Cyanobacteria - Knowledge

6971:. The calcium hypochlorite amount needed varies depending on the cyanobacteria bloom, and treatment is needed periodically. According to the Department of Agriculture Australia, a rate of 12 g of 70% material in 1000 L of water is often effective to treat a bloom. Copper sulfate is also used commonly, but no longer recommended by the Australian Department of Agriculture, as it kills livestock, crustaceans, and fish. Cupricide is a chelated copper product that eliminates blooms with lower toxicity risks than copper sulfate. Dosage recommendations vary from 190 mL to 4.8 L per 1000 m. Ferric alum treatments at the rate of 50 mg/L will reduce algae blooms. Simazine, which is also a herbicide, will continue to kill blooms for several days after an application. Simazine is marketed at different strengths (25, 50, and 90%), the recommended amount needed for one cubic meter of water per product is 25% product 8 mL; 50% product 4 mL; or 90% product 2.2 mL. 4314: 2496:, which decorate the surface of cyanobacteria, also play a role in forming blooms. These retractable and adhesive protein fibres are important for motility, adhesion to substrates and DNA uptake. The formation of blooms may require both type IV pili and Synechan – for example, the pili may help to export the polysaccharide outside the cell. Indeed, the activity of these protein fibres may be connected to the production of extracellular polysaccharides in filamentous cyanobacteria. A more obvious answer would be that pili help to build the aggregates by binding the cells with each other or with the extracellular polysaccharide. As with other kinds of bacteria, certain components of the pili may allow cyanobacteria from the same species to recognise each other and make initial contacts, which are then stabilised by building a mass of extracellular polysaccharide. 96: 2521:. Evidence supports the existence of controlled cellular demise in cyanobacteria, and various forms of cell death have been described as a response to biotic and abiotic stresses. However, cell death research in cyanobacteria is a relatively young field and understanding of the underlying mechanisms and molecular machinery underpinning this fundamental process remains largely elusive. However, reports on cell death of marine and freshwater cyanobacteria indicate this process has major implications for the ecology of microbial communities/ Different forms of cell demise have been observed in cyanobacteria under several stressful conditions, and cell death has been suggested to play a key role in developmental processes, such as akinete and heterocyst differentiation, as well as strategy for population survival. 2513:

content exceeds the antioxidative capacity of the cell (mediated mostly by an enzymatic system involving a superoxide dismutase (SOD), catalase (CAT), and glutathione peroxidase (GPX)) and causes molecular damage. (3) The damage further activates the caspase-like activity, and apoptosis-like death is initiated. Simultaneously, intracellular MCs begin to be released into the extracellular environment. (4) The extracellular MCs have been significantly released from dead Microcystis cells. (5) They act on the remaining Microcystis cells, and exert extracellular roles, for example, extracellular MCs can increase the production of extracellular polysaccharides (EPS) that are involved in colony formation. Eventually, the colonial form improves the survival of the remaining cells under stressful conditions.

3943: 7125: 1852: 2216: 7110: 2665: 1202: 1997: 3977: 6691: 2079: 2446: 2573: 7094: 2396: 1156: 2350: 4358: 4229: 1515: 3955: 2257: 3928: 20545: 19818: 1389: 2406: 19458: 120: 902: 1503: 1277: 826: 21112: 4841: 2509: 2311:, are ubiquitously distributed and are the most abundant photosynthetic organisms on Earth, accounting for a quarter of all carbon fixed in marine ecosystems. In contrast to free-living marine cyanobacteria, some cyanobionts are known to be responsible for nitrogen fixation rather than carbon fixation in the host. However, the physiological functions of most cyanobionts remain unknown. Cyanobionts have been found in numerous protist groups, including 1172: 1296: 2421:

concentrations in areas adjacent to clumps. Oxic media increase the reversal frequencies of any filaments that begin to leave the clumps, thereby reducing the net migration away from the clump. This enables the persistence of the initial clumps over short timescales; (b) Spatial coupling between photosynthesis and respiration in clumps. Oxygen produced by cyanobacteria diffuses into the overlying medium or is used for aerobic respiration.

6793: 6264: 4209: 7141: 2547: 19246: 14250: 12875: 12692: 11759: 11687: 9157: 8686: 8225: 8085: 2459:(upper panel; and proposed for cyanobacteria (lower panel). Cells exposed to extreme injury die in an uncontrollable manner, reflecting the loss of structural integrity. This type of cell death is called "accidental cell death" (ACD). “Regulated cell death (RCD)” is encoded by a genetic pathway that can be modulated by genetic or pharmacologic interventions. 1856:

shifting environmental conditions can result in community dysbiosis, where the growth of opportunistic species can lead to harmful blooms and toxin production with negative consequences to human health, livestock and fish stocks. Positive interactions are indicated by arrows; negative interactions are indicated by closed circles on the ecological model.

920:. They are the only oxygenic photosynthetic prokaryotes, and prosper in diverse and extreme habitats. They are among the oldest organisms on Earth with fossil records dating back at least 2.1 billion years. Since then, cyanobacteria have been essential players in the Earth's ecosystems. Planktonic cyanobacteria are a fundamental component of 1142:, that travel away from the main biomass to bud and form new colonies elsewhere. The cells in a hormogonium are often thinner than in the vegetative state, and the cells on either end of the motile chain may be tapered. To break away from the parent colony, a hormogonium often must tear apart a weaker cell in a filament, called a necridium. 2069:, oxygen-producing cyanobacteria created the conditions in the planet's early atmosphere that directed the evolution of aerobic metabolism and eukaryotic photosynthesis. Cyanobacteria fulfill vital ecological functions in the world's oceans, being important contributors to global carbon and nitrogen budgets." – Stewart and Falconer 7144: 7143: 7149: 7147: 7142: 2384:(yellow haze surrounding clumps of cells) that enable them to form floating aggregates. In 2021, Maeda et al. discovered that oxygen produced by cyanobacteria becomes trapped in the network of polysaccharides and cells, enabling the microorganisms to form buoyant blooms. It is thought that specific protein fibres known as 7148: 6343:

species. In Oscillatoriales, the cells are uniseriately arranged and do not form specialized cells (akinetes and heterocysts). In Nostocales and Stigonematales, the cells have the ability to develop heterocysts in certain conditions. Stigonematales, unlike Nostocales, include species with truly branched trichomes.

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of lakes and reservoirs enables buoyant cyanobacteria to float upwards and form dense surface blooms, which gives them better access to light and hence a selective advantage over nonbuoyant phytoplankton organisms. Protracted droughts during summer increase water residence times in reservoirs, rivers

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It has been unclear why and how cyanobacteria form communities. Aggregation must divert resources away from the core business of making more cyanobacteria, as it generally involves the production of copious quantities of extracellular material. In addition, cells in the centre of dense aggregates can

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Von Nägeli C (1857). Caspary R (ed.). "Bericht über die Verhandlungen der 33. Versammlung deutscher Naturforscher und Ärzte, gehalten in Bonn von 18 bis 24 September 1857" [Report on the Proceedings of the 33rd Meeting of German Natural Scientists and Physicians, held in Bonn, 18 to 24 September

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Cyanobacterial growth is favoured in ponds and lakes where waters are calm and have little turbulent mixing. Their lifecycles are disrupted when the water naturally or artificially mixes from churning currents caused by the flowing water of streams or the churning water of fountains. For this reason

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The members of Chroococales are unicellular and usually aggregate in colonies. The classic taxonomic criterion has been the cell morphology and the plane of cell division. In Pleurocapsales, the cells have the ability to form internal spores (baeocytes). The rest of the sections include filamentous

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Finally, photophobic microorganisms respond to spatial and temporal light gradients. A step-up photophobic reaction occurs when an organism enters a brighter area field from a darker one and then reverses direction, thus avoiding the bright light. The opposite reaction, called a step-down reaction,

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The bubble flotation mechanism identified by Maeda et al. joins a range of known strategies that enable cyanobacteria to control their buoyancy, such as using gas vesicles or accumulating carbohydrate ballasts. Type IV pili on their own could also control the position of marine cyanobacteria in the

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Environmental impact of cyanobacteria and other photosynthetic microorganisms in aquatic systems. Different classes of photosynthetic microorganisms are found in aquatic and marine environments where they form the base of healthy food webs and participate in symbioses with other organisms. However,

