526:, and through imperfect sealing. The
291:for mullions began during the 1970s.
111:, England. Designed by the architect
1211:
1102:
948:
844:inch (16 mm) insulating glass.
700:adding citations to reliable sources
667:
533:
506:Blast resistant glazing consists of
243:, built in 1901 (since demolished).
1349:
601:
513:
333:
278:860-880 Lake Shore Drive Apartments
13:
1321:. New York: W.W. Norton & Co.
834:inch (3.2 mm) monolithic and
359:
14:
1501:
1429:
1398:United States Fire Administration
970:insulation in point contact with
324:
81:, and operable windows or vents.
1157:. Oriel Chambers. Archived from
672:
472:coefficient of thermal expansion
308:
287:The widespread use of aluminium
1416:
1360:
1343:
1310:
1301:
1292:
874:
613:forms on the glass curtain wall
499:load analysis, with full-scale
1283:
1274:
1265:
1233:
1122:
1096:
957:
177:, and later when buildings of
1:
1103:Cuss, Helena (1 April 2016).
1089:
548:
1372:Building Science Corporation
586:Strength (or maximum usable
21:Curtain wall (fortification)
7:
1221:. janwillemsen. August 2013
1062:
1021:First Interstate Tower fire
847:Glass may be used which is
581:
264:United Nations Headquarters
10:
1506:
1317:John Carmody, ed. (2004).
931:
663:
371:
95:
18:
1441:23 September 2015 at the
914:aluminum composite panels
907:
203:, by local architect and
157:allowed relatively small
1155:"Oriel Chambers History"
1134:Guinness Book of Records
1007:is typically based upon
922:fiber-reinforced plastic
859:glass usually refers to
745:
367:
274:Ludwig Mies van der Rohe
213:Guinness Book of Records
1025:Los Angeles, California
1490:Architectural elements
1084:Copper in architecture
1038:Maintenance and repair
1001:fire-resistance rating
987:
755:
614:
571:area moment of inertia
304:Systems and principles
195:(1866), both built in
175:Ditherington Flax Mill
139:
134:Glass curtain wall of
127:
116:
43:
35:
30:A building project in
1109:Royal Academy of Arts
965:
954:curtain wall system.
803:thermal transmittance
753:
609:
555:modulus of elasticity
133:
122:
103:
41:
29:
1480:Building engineering
1185:Construction History
986:without topcaulking.
974:backban. Incomplete
918:copper wall cladding
696:improve this section
652:at these locations.
631:thermal conductivity
347:Rainscreen principle
298:Omni San Diego Hotel
252:polished plate glass
1374:. 11 September 2008
1161:on 23 November 2021
996:perimeter slab edge
980:perimeter slab edge
270:completed in 1952.
155:reinforced concrete
988:
818:sound transmission
756:
627:polyvinyl chloride
615:
183:The Crystal Palace
181:and glass such as
140:
128:
117:
90:thermal efficiency
44:
36:
1404:on 4 October 2010
1079:Quadruple glazing
1074:Insulated glazing
949:Windows and vents
822:recording studios
814:relative humidity
809:have been built.
732:
731:
724:
539:Water penetration
534:Water penetration
223:Statue of Liberty
1497:
1423:
1420:
1414:
1413:
1411:
1409:
1400:. Archived from
1390:
1384:
1383:
1381:
1379:
1364:
1358:
1357:
1347:
1341:
1340:
1314:
1308:
1305:
1299:
1296:
1290:
1287:
1281:
1278:
1272:
1269:
1263:
1262:
1260:
1258:
1252:
1245:
1237:
1231:
1230:
1228:
1226:
1215:
1209:
1208:
1180:
1171:
1170:
1168:
1166:
1151:
1145:
1144:
1142:
1140:
1126:
1120:
1119:
1117:
1115:
1100:
902:engineered stone
882:calcium silicate
843:
842:
838:
833:
832:
828:
788:
787:
783:
777:insulating glass
774:
773:
769:
727:
720:
716:
713:
707:
676:
668:
602:Thermal criteria
519:Air infiltration
514:Air infiltration
334:Unitized systems
282:Seagram Building
238:
151:structural steel
77:, metal panels,
71:penetrate deeper
1505:
1504:
1500:
1499:
1498:
1496:
1495:
1494:
1465:
1464:
1443:Wayback Machine
1432:
1427:
1426:
1421:
1417:
1407:
1405:
1392:
1391:
1387:
1377:
1375:
1366:
1365:
1361:
1348:
1344:
1329:
1315:
1311:
1306:
1302:
1297:
1293:
1288:
1284:
1279:
1275:
1270:
1266:
1256:
1254:
1253:on 4 March 2016
1250:
1243:
1239:
1238:
1234:
1224:
1222:
1217:
1216:
1212:
1181:
1174:
1164:
1162:
1153:
1152:
1148:
1138:
1136:
1128:
1127:
1123:
1113:
1111:
1101:
1097:
1092:
1065:
1040:
960:
951:
934:
910:
877:
840:
836:
835:
830:
826:
825:
785:
781:
780:
771:
767:
766:
748:
728:
717:
711:
708:
693:
677:
666:
604:
584:
551:
536:
516:
508:laminated glass
421:vortex shedding
376:
374:Structural load
370:
362:
360:Design concerns
349:
341:quality control
336:
327:
311:
306:
293:Aluminum alloys
232:
98:
56:structural load
24:
17:
12:
11:
5:
1503:
1493:
1492:
1487:
1482:
1477:
1461:
1460:
1455:
1450:
1445:
1431:
1430:External links
1428:
1425:
1424:
1415:
1385:
1359:
1342:
1327:
1309:
1300:
1291:
1282:
1273:
1264:
1232:
1210:
1172:
1146:
1121:
1094:
1093:
1091:
1088:
1087:
1086:
1081:
1076:
1071:
1064:
1061:
1039:
1036:
959:
956:
950:
947:
933:
930:
909:
906:
876:
873:
807:quadruple-pane
747:
744:
730:
729:
680:
678:
671:
665:
662:
623:thermal breaks
603:
600:
583:
580:
550:
547:
543:specifications
535:
532:
515:
512:
484:
483:
465:
464:
449:
448:
429:
428:
412:building codes
396:
395:
384:
383:
372:Main article:
369:
366:
361:
358:
348:
345:
335:
332:
326:
325:Ladder systems
323:
310:
307:
305:
302:
230:Kaufhaus Tietz
205:civil engineer
193:16 Cook Street
189:Oriel Chambers
170:balloon framed
136:Bauhaus Dessau
124:16 Cook Street
105:Oriel Chambers
97:
94:
15:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
1502:
1491:
1488:
1486:
1483:
1481:
1478:
1476:
1475:Types of wall
1473:
1472:
1470:
1463:
1459:
1456:
1454:
1451:
1449:
1446:
1444:
1440:
1437:
1434:
1433:
1419:
1403:
1399:
1395:
1389:
1373:
1369:
1363:
1355:
1354:
1346:
1338:
1334:
1330:
1328:0-393-73121-9
1324:
1320:
1313:
1304:
1295:
1286:
1277:
1268:
1249:
1242:
1236:
1220:
1214:
1206:
1202:
1198:
1194:
1190:
1186:
1179:
1177:
1160:
1156:
1150:
1135:
1131:
1125:
1110:
1106:
1099:
1095:
1085:
1082:
1080:
1077:
1075:
1072:
1070:
1067:
1066:
1060:
1056:
1053:
1052:fluoropolymer
1049:
1044:
1035:
1033:
1028:
1026:
1022:
1017:
1015:
1010:
1006:
1002:
998:
997:
992:
985:
981:
977:
973:
969:
964:
955:
946:
944:
939:
929:
927:
923:
919:
915:
905:
903:
899:
895:
891:
887:
883:
872:
870:
866:
862:
858:
854:
850:
845:
823:
819:
815:
810:
808:
804:
800:
796:
792:
778:
764:
760:
752:
743:
741:
736:
726:
723:
715:
705:
701:
697:
691:
690:
686:
681:This section
679:
675:
670:
669:
661:
658:
653:
651:
647:
642:
640:
635:
632:
628:
624:
620:
612:
608:
599:
597:
593:
589:
579:
575:
572:
567:
563:
560:
556:
546:
544:
540:
531:
529:
525:
520:
511:
509:
504:
502:
498:
492:
489:
481:
480:
479:
477:
473:
469:
468:Thermal loads
462:
461:
460:
457:
453:
446:
445:
444:
441:
437:
433:
432:Seismic loads
426:
425:
424:
422:
417:
413:
409:
404:
400:
393:
392:
391:
388:
381:
380:
379:
375:
365:
357:
354:
344:
342:
331:
322:
320:
316:
309:Stick systems
301:
299:
294:
290:
285:
284:in New York.