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composed of oncoids, which are layered structures formed by cyanobacterial growth. Oncolites are similar to stromatolites, but instead of forming columns, they form approximately spherical structures that were not attached to the underlying substrate as they formed. The oncoids often form around a

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ago. The oldest undisputed evidence of cyanobacteria is dated to be 2.1 Ga ago, but there is some evidence for them as far back as 2.7 Ga ago. Cyanobacteria might have also emerged 3.5 Ga ago. Oxygen concentrations in the atmosphere remained around or below 0.001% of today's level until 2.4 Ga ago

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Cyanophages infect a wide range of cyanobacteria and are key regulators of the cyanobacterial populations in aquatic environments, and may aid in the prevention of cyanobacterial blooms in freshwater and marine ecosystems. These blooms can pose a danger to humans and other animals, particularly in

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contain substances of high biological value, such as polyunsaturated fatty acids, amino acids, proteins, pigments, antioxidants, vitamins, and minerals. Edible blue-green algae reduce the production of pro-inflammatory cytokines by inhibiting NF-κB pathway in macrophages and splenocytes. Sulfate

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Cyanobacteria may possess the ability to produce substances that could one day serve as anti-inflammatory agents and combat bacterial infections in humans. Cyanobacteria's photosynthetic output of sugar and oxygen has been demonstrated to have therapeutic value in rats with heart attacks. While

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Cyanobacteria have strict light requirements. Too little light can result in insufficient energy production, and in some species may cause the cells to resort to heterotrophic respiration. Too much light can inhibit the cells, decrease photosynthesis efficiency and cause damage by bleaching. UV

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The hypothetical conceptual model coupling programmed cell death (PCD) and the role of microcystins (MCs) in Microcystis. (1) The extracellular stressor (e.g., ultraviolet radiation) acts on the cell. (2) Intracellular oxidative stress increases; the intracellular reactive oxygen species (ROS)

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cycling in clumps and adjacent areas. (a) Clumps contain denser cyanobacterial filaments and heterotrophic microbes. The initial differences in density depend on cyanobacterial motility and can be established over short timescales. Darker blue color outside of the clump indicates higher oxygen

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which absorbs red. Thus, these bacteria can change from brick-red to bright blue-green depending on whether they are exposed to green light or to red light. This process of "complementary chromatic adaptation" is a way for the cells to maximize the use of available light for photosynthesis.

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Filamentous cyanobacteria that live in microbial mats often migrate vertically and horizontally within the mat in order to find an optimal niche that balances their light requirements for photosynthesis against their sensitivity to photodamage. For example, the filamentous cyanobacteria

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fixation and result in the excretion of glycolate. Under these conditions, clumping can be beneficial to cyanobacteria if it stimulates the retention of carbon and the assimilation of inorganic carbon by cyanobacteria within clumps. This effect appears to promote the accumulation of

3862:. After the Cambrian explosion of marine animals, grazing on the stromatolite mats by herbivores greatly reduced the occurrence of the stromatolites in marine environments. Since then, they are found mostly in hypersaline conditions where grazing invertebrates cannot live (e.g. 2766:

Photomovement – the modulation of cell movement as a function of the incident light – is employed by the cyanobacteria as a means to find optimal light conditions in their environment. There are three types of photomovement: photokinesis, phototaxis and photophobic responses.

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to collide with bacteria, and then use receptor binding proteins to recognize cell surface proteins, which leads to adherence. Viruses with contractile tails then rely on receptors found on their tails to recognize highly conserved proteins on the surface of the host cell.

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Cyanobacteria appear to separate these two processes with their plasma membrane containing only components of the respiratory chain, while the thylakoid membrane hosts an interlinked respiratory and photosynthetic electron transport chain. Cyanobacteria use electrons from

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on earth. They are the most genetically diverse; they occupy a broad range of habitats across all latitudes, widespread in freshwater, marine, and terrestrial ecosystems, and they are found in the most extreme niches such as hot springs, salt works, and hypersaline bays.

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that give the cells their red-brownish coloration. In some cyanobacteria, the color of light influences the composition of the phycobilisomes. In green light, the cells accumulate more phycoerythrin, which absorbs green light, whereas in red light they produce more

4890:(2,500–542 Mya). While it is widely accepted that the presence of molecular oxygen in the early fossil record was the result of cyanobacteria activity, little is known about how cyanobacteria evolution (e.g., habitat preference) may have contributed to changes in 2375:

are an increasing issue for society, as their toxins can be harmful to animals. Extreme blooms can also deplete water of oxygen and reduce the penetration of sunlight and visibility, thereby compromising the feeding and mating behaviour of light-reliant species.

4925:. It remains unclear, however, what evolutionary events led to the emergence of open-ocean planktonic forms within cyanobacteria and how these events relate to geochemical evidence during the Pre-Cambrian. So far, it seems that ocean geochemistry (e.g., 4946:. Natural genetic transformation is the genetic alteration of a cell resulting from the direct uptake and incorporation of exogenous DNA from its surroundings. For bacterial transformation to take place, the recipient bacteria must be in a state of 2379:

As shown in the diagram on the right, bacteria can stay in suspension as individual cells, adhere collectively to surfaces to form biofilms, passively sediment, or flocculate to form suspended aggregates. Cyanobacteria are able to produce sulphated

2701:, a marine cyanobacteria, is known to swim at a speed of 25 μm/s by a mechanism different to that of bacterial flagella. Formation of waves on the cyanobacteria surface is thought to push surrounding water backwards. Cells are known to be 4950:, which may occur in nature as a response to conditions such as starvation, high cell density or exposure to DNA damaging agents. In chromosomal transformation, homologous transforming DNA can be integrated into the recipient genome by 4929:

conditions during the early- to mid-Proterozoic) and nutrient availability likely contributed to the apparent delay in diversification and widespread colonization of open ocean environments by planktonic cyanobacteria during the

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brought this hypothesis back to attention more than 60 years later but the idea did not become fully accepted until supplementary data started to accumulate. The cyanobacterial origin of plastids is now supported by various pieces of

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Phototactic microorganisms move according to the direction of the light within the environment, such that positively phototactic species will tend to move roughly parallel to the light and towards the light source. Species such as

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and pose a danger to humans and animals if the cyanobacteria involved produce toxins. Several cases of human poisoning have been documented, but a lack of knowledge prevents an accurate assessment of the risks, and research by

2335:. Among these cyanobionts, little is known regarding the nature (e.g., genetic diversity, host or cyanobiont specificity, and cyanobiont seasonality) of the symbiosis involved, particularly in relation to dinoflagellate host. 9383:

Nürnberg DJ, Mariscal V, Parker J, Mastroianni G, Flores E, Mullineaux CW (March 2014). "Branching and intercellular communication in the Section V cyanobacterium Mastigocladus laminosus, a complex multicellular prokaryote".

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Cyanobacteria have fundamentally transformed the geochemistry of the planet. Multiple lines of geochemical evidence support the occurrence of intervals of profound global environmental change at the beginning and end of the

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Based on environmental trends, models and observations suggest cyanobacteria will likely increase their dominance in aquatic environments. This can lead to serious consequences, particularly the contamination of sources of

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cyanobacteria can naturally produce various secondary metabolites, they can serve as advantageous hosts for plant-derived metabolites production owing to biotechnological advances in systems biology and synthetic biology.

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Howard-Azzeh M, Shamseer L, Schellhorn HE, Gupta RS (November 2014). "Phylogenetic analysis and molecular signatures defining a monophyletic clade of heterocystous cyanobacteria and identifying its closest relatives".

1406:. Heterocysts may also form under the appropriate environmental conditions (anoxic) when fixed nitrogen is scarce. Heterocyst-forming species are specialized for nitrogen fixation and are able to fix nitrogen gas into 2762:

also demonstrated this species' tendency to migrate in order to avoid damaging radiation. These migrations are usually the result of some sort of photomovement, although other forms of taxis can also play a role.

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Historically, bacteria were first classified as plants constituting the class Schizomycetes, which along with the Schizophyceae (blue-green algae/Cyanobacteria) formed the phylum Schizophyta, then in the phylum

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Researchers from several space agencies argue that cyanobacteria could be used for producing goods for human consumption in future crewed outposts on Mars, by transforming materials available on this planet.

1018:) numerically dominate most phytoplankton assemblages in modern oceans, contributing importantly to primary productivity. While some planktonic cyanobacteria are unicellular and free living cells (e.g., 2716:. Gliding in filamentous cyanobacteria appears to be powered by a "slime jet" mechanism, in which the cells extrude a gel that expands quickly as it hydrates providing a propulsion force, although some 3942: 17827:"Sequence analysis of the genome of the unicellular cyanobacterium Synechocystis sp. strain PCC6803. II. Sequence determination of the entire genome and assignment of potential protein-coding regions" 3927: 2500:

water column by regulating viscous drag. Extracellular polysaccharide appears to be a multipurpose asset for cyanobacteria, from floatation device to food storage, defence mechanism and mobility aid.

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Karthikeyan N, Prasanna R, Sood A, Jaiswal P, Nayak S, Kaushik BD (2009). "Physiological characterization and electron microscopic investigation of cyanobacteria associated with wheat rhizosphere".

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polysaccharides exhibit immunomodulatory, antitumor, antithrombotic, anticoagulant, anti-mutagenic, anti-inflammatory, antimicrobial, and even antiviral activity against HIV, herpes, and hepatitis.

880:, deserts and the polar regions, but are also widely distributed in more mundane environments as well. They are evolutionarily optimized for environmental conditions of low oxygen. Some species are 4906:

isotope data point to low levels of atmospheric oxygen in the Earth's surface during the mid-Proterozoic, which is consistent with the late evolution of marine planktonic cyanobacteria during the

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structures composed of hexameric shell proteins that assemble into cage-like structures that can be several hundreds of nanometres in diameter. It is believed that these structures tether the CO

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Caller TA, Doolin JW, Haney JF, Murby AJ, West KG, Farrar HE, et al. (2009). "A cluster of amyotrophic lateral sclerosis in New Hampshire: a possible role for toxic cyanobacteria blooms".

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cannot steer directly towards the light, but rely on random collisions to orient themselves in the right direction, after which they tend to move more towards the light source. Others, such as

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Erwin DH, Laflamme M, Tweedt SM, Sperling EA, Pisani D, Peterson KJ (November 2011). "The Cambrian conundrum: early divergence and later ecological success in the early history of animals".

12161: 3976: 157: 4190:, biochemical and structural evidence. The description of another independent and more recent primary endosymbiosis event between a cyanobacterium and a separate eukaryote lineage (the 2712:

is a form of cell movement that differs from crawling or swimming in that it does not rely on any obvious external organ or change in cell shape and it occurs only in the presence of a

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Adams DG, Bergman B, Nierzwicki-Bauer SA, Duggan PS, Rai AN, Schüßler A (2013). "Cyanobacterial-Plant Symbioses". In Rosenberg E, DeLong EF, Lory S, Stackebrandt E, Thompson F (eds.).

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Zehr JP, Bench SR, Carter BJ, Hewson I, Niazi F, Shi T, et al. (November 2008). "Globally distributed uncultivated oceanic N2-fixing cyanobacteria lack oxygenic photosystem II".

4332:. Green lines represent freshwater lineages and blue lines represent marine lineages are based on Bayesian inference of character evolution (stochastic character mapping analyses). 2481:

groups that can often be found in marine algae and animal tissue. Many bacteria generate extracellular polysaccharides, but sulphated ones have only been seen in cyanobacteria. In

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is possibly the most plentiful genus on Earth: a single millilitre of surface seawater can contain 100,000 cells of this genus or more. Worldwide there are estimated to be several

2388:(represented as lines radiating from the cells) may act as an additional way to link cells to each other or onto surfaces. Some cyanobacteria also use sophisticated intracellular 18956:

Cox PA, Richer R, Metcalf JS, Banack SA, Codd GA, Bradley WG (2009). "Cyanobacteria and BMAA exposure from desert dust: a possible link to sporadic ALS among Gulf War veterans".

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Johnson ZI, Zinser ER, Coe A, McNulty NP, Woodward EM, Chisholm SW (March 2006). "Niche partitioning among Prochlorococcus ecotypes along ocean-scale environmental gradients".

18209: 6773:. Cyanobacteria have been also engineered to produce ethanol and experiments have shown that when one or two CBB genes are being over expressed, the yield can be even higher. 13759:

Meeks JC, Elhai J, Thiel T, Potts M, Larimer F, Lamerdin J, et al. (2001). "An overview of the genome of Nostoc punctiforme, a multicellular, symbiotic cyanobacterium".

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Meeks JC, Elhai J, Thiel T, Potts M, Larimer F, Lamerdin J, et al. (2001). "An overview of the genome of Nostoc punctiforme, a multicellular, symbiotic cyanobacterium".

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heads, which contain double-stranded DNA, attached to a tail by connector proteins. The size of the head and tail vary among species of cyanophages. Cyanophages, like other

10073:"Functions, compositions, and evolution of the two types of carboxysomes: polyhedral microcompartments that facilitate CO2 fixation in cyanobacteria and some proteobacteria" 2748:, Mexico migrate downwards into the lower layers during the day in order to escape the intense sunlight and then rise to the surface at dusk. In contrast, the population of 1750:

or chloroxybacteria, but appear to have developed in several different lines of cyanobacteria. For this reason, they are now considered as part of the cyanobacterial group.

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Krings M, Hass H, Kerp H, Taylor TN, Agerer R, Dotzler N (2009). "Endophytic cyanobacteria in a 400-million-yr-old land plant: A scenario for the origin of a symbiosis?".

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Thompson AW, Foster RA, Krupke A, Carter BJ, Musat N, Vaulot D, et al. (September 2012). "Unicellular cyanobacterium symbiotic with a single-celled eukaryotic alga".

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Cyanobacteria only respire during the night (or in the dark) because the facilities used for electron transport are used in reverse for photosynthesis while in the light.

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Gantar M (2000). "Mechanical damage of roots provides enhanced colonization of the wheat endorhizosphere by the dinitrogen-fixing cyanobacterium Nostoc sp. Strain 2S9B".

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Xiong W, Lee TC, Rommelfanger S, Gjersing E, Cano M, Maness PC, et al. (December 2015). "Phosphoketolase pathway contributes to carbon metabolism in cyanobacteria".

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Price DC, Chan CX, Yoon HS, Yang EC, Qiu H, Weber AP, et al. (February 2012). "Cyanophora paradoxa genome elucidates origin of photosynthesis in algae and plants".

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conditions, a fact that may be responsible for their evolutionary and ecological success. The water-oxidizing photosynthesis is accomplished by coupling the activity of

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had an up to 25 times greater risk of ALS than the expected incidence. BMAA from desert crusts found throughout Qatar might have contributed to higher rates of ALS in

4902:(2,500–1,600 Mya). A second but much steeper increase in oxygen levels, known as the Neoproterozoic Oxygenation Event (NOE), occurred at around 800 to 500 Mya. Recent 1647:

sharing the same compartment as the components of respiratory electron transport. While the goal of photosynthesis is to store energy by building carbohydrates from CO

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Thomas AD, Dougill AJ (15 March 2007). "Spatial and temporal distribution of cyanobacterial soil crusts in the Kalahari: Implications for soil surface properties".

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and considered taxonomically obsolete; however, some authors have advocated for the terms remaining informally to describe form and structure of bacterial fossils.

22989: 22629: 5377: 1609:, thylakoid membranes of cyanobacteria are not continuous with the plasma membrane but are separate compartments. The photosynthetic machinery is embedded in the 23975: 21901: 20436: 19308:

Walsby AE, Hayes PK, Boje R, Stal LJ (July 1997). "The selective advantage of buoyancy provided by gas vesicles for planktonic cyanobacteria in the Baltic Sea".

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Babu S, Prasanna R, Bidyarani N, Singh R (2015). "Analysing the colonisation of inoculated cyanobacteria in wheat plants using biochemical and molecular tools".

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through Earth history. Geochemical evidence has indicated that there was a first step-increase in the oxygenation of the Earth's surface, which is known as the

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Mareš, Jan; Johansen, Jeffrey R.; Hauer, Tomáš; Zima, Jan; Ventura, Stefano; Cuzman, Oana; Tiribilli, Bruno; Kaštovský, Jan (4 March 2019). Collier, J. (ed.).

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Fralick P, Davis DW, Kissin SA (2002). "The age of the Gunflint Formation, Ontario, Canada: Single zircon U–Pb age determinations from reworked volcanic ash".

8103: 1788:. The large amounts of oxygen in the atmosphere are considered to have been first created by the activities of ancient cyanobacteria. They are often found as 22453: 22354: 12079:

Bidyarani N, Prasanna R, Chawla G, Babu S, Singh R (April 2015). "Deciphering the factors associated with the colonization of rice plants by cyanobacteria".