283:
279:
275:
271:
269:
265:
260:
257:
253:
249:
244:
242:
236:
231:
226:
224:
220:
215:
214:
209:
206:
202:
198:
194:
190:
186:
184:
180:
176:
171:
167:
166:Post-and-beam
163:
160:
156:
152:
147:
145:
137:
132:
125:
121:
114:
110:
106:
102:
93:
91:
87:
86:building sway
82:
80:
76:
72:
68:
63:
61:
57:
53:
49:
40:
33:
28:
22:
1485:Construction
1462:
1418:
1406:. Retrieved
1402:the original
1388:
1376:. Retrieved
1371:
1362:
1352:
1345:
1318:
1312:
1303:
1294:
1285:
1276:
1267:
1255:. Retrieved
1248:the original
1235:
1223:. Retrieved
1213:
1188:
1184:
1163:. Retrieved
1159:the original
1149:
1137:. Retrieved
1133:
1124:
1112:. Retrieved
1098:
1069:Mullion wall
1057:
1045:
1041:
1029:
1018:
1008:
994:
991:Firestopping
989:
966:Combustible
952:
935:
911:
878:
875:Stone veneer
868:
864:
860:
856:
846:
811:
757:
740:photovoltaic
734:
733:
718:
709:
694:Please help
682:
654:
643:
639:condensation
636:
616:
611:Condensation
585:
576:
568:
564:
552:
538:
537:
518:
517:
505:
493:
485:
467:
466:
463:Thermal load
451:
450:
431:
430:
427:Seismic load
398:
397:
386:
385:
377:
363:
350:
337:
328:
314:
312:
286:
272:
245:
227:
211:
187:
179:wrought iron
164:
148:
144:load-bearing
141:
83:
75:stone veneer
64:
48:curtain wall
47:
45:
1408:21 November
1257:11 December
1165:11 December
1014:sprinklered
972:sheet metal
968:polystyrene
958:Fire safety
857:Transparent
853:translucent
849:transparent
791:inert gases
759:Float glass
416:wind tunnel
268:Lever House
233: [
208:Peter Ellis
191:(1864) and
113:Peter Ellis
54:carries no
1469:Categories
1378:9 November
1090:References
982:, made of
926:terracotta
924:(FRP) and
894:travertine
869:shadow box
793:, such as
712:April 2015
646:insulation
559:deflection
549:Deflection
524:weep holes
482:Blast load
456:live loads
452:Snow loads
436:earthquake
353:rainscreen
289:extrusions
250:, and the
153:and later
60:wind loads
1219:"History"
1197:0267-7768
898:limestone
683:does not
619:conductor
447:Snow load
408:hurricane
399:Wind load
394:Wind load
387:Dead load
382:Dead load
197:Liverpool
109:Liverpool
1439:Archived
1337:52540181
1225:15 March
1205:41601861
1139:21 April
1063:See also
1048:anodized
1032:tempered
984:rockwool
976:firestop
596:analysis
582:Strength
266:and the
259:sealants
256:silicone
248:mullions
219:elevator
993:at the
978:in the
932:Louvers
886:granite
839:⁄
829:⁄
799:krypton
784:⁄
770:⁄
763:opacity
704:removed
689:sources
664:Infills
650:R-value
574:depth.
501:mock-up
497:dynamic
440:seismic
319:glazing
201:England
159:columns
96:History
79:louvres
1335:
1325:
1203:
1195:
1191:: 74.
1114:8 July
1009:closed
938:louver
908:Panels
900:, and
890:marble
865:Opaque
861:vision
735:Infill
644:Rigid
592:design
588:stress
315:sticks
241:Berlin
173:as at
138:, 1926
52:façade
1251:(PDF)
1244:(PDF)
1201:JSTOR
816:, or
795:argon
746:Glass
476:creep
368:Loads
237:]
67:Glass
32:Wuhan
1410:2009
1380:2022
1333:OCLC
1323:ISBN
1259:2023
1227:2014
1193:ISSN
1167:2023
1141:2024
1116:2022
943:HVAC
687:any
685:cite
657:IGUs
594:and
454:and
403:wind
168:and
1023:in
797:or
698:by
1471::
1396:.
1370:.
1331:.
1199:.
1189:14
1187:.
1175:^
1132:.
1107:.
936:A
896:,
892:,
888:,
884:,
851:,
235:de
199:,
107:,
46:A
1412:.
1382:.
1339:.
1261:.
1229:.
1207:.
1169:.
1143:.
1118:.
841:8
837:5
831:8
827:1
786:2
782:1
772:4
768:1
725:)
719:(
714:)
710:(
706:.
692:.
23:.
Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License. Additional terms may apply.