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by directly converting sunlight into electricity. Internal photosynthetic pathways can be coupled to chemical mediators that transfer electrons to external

22347: 22328: 22155: 22075: 21854: 6609: 6582: 6564: 6523: 5901: 5794: 5546: 5051: 952:. Nowadays, cyanobacterial blooms pose a serious threat to aquatic environments and public health, and are increasing in frequency and magnitude globally. 15857: 9055:

Janson S, Wouters J, Bergman B, Carpenter EJ (October 1999). "Host specificity in the Richelia-diatom symbiosis revealed by hetR gene sequence analysis".

1985:, which have the potential to cause serious illness if consumed. Consequences may also lie within fisheries and waste management practices. Anthropogenic 1628:

derived from water are used by the cyanobacterial cells for their own needs, a fraction of these electrons may be donated to the external environment via

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production, food colorings, as a source of human and animal food, dietary supplements and raw materials. Cyanobacteria produce a range of toxins known as

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these sulphated polysaccharide help the cyanobacterium form buoyant aggregates by trapping oxygen bubbles in the slimy web of cells and polysaccharides.

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relationship with other organisms, both unicellular and multicellular. As illustrated on the right, there are many examples of cyanobacteria interacting

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Cyanobacteria have been found to play an important role in terrestrial habitats and organism communities. It has been widely reported that cyanobacteria

22621: 22465: 22087: 22050: 22028: 21937: 21925: 6641: 6634: 6573: 6102: 5765: 5338: 2619: 1135:(reproductive, motile filaments). These, together with the intercellular connections they possess, are considered the first signs of multicellularity. 7983: 22821: 22703: 22597: 21913: 21842: 21436: 21399: 21347: 21148: 18428: 16793:

Sahoo SK, Planavsky NJ, Kendall B, Wang X, Shi X, Scott C, et al. (September 2012). "Ocean oxygenation in the wake of the Marinoan glaciation".

11111: 9484:"Genetic characterization of the hmp locus, a chemotaxis-like gene cluster that regulates hormogonium development and motility in Nostoc punctiforme" 6588: 6558: 6532: 6078: 5973: 5743: 2633: 2615:

spp. in marine environments, where up to 5% of cells belonging to marine cyanobacterial cells have been reported to contain mature phage particles.

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Cyanobacteria cultured in specific media: Cyanobacteria can be helpful in agriculture as they have the ability to fix atmospheric nitrogen in soil.

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radiation is especially deadly for cyanobacteria, with normal solar levels being significantly detrimental for these microorganisms in some cases.

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are viruses that infect cyanobacteria. Cyanophages can be found in both freshwater and marine environments. Marine and freshwater cyanophages have

13837:"Marine cyanophages infecting oceanic and coastal strains of Synechococcus: abundance, . morphology, cross-infectivity and growth characteristics" 9913: 7124: 2756:, France migrate to the upper layer of the mat during the day and are spread homogeneously through the mat at night. An in vitro experiment using 23949: 22996: 22438: 22368: 21980: 12592:

Foster RA, Zehr JP (September 2019). "Diversity, Genomics, and Distribution of Phytoplankton-Cyanobacterium Single-Cell Symbiotic Associations".

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favours cyanobacterial blooms both directly and indirectly. Many bloom-forming cyanobacteria can grow at relatively high temperatures. Increased

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Hussain A, Hamayun M, Shah ST (November 2013). "Root colonization and phytostimulation by phytohormones producing entophytic Nostoc sp. AH-12".

22977: 22903: 22335: 20426: 19111:"Spatial variation of phytoplankton composition, biovolume, and resulting microcystin concentrations in the Nyanza Gulf (Lake Victoria, Kenya)" 18796: 13230:"DNA-uptake pili of Vibrio cholerae are required for chitin colonization and capable of kin recognition via sequence-specific self-interaction" 11291: 6509: 6502: 6045: 3954: 1947:

blooms of cyanobacteria seldom occur in rivers unless the water is flowing slowly. Growth is also favoured at higher temperatures which enable

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Castellani C, Maas A, Eriksson ME, Haug JT, Haug C, Waloszek D (2018). "First record of Cyanobacteria in Cambrian Orsten deposits of Sweden".

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cyanobacteria. After some years of debate, it is now generally accepted that the three major groups of primary endosymbiotic eukaryotes (i.e.

2204:, from plant root and soil. Assessment of wheat seedling roots revealed two types of association patterns: loose colonization of root hair by 23012: 22729: 22521: 22426: 22118: 21968: 21952: 21514: 21290: 19642: 18323:"Engineered cyanobacteria with additional overexpression of selected Calvin-Benson-Bassham enzymes show further increased ethanol production" 17803: 10204:"Quantitative analysis of extracted phycobilin pigments in cyanobacteria-an assessment of spectrophotometric and spectrofluorometric methods" 7509: 6452: 15118: 11901:"Molecular characterization of eukaryotic algal communities in the tropical phyllosphere based on real-time sequencing of the 18S rDNA gene" 10705:

Urbach E, Robertson DL, Chisholm SW (January 1992). "Multiple evolutionary origins of prochlorophytes within the cyanobacterial radiation".

18380:"Honaucins A-C, potent inhibitors of inflammation and bacterial quorum sensing: synthetic derivatives and structure-activity relationships" 13554:

Sigee DC, Selwyn A, Gallois P, Dean AP (2007). "Patterns of cell death in freshwater colonial cyanobacteria during the late summer bloom".

11464:

Belnap J, Gardner JS (1993). "Soil Microstructure in Soils of the Colorado Plateau: The Role of the Cyanobacterium Microcoleus Vaginatus".

6925: 2809: 1621:

attached to the membrane, giving the green pigmentation observed (with wavelengths from 450 nm to 660 nm) in most cyanobacteria.

95: 9537:-Acetylglucosamine Transferase Is Essential for Hormogonium Development and Motility in the Filamentous Cyanobacterium Nostoc punctiforme" 7857: 1664: 18674:"Edible blue-green algae reduce the production of pro-inflammatory cytokines by inhibiting NF-κB pathway in macrophages and splenocytes" 17507: 11081: 10848:

Och LM, Shields-Zhou GA (January 2012). "The Neoproterozoic oxygenation event: Environmental perturbations and biogeochemical cycling".

7109: 22676: 22143: 15028:

Schopf JW, Packer BM (July 1987). "Early Archean (3.3-billion to 3.5-billion-year-old) microfossils from Warrawoona Group, Australia".

11860:"The mechanisms whereby the green alga Chlorella ohadii, isolated from desert soil crust, exhibits unparalleled photodamage resistance" 4872: 2463:(PCD) is a type of RCD that occurs as a developmental program, and has not been addressed in cyanobacteria yet. RN, regulated necrosis. 2425:(DIC) diffuses into the clump from the overlying medium and is also produced within the clump by respiration. In oxic solutions, high O 1549:

from carbon dioxide. Because they are aquatic organisms, they typically employ several strategies which are collectively known as a "CO

13181:"Evidence that a modified type IV pilus-like system powers gliding motility and polysaccharide secretion in filamentous cyanobacteria" 2770:

Photokinetic microorganisms modulate their gliding speed according to the incident light intensity. For example, the speed with which

2244:

with numerous cyanobionts present in the upper and lower girdle lists (black arrowheads) of the cingulum termed the symbiotic chamber.

21679: 21092: 21082: 14415:"The junctional pore complex, a prokaryotic secretion organelle, is the molecular motor underlying gliding motility in cyanobacteria" 11580: 10654:

Palenik B, Haselkorn R (January 1992). "Multiple evolutionary origins of prochlorophytes, the chlorophyll b-containing prokaryotes".

6319:

The cyanobacteria were traditionally classified by morphology into five sections, referred to by the numerals I–V. The first three –

7249:. However, the common name blue-green algae continues to be used synonymously with cyanobacteria outside of the biological sciences. 23923: 20469: 16479:

Bekker A, Holland HD, Wang PL, Rumble D, Stein HJ, Hannah JL, et al. (January 2004). "Dating the rise of atmospheric oxygen".

9020:

Villareal TA (1990). "Laboratory Culture and Preliminary Characterization of the Nitrogen-Fixing Rhizosolenia-Richelia Symbiosis".

936:

causing the disruption of aquatic ecosystem services and intoxication of wildlife and humans by the production of powerful toxins (

14683:"Vertical migration of phototrophic bacterial populations in a hypersaline microbial mat from Salins-de-Giraud (Camargue, France)" 11711:"Cyanobiont genetic diversity and host specificity of cyanobiont-bearing dinoflagellate Ornithocercus in temperate coastal waters" 23962: 23053: 20868: 20843: 19832: 18721:

Mišurcová L, Škrovánková S, Samek D, Ambrožová J, Machů L (2012). "Health benefits of algal polysaccharides in human nutrition".

15141:"A complex microbiota from snowball Earth times: microfossils from the Neoproterozoic Kingston Peak Formation, Death Valley, USA" 10122:"Analysis of carboxysomes from Synechococcus PCC7942 reveals multiple Rubisco complexes with carboxysomal proteins CcmM and CcaA" 2839: 14523:"The role of an alternative sigma factor in motility and pilus formation in the cyanobacterium Synechocystis sp. strain PCC6803" 7483: 20356: 19747: 17866:

Tabei Y, Okada K, Tsuzuki M (April 2007). "Sll1330 controls the expression of glycolytic genes in Synechocystis sp. PCC 6803".

14977: 4297:

of their plant host cells and the genes in this chloroplast DNA resemble those in cyanobacteria. DNA in chloroplasts codes for

19022: 12715:-induced exopolysaccharide-rich ballasted aggregates of planktonic cyanobacteria could explain Paleoproterozoic carbon burial" 2252:(c) Enlargement of the area in (b) showing two cyanobionts that are being divided by binary transverse fission (white arrows). 1694:

which only use one photosystem, the use of water as an electron donor is energetically demanding, requiring two photosystems.

1364:

are capable of a waving motion; the filament oscillates back and forth. In water columns, some cyanobacteria float by forming

21141: 19632: 19574: 19537: 19514: 19490: 18742: 15894: 15479: 15267: 14276: 12576: 11952: 11622: 11094: 11031: 10902: 10829: 10544: 10386: 10347: 7899: 7695: 7652: 2442:

also suffer from both shading and shortage of nutrients. So, what advantage does this communal life bring for cyanobacteria?

2349: 23967: 9437:

Herrero A, Stavans J, Flores E (November 2016). "The multicellular nature of filamentous heterocyst-forming cyanobacteria".

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Several chemicals can eliminate cyanobacterial blooms from smaller water-based systems such as swimming pools. They include

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as primary producers in oceanic gyres, as agents of biological nitrogen fixation, and, in modified form, as the plastids of

2371:

as we know it by burying carbon compounds and allowing the initial build-up of oxygen in the atmosphere. On the other hand,

23020: 20889: 12833:"Oxygen-Dependent Morphogenesis of Modern Clumped Photosynthetic Mats and Implications for the Archean Stromatolite Record" 2456: 17456: 14292:

Waterbury JB, Willey JM, Franks DG, Valois FW, Watson SW (October 1985). "A cyanobacterium capable of swimming motility".

14098:

Waterbury JB, Willey JM, Franks DG, Valois FW, Watson SW (October 1985). "A cyanobacterium capable of swimming motility".

2363:) that can float on water and have important ecological roles. For instance, billions of years ago, communities of marine 1002:

to the deep ocean, by converting nitrogen gas into ammonium, which is later used to make amino acids and proteins. Marine

19673: 18822: 13802:

Suttle CA (1 January 2000). "Cyanophages and Their Role in the Ecology of Cyanobacteria". In Whitton BA, Potts M (eds.).

8243: 5020: 2705:

by a gliding method and a novel uncharacterized, non-phototactic swimming method that does not involve flagellar motion.

638:. By continuously producing and releasing oxygen over billions of years, cyanobacteria are thought to have converted the 14885:"DER EINFLUSS DES LICHTES AUF DIE BEWEGUNG DER CYANOPHYCEEN: III. Mitteilung: PHOTOPHOBOTAXIS VON PHORMIDIUM UNCINATUM." 7440: 4913:

Understanding the evolution of planktonic cyanobacteria is important because their origin fundamentally transformed the

2792:

occurs when an organism enters a dark area from a bright area and then reverses direction, thus remaining in the light.

1709:) are responsible for the blue-green pigmentation of most cyanobacteria. The variations on this theme are due mainly to 21077: 19711: 19552: 17435: 11274: 9781: 8274:"Evolution of multicellularity coincided with increased diversification of cyanobacteria and the Great Oxidation Event" 7819: 7619: 7505: 4320:

Based on data: nodes (1–10) and stars representing common ancestors from Sánchez-Baracaldo et al., 2015, timing of the

17604:: amœbien à spores protégées parasite des daphnies réflexions sur la biologie et la phylogénie des protozoaires" [ 12330:

Falkowski PG, Barber RT, Smetacek V (July 1998). "Biogeochemical Controls and Feedbacks on Ocean Primary Production".

11216:"Ultrastructural and genetic characteristics of endolithic cyanobacterial biofilms colonizing Antarctic granite rocks" 3883:

from around 2.4 to 2.1 Ga ago. In this way, cyanobacteria may have killed off most of the other bacteria of the time.

14732:"Diel Vertical Movements of the Cyanobacterium Oscillatoria terebriformis in a Sulfide-Rich Hot Spring Microbial Mat" 13819: 12488: 9926: 8253: 7995: 3906:, but are also known in contemporary freshwater environments. These structures rarely exceed 10 cm in diameter. 1097:(nutrient-poor) regions of the oceans. The bacterium accounts for about 20% of the oxygen in the Earth's atmosphere. 16388:

Reyes-Prieto A, Weber AP, Bhattacharya D (2007). "The origin and establishment of the plastid in algae and plants".

9922:"Azolla-Anabaena as a Biofertilizer for Rice Paddy Fields in the Po Valley, a Temperate Rice Area in Northern Italy" 8035:"Modeling filamentous cyanobacteria reveals the advantages of long and fast trichomes for optimizing light exposure" 7922:"Modeling filamentous cyanobacteria reveals the advantages of long and fast trichomes for optimizing light exposure" 7553:

Crockford PW, Bar On YM, Ward LM, Milo R, Halevy I (November 2023). "The geologic history of primary productivity".

546: 24082: 24034: 21186: 21134: 20904: 20884: 18210:"Joule wins key patent for GMO cyanobacteria that create fuels from sunlight, CO2 and water : Biofuels Digest" 17072:

Poulton SW, Canfield DE (2011). "Ferruginous Conditions: A Dominant Feature of the Ocean through Earth's History".

9797: 8113: 7644: 7611: 4971: 3866:, Western Australia). Stromatolites provide ancient records of life on Earth by fossil remains which date from 3.5 2284:(cyanobacterial symbionts) and protistan hosts are particularly noteworthy, as some nitrogen-fixing cyanobacteria ( 19678: 2416:

The diagram on the left above shows a proposed model of microbial distribution, spatial organization, carbon and O

24077: 21181: 17166:

Orkwiszewski KG, Kaney AR (June 1974). "Genetic transformation of the blue-green bacterium, Anacystis nidulans".

16739:

Lyons TW, Reinhard CT, Planavsky NJ (February 2014). "The rise of oxygen in Earth's early ocean and atmosphere".

15911: 7815:"Cyanobacterial Farming for Environment Friendly Sustainable Agriculture Practices: Innovations and Perspectives" 7033:

and estuaries, and these stagnant warm waters can provide ideal conditions for cyanobacterial bloom development.

3936:

left behind by cyanobacteria are the oldest known fossils of life on Earth. This fossil is one billion years old.

884:

and live in a wide variety of moist soils and water, either freely or in a symbiotic relationship with plants or

17608:: amoebian with protected spores parasite of daphnia reflections on the biology and phylogeny of protozoa]. 1851: 994:. From these lineages, nitrogen-fixing cyanobacteria are particularly important because they exert a control on 24067: 15869: 15853: 14904:

Nultsch W, Schuchart H, Höhl M (1979). "Investigations on the phototactic orientation of Anabaena variabilis".

13987: 13841: 13644:"Programmed Cell Death-Like and Accompanying Release of Microcystin in Freshwater Bloom-Forming Cyanobacterium 13368:"Programmed Cell Death-Like and Accompanying Release of Microcystin in Freshwater Bloom-Forming Cyanobacterium 6809: 6796: 4865: 4162: 3606: 3404: 2119: 1561:). Among the more specific strategies is the widespread prevalence of the bacterial microcompartments known as 18506:

Newsome AG, Culver CA, van Breemen RB (July 2014). "Nature's palette: the search for natural blue colorants".

17999:"Genome sequence of the cyanobacterium Prochlorococcus marinus SS120, a nearly minimal oxyphototrophic genome" 15976:

Schwartz RM, Dayhoff MO (January 1978). "Origins of prokaryotes, eukaryotes, mitochondria, and chloroplasts".

13423:"Viability and niche segregation of Prochlorococcus and Synechococcus cells across the Central Atlantic Ocean" 7682:

Liberton M, Pakrasi HB (2008). "Chapter 10. Membrane Systems in Cyanobacteria". In Herrero A, Flore E (eds.).

21265: 21255: 21238: 20988: 20853: 6940: 6932:, Aberdeen and collaborators has 30 years of examining the phenomenon and methods of improving water safety. 4728: 4252: 2215: 1981:

in various ways, primarily by plugging filters (often large beds of sand and similar media) and by producing

1931:

and marine environments. The blooms can have the appearance of blue-green paint or scum. These blooms can be

19462: 18586:

Spolaore P, Joannis-Cassan C, Duran E, Isambert A (February 2006). "Commercial applications of microalgae".

8183:"Cell Death in Cyanobacteria: Current Understanding and Recommendations for a Consensus on Its Nomenclature" 4289:

cells. Therefore, chloroplasts may be photosynthetic bacteria that adapted to life inside plant cells. Like

4130:

lineages, where they are specialized in performing photosynthesis. They are considered to have evolved from

4121: 20586: 20544: 20462: 20421: 13279: 9231: 8546:

Huisman J, Codd GA, Paerl HW, Ibelings BW, Verspagen JM, Visser PM (August 2018). "Cyanobacterial blooms".

7207: 4768: 3464: 1679: 1449:), which can be absorbed by plants and converted to protein and nucleic acids (atmospheric nitrogen is not 17: 11146: 10372: 6935:

Recent studies suggest that significant exposure to high levels of cyanobacteria producing toxins such as

23046: 20929: 20346: 19857: 13060:

sp. Strain PCC 6803 Are Induced by Changes in Nutrient Concentration and Require Cell Surface Structures"

12775:"Biosynthesis of a sulfated exopolysaccharide, synechan, and bloom formation in the model cyanobacterium 10378: 8636:

Cabello-Yeves PJ, Scanlan DJ, Callieri C, Picazo A, Schallenberg L, Huber P, et al. (October 2022).

7457: 7419: 4457: 4318:

Timing and trends in cell diameter, loss of filamentous forms and habitat preference within cyanobacteria

4006: 3080: 2832: 2359:

Some cyanobacteria – even single-celled ones – show striking collective behaviours and form colonies (or

1643:

in cyanobacteria can occur in the thylakoid membrane alongside photosynthesis, with their photosynthetic

119: 17725:"Taxonomic classification of cyanoprokaryotes (cyanobacterial genera) 2014, using a polyphasic approach" 16216:"Chromatophore genome sequence of Paulinella sheds light on acquisition of photosynthesis by eukaryotes" 15644:

Rodríguez-Ezpeleta N, Brinkmann H, Burey SC, Roure B, Burger G, Löffelhardt W, et al. (July 2005).

11493:"Spatial self-segregation of pioneer cyanobacterial species drives microbiome organization in biocrusts" 11165:"Tiny Microbes with a Big Impact: The Role of Cyanobacteria and Their Metabolites in Shaping Our Future" 7350:"Taxonomic classification of cyanoprokaryotes (cyanobacterial genera) 2014, using a polyphasic approach" 7074:, and strain competitiveness was found to depend on the concentration of inorganic carbon. As a result, 4357: 20959: 20848: 20674: 20646: 20336: 19837: 19802: 19566: 18853:

Weirich CA, Miller TR (January 2014). "Freshwater harmful algal blooms: toxins and children's health".

17115:

Anbar AD, Knoll AH (August 2002). "Proterozoic ocean chemistry and evolution: a bioinorganic bridge?".

15071:

Farquhar J, Bao H, Thiemens M (August 2000). "Atmospheric influence of Earth's earliest sulfur cycle".

14870:

Checcucci, G., Sgarbossa, A. and Lenci, F. (2004) "Photomovements of microorganisms: An introduction".

13605: 12375: 9324: 8906:"Present and future global distributions of the marine Cyanobacteria Prochlorococcus and Synechococcus" 7452: 6936: 4996: 4819: 4551: 4426: 4335:

Taxa are not drawn to scale – those with smaller cell diameters are at the bottom and larger at the top

4325: 2664: 2435: 2422: 2053: 1990: 1201: 18629:

Christaki E, Florou-Paneri P, Bonos E (December 2011). "Microalgae: a novel ingredient in nutrition".

18091:"Renewable energy from Cyanobacteria: energy production optimization by metabolic pathway engineering" 17365:"Comparative Genomics of DNA Recombination and Repair in Cyanobacteria: Biotechnological Implications" 15357: 15199: 14343:

McBride MJ (2001). "Bacterial gliding motility: multiple mechanisms for cell movement over surfaces".

13601:"The demise of the marine cyanobacterium, Trichodesmium SPP., via an autocatalyzed cell death pathway" 13277:

Kromkamp J, Walsby AE (1990). "A computer model of buoyancy and vertical migration in cyanobacteria".

13005:

Galluzzi L, Bravo-San Pedro JM, Vitale I, Aaronson SA, Abrams JM, Adam D, et al. (January 2015).

12950:"Blue-/Green-Light-Responsive Cyanobacteriochromes Are Cell Shade Sensors in Red-Light Replete Niches" 12127:"Colonization of wheat (Triticum vulgare L.) by N2-fixing cyanobacteria: II. An ultrastructural study" 11386:

Paerl HW, Paul VJ (April 2012). "Climate change: links to global expansion of harmful cyanobacteria".

10619:

Kehoe DM, Gutu A (2006). "Responding to color: the regulation of complementary chromatic adaptation".

9352: 4567: 3168: 1321:

Vegetative cells – the normal, photosynthetic cells that are formed under favorable growing conditions

916:

Cyanobacteria are globally widespread photosynthetic prokaryotes and are major contributors to global

24039: 23990: 23190: 21670: 20391: 18457:"Current Status and Future Strategies to Increase Secondary Metabolite Production from Cyanobacteria" 18140:"3D-printed hierarchical pillar array electrodes for high-performance semi-artificial photosynthesis" 17997:

Dufresne A, Salanoubat M, Partensky F, Artiguenave F, Axmann IM, Barbe V, et al. (August 2003).

17282: 16677:

Planavsky NJ, Reinhard CT, Wang X, Thomson D, McGoldrick P, Rainbird RH, et al. (October 2014).

15498:

Keeling PJ (2013). "The number, speed, and impact of plastid endosymbioses in eukaryotic evolution".

14976:

Baumgartner RJ, Van Kranendonk MJ, Wacey D, Fiorentini ML, Saunders M, Caruso S, et al. (2019).

6346:

Most taxa included in the phylum or division Cyanobacteria have not yet been validly published under

4943: 4858: 4783: 4556: 3707: 3424: 2688: 2289: 1821: 1606: 1569:

and bicarbonate, in order to accumulate bicarbonate into the cytoplasm of the cell. Carboxysomes are

1116: 1106: 995: 865: 759:

that are thought to have their ancestry in cyanobacteria, acquired long ago via endosymbiosis. These

18800: 14978:"Nano-porous pyrite and organic matter in 3.5-billion-year-old stromatolites record primordial life" 14002:"Molecular analysis of genes in Nostoc punctiforme involved in pilus biogenesis and plant infection" 11491:

Nelson, Corey; Giraldo-Silva, Ana; Warsop Thomas, Finlay; Garcia-Pichel, Ferran (16 November 2022).

8484:

Paerl HW, Otten TG (May 2013). "Harmful cyanobacterial blooms: causes, consequences, and controls".

3948:

Oncolitic limestone formed from successive layers of calcium carbonate precipitated by cyanobacteria

3858:, stromatolite communities of microorganisms grew in most marine and non-marine environments in the 20978: 20689: 20053: 19925: 19912: 17539: 17512: 17485: 15796:

Ponce-Toledo RI, Deschamps P, López-García P, Zivanovic Y, Benzerara K, Moreira D (February 2017).

13306:

Aguilo-Ferretjans MD, Bosch R, Puxty RJ, Latva M, Zadjelovic V, Chhun A, et al. (March 2021).

8382:

Tang W, Wang S, Fonseca-Batista D, Dehairs F, Gifford S, Gonzalez AG, et al. (February 2019).

7713:"Organization and flexibility of cyanobacterial thylakoid membranes examined by neutron scattering" 7687: 6929: 6816: 5027: 4992: 4951: 4174: 3384: 3048: 1996: 1974: 1702: 1644: 1618: 1454: 19650: 19160:"Public health responses to toxic cyanobacterial blooms: Perspectives from the 2016 Florida event" 18888: 16129:"Primary endosymbiosis and the evolution of light and oxygen sensing in photosynthetic eukaryotes" 14787:

Häder DP (1987). "EFFECTS OF UV-B IRRADIATION ON PHOTOMOVEMENT IN THE DESMID, Cosmarium cucumis".

14681:

Fourçans A, Solé A, Diestra E, Ranchou-Peyruse A, Esteve I, Caumette P, Duran R (September 2006).

2467:

New insights into how cyanobacteria form blooms have come from a 2021 study on the cyanobacterium

1042:

are free-living and form aggregates. However, filamentous heterocyst-forming cyanobacteria (e.g.,

24087: 24072: 23879: 23865: 23275: 22833: 21270: 21115: 21029: 21024: 20919: 20833: 20581: 20455: 20331: 20311: 19777: 16910: 16678: 15285: 15204: 14208:

Miyata M, Robinson RC, Uyeda TQ, Fukumori Y, Fukushima SI, Haruta S, et al. (January 2020).

9302: 7536: 7378: 4967: 4804: 4773: 4450: 4248: 4011: 3872: 2678: 1660: 1219: 857: 599: 535: 19204:

Cavicchioli R, Ripple WJ, Timmis KN, Azam F, Bakken LR, Baylis M, et al. (September 2019).

15247: 14470:

Hoiczyk E (2000). "Gliding motility in cyanobacterial: observations and possible explanations".

9174:

Kettler GC, Martiny AC, Huang K, Zucker J, Coleman ML, Rodrigue S, et al. (December 2007).

2048:

was discovered in 1986 and accounts for more than half of the photosynthesis of the open ocean.

1524:

Outer and plasma membranes are in blue, thylakoid membranes in gold, glycogen granules in cyan,

763:

cyanobacteria in eukaryotes then evolved and differentiated into specialized organelles such as

24062: 24016: 23827: 23039: 21070: 21014: 20571: 20561: 20341: 20193: 19704: 19263:

Visser PM, Verspagen JM, Sandrini G, Stal LJ, Matthijs HC, Davis TW, et al. (April 2016).

18433: 16532:"Isotopic evidence for massive oxidation of organic matter following the great oxidation event" 11023: 7764:"Long Term Diversity and Distribution of Non-photosynthetic Cyanobacteria in Peri-Alpine Lakes" 7029: 4778: 4651: 3890: 3818: 3444: 3112: 2825: 1771: 1075:

Marine cyanobacteria include the smallest known photosynthetic organisms. The smallest of all,

704: 677: 539: 527: 31: 16679:"Earth history. Low mid-Proterozoic atmospheric oxygen levels and the delayed rise of animals" 15876: 15356:

Crockford PW, Kunzmann M, Bekker A, Hayles J, Bao H, Halverson GP, et al. (20 May 2019).

11606: 10758:"Adaptation to Hydrogen Sulfide of Oxygenic and Anoxygenic Photosynthesis among Cyanobacteria" 8852:

Scanlan DJ, Ostrowski M, Mazard S, Dufresne A, Garczarek L, Hess WR, et al. (June 2009).

6749:

Recent research has suggested the potential application of cyanobacteria to the generation of

6690: 2078: 653:

one with free gaseous oxygen (which previously would have been immediately removed by various

24011: 23503: 23153: 21233: 21060: 21004: 20909: 20808: 20684: 20617: 20386: 20213: 20156: 19891: 19757: 18192: 17940:

Rocap G, Larimer FW, Lamerdin J, Malfatti S, Chain P, Ahlgren NA, et al. (August 2003).

16530:

Kump LR, Junium C, Arthur MA, Brasier A, Fallick A, Melezhik V, et al. (December 2011).

11322: 11264: 11013: 10850: 10813: 10632: 7711:

Liberton M, Page LE, O'Dell WB, O'Neill H, Mamontov E, Urban VS, Pakrasi HB (February 2013).

7636: 7605: 7278: 6982:

is likely to increase the frequency, intensity and duration of cyanobacterial blooms in many

6805: 6649: 4895: 4321: 3793: 3505: 2460: 2445: 2032: 1885: 1691: 973: 834: 665: 661: 206: 24026: 24003: 9586:"Cyanobacterial nitrogenases: phylogenetic diversity, regulation and functional predictions" 9325:"Bacterial solutions to multicellularity: a tale of biofilms, filaments and fruiting bodies" 8904:

Flombaum P, Gallegos JL, Gordillo RA, Rincón J, Zabala LL, Jiao N, et al. (June 2013).

2572: 23897: 23168: 22884: 21819: 20966: 20679: 20576: 20138: 19938: 19842: 19807: 19601: 19408: 19356: 18558: 18244: 18151: 18010: 17953: 17681: 17324: 17230: 17175: 17124: 17081: 17030: 16977: 16922: 16860: 16802: 16748: 16690: 16596: 16543: 16488: 16401: 16317: 16227: 16032: 15985: 15942: 15809: 15751: 15657: 15646:"Monophyly of primary photosynthetic eukaryotes: green plants, red algae, and glaucophytes" 15424: 15369: 15294: 15152: 15080: 15037: 14994: 14913: 14743: 14694: 14637: 14596: 14534: 14479: 14426: 14301: 14162: 14107: 13938: 13850: 13614: 13565: 13518: 13479: 13319: 13128: 13071: 12961: 12844: 12726: 12517: 12433: 12384: 12175: 12042: 11961: 11824: 11722: 11556: 11438: 11395: 11331: 11227: 11130: 10927: 10859: 10769: 10714: 10663: 10573: 10331: 10275: 10215: 9978: 9120: 9064: 9029: 8976: 8917: 8807: 8753: 8649: 8602: 8493: 8285: 8136: 8046: 7933: 7562: 7387: 7202: 6960: 6916: 4891: 4708: 4472: 4274: 4158: 3839:

formed in shallow water by the trapping, binding, and cementation of sedimentary grains by

3064: 2256: 1936: 1889: 1640: 1586: 917: 646: 23954: 19466: 19457: 19395:

Sandrini G, Ji X, Verspagen JM, Tann RP, Slot PC, Luimstra VM, et al. (August 2016).

17942:"Genome divergence in two Prochlorococcus ecotypes reflects oceanic niche differentiation" 15511: 15328: 9584:

Esteves-Ferreira AA, Cavalcanti JH, Vaz MG, Alvarenga LV, Nunes-Nesi A, Araújo WL (2017).

8: 22890: 22645: 21824: 20782: 20381: 20316: 20083: 20072: 19949: 19932: 12366: 9965:

Huokko T, Ni T, Dykes GF, Simpson DM, Brownridge P, Conradi FD, et al. (June 2021).

7668: 5000: 4910:; both types of evidence help explain the late emergence and diversification of animals. 4792: 4713: 4631: 4247:

In addition to this primary endosymbiosis, many eukaryotic lineages have been subject to

3967: 3880: 3876: 3833: 3566: 3525: 2784: 2713: 2589: 2552: 2395: 2372: 2096:(2) On the root surface, cyanobacteria exhibit two types of colonization pattern; in the 1155: 933: 732: 643: 23031: 19605: 19547: 19412: 19360: 18562: 18248: 18155: 18014: 17957: 17902: 17685: 17328: 17234: 17179: 17128: 17085: 17034: 16981: 16926: 16864: 16806: 16752: 16694: 16631:

Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London. Series B, Biological Sciences

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Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London. Series B, Biological Sciences

15543:"An Expanded Ribosomal Phylogeny of Cyanobacteria Supports a Deep Placement of Plastids" 15428: 15373: 15298: 15156: 15084: 15041: 14998: 14917: 14747: 14698: 14641: 14600: 14538: 14483: 14430: 14391: 14305: 14166: 14111: 13942: 13854: 13618: 13569: 13522: 13483: 13323: 13132: 13075: 12965: 12848: 12730: 12605: 12521: 12437: 12388: 12179: 12046: 11965: 11828: 11726: 11560: 11442: 11399: 11335: 11231: 11134: 10931: 10863: 10773: 10718: 10667: 10577: 10279: 10219: 10039: 9982: 9124: 9068: 9033: 8980: 8921: 8811: 8757: 8653: 8606: 8497: 8289: 8140: 8050: 7937: 7607:

The Marine Microbiome: An Untapped Source of Biodiversity and Biotechnological Potential

7566: 7391: 7309:"A proposal for further integration of the cyanobacteria under the Bacteriological Code" 7270: 4161:

similarity between chloroplasts and cyanobacteria was first reported by German botanist

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freshwater lakes. Infection by these viruses is highly prevalent in cells belonging to

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species form loose colonies, and in the restricted zone on the root surface, specific

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9854: 9777: 9750: 9696: 9650: 9615: 9566: 9505: 9464: 9411: 9357: 9284: 9279: 9254: 9207: 9176:"Patterns and implications of gene gain and loss in the evolution of Prochlorococcus" 9146: 9080: 9076: 9002: 8945: 8883: 8823: 8769: 8723: 8675: 8618: 8591:"Primary production of the biosphere: integrating terrestrial and oceanic components" 8563: 8509: 8466: 8417: 8364: 8313: 8249: 8214: 8148: 8108: 8074: 7991: 7961: 7895: 7838: 7795: 7744: 7691: 7648: 7615: 7590: 7578: 7330: 6758: 6722:

model organism. The smallest genomes of a photosynthetic organism have been found in

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and other cyanobacteria, which were classified with algae, later reclassified as the

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were once thought to only exist in eukaryotic cells but many cyanobacteria display a

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Cavalier-Smith T (April 2000). "Membrane heredity and early chloroplast evolution".

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Claessen D, Rozen DE, Kuipers OP, Søgaard-Andersen L, van Wezel GP (February 2014).

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Each individual cell (each single cyanobacterium) typically has a thick, gelatinous

23566: 23445: 23337: 23280: 23220: 23215: 23143: 23128: 22895: 22653: 22608: 22561: 22399: 21565: 21175: 20914: 20838: 20772: 20627: 20218: 20198: 20122: 19996: 19943: 19882: 19609: 19426: 19416: 19364: 19317: 19280: 19225: 19217: 19171: 19130: 19122: 19075: 18985: 18965: 18922: 18862: 18730: 18693: 18685: 18638: 18595: 18566: 18515: 18478: 18468: 18399: 18395: 18391: 18342: 18334: 18301: 18290:"Engineering photoautotrophic carbon fixation for enhanced growth and productivity" 18260: 18252: 18159: 18110: 18102: 18069: 18028: 18018: 17983: 17961: 17914: 17875: 17838: 17689: 17643: 17386: 17376: 17332: 17291: 17248: 17238: 17203: 17183: 17152: 17132: 17089: 17058: 17038: 16985: 16950: 16930: 16868: 16830: 16810: 16776: 16756: 16698: 16646: 16638: 16604: 16551: 16516: 16496: 16446: 16436: 16397: 16362: 16325: 16276: 16235: 16188: 16150: 16140: 16099: 16091: 16050: 16040: 15993: 15950: 15825: 15817: 15759: 15714: 15706: 15665: 15613: 15605: 15564: 15554: 15507: 15442: 15432: 15377: 15302: 15255: 15170: 15160: 15088: 15045: 15002: 14958: 14921: 14835: 14796: 14759: 14751: 14702: 14653: 14645: 14604: 14552: 14542: 14507: 14487: 14434: 14387: 14352: 14309: 14229: 14221: 14180: 14170: 14115: 14062: 14021: 14013: 13958: 13946: 13929: 13899: 13891: 13858: 13807: 13788: 13768: 13728: 13718: 13669: 13659: 13622: 13573: 13526: 13487: 13465: 13444: 13434: 13393: 13383: 13335: 13327: 13288: 13249: 13241: 13214: 13192: 13146: 13136: 13087: 13079: 13026: 13018: 12977: 12969: 12920: 12912: 12895:

Conradi FD, Zhou RQ, Oeser S, Schuergers N, Wilde A, Mullineaux CW (October 2019).

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Jöhnk KD, Huisman J, Sharples J, Sommeijer B, Visser PM, Stroom JM (1 March 2008).

11235: 11186: 11176: 11138: 11060: 10978: 10935: 10890: 10867: 10785: 10777: 10742: 10722: 10691: 10671: 10628: 10591: 10581: 10532: 10502: 10474: 10470: 10466: 10425: 10415: 10335: 10293: 10283: 10231: 10223: 10174: 10133: 10092: 10084: 10043: 10035: 9994: 9986: 9945: 9935: 9902: 9844: 9836: 9740: 9736: 9732: 9688: 9662: 9642: 9605: 9597: 9556: 9548: 9495: 9454: 9446: 9401: 9393: 9347: 9339: 9274: 9270: 9266: 9197: 9187: 9136: 9128: 9072: 9037: 8992: 8984: 8935: 8925: 8873: 8865: 8835: 8815: 8781: 8761: 8715: 8665: 8657: 8610: 8555: 8521: 8501: 8456: 8448: 8407: 8399: 8354: 8344: 8303: 8293: 8204: 8194: 8144: 8064: 8054: 7951: 7941: 7887: 7828: 7785: 7775: 7734: 7724: 7570: 7399: 7395: 7320: 7282: 7131: 7067: 6750: 4976: 4899: 4440: 4399: 4228: 4105: 4064:. However, their population is argued to have varied considerably across this eon. 4035: 3867: 2709: 2556: 2364: 2354:

Collective behaviour and buoyancy strategies in single-celled cyanobacteria

2066: 2049: 1767: 1706: 1546: 1327:– climate-resistant spores that may form when environmental conditions become harsh 1120: 956: 861: 846: 837:, including cyanobacteria, can be swept high into the atmosphere where they become 697: 623: 520: 458: 18473: 18256: 18089:

Quintana N, Van der Kooy F, Van de Rhee MD, Voshol GP, Verpoorte R (August 2011).

17584: 15914:[About the nature and origin of chromatophores in the vegetable kingdom]. 15381: 14585:"Effects of tropical solar radiation on the motility of filamentous cyanobacteria" 14356: 12316: 10781: 9840: 7475: 6986:

lakes, reservoirs and estuaries. Bloom-forming cyanobacteria produce a variety of

4367: 37:"Blue-green algae" and "Green-blue algae" redirect here. For the plant algae, see 23739: 23644: 23606: 23561: 23493: 23250: 23210: 23195: 23088: 22946: 22850: 22663: 22658: 22412: 22214: 22192: 22007: 21720: 21691: 21641: 21476: 21371: 21339: 20939: 20823: 20777: 20669: 20326: 20203: 20029: 20013: 20001: 19817: 19742: 19614: 19586:"Photosynthesis and calcification of the stromatolitic freshwater cyanobacterium 19585: 19500: 18866: 18689: 18642: 17752: 17337: 17312: 15092: 14175: 12568: 12343: 12303:

Capone DG (1997). "Trichodesmium, a Globally Significant Marine Cyanobacterium".

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One former classification scheme of cyanobacterial fossils divided them into the

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Khayatan B, Bains DK, Cheng MH, Cho YW, Huynh J, Kim R, et al. (May 2017).

8590: 7891: 6911:. Cyanobacteria reproduce explosively under certain conditions. This results in 4987:. Several DNA repair genes are highly conserved in cyanobacteria, even in small 4966:

Cyanobacteria are challenged by environmental stresses and internally generated

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One of the most critical processes determining cyanobacterial eco-physiology is

2473:. These use a set of genes that regulate the production and export of sulphated 1388: 955:

Cyanobacteria are ubiquitous in marine environments and play important roles as

911:, an influential marine cyanobacterium which produces much of the world's oxygen 23799: 23744: 23734: 23576: 23390: 23342: 23255: 23230: 23225: 23205: 23200: 23103: 23093: 22926: 22865: 22856: 22753: 22709: 22517: 22480: 22394: 22286: 22227: 21730: 21707: 21410: 21323: 21310: 21305: 21206: 21055: 21050: 21009: 20934: 20813: 20748: 20709: 20699: 20396: 20127: 20042: 19918: 19529: 19401: