DNA nanotechnology

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such systems are a "molecular tweezers" design that has an open and a closed state, a device that could switch from a paranemic-crossover (PX) conformation to a (JX2) conformation with two non-junction juxtapositions of the DNA backbone, undergoing rotational motion in the process, and a two-dimensional array that could dynamically expand and contract in response to control strands. Structures have also been made that dynamically open or close, potentially acting as a molecular cage to release or reveal a functional cargo upon opening. In another example, a DNA origami nanostructure was coupled to T7 RNA polymerase and could thus be operated as a chemical energy-driven motor that can be coupled to a passive follower, which it then drives.

1480:. In both, the sequence of monomers is designed to favor the desired target structure and to disfavor other structures. Nucleic acid design has the advantage of being much computationally easier than protein design, because the simple base pairing rules are sufficient to predict a structure's energetic favorability, and detailed information about the overall three-dimensional folding of the structure is not required. This allows the use of simple heuristic methods that yield experimentally robust designs. Nucleic acid structures are less versatile than proteins in their function because of proteins' increased ability to fold into complex structures, and the limited chemical diversity of the four 733: 488:, in which molecular components spontaneously organize into stable structures; the particular form of these structures is induced by the physical and chemical properties of the components selected by the designers. In DNA nanotechnology, the component materials are strands of nucleic acids such as DNA; these strands are often synthetic and are almost always used outside the context of a living cell. DNA is well-suited to nanoscale construction because the binding between two nucleic acid strands depends on simple 653: 38: 551:, nucleic acid strands are expected in most cases to bind to each other in the conformation that maximizes the number of correctly paired bases. The sequences of bases in a system of strands thus determine the pattern of binding and the overall structure in an easily controllable way. In DNA nanotechnology, the base sequences of strands are rationally designed by researchers so that the base pairing interactions cause the strands to assemble in the desired conformation. While 7091: 1596: 71: 724: 949: 127: 7066: 882:, a coarse map of the Western Hemisphere, and the Mona Lisa painting. Solid three-dimensional structures can be made by using parallel DNA helices arranged in a honeycomb pattern, and structures with two-dimensional faces can be made to fold into a hollow overall three-dimensional shape, akin to a cardboard box. These can be programmed to open and reveal or release a molecular cargo in response to a stimulus, making them potentially useful as programmable 450: 704: 291:, but Seeman's insight was that immobile nucleic acid junctions could be created by properly designing the strand sequences to remove symmetry in the assembled molecule, and that these immobile junctions could in principle be combined into rigid crystalline lattices. The first theoretical paper proposing this scheme was published in 1982, and the first experimental demonstration of an immobile DNA junction was published the following year. 7103: 1610: 83: 814:, and while they lack the electrical conductance of carbon nanotubes, DNA nanotubes are more easily modified and connected to other structures. One of many schemes for constructing DNA nanotubes uses a lattice of curved DX tiles that curls around itself and closes into a tube. In an alternative method that allows the circumference to be specified in a simple, modular fashion using single-stranded tiles, the rigidity of the tube is an 1497: 908:. This allows the construction of materials and devices with a range of functionalities much greater than is possible with nucleic acids alone. The goal is to use the self-assembly of the nucleic acid structures to template the assembly of the nanoparticles hosted on them, controlling their position and in some cases orientation. Many of these schemes use a covalent attachment scheme, using oligonucleotides with 662: 7078: 596:, which contains two parallel double helical domains with individual strands crossing between the domains at two crossover points. Each crossover point is, topologically, a four-arm junction, but is constrained to one orientation, in contrast to the flexible single four-arm junction, providing a rigidity that makes the DX motif suitable as a structural building block for larger DNA complexes. 1181:(FRET). The constructed box was shown to have a unique reclosing mechanism, which enabled it to repeatedly open and close in response to a unique set of DNA or RNA keys. The authors proposed that this "DNA device can potentially be used for a broad range of applications such as controlling the function of single molecules, controlled drug delivery, and molecular computing." 374:'s DNA octahedron, which consisted mostly of one very long strand. Rothemund's DNA origami contains a long strand which folding is assisted by several short strands. This method allowed forming much larger structures than formerly possible, and which are less technically demanding to design and synthesize. DNA origami was the cover story of 1252:, but there are limits of safety and imprecise targeting, in addition to short shelf life in the blood stream. The DNA nanostructure created by the team consists of six strands of DNA to form a tetrahedron, with one strand of RNA affixed to each of the six edges. The tetrahedron is further equipped with targeting protein, three 1448:

After any of the above approaches are used to design the secondary structure of a target complex, an actual sequence of nucleotides that will form into the desired structure must be devised. Nucleic acid design is the process of assigning a specific nucleic acid base sequence to each of a structure's

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The first step in designing a nucleic acid nanostructure is to decide how a given structure should be represented by a specific arrangement of nucleic acid strands. This design step determines the secondary structure, or the positions of the base pairs that hold the individual strands together in the

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drug efflux pump. The results of the experiment showed the DOX was not being pumped out and apoptosis of the cancer cells was achieved. The tetrahedron without DOX was loaded into cells to test its biocompatibility, and the structure showed no cytotoxicity itself. The DNA tetrahedron was also used as

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are a class of nucleic acid nanomachines that exhibit directional motion along a linear track. A large number of schemes have been demonstrated. One strategy is to control the motion of the walker along the track using control strands that need to be manually added in sequence. It is also possible to

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has a robust, defined three-dimensional geometry that makes it possible to simulate, predict and design the structures of more complicated nucleic acid complexes. Many such structures have been created, including two- and three-dimensional structures, and periodic, aperiodic, and discrete structures.

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after one reviewer praised its originality while another criticized it for its lack of biological relevance. By the early 2010s the field was considered to have increased its abilities to the point that applications for basic science research were beginning to be realized, and practical applications

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Folding structures. An alternative to the tile-based approach, folding approaches make the nanostructure from one long strand, which can either have a designed sequence that folds due to its interactions with itself, or it can be folded into the desired shape by using shorter, "staple" strands. This

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conditions by undergoing a twisting motion. This reliance on buffer conditions caused all devices to change state at the same time. Subsequent systems could change states based upon the presence of control strands, allowing multiple devices to be independently operated in solution. Some examples of

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as inputs and outputs, molecular computers use the concentrations of specific chemical species as signals. In the case of nucleic acid strand displacement circuits, the signal is the presence of nucleic acid strands that are released or consumed by binding and unbinding events to other strands in

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where the newly revealed output sequence of one reaction can initiate another strand displacement reaction elsewhere. This in turn allows for the construction of chemical reaction networks with many components, exhibiting complex computational and information processing abilities. These cascades

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polyhedra. Subsequent work yielded polyhedra whose synthesis was much easier. These include a DNA octahedron made from a long single strand designed to fold into the correct conformation, and a tetrahedron that can be produced from four DNA strands in one step, pictured at the top of this article.

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end state. On the other hand, dynamic DNA nanotechnology focuses on complexes with useful non-equilibrium behavior such as the ability to reconfigure based on a chemical or physical stimulus. Some complexes, such as nucleic acid nanomechanical devices, combine features of both the structural and

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gain from disassembly reactions. Strand displacement cascades allow isothermal operation of the assembly or computational process, in contrast to traditional nucleic acid assembly's requirement for a thermal annealing step, where the temperature is raised and then slowly lowered to ensure proper

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DNA nanotechnology is sometimes divided into two overlapping subfields: structural DNA nanotechnology and dynamic DNA nanotechnology. Structural DNA nanotechnology, sometimes abbreviated as SDN, focuses on synthesizing and characterizing nucleic acid complexes and materials that assemble into a

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Tile-based structures. This approach breaks the target structure into smaller units with strong binding between the strands contained in each unit, and weaker interactions between the units. It is often used to make periodic lattices, but can also be used to implement algorithmic self-assembly,

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DNA nanotechnology is moving toward potential real-world applications. The ability of nucleic acid arrays to arrange other molecules indicates its potential applications in molecular scale electronics. The assembly of a nucleic acid structure could be used to template the assembly of molecular

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structure for the reactants, so that when the input strand binds, the newly revealed sequence is on the same molecule rather than disassembling. This allows new opened hairpins to be added to a growing complex. This approach has been used to make simple structures such as three- and four-arm

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Dynamic DNA nanotechnology focuses on forming nucleic acid systems with designed dynamic functionalities related to their overall structures, such as computation and mechanical motion. There is some overlap between structural and dynamic DNA nanotechnology, as structures can be formed through

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pattern of the individual molecular tiles. The earliest example of this used double-crossover (DX) complexes as the basic tiles, each containing four sticky ends designed with sequences that caused the DX units to combine into periodic two-dimensional flat sheets that are essentially rigid

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to cleave the strands and cause the walker to move forward, which has the advantage of running autonomously. A later system could walk upon a two-dimensional surface rather than a linear track, and demonstrated the ability to selectively pick up and move molecular cargo. In 2018, a

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Cascades of strand displacement reactions can be used for either computational or structural purposes. An individual strand displacement reaction involves revealing a new sequence in response to the presence of some initiator strand. Many such reactions can be linked into a

985:. These structures are initially formed in the same way as the static structures made in structural DNA nanotechnology, but are designed so that dynamic reconfiguration is possible after the initial assembly. The earliest such device made use of the transition between the 295: 402:

in medicine and other fields were beginning to be considered feasible. The field had grown from very few active laboratories in 2001 to at least 60 in 2010, which increased the talent pool and thus the number of scientific advances in the field during that decade.

362:. The idea of using DNA arrays to template the assembly of other molecules such as nanoparticles and proteins, first suggested by Bruche Robinson and Seeman in 1987, was demonstrated in 2002 by Seeman, Kiehl et al. and subsequently by many other groups. 413: 957:

process across region 2, the blue strand is displaced and freed from the complex. Reactions like these are used to dynamically reconfigure or assemble nucleic acid nanostructures. In addition, the red and blue strands can be used as signals in a

1264:, dropped by more than half. This study shows promise in using DNA nanotechnology as an effective tool to deliver treatment using the emerging RNA Interference technology. The DNA tetrahedron was also used in an effort to overcome the phenomena 869:

method. These structures consist of a long, natural virus strand as a "scaffold", which is made to fold into the desired shape by computationally designed short "staple" strands. This method has the advantages of being easy to design, as the

936:. In addition, there are nucleic acid metallization methods, in which the nucleic acid is replaced by a metal which assumes the general shape of the original nucleic acid structure, and schemes for using nucleic acid nanostructures as 346:—a motif that changes its structure in response to an input—was demonstrated in 1999 by Seeman. An improved system, which was the first nucleic acid device to make use of toehold-mediated strand displacement, was demonstrated by 778:

Two-dimensional arrays can be made to exhibit aperiodic structures whose assembly implements a specific algorithm, exhibiting one form of DNA computing. The DX tiles can have their sticky end sequences chosen so that they act as

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method for easily and robustly forming folded DNA structures of arbitrary shape. Rothemund had conceived of this method as being conceptually intermediate between Seeman's DX lattices, which used many short strands, and

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Dynamic DNA nanotechnology often makes use of toehold-mediated strand displacement reactions. In this example, the red strand binds to the single stranded toehold region on the green strand (region 1), and then in a

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in their 2004 paper on the algorithmic self-assembly of a Sierpinski gasket structure, and for which they shared the 2006 Feynman Prize in Nanotechnology. Winfree's key insight was that the DX tiles could be used as

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barcode for profiling the subcellular expression and distribution of proteins in cells for diagnostic purposes. The tetrahedral-nanostructured showed enhanced signal due to higher labeling efficiency and stability.

106: 330:, published the creation of two-dimensional lattices of DX tiles. These tile-based structures had the advantage that they provided the ability to implement DNA computing, which was demonstrated by Winfree and 1106:, where molecules that are difficult to crystallize in isolation could be arranged within a three-dimensional nucleic acid lattice, allowing determination of their structure. Another application is the use of 1572:, which is well suited to extended two-dimensional structures, but less useful for discrete three-dimensional structures because of the microscope tip's interaction with the fragile nucleic acid structure; 1026:

as the walker advances along the track, allowing autonomous multistep chemical synthesis directed by the walker. The synthetic DNA walkers' function is similar to that of the proteins dynein and kinesin.

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process. The overall effect is that one of the strands in the complex is replaced with another one. In addition, reconfigurable structures and devices can be made using functional nucleic acids such as

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Structural DNA nanotechnology, sometimes abbreviated as SDN, focuses on synthesizing and characterizing nucleic acid complexes and materials where the assembly has a static, equilibrium endpoint. The

339:, meaning that their assembly could perform computation. The synthesis of a three-dimensional lattice was finally published by Seeman in 2009, nearly thirty years after he had set out to achieve it. 928:

polyamides on a DX array was used to arrange streptavidin proteins in a specific pattern on a DX array. Carbon nanotubes have been hosted on DNA arrays in a pattern allowing the assembly to act as a

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of the target complex is determined, specifying the arrangement of nucleic acid strands within the structure, and which portions of those strands should be bound to each other. The last step is the

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DNA nanotechnology was initially met with some skepticism due to the unusual non-biological use of nucleic acids as materials for building structures and doing computation, and the preponderance of

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Forming three-dimensional lattices of DNA was the earliest goal of DNA nanotechnology, but this proved to be one of the most difficult to realize. Success using a motif based on the concept of

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on a DX complex, are used to ascertain whether the desired structures are forming properly. Each vertical lane contains a series of bands, where each band is characteristic of a particular

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modifications and induce ionic currents across the membrane. This first demonstration of a synthetic DNA ion channel was followed by a variety of pore-inducing designs ranging from a single

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The complexes constructed in structural DNA nanotechnology use topologically branched nucleic acid structures containing junctions. (In contrast, most biological DNA exists as an unbranched

584:.) One of the simplest branched structures is a four-arm junction that consists of four individual DNA strands, portions of which are complementary in a specific pattern. Unlike in natural 306:

reportedly inspired Nadrian Seeman to consider using three-dimensional lattices of DNA to orient hard-to-crystallize molecules. This led to the beginning of the field of DNA nanotechnology.

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In 1991, Seeman's laboratory published a report on the synthesis of a cube made of DNA, the first synthetic three-dimensional nucleic acid nanostructure, for which he received the 1995

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DNA nanotechnology provides one of the few ways to form designed, complex structures with precise control over nanoscale features. The field is beginning to see application to solve

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Goodman RP, Schaap IA, Tardin CF, Erben CM, Berry RM, Schmidt CF, Turberfield AJ (December 2005). "Rapid chiral assembly of rigid DNA building blocks for molecular nanofabrication".

1453:, and is thus the most thermodynamically favorable, while incorrectly assembled structures have higher energies and are thus disfavored. This is done either through simple, faster 5415:

Sundah NR, Ho NR, Lim GS, Natalia A, Ding X, Liu Y, et al. (September 2019). "Barcoded DNA nanostructures for the multiplexed profiling of subcellular protein distribution".

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on March 15, 2006. Rothemund's research demonstrating two-dimensional DNA origami structures was followed by the demonstration of solid three-dimensional DNA origami by Douglas

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Kim KR, Kim DR, Lee T, Yhee JY, Kim BS, Kwon IC, Ahn DR (March 2013). "Drug delivery by a self-assembled DNA tetrahedron for overcoming drug resistance in breast cancer cells".

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experiments that extended the abilities of the field but were far from actual applications. Seeman's 1991 paper on the synthesis of the DNA cube was rejected by the journal

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constituent strands so that they will associate into a desired conformation. Most methods have the goal of designing sequences so that the target structure has the lowest

592:, causing the junction point to be fixed at a certain position. Multiple junctions can be combined in the same complex, such as in the widely used double-crossover (DX) 247:

features. Several assembly methods are used to make these structures, including tile-based structures that assemble from smaller structures, folding structures using the

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by eliminating the difficult process of obtaining pure crystals. This idea had reportedly come to him in late 1980, after realizing the similarity between the woodcut

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Zadegan RM, Jepsen MD, Thomsen KE, Okholm AH, Schaffert DH, Andersen ES, et al. (November 2012). "Construction of a 4 zeptoliters switchable 3D DNA box origami".

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reported the self-assembly of four short strands of synthetic DNA into a cage which can enter cells and survive for at least 48 hours. The fluorescently labeled DNA

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Nucleic acid structures can be made to incorporate molecules other than nucleic acids, sometimes called heteroelements, including proteins, metallic nanoparticles,

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in 2000. The next advance was to translate this into mechanical motion, and in 2004 and 2005, several DNA walker systems were demonstrated by the groups of Seeman,

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Liu J, Geng Y, Pound E, Gyawali S, Ashton JR, Hickey J, et al. (March 2011). "Metallization of branched DNA origami for nanoelectronic circuit fabrication".

803:, displaying a representation of increasing binary numbers as it grows. These results show that computation can be incorporated into the assembly of DNA arrays. 547:, meaning that they form matching sequences of base pairs, with A only binding to T, and C only to G. Because the formation of correctly matched base pairs is 603:

to allow the nucleic acid complexes to reconfigure in response to the addition of a new nucleic acid strand. In this reaction, the incoming strand binds to a

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in the early 1980s. Seeman's original motivation was to create a three-dimensional DNA lattice for orienting other large molecules, which would simplify their

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Lin C, Ke Y, Chhabra R, Sharma J, Liu Y, Yan H (2011). "Synthesis and Characterization of Self-Assembled DNA Nanostructures". In Zuccheri G, Samorì B (eds.).

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Xiao S, Liu F, Rosen AE, Hainfeld JF, Seeman NC, Musier-Forsyth K, Kiehl RA (August 2002). "Selfassembly of metallic nanoparticle arrays by DNA scaffolding".

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Goodman RP, Heilemann M, Doose S, Erben CM, Kapanidis AN, Turberfield AJ (February 2008). "Reconfigurable, braced, three-dimensional DNA nanostructures".

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Centola, Mathias; Poppleton, Erik; Ray, Sujay; Centola, Martin; Welty, Robb; Valero, Julián; Walter, Nils G.; Šulc, Petr; Famulok, Michael (2023-10-19).

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Andersen ES, Dong M, Nielsen MM, Jahn K, Subramani R, Mamdouh W, et al. (May 2009). "Self-assembly of a nanoscale DNA box with a controllable lid".

1308:, this ensemble of synthetic DNA-made counterparts thereby spans multiple orders of magnitude in conductance. The study of the membrane-inserting single 1119: 775:

lattice, and various DX-based arrays making use of a double-cohesion scheme. The top two images at right show examples of tile-based periodic lattices.

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Doye JP, Ouldridge TE, Louis AA, Romano F, Šulc P, Matek C, et al. (December 2013). "Coarse-graining DNA for simulations of DNA nanotechnology".

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Yan H, Park SH, Finkelstein G, Reif JH, LaBean TH (September 2003). "DNA-templated self-assembly of protein arrays and highly conductive nanowires".

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showed that current must also flow on the DNA-lipid interface as no central channel lumen is present in the design that lets ions pass across the

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in diameter, essentially two-dimensional lattices which curve back upon themselves. These DNA nanotubes are somewhat similar in size and shape to

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Rothemund PW (2006). "Scaffolded DNA origami: from generalized multicrossovers to polygonal networks". In Chen J, Jonoska N, Rozenberg G (eds.).

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Chworos A, Severcan I, Koyfman AY, Weinkam P, Oroudjev E, Hansma HG, Jaeger L (December 2004). "Building programmable jigsaw puzzles with RNA".

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so that individual nucleic acid strands will assemble into the desired structures. This process usually begins with specification of a desired

371: 1204:. There has additionally been interest in expressing these artificial structures in engineered living bacterial cells, most likely using the 849:

of a polyhedron with a DNA junction at each vertex. The earliest demonstrations of DNA polyhedra were very work-intensive, requiring multiple

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in the early 1980s, and the field began to attract widespread interest in the mid-2000s. This use of nucleic acids is enabled by their strict

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was shown to walk along a DNA-path, guided by the generated RNA strand. Additionally, a linear walker has been demonstrated that performs

255:, but the same principles have been used with other types of nucleic acids as well, leading to the occasional use of the alternative name 4979:

Zadegan RM, Jepsen MD, Hildebrandt LL, Birkedal V, Kjems J (April 2015). "Construction of a fuzzy and Boolean logic gates based on DNA".

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Barish RD, Rothemund PW, Winfree E (December 2005). "Two computational primitives for algorithmic self-assembly: copying and counting".

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domains, on the top and the bottom in this image. There are two crossover points where the strands cross from one domain into the other.

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Mao C, Sun W, Seeman NC (16 June 1999). "Designed two-dimensional DNA Holliday junction arrays visualized by atomic force microscopy".

1329: 99: 4585:Škugor M, Valero J, Murayama K, Centola M, Asanuma H, Famulok M (May 2019). "Orthogonally Photocontrolled Non-Autonomous DNA Walker". 543:(T). Nucleic acids have the property that two molecules will only bind to each other to form a double helix if the two sequences are 6822: 1462: 1208:

RNA for the assembly, although it is unknown whether these complex structures are able to efficiently fold or assemble in the cell's

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Tian Y, He Y, Chen Y, Yin P, Mao C (July 2005). "A DNAzyme that walks processively and autonomously along a one-dimensional track".

1386:. This was the dominant design strategy used from the mid-1990s until the mid-2000s, when the DNA origami methodology was developed. 1150:, providing a method for nanometer-scale control of the placement and overall architecture of the device analogous to a molecular 1169:, researchers were able to construct a small multi-switchable 3D DNA Box Origami. The proposed nanoparticle was characterized by 933: 1465:

thermodynamic model, which is more accurate but slower and more computationally intensive. Geometric models are used to examine

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control individual steps of a DNA walker by irradiation with light of different wavelengths. Another approach is to make use of

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image of the assembled array. The individual DX tiles are clearly visible within the assembled structure. The field is 150

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There are potential applications for DNA nanotechnology in nanomedicine, making use of its ability to perform computation in a

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function of the initiator species, where less than one equivalent of the initiator can cause the reaction to go to completion.

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Walter NG (1 February 2003). "Probing RNA Structural Dynamics and Function by Fluorescence Resonance Energy Transfer (FRET)".

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Ellington A, Pollard JD (1 May 2001). "Purification of Oligonucleotides Using Denaturing Polyacrylamide Gel Electrophoresis".

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Applications for DNA nanotechnology in nanomedicine also focus on mimicking the structure and function of naturally occurring

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method, and dynamically reconfigurable structures using strand displacement methods. The field's name specifically references

6375: 6341: 5243: 5134: 2595: 2569: 1984: 1727: 5782:"A biomimetic DNA-based channel for the ligand-controlled transport of charged molecular cargo across a biological membrane" 3755:

Ke Y, Sharma J, Liu M, Jahn K, Liu Y, Yan H (June 2009). "Scaffolded DNA origami of a DNA tetrahedron molecular container".

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after two days. This experiment showed the potential of drug delivery inside the living cells using the DNA ‘cage’. A DNA

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Douglas SM, Bachelet I, Church GM (February 2012). "A logic-gated nanorobot for targeted transport of molecular payloads".

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Shih WM, Quispe JD, Joyce GF (February 2004). "A 1.7-kilobase single-stranded DNA that folds into a nanoscale octahedron".

2409: 1554: 1543: 1504: 1162: 1122:; using DNA origami is advantageous because, unlike liquid crystals, they are tolerant of the detergents needed to suspend 600: 322:, were not rigid enough to form extended three-dimensional lattices. Seeman developed the more rigid double-crossover (DX) 1562: 1178: 283:

and an array of DNA six-arm junctions. Several natural branched DNA structures were known at the time, including the DNA

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Yan H, Zhang X, Shen Z, Seeman NC (January 2002). "A robust DNA mechanical device controlled by hybridization topology".

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functional groups as a chemical handle to bind the heteroelements. This covalent binding scheme has been used to arrange

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step where a temperature change is required to trigger the assembly and favor proper formation of the desired structure.

878:, as most other DNA nanotechnology methods do. DNA origami was first demonstrated for two-dimensional shapes, such as a 6291: 6237: 6191: 6141: 6087: 4210:

Yurke B, Turberfield AJ, Mills AP, Simmel FC, Neumann JL (August 2000). "A DNA-fuelled molecular machine made of DNA".

6942: 1344:. This development highlights the potential of synthetic DNA nanostructures for personalized drugs and therapeutics. 161:

structures for technological uses. In this field, nucleic acids are used as non-biological engineering materials for

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Winfree E, Liu F, Wenzler LA, Seeman NC (August 1998). "Design and self-assembly of two-dimensional DNA crystals".

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Yurke, Bernard; Turberfield, Andrew J.; Mills, Allen P.; Simmel, Friedrich C.; Neumann, Jennifer L. (August 2000).

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Robinson BH, Seeman NC (August 1987). "The design of a biochip: a self-assembling molecular-scale memory device".

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Lin C, Liu Y, Rinker S, Yan H (August 2006). "DNA tile based self-assembly: building complex nanoarchitectures".

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Lin C, Liu Y, Rinker S, Yan H (August 2006). "DNA tile based self-assembly: building complex nanoarchitectures".

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two-dimensional crystals of DNA. Two-dimensional arrays have been made from other motifs as well, including the

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These four strands associate into a DNA four-arm junction because this structure maximizes the number of correct

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Qian L, Winfree E (June 2011). "Scaling up digital circuit computation with DNA strand displacement cascades".

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that flips lipids in biological membranes orders of magnitudes faster than naturally occurring proteins called

150:, and each vertex is a three-arm junction. The 4 DNA strands that form the 4 tetrahedral faces are color-coded. 4158:

Mao C, Sun W, Shen Z, Seeman NC (January 1999). "A nanomechanical device based on the B-Z transition of DNA".

3140:

Liu F, Sha R, Seeman NC (10 February 1999). "Modifying the surface features of two-dimensional DNA crystals".

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Lu Y, Liu J (December 2006). "Functional DNA nanotechnology: emerging applications of DNAzymes and aptamers".

7023: 6815: 685:. The DX complex at top will combine with other DX complexes into the two-dimensional array shown at bottom. 482: 607:

of a double-stranded complex, and then displaces one of the strands bound in the original complex through a

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Chory J, Pollard JD (1 May 2001). "Separation of Small DNA Fragments by Conventional Gel Electrophoresis".

1429:, at a constant temperature. This is in contrast to the thermodynamic approaches, which require a thermal 1272:(DOX) was conjugated with the tetrahedron and was loaded into MCF-7 breast cancer cells that contained the 4314:

Feng L, Park SH, Reif JH, Yan H (September 2003). "A two-state DNA lattice switched by DNA nanoactuator".

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such as AND, OR, and NOT gates. More recently, a four-bit circuit was demonstrated that can compute the

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Walsh AS, Yin H, Erben CM, Wood MJ, Turberfield AJ (July 2011). "DNA cage delivery to mammalian cells".

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applications. One such system being investigated uses a hollow DNA box containing proteins that induce

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DNA complexes have been made that change their conformation upon some stimulus, making them one form of

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Researchers have synthesized many three-dimensional DNA complexes that each have the connectivity of a

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Zhang DY, Seelig G (February 2011). "Dynamic DNA nanotechnology using strand-displacement reactions".

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Bath J, Green SJ, Turberfield AJ (July 2005). "A free-running DNA motor powered by a nicking enzyme".

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Zhang DY, Seelig G (February 2011). "Dynamic DNA nanotechnology using strand-displacement reactions".

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Another use of strand displacement cascades is to make dynamically assembled structures. These use a

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New abilities continued to be discovered for designed DNA structures throughout the 2000s. The first

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annealing and then reconfigured dynamically, or can be made to form dynamically in the first place.

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is predetermined by the scaffold strand sequence, and not requiring high strand purity and accurate

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Burns JR, Stulz E, Howorka S (June 2013). "Self-assembled DNA nanopores that span lipid bilayers".

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The sequences of the DNA strands making up a target structure are designed computationally, using

799:. The third image at right shows this type of array. Another system has the function of a binary 7070: 7018: 6967: 6954: 5016: 4924: 4827:"Autonomous multistep organic synthesis in a single isothermal solution mediated by a DNA walker" 4510: 4039: 3635: 3442: 3402: 1633: 1569: 1325: 1170: 883: 690: 485: 52: 29: 5732:

Göpfrich K, Zettl T, Meijering AE, Hernández-Ainsa S, Kocabey S, Liedl T, Keyser UF (May 2015).

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gel electrophoresis, which gives size and shape information for the nucleic acid complexes. An

318:. It soon became clear that these structures, polygonal shapes with flexible junctions as their 5595: 4040:"Self-assembly of carbon nanotubes into two-dimensional geometries using DNA origami templates" 3321: 3196:

Constantinou PE, Wang T, Kopatsch J, Israel LB, Zhang X, Ding B, et al. (September 2006).

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between the lipid bilayer leaflets. Utilizing this effect, they designed a synthetic DNA-built

1189: 516: 454: 5124: 4709:

Lund K, Manzo AJ, Dabby N, Michelotti N, Johnson-Buck A, Nangreave J, et al. (May 2010).

1102:. The earliest such application envisaged for the field, and one still in development, is in 4038:

Maune HT, Han SP, Barish RD, Bockrath M, Goddard WA, Rothemund PW, Winfree E (January 2010).

3950:"Finite-size, fully addressable DNA tile lattices formed by hierarchical assembly procedures" 2246: 1581: 1508: 1406: 1368:

design, which is the specification of the actual base sequences of each nucleic acid strand.

871: 854: 589: 232: 202: 169:. Researchers in the field have created static structures such as two- and three-dimensional 5828:

Göpfrich K, Li CY, Ricci M, Bhamidimarri SP, Yoo J, Gyenes B, et al. (September 2016).

4882:

Pan J, Li F, Cha TG, Chen H, Choi JH (August 2015). "Recent progress on DNA based walkers".

3497:

Zheng J, Birktoft JJ, Chen Y, Wang T, Sha R, Constantinou PE, et al. (September 2009).

924:

protein molecules into specific patterns on a DX array. A non-covalent hosting scheme using

388:

and Yan demonstrated hollow three-dimensional structures made out of two-dimensional faces.

243:

that will selectively assemble to form complex target structures with precisely controlled

6894: 6758: 6660: 6541: 6449: 6407: 5891: 5793: 5745: 5587: 5533: 5472: 5336: 5325:"Molecularly self-assembled nucleic acid nanoparticles for targeted in vivo siRNA delivery" 5080: 5028: 4936: 4838: 4780: 4722: 4638: 4558: 4411: 4367: 4323: 4271: 4219: 4167: 4051: 3961: 3903: 3764: 3702: 3647: 3592: 3510: 3454: 3401:

Rothemund PW, Ekani-Nkodo A, Papadakis N, Kumar A, Fygenson DK, Winfree E (December 2004).

3313: 3259: 3097: 2990: 2887: 2738: 2677: 2621: 2458: 2373: 2320: 2261: 2205: 2125: 2066: 2019: 1909: 1762: 1670: 1558: 1265: 1054: 959: 741:

An example of an aperiodic two-dimensional lattice that assembles into a fractal pattern.

573: 560: 315: 6505: 5632:

Burns JR, Göpfrich K, Wood JW, Thacker VV, Stulz E, Keyser UF, Howorka S (November 2013).

5459:

Langecker M, Arnaut V, Martin TG, List J, Renner S, Mayer M, et al. (November 2012).

5323:

Lee H, Lytton-Jean AK, Chen Y, Love KT, Park AI, Karagiannis ED, et al. (June 2012).

4455:"A rhythmically pulsing leaf-spring DNA-origami nanoengine that drives a passive follower" 3723: 3499:"From molecular to macroscopic via the rational design of a self-assembled 3D DNA crystal" 1846: 1531:, and strands of custom sequences are commercially available. Strands can be purified by 477:

is often defined as the study of materials and devices with features on a scale below 100

8: 7041: 6930: 6594:.—A news article focusing on the history of the field and development of new applications 1535: 1500: 1443: 1430: 1418: 1155: 1037: 497: 240: 131: 6762: 6664: 6545: 6453: 6411: 6174:

Gallagher SR, Desjardins P (1 July 2011). "Quantitation of nucleic acids and proteins".

6066:

Ellington A, Pollard JD (1 May 2001). "Synthesis and Purification of Oligonucleotides".

5895: 5878:

Ohmann A, Li CY, Maffeo C, Al Nahas K, Baumann KN, Göpfrich K, et al. (June 2018).

5797: 5749: 5591: 5537: 5476: 5340: 5084: 5032: 4940: 4842: 4784: 4726: 4642: 4562: 4485: 4415: 4371: 4327: 4275: 4223: 4171: 4055: 3965: 3907: 3892:"Two-dimensional nanoparticle arrays show the organizational power of robust DNA motifs" 3768: 3706: 3651: 3596: 3514: 3458: 3317: 3263: 3101: 2994: 2891: 2742: 2681: 2625: 2462: 2377: 2324: 2265: 2209: 2129: 2070: 2023: 1913: 1766: 1674: 1260:

found on some tumors. The result showed that the gene expression targeted by the RNAi,

6626: 6599: 6514: 6489: 6470: 6437: 6305: 6251: 6197: 6155: 6101: 5912: 5879: 5854: 5829: 5708: 5683: 5658: 5633: 5554: 5521: 5493: 5460: 5440: 5357: 5324: 5219: 5194: 5104: 5052: 4960: 4859: 4826: 4801: 4768: 4743: 4710: 4610: 4435: 4295: 4243: 4191: 3924: 3891: 3871: 3827: 3736: 3671: 3616: 3531: 3498: 3478: 3280: 3247: 3222: 3197: 3121: 3014: 2911: 2877: 2808: 2783: 2698: 2665: 2645: 2479: 2446: 2341: 2308: 2285: 2221: 2090: 1930: 1897: 1855: 1830: 1694: 1516: 1470: 1426: 1413:

in addition to the final product. This is done using starting materials which adopt a

1410: 1213: 1131: 1095: 1006: 788: 496:. These qualities make the assembly of nucleic acid structures easy to control through 392: 355: 194: 16:

The design and manufacture of artificial nucleic acid structures for technological uses

6419: 6042: 6017: 5959: 5942: 5880:"A synthetic enzyme built from DNA flips 10 lipids per second in biological membranes" 5733: 5520:

Göpfrich K, Li CY, Mames I, Bhamidimarri SP, Ricci M, Yoo J, et al. (July 2016).

4549:

Sherman WB, Seeman NC (July 2004). "A precisely controlled DNA biped walking device".

3799: 3064: 3037: 2958: 2931: 2536: 2509: 1774: 7107: 6774: 6736: 6706: 6676: 6631: 6585: 6557: 6519: 6475: 6423: 6371: 6347: 6337: 6297: 6287: 6243: 6233: 6187: 6147: 6137: 6105: 6093: 6083: 6047: 5992: 5917: 5859: 5809: 5761: 5713: 5684:"Bilayer-spanning DNA nanopores with voltage-switching between open and closed state" 5663: 5613: 5559: 5498: 5444: 5432: 5397: 5362: 5282: 5224: 5174: 5130: 5096: 5044: 4996: 4952: 4899: 4864: 4806: 4748: 4690: 4654: 4602: 4530: 4490: 4472: 4454: 4427: 4383: 4339: 4287: 4235: 4183: 4139: 4103: 4067: 4019: 3979: 3929: 3890:

Zheng J, Constantinou PE, Micheel C, Alivisatos AP, Kiehl RA, Seeman NC (July 2006).

3875: 3863: 3831: 3819: 3780: 3728: 3663: 3608: 3536: 3470: 3422: 3382: 3339: 3285: 3227: 3113: 3069: 3018: 3006: 2963: 2903: 2849: 2813: 2754: 2703: 2637: 2591: 2565: 2541: 2484: 2389: 2346: 2277: 2177: 2141: 2082: 2035: 1980: 1935: 1860: 1778: 1723: 1686: 1638: 1615: 1450: 1402: 1324:

reorient to face towards the membrane-inserted part of the DNA. Researchers from the

1281: 1217: 1166: 1019: 917: 815: 800: 796: 769: 753:, DNA arrays that display a representation of the Sierpinski gasket on their surfaces 746: 585: 397: 319: 288: 182: 170: 87: 6255: 6201: 6159: 5108: 5056: 4614: 4299: 3482: 2915: 1698: 1057:

capable of complex computation. Unlike traditional electronic computers, which use

555:

is the dominant material used, structures incorporating other nucleic acids such as

7051: 6766: 6728: 6698: 6668: 6621: 6611: 6577: 6549: 6509: 6501: 6465: 6457: 6415: 6329: 6309: 6279: 6225: 6183: 6179: 6129: 6075: 6037: 6029: 5984: 5954: 5907: 5899: 5849: 5841: 5801: 5753: 5703: 5695: 5653: 5645: 5605: 5549: 5541: 5488: 5480: 5424: 5389: 5352: 5344: 5274: 5214: 5206: 5166: 5088: 5036: 4988: 4964: 4944: 4891: 4854: 4846: 4796: 4788: 4738: 4730: 4682: 4646: 4594: 4566: 4522: 4480: 4462: 4439: 4419: 4375: 4331: 4279: 4247: 4227: 4195: 4175: 4131: 4095: 4059: 4011: 3969: 3919: 3911: 3855: 3811: 3772: 3740: 3718: 3710: 3675: 3655: 3620: 3600: 3564: 3526: 3518: 3462: 3414: 3374: 3331: 3275: 3267: 3217: 3209: 3177: 3149: 3125: 3105: 3059: 3049: 2998: 2953: 2943: 2895: 2841: 2803: 2795: 2746: 2693: 2685: 2649: 2629: 2531: 2521: 2474: 2466: 2381: 2336: 2328: 2289: 2269: 2225: 2213: 2169: 2133: 2094: 2074: 2027: 1972: 1925: 1917: 1850: 1842: 1770: 1678: 1237: 1185: 1123: 1058: 954: 608: 593: 376: 323: 284: 244: 6689:

Feldkamp U, Niemeyer CM (March 2006). "Rational design of DNA nanoarchitectures".

6581: 6553: 3948:

Park SH, Pistol C, Ahn SJ, Reif JH, Lebeck AR, Dwyer C, LaBean TH (January 2006).

3365:

Feldkamp U, Niemeyer CM (March 2006). "Rational design of DNA nanoarchitectures".

2385: 2031: 1580:

are often used in this case. Extended three-dimensional lattices are analyzed by

1041:

are made energetically favorable through the formation of new base pairs, and the

825:, a balance between tension and compression forces, was finally reported in 2009. 492:

rules which are well understood, and form the specific nanoscale structure of the

7000: 6987: 6925: 6283: 6229: 6133: 6079: 5781: 5757: 5682:

Seifert A, Göpfrich K, Burns JR, Fertig N, Keyser UF, Howorka S (February 2015).

5545: 4895: 3636:"Fractal assembly of micrometre-scale DNA origami arrays with arbitrary patterns" 3555:

Zhang Y, Seeman NC (1 March 1994). "Construction of a DNA-truncated octahedron".

3054: 2948: 2845: 2526: 1353: 1301: 1257: 1139: 1111: 1103: 994: 846: 811: 763:

and combined into larger two-dimensional periodic lattices containing a specific

732: 272: 6333: 3846:

Endo M, Sugiyama H (October 2009). "Chemical approaches to DNA nanotechnology".

2417: 1804: 500:. This property is absent in other materials used in nanotechnology, including 7095: 6889: 6831: 5903: 4467: 3441:

Yin P, Hariadi RF, Sahu S, Choi HM, Park SH, Labean TH, Reif JH (August 2008).

1797: 1601: 1477: 1273: 1244:. Delivery of the interfering RNA for treatment has showed some success using 1147: 710:, a model of a DNA tile used to make another two-dimensional periodic lattice. 505: 474: 331: 268: 221: 166: 162: 75: 37: 6794: 5428: 4792: 4122:

Deng Z, Mao C (August 2004). "Molecular lithography with DNA nanostructures".

3815: 2799: 2217: 2173: 652: 7122: 6909: 4769:"A bio-hybrid DNA rotor-stator nanoengine that moves along predefined tracks" 4476: 3999: 3823: 2086: 1383: 1332:

then demonstrated that such a DNA-induced toroidal pore can facilitate rapid

1313: 1289: 1091: 1010: 875: 783:, allowing them to perform computation. A DX array whose assembly encodes an 613: 347: 190: 186: 6528:—A more comprehensive review including both old and new results in the field 5845: 5484: 5092: 5040: 4423: 3466: 3002: 2633: 1976: 1682: 1134:. Further, DNA origami structures have aided in the biophysical studies of 1130:

have been used as nanoscale assembly lines to move nanoparticles and direct

7046: 6937: 6884: 6778: 6740: 6732: 6710: 6702: 6680: 6672: 6635: 6589: 6561: 6532:

Service RF (June 2011). "DNA nanotechnology. DNA nanotechnology grows up".

6523: 6479: 6427: 6351: 6301: 6247: 6151: 6097: 6051: 5996: 5988: 5921: 5863: 5813: 5805: 5765: 5717: 5667: 5649: 5634:"Lipid-bilayer-spanning DNA nanopores with a bifunctional porphyrin anchor" 5617: 5563: 5502: 5436: 5401: 5366: 5286: 5228: 5178: 5100: 5048: 5000: 4992: 4956: 4903: 4868: 4850: 4810: 4752: 4694: 4686: 4658: 4650: 4606: 4598: 4534: 4494: 4431: 4387: 4343: 4335: 4291: 4239: 4143: 4135: 4107: 4071: 4063: 4023: 4015: 3983: 3974: 3949: 3933: 3867: 3859: 3784: 3732: 3667: 3612: 3540: 3474: 3426: 3386: 3378: 3343: 3289: 3231: 3073: 3010: 2967: 2907: 2853: 2817: 2758: 2707: 2689: 2641: 2545: 2488: 2393: 2364:

Service RF (June 2011). "DNA nanotechnology. DNA nanotechnology grows up".

2350: 2281: 2145: 2137: 2054: 2039: 2010:

Service RF (June 2011). "DNA nanotechnology. DNA nanotechnology grows up".

1939: 1921: 1864: 1782: 1690: 1550: 1523:

software. The nucleic acids themselves are then synthesized using standard

1305: 982: 925: 921: 865:

Nanostructures of arbitrary, non-regular shapes are usually made using the

784: 764: 509: 462: 351: 327: 303: 280: 214: 158: 135: 5348: 4187: 3117: 2181: 1565:(FRET) are sometimes used to characterize the structure of the complexes. 1070:

of the integers 0–15, using a system of gates containing 130 DNA strands.

787:

operation has been demonstrated; this allows the DNA array to implement a

6616: 6033: 5461:"Synthetic lipid membrane channels formed by designed DNA nanostructures" 4379: 3798:

Zaborova, O. V.; Voinova, A. D.; Shmykov, B. D.; Sergeyev, V. G. (2021).

1624:

International Society for Nanoscale Science, Computation, and Engineering

1391: 1341: 1293: 1288:

introduced a pore-shaped DNA origami structure that can self-insert into

1269: 1233: 1221: 1201: 1107: 1067: 1063: 976: 937: 897: 866: 366: 343: 248: 4948: 4734: 3714: 3659: 3604: 3568: 3522: 2332: 2273: 1394:, which allows forming nanoscale two- and three-dimensional shapes (see 588:, each arm in the artificial immobile four-arm junction has a different 126: 6370:. Sausalito, Calif: University Science Books. pp. 84–86, 396–407. 5393: 2899: 1481: 1333: 1261: 1193: 1151: 1099: 1015: 1001: 850: 842: 834: 822: 760: 682: 604: 524: 520: 267:

The conceptual foundation for DNA nanotechnology was first laid out by

220:

The conceptual foundation for DNA nanotechnology was first laid out by

198: 178: 7090: 6770: 6568:

Service RF (June 2011). "DNA nanotechnology. Next step: DNA robots?".

6461: 5699: 5609: 5278: 5210: 5170: 4570: 4526: 4099: 3915: 3776: 3418: 3335: 3271: 3246:

Mathieu F, Liao S, Kopatsch J, Wang T, Mao C, Seeman NC (April 2005).

3181: 3153: 2750: 2470: 1595: 1469:

of the nanostructures and to ensure that the complexes are not overly

1300:, to small tile-based structures, and large DNA origami transmembrane 948: 70: 6917: 6783:—A review of DNA systems making use of strand displacement mechanisms 5731: 4231: 3213: 2307:

Douglas SM, Dietz H, Liedl T, Högberg B, Graf F, Shih WM (May 2009).

2078: 1454: 1414: 1209: 1197: 1079: 1074: 1047: 905: 807: 780: 723: 703: 694: 489: 478: 449: 418: 336: 225: 143: 4283: 2586:

Long EC (1996). "Fundamentals of nucleic acids". In Hecht SM (ed.).

1538:

if needed, and precise concentrations determined via any of several

674:, schematic diagram. Each bar represents a double-helical domain of 5734:"DNA-Tile Structures Induce Ionic Currents through Lipid Membranes" 1496: 1158:

because of the coupling of computation to its material properties.

858: 617: 532: 430: 174: 7102: 4179: 3889: 3400: 3109: 2882: 1609: 1557:

can assess whether a structure incorporates all desired strands.

82: 6800: 6715:—A review coming from the viewpoint of secondary structure design 2562:

Self-assembly: the science of things that put themselves together

1720:

Self-assembly: the science of things that put themselves together

1245: 1229: 1042: 792: 772: 621: 540: 536: 528: 501: 434: 426: 422: 6438:"Structural DNA nanotechnology: growing along with Nano Letters" 4978: 2447:"Structural DNA nanotechnology: growing along with Nano Letters" 1898:"Challenges and opportunities for structural DNA nanotechnology" 1417:

structure; these then assemble into the final conformation in a

512:, which lack the capability for specific assembly on their own. 441:

for a more realistic model of the four-arm junction showing its

1961:. Natural Computing Series. New York: Springer. pp. 3–21. 1337: 1253: 1225: 1135: 879: 661: 294: 6398:

Seeman NC (June 2004). "Nanotechnology and the double helix".

6328:. Methods in Molecular Biology. Vol. 749. pp. 1–11. 5522:"Ion Channels Made from a Single Membrane-Spanning DNA Duplex" 5015:

Seelig G, Soloveichik D, Zhang DY, Winfree E (December 2006).

3800:"Solid Lipid Nanoparticles for the Nucleic Acid Encapsulation" 3797: 3195: 2309:"Self-assembly of DNA into nanoscale three-dimensional shapes" 1753:

Seeman NC (June 2004). "Nanotechnology and the double helix".

6432:—An article written for laypeople by the founder of the field 5830:"Large-Conductance Transmembrane Porin Made from DNA Origami" 5014: 4767:

Valero J, Pal N, Dhakal S, Walter NG, Famulok M (June 2018).

2611: 1321: 1317: 1249: 1224:

were found to remain intact in the laboratory cultured human

1062:

displacement complexes. This approach has been used to make

990: 986: 913: 909: 901: 165:

rather than as the carriers of genetic information in living

6600:"Structural DNA nanotechnology: from design to applications" 5302:"Researchers achieve RNA interference, in a lighter package" 1722:. New York: Chapman & Hall/CRC. pp. 201, 242, 259. 1256:

molecules, which lead the DNA nanoparticles to the abundant

1200:, or cell death, that will only open when in proximity to a 806:

DX arrays have been made to form hollow nanotubes 4–20

6365: 5827: 5519: 4584: 4209: 3403:"Design and characterization of programmable DNA nanotubes" 2052: 1377:

desired shape. Several approaches have been demonstrated:

1240:(RNAi) in a mouse model, reported a team of researchers in 838: 6745:—A minireview specifically focusing on tile-based assembly 6016:

Dirks RM, Lin M, Winfree E, Pierce NA (15 February 2004).

5780:

Burns JR, Seifert A, Fertig N, Howorka S (February 2016).

5681: 5156: 4452: 4357: 1154:. DNA nanotechnology has been compared to the concept of 1046:

formation of the desired structure. They can also support

1018:

DNA that uses rolling circle transcription by an attached

624:, which can bind to specific proteins or small molecules. 5779: 5458: 3035: 1549:

The fully formed target structures can be verified using

1241: 675: 556: 552: 458: 252: 139: 5631: 4708: 2867: 2306: 1660: 940:

masks, transferring their pattern into a solid surface.

6651:

Bath J, Turberfield AJ (May 2007). "DNA nanomachines".

3692: 3245: 3087: 3038:"Algorithmic self-assembly of DNA Sierpinski triangles" 2116:

Bath J, Turberfield AJ (May 2007). "DNA nanomachines".

1425:

below). This approach has the advantage of proceeding

1316:. This indicated that the DNA-induced lipid pore has a 189:. The field is beginning to be used as a tool to solve 181:, and arbitrary shapes, and functional devices such as 5877: 5322: 4923:

Yin P, Choi HM, Calvert CR, Pierce NA (January 2008).

4037: 3633: 3303: 3036:

Rothemund PW, Papadakis N, Winfree E (December 2004).

2980: 1401:

Dynamic assembly. This approach directly controls the

714:, an atomic force micrograph of the assembled lattice. 481:. DNA nanotechnology, specifically, is an example of 6015: 4766: 4401: 3496: 3030: 3028: 2247:"Folding DNA to create nanoscale shapes and patterns" 1284:

with designed DNA nanostructures. In 2012, Langecker

519:

of a nucleic acid molecule consists of a sequence of

6640:—A very recent and comprehensive review in the field 6368:

Nucleic acids: structures, properties, and functions

5192: 4922: 4711:"Molecular robots guided by prescriptive landscapes" 4672: 3998:

Cohen JD, Sadowski JP, Dervan PB (22 October 2007).

2590:. New York: Oxford University Press. pp. 4–10. 2195: 2188: 1896:

Pinheiro AV, Han D, Shih WM, Yan H (November 2011).

1591: 6173: 5870: 5451: 4085: 4000:"Addressing single molecules on DNA nanostructures" 3997: 2564:. New York: Chapman & Hall/CRC. pp. 5, 7. 2239: 2237: 2235: 1890: 1888: 1886: 1884: 1882: 1880: 1878: 1876: 1874: 1161:In a study conducted by a group of scientists from 599:Dynamic DNA nanotechnology uses a mechanism called 209:to determine structures. Potential applications in 207:

nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy of proteins

6323: 5514: 5512: 5414: 4261: 3634:Tikhomirov G, Petersen P, Qian L (December 2017). 3440: 3198:"Double cohesion in structural DNA nanotechnology" 3025: 1895: 1568:Nucleic acid structures can be directly imaged by 1053:Strand displacement complexes can be used to make 759:Small nucleic acid complexes can be equipped with 142:tetrahedron. Each edge of the tetrahedron is a 20 6176:Current Protocols Essential Laboratory Techniques 6018:"Paradigms for computational nucleic acid design" 5577: 5264: 4925:"Programming biomolecular self-assembly pathways" 3947: 1422: 527:they contain. In DNA, the four bases present are 228:rules, which cause only portions of strands with 7120: 6688: 6685:—A review of nucleic acid nanomechanical devices 6366:Bloomfield VA, Crothers DM, Tinoco Jr I (2000). 6119: 6065: 4511:"A synthetic DNA walker for molecular transport" 4157: 3364: 2439: 2437: 2435: 2232: 1951: 1949: 1871: 1216:of nucleic acid nanostructures. Scientists at 627: 130:DNA nanotechnology involves forming artificial, 6718: 6650: 5974: 5940: 5509: 4313: 3754: 3582: 2510:"The emergence of complexity: lessons from DNA" 2115: 2110: 2108: 2106: 2104: 1030: 5935: 5933: 5931: 5820: 5195:"From DNA nanotechnology to synthetic biology" 5193:Jungmann R, Renner S, Simmel FC (April 2008). 3838: 3687: 3685: 2784:"An overview of structural DNA nanotechnology" 2159: 1747: 1745: 1743: 1741: 1739: 1629:Comparison of nucleic acid simulation software 469: 6816: 6597: 5724: 5379: 5299: 4917: 4915: 4913: 4628: 4548: 2432: 2055:"A DNA-fuelled molecular machine made of DNA" 1946: 943: 107: 6484:—A review of results in the period 2001–2010 6215: 6010: 6008: 6006: 5943:"Strand design for biomolecular computation" 5241: 4977:Fuzzy and Boolean logic gates based on DNA: 4881: 4394: 3845: 3167: 3139: 2776: 2774: 2772: 2770: 2768: 2723: 2721: 2719: 2717: 2101: 1823: 1821: 1819: 1817: 1815: 1405:of DNA self-assembly, specifying all of the 620:, which can perform chemical reactions, and 157:is the design and manufacture of artificial 6797:—a video introduction to DNA nanotechnology 6748: 6604:International Journal of Molecular Sciences 6272:Current Protocols in Nucleic Acid Chemistry 5941:Brenneman A, Condon A (25 September 2002). 5928: 5674: 5624: 5570: 5070: 3682: 3554: 3359: 3357: 3355: 3353: 2728: 1736: 1655: 1653: 1127: 6823: 6809: 4910: 4508: 2666:"The emerging field of RNA nanotechnology" 2301: 2299: 1330:University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign 845:, meaning that the DNA duplexes trace the 365:In 2006, Rothemund first demonstrated the 114: 100: 6625: 6615: 6513: 6469: 6041: 6003: 5958: 5911: 5853: 5772: 5707: 5657: 5599: 5553: 5492: 5356: 5244:"DNA cages can unleash meds inside cells" 5218: 5017:"Enzyme-free nucleic acid logic circuits" 4858: 4800: 4742: 4484: 4466: 3973: 3923: 3722: 3530: 3325: 3279: 3221: 3063: 3053: 2957: 2947: 2881: 2807: 2765: 2714: 2697: 2535: 2525: 2478: 2340: 2244: 2004: 2002: 2000: 1998: 1996: 1966: 1956: 1929: 1854: 1812: 1712: 1710: 1708: 1476:Nucleic acid design has similar goals to 1304:. Similar to naturally occurring protein 970: 4515:Journal of the American Chemical Society 3557:Journal of the American Chemical Society 3489: 3407:Journal of the American Chemical Society 3350: 3170:Journal of the American Chemical Society 3142:Journal of the American Chemical Society 2860: 2502: 2500: 2498: 1650: 1495: 1491: 1395: 947: 702: 448: 412: 293: 125: 6567: 6531: 5122: 4121: 2559: 2363: 2296: 2152: 2009: 1959:Nanotechnology: science and computation 1717: 934:carbon nanotube field-effect transistor 408: 235:to bind together to form strong, rigid 7121: 6487: 6435: 6397: 6269: 6218:Current Protocols in Molecular Biology 6122:Current Protocols in Molecular Biology 6068:Current Protocols in Molecular Biology 2929: 2781: 2444: 2407: 1993: 1828: 1805:"DNA cages containing oriented guests" 1752: 1705: 828: 6804: 6506:10.1146/annurev-biochem-060308-102244 4824: 4509:Shin JS, Pierce NA (September 2004). 3443:"Programming DNA tube circumferences" 3248:"Six-helix bundles designed from DNA" 2831: 2495: 1847:10.1146/annurev-biochem-060308-102244 1228:cells despite the attack by cellular 891: 326:, and in 1998, in collaboration with 7077: 5126:Molecular engineering of nanosystems 3202:Organic & Biomolecular Chemistry 2585: 1802:for a statement of the problem, and 1555:electrophoretic mobility shift assay 1371: 1212:. If successful, this could enable 920:on a DX-based array, and to arrange 642: 601:toehold-mediated strand displacement 6598:Zadegan RM, Norton ML (June 2012). 2870:Physical Chemistry Chemical Physics 2663: 2588:Bioorganic chemistry: nucleic acids 2507: 1544:ultraviolet absorbance spectroscopy 1421:reaction, in a specific order (see 1320:shape, rather than cylindrical, as 13: 6830: 6387: 1798:"Current crystallization protocol" 1437: 563:(PNA) have also been constructed. 14: 7140: 6788: 6420:10.1038/scientificamerican0604-64 3804:Reviews and Advances in Chemistry 1775:10.1038/scientificamerican0604-64 1563:Förster resonance energy transfer 1527:methods, usually automated in an 1188:format to make "smart drugs" for 1179:Förster resonance energy transfer 241:rational design of base sequences 7101: 7089: 7076: 7065: 7064: 6358: 4884:Current Opinion in Biotechnology 2834:Current Opinion in Biotechnology 2198:Journal of Nanoparticle Research 1608: 1594: 1574:transmission electron microscopy 1175:transmission electron microscopy 993:forms to respond to a change in 731: 722: 660: 651: 239:structures. This allows for the 81: 69: 36: 6316: 6262: 6208: 6166: 6112: 6058: 5967: 5408: 5373: 5316: 5293: 5258: 5235: 5185: 5150: 5115: 5063: 5007: 4971: 4875: 4817: 4759: 4701: 4665: 4621: 4577: 4541: 4501: 4446: 4350: 4306: 4254: 4202: 4150: 4114: 4078: 4030: 3990: 3940: 3882: 3791: 3747: 3627: 3575: 3547: 3433: 3393: 3296: 3238: 3188: 3160: 3132: 3080: 2974: 2922: 2824: 2780:Structural DNA nanotechnology: 2656: 2604: 2578: 2552: 2400: 2357: 1360:or function. Then, the overall 1085: 678:, with the shapes representing 312:Feynman Prize in Nanotechnology 24:Part of a series of articles on 6184:10.1002/9780470089941.et0202s5 5129:. Springer. pp. 209–212. 5069:Strand displacement cascades: 5013:Strand displacement cascades: 4825:He Y, Liu DR (November 2010). 3724:11858/00-001M-0000-0010-9363-9 2866:Simulation of DNA structures: 2046: 1789: 1459:sequence symmetry minimization 605:single-stranded toehold region 1: 7024:Scanning tunneling microscope 6582:10.1126/science.332.6034.1142 6554:10.1126/science.332.6034.1140 6494:Annual Review of Biochemistry 5960:10.1016/S0304-3975(02)00135-4 5417:Nature Biomedical Engineering 5300:Trafton, Anne (4 June 2012). 2386:10.1126/science.332.6034.1140 2032:10.1126/science.332.6034.1140 1835:Annual Review of Biochemistry 1644: 628:Structural DNA nanotechnology 461:single strands that form two 314:. This was followed by a DNA 217:are also being investigated. 6490:"Nanomaterials based on DNA" 6284:10.1002/0471142700.nc1110s11 6230:10.1002/0471142727.mb0207s47 6134:10.1002/0471142727.mb0212s42 6080:10.1002/0471142727.mb0211s42 5947:Theoretical Computer Science 5758:10.1021/acs.nanolett.5b00189 5546:10.1021/acs.nanolett.6b02039 5242:Lovy, Howard (5 July 2011). 4896:10.1016/j.copbio.2014.11.017 3055:10.1371/journal.pbio.0020424 2949:10.1371/journal.pbio.0020073 2846:10.1016/j.copbio.2006.10.004 2830:Dynamic DNA nanotechnology: 2727:Dynamic DNA nanotechnology: 2527:10.1371/journal.pbio.0020431 1831:"Nanomaterials based on DNA" 1807:. Nadrian Seeman Laboratory. 1423:Strand displacement cascades 1146:electronic elements such as 1031:Strand displacement cascades 670:The assembly of a DX array. 566: 201:, including applications in 7: 6996:Molecular scale electronics 6334:10.1007/978-1-61779-142-0_1 3302:Algorithmic self-assembly: 3034:Algorithmic self-assembly: 2782:Seeman NC (November 2007). 2245:Rothemund PW (March 2006). 1587: 1529:oligonucleotide synthesizer 1382:making them a platform for 1352:DNA nanostructures must be 470:Properties of nucleic acids 453:This double-crossover (DX) 384:in 2009, while the labs of 257:nucleic acid nanotechnology 211:molecular scale electronics 10: 7145: 6795:What is Bionanotechnology? 5904:10.1038/s41467-018-04821-5 4468:10.1038/s41565-023-01516-x 3495:Three-dimensional arrays: 1809:for the proposed solution. 1484:as compared to the twenty 1441: 974: 944:Dynamic DNA nanotechnology 262: 7060: 7032: 7011:Scanning probe microscopy 7009: 6986: 6953: 6908: 6871: 6838: 5429:10.1038/s41551-019-0417-0 4793:10.1038/s41565-018-0109-z 3816:10.1134/S2079978021030055 2800:10.1007/s12033-007-0059-4 1540:nucleic acid quantitation 1525:oligonucleotide synthesis 1486:proteinogenic amino acids 1347: 1116:residual dipolar coupling 634:nucleic acid double helix 494:nucleic acid double helix 7034:Molecular nanotechnology 6978:Solid lipid nanoparticle 6963:Self-assembled monolayer 5246:. fiercedrugdelivery.com 4823:Functional DNA walkers: 4765:Functional DNA walkers: 4707:Functional DNA walkers: 2408:Hopkin K (August 2011). 1578:cryo-electron microscopy 1390:latter method is called 1120:protein NMR spectroscopy 48:Self-assembled monolayer 7019:Atomic force microscope 6968:Supramolecular assembly 6955:Molecular self-assembly 6436:Seeman NC (June 2010). 5846:10.1021/acsnano.6b03759 5485:10.1126/science.1225624 5382:Chemical Communications 5093:10.1126/science.1200520 5041:10.1126/science.1132493 4424:10.1126/science.1214081 3467:10.1126/science.1157312 3003:10.1126/science.1089389 2930:Strong M (March 2004). 2788:Molecular Biotechnology 2664:Guo P (December 2010). 2634:10.1126/science.1104686 2508:Mao C (December 2004). 2445:Seeman NC (June 2010). 2218:10.1023/A:1021145208328 2174:10.1093/protein/1.4.295 1977:10.1007/3-540-30296-4_1 1683:10.1126/science.1120367 1634:Molecular models of DNA 1570:atomic force microscopy 1326:University of Cambridge 1171:atomic force microscopy 1024:DNA-templated synthesis 691:atomic force microscopy 549:energetically favorable 523:distinguished by which 508:is very difficult, and 486:molecular self-assembly 53:Supramolecular assembly 30:Molecular self-assembly 6733:10.1002/cphc.200600260 6703:10.1002/anie.200502358 6673:10.1038/nnano.2007.104 6540:(6034): 1140–1, 1143. 6022:Nucleic Acids Research 5989:10.1002/cphc.200600260 5806:10.1038/nnano.2015.279 5650:10.1002/anie.201305765 4993:10.1002/smll.201402755 4851:10.1038/nnano.2010.190 4687:10.1002/anie.200501262 4651:10.1002/ange.200500703 4599:10.1002/anie.201901272 4336:10.1002/ange.200351818 4136:10.1002/anie.200460257 4064:10.1038/nnano.2009.311 4016:10.1002/anie.200702767 3975:10.1002/ange.200690141 3860:10.1002/cbic.200900286 3379:10.1002/anie.200502358 2932:"Protein nanomachines" 2690:10.1038/nnano.2010.231 2372:(6034): 1140–1, 1143. 2138:10.1038/nnano.2007.104 2018:(6034): 1140–1, 1143. 2008:History/applications: 1922:10.1038/nnano.2011.187 1521:thermodynamic modeling 1512: 1503:methods, such as this 1190:targeted drug delivery 971:Nanomechanical devices 963: 715: 466: 455:supramolecular complex 446: 307: 273:crystallographic study 151: 134:nanostructures out of 7108:Technology portal 6653:Nature Nanotechnology 5884:Nature Communications 5786:Nature Nanotechnology 5349:10.1038/NNANO.2012.73 5329:Nature Nanotechnology 4831:Nature Nanotechnology 4773:Nature Nanotechnology 4459:Nature Nanotechnology 4360:Nature Nanotechnology 4044:Nature Nanotechnology 2670:Nature Nanotechnology 2118:Nature Nanotechnology 1902:Nature Nanotechnology 1800:. Nadrian Seeman Lab. 1582:X-ray crystallography 1509:reaction intermediate 1499: 1492:Materials and methods 1461:, or by using a full 1055:molecular logic gates 951: 855:solid-phase synthesis 706: 452: 416: 297: 203:X-ray crystallography 129: 88:Technology portal 6895:Green nanotechnology 6645:Specific subfields: 6617:10.3390/ijms13067149 6278:: 11.10.1–11.10.23. 4380:10.1038/nnano.2008.3 2662:RNA nanotechnology: 2610:RNA nanotechnology: 1559:Fluorescent labeling 1266:multidrug resistance 1236:was used to deliver 1165:and CDNA centers in 960:molecular logic gate 930:molecular electronic 561:peptide nucleic acid 409:Fundamental concepts 316:truncated octahedron 7042:Molecular assembler 6763:2011NatCh...3..103Z 6665:2007NatNa...2..275B 6546:2011Sci...332.1140S 6454:2010NanoL..10.1971S 6412:2004SciAm.290f..64S 6400:Scientific American 5896:2018NatCo...9.2426O 5798:2016NatNa..11..152B 5750:2015NanoL..15.3134G 5644:(46): 12069–12072. 5592:2013NanoL..13.2351B 5538:2016NanoL..16.4665G 5477:2012Sci...338..932L 5341:2012NatNa...7..389L 5165:(11): 10050–10053. 5123:Rietman EA (2001). 5085:2011Sci...332.1196Q 5079:(6034): 1196–1201. 5033:2006Sci...314.1585S 5027:(5805): 1585–1588. 4949:10.1038/nature06451 4941:2008Natur.451..318Y 4843:2010NatNa...5..778H 4785:2018NatNa..13..496V 4735:10.1038/nature09012 4727:2010Natur.465..206L 4643:2005AngCh.117.4429T 4563:2004NanoL...4.1203S 4521:(35): 10834–10835. 4416:2012Sci...335..831D 4372:2008NatNa...3...93G 4328:2003AngCh.115.4478F 4276:2002Natur.415...62Y 4224:2000Natur.406..605Y 4172:1999Natur.397..144M 4056:2010NatNa...5...61M 3966:2006AngCh.118.6759P 3908:2006NanoL...6.1502Z 3769:2009NanoL...9.2445K 3715:10.1038/nature07971 3707:2009Natur.459...73A 3660:10.1038/nature24655 3652:2017Natur.552...67T 3605:10.1038/nature02307 3597:2004Natur.427..618S 3569:10.1021/ja00084a006 3523:10.1038/nature08274 3515:2009Natur.461...74Z 3459:2008Sci...321..824Y 3413:(50): 16344–16352. 3318:2005NanoL...5.2586B 3264:2005NanoL...5..661M 3102:1998Natur.394..539W 2995:2003Sci...301.1882Y 2989:(5641): 1882–1884. 2892:2013PCCP...1520395D 2876:(47): 20395–20414. 2743:2011NatCh...3..103Z 2682:2010NatNa...5..833G 2626:2004Sci...306.2068C 2620:(5704): 2068–2072. 2560:Pelesko JA (2007). 2463:2010NanoL..10.1971S 2410:"Profile: 3-D seer" 2378:2011Sci...332.1140S 2333:10.1038/nature08016 2325:2009Natur.459..414D 2274:10.1038/nature04586 2266:2006Natur.440..297R 2210:2002JNR.....4..313X 2162:Protein Engineering 2130:2007NatNa...2..275B 2071:2000Natur.406..605Y 2024:2011Sci...332.1140S 1914:2011NatNa...6..763P 1767:2004SciAm.290f..64S 1755:Scientific American 1718:Pelesko JA (2007). 1675:2005Sci...310.1661G 1669:(5754): 1661–1665. 1536:gel electrophoresis 1501:Gel electrophoresis 1444:Nucleic acid design 1396:Discrete structures 1362:secondary structure 1354:rationally designed 1156:programmable matter 1007:restriction enzymes 829:Discrete structures 577:dynamic subfields. 498:nucleic acid design 7129:DNA nanotechnology 7096:Science portal 6973:DNA nanotechnology 6488:Seeman NC (2010). 6326:DNA Nanotechnology 6074:: 2.11.1–2.11.25. 6034:10.1093/nar/gkh291 5826:DNA ion channels: 5778:DNA ion channels: 5730:DNA ion channels: 5680:DNA ion channels: 5630:DNA ion channels: 5576:DNA ion channels: 5518:DNA ion channels: 5457:DNA ion channels: 5394:10.1039/c3cc38693g 4921:Kinetic assembly: 4120:Nanoarchitecture: 4084:Nanoarchitecture: 4036:Nanoarchitecture: 3996:Nanoarchitecture: 3946:Nanoarchitecture: 3888:Nanoarchitecture: 2900:10.1039/C3CP53545B 2420:on 10 October 2011 2194:Nanoarchitecture: 2158:Nanoarchitecture: 1829:Seeman NC (2010). 1517:molecular modeling 1513: 1467:tertiary structure 1411:reaction mechanism 1214:directed evolution 1132:chemical synthesis 1096:structural biology 964: 918:gold nanoparticles 892:Templated assembly 789:cellular automaton 716: 586:Holliday junctions 467: 447: 443:tertiary structure 393:proof of principle 356:Andrew Turberfield 308: 195:structural biology 183:molecular machines 155:DNA nanotechnology 152: 76:Science portal 58:DNA nanotechnology 7116: 7115: 6771:10.1038/nchem.957 6697:(12): 1856–1876. 6691:Angewandte Chemie 6462:10.1021/nl101262u 6377:978-0-935702-49-1 6343:978-1-61779-141-3 5700:10.1021/nn5039433 5638:Angewandte Chemie 5610:10.1021/nl304147f 5471:(6109): 932–936. 5388:(20): 2010–2012. 5279:10.1021/nn2005574 5211:10.2976/1.2896331 5171:10.1021/nn303767b 5136:978-0-387-98988-4 4987:(15): 1811–1817. 4935:(7176): 318–322. 4721:(7295): 206–210. 4681:(28): 4358–4361. 4675:Angewandte Chemie 4637:(28): 4355–4358. 4631:Angewandte Chemie 4593:(21): 6948–6951. 4587:Angewandte Chemie 4571:10.1021/nl049527q 4527:10.1021/ja047543j 4410:(6070): 831–834. 4322:(36): 4342–4346. 4316:Angewandte Chemie 4218:(6796): 605–608. 4166:(6715): 144–146. 4130:(31): 4068–4070. 4124:Angewandte Chemie 4100:10.1021/nn1035075 4010:(42): 7956–7959. 4004:Angewandte Chemie 3954:Angewandte Chemie 3916:10.1021/nl060994c 3854:(15): 2420–2443. 3777:10.1021/nl901165f 3591:(6975): 618–621. 3453:(5890): 824–826. 3419:10.1021/ja044319l 3373:(12): 1856–1876. 3367:Angewandte Chemie 3336:10.1021/nl052038l 3312:(12): 2586–2592. 3272:10.1021/nl050084f 3208:(18): 3414–3419. 3182:10.1021/ja9900398 3176:(23): 5437–5443. 3154:10.1021/ja982824a 3096:(6693): 539–544. 2751:10.1038/nchem.957 2597:978-0-19-508467-2 2571:978-1-58488-687-7 2471:10.1021/nl101262u 2319:(7245): 414–418. 2260:(7082): 297–302. 2065:(6796): 605–608. 1986:978-3-540-30295-7 1729:978-1-58488-687-7 1639:Nanobiotechnology 1616:Technology portal 1372:Structural design 1366:primary structure 1282:membrane proteins 1218:Oxford University 1192:, as well as for 1167:Aarhus University 1124:membrane proteins 1020:T7 RNA polymerase 816:emergent property 797:Sierpinski gasket 791:that generates a 770:Holliday junction 747:Sierpinski gasket 643:Extended lattices 457:consists of five 289:Holliday junction 124: 123: 7136: 7106: 7105: 7094: 7093: 7080: 7079: 7068: 7067: 7052:Mechanosynthesis 6943:characterization 6825: 6818: 6811: 6802: 6801: 6782: 6751:Nature Chemistry 6744: 6727:(8): 1641–1647. 6714: 6684: 6639: 6629: 6619: 6610:(6): 7149–7162. 6593: 6565: 6527: 6517: 6483: 6473: 6448:(6): 1971–1978. 6431: 6382: 6381: 6362: 6356: 6355: 6320: 6314: 6313: 6266: 6260: 6259: 6212: 6206: 6205: 6170: 6164: 6163: 6116: 6110: 6109: 6062: 6056: 6055: 6045: 6028:(4): 1392–1403. 6012: 6001: 6000: 5983:(8): 1641–1647. 5971: 5965: 5964: 5962: 5937: 5926: 5925: 5915: 5876:DNA scramblase: 5874: 5868: 5867: 5857: 5840:(9): 8207–8214. 5824: 5818: 5817: 5776: 5770: 5769: 5744:(5): 3134–3138. 5728: 5722: 5721: 5711: 5694:(2): 1117–1126. 5678: 5672: 5671: 5661: 5628: 5622: 5621: 5603: 5586:(6): 2351–2356. 5574: 5568: 5567: 5557: 5532:(7): 4665–4669. 5516: 5507: 5506: 5496: 5455: 5449: 5448: 5412: 5406: 5405: 5377: 5371: 5370: 5360: 5320: 5314: 5313: 5311: 5309: 5297: 5291: 5290: 5273:(7): 5427–5432. 5262: 5256: 5255: 5253: 5251: 5239: 5233: 5232: 5222: 5189: 5183: 5182: 5154: 5148: 5147: 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Vol. 5. 6171: 6167: 6144: 6117: 6113: 6090: 6063: 6059: 6013: 6004: 5972: 5968: 5938: 5929: 5875: 5871: 5825: 5821: 5777: 5773: 5729: 5725: 5679: 5675: 5629: 5625: 5601:10.1.1.659.7660 5575: 5571: 5517: 5510: 5456: 5452: 5413: 5409: 5378: 5374: 5321: 5317: 5307: 5305: 5298: 5294: 5263: 5259: 5249: 5247: 5240: 5236: 5190: 5186: 5155: 5151: 5141: 5139: 5137: 5120: 5116: 5068: 5064: 5012: 5008: 4976: 4972: 4920: 4911: 4880: 4876: 4837:(11): 778–782. 4822: 4818: 4764: 4760: 4706: 4702: 4670: 4666: 4626: 4622: 4582: 4578: 4546: 4542: 4506: 4502: 4451: 4447: 4399: 4395: 4355: 4351: 4311: 4307: 4284:10.1038/415062a 4270:(6867): 62–65. 4259: 4255: 4207: 4203: 4155: 4151: 4119: 4115: 4083: 4079: 4035: 4031: 3995: 3991: 3945: 3941: 3887: 3883: 3843: 3839: 3796: 3792: 3752: 3748: 3701:(7243): 73–76. 3690: 3683: 3646:(7683): 67–71. 3632: 3628: 3581:DNA polyhedra: 3580: 3576: 3553:DNA polyhedra: 3552: 3548: 3509:(7260): 74–77. 3494: 3490: 3439:DNA nanotubes: 3438: 3434: 3399:DNA nanotubes: 3398: 3394: 3362: 3351: 3301: 3297: 3243: 3239: 3193: 3189: 3165: 3161: 3137: 3133: 3085: 3081: 3033: 3026: 2979: 2975: 2927: 2923: 2865: 2861: 2829: 2825: 2779: 2766: 2726: 2715: 2676:(12): 833–842. 2661: 2657: 2609: 2605: 2598: 2583: 2579: 2572: 2557: 2553: 2505: 2496: 2442: 2433: 2423: 2421: 2405: 2401: 2362: 2358: 2304: 2297: 2249: 2242: 2233: 2193: 2189: 2157: 2153: 2113: 2102: 2051: 2047: 2007: 1994: 1987: 1968:10.1.1.144.1380 1954: 1947: 1908:(12): 763–772. 1893: 1872: 1826: 1813: 1803: 1796: 1794: 1790: 1750: 1737: 1730: 1715: 1706: 1659:DNA polyhedra: 1658: 1651: 1647: 1614: 1607: 1600: 1593: 1590: 1505:formation assay 1494: 1446: 1440: 1438:Sequence design 1374: 1350: 1334:lipid flip-flop 1290:lipid membranes 1148:molecular wires 1140:protein folding 1118:experiments in 1112:liquid crystals 1104:crystallography 1088: 1033: 979: 973: 946: 894: 884:molecular cages 831: 757: 756: 755: 754: 738: 737: 736: 728: 727: 701: 700: 699: 698: 667: 666: 665: 657: 656: 645: 630: 569: 472: 411: 405: 344:DNA nanomachine 287:and the mobile 265: 138:, such as this 120: 80: 68: 17: 12: 11: 5: 7142: 7132: 7131: 7114: 7113: 7111: 7110: 7098: 7086: 7074: 7061: 7058: 7057: 7055: 7054: 7049: 7044: 7038: 7036: 7030: 7029: 7027: 7026: 7021: 7015: 7013: 7007: 7006: 7004: 7003: 6998: 6992: 6990: 6984: 6983: 6981: 6980: 6975: 6970: 6965: 6959: 6957: 6951: 6950: 6948: 6947: 6946: 6945: 6935: 6934: 6933: 6928: 6920: 6914: 6912: 6906: 6905: 6903: 6902: 6897: 6892: 6890:Nanotoxicology 6887: 6881: 6879: 6869: 6868: 6866: 6865: 6860: 6855: 6850: 6844: 6842: 6836: 6835: 6832:Nanotechnology 6828: 6827: 6820: 6813: 6805: 6799: 6798: 6790: 6789:External links 6787: 6785: 6784: 6757:(2): 103–113. 6746: 6716: 6686: 6659:(5): 275–284. 6647: 6642: 6641: 6595: 6576:(6034): 1142. 6529: 6485: 6433: 6394: 6389: 6386: 6384: 6383: 6376: 6357: 6342: 6315: 6293:978-0471142706 6292: 6261: 6239:978-0471142720 6238: 6207: 6193:978-0470089934 6192: 6165: 6143:978-0471142720 6142: 6111: 6089:978-0471142720 6088: 6057: 6002: 5966: 5927: 5869: 5819: 5792:(2): 152–156. 5771: 5723: 5673: 5623: 5569: 5508: 5450: 5423:(9): 684–694. 5407: 5372: 5335:(6): 389–393. 5315: 5292: 5257: 5234: 5191:Applications: 5184: 5149: 5135: 5121:Applications: 5114: 5062: 5006: 4970: 4909: 4874: 4816: 4779:(6): 496–503. 4758: 4700: 4664: 4620: 4576: 4540: 4500: 4445: 4400:Applications: 4393: 4356:DNA machines: 4349: 4312:DNA machines: 4305: 4260:DNA machines: 4253: 4208:DNA machines: 4201: 4156:DNA machines: 4149: 4113: 4077: 4029: 3989: 3960:(5): 735–739. 3939: 3881: 3837: 3790: 3746: 3681: 3626: 3574: 3546: 3488: 3432: 3392: 3349: 3327:10.1.1.155.676 3295: 3258:(4): 661–665. 3244:Other arrays: 3237: 3194:Other arrays: 3187: 3166:Other arrays: 3159: 3148:(5): 917–922. 3131: 3079: 3024: 2973: 2928:Other arrays: 2921: 2859: 2840:(6): 580–588. 2823: 2794:(3): 246–257. 2764: 2737:(2): 103–113. 2713: 2655: 2603: 2596: 2577: 2570: 2551: 2494: 2431: 2399: 2356: 2295: 2231: 2204:(4): 313–317. 2187: 2168:(4): 295–300. 2151: 2124:(5): 275–284. 2114:DNA machines: 2100: 2045: 1992: 1985: 1945: 1870: 1811: 1788: 1735: 1728: 1704: 1648: 1646: 1643: 1642: 1641: 1636: 1631: 1626: 1620: 1619: 1605: 1602:Science portal 1589: 1586: 1542:methods using 1493: 1490: 1478:protein design 1442:Main article: 1439: 1436: 1435: 1434: 1399: 1387: 1373: 1370: 1349: 1346: 1274:P-glycoprotein 1126:in solution. 1087: 1084: 1078:junctions and 1032: 1029: 1011:deoxyribozymes 975:Main article: 972: 969: 945: 942: 893: 890: 830: 827: 740: 739: 730: 729: 721: 720: 719: 718: 717: 669: 668: 659: 658: 650: 649: 648: 647: 646: 644: 641: 629: 626: 614:deoxyribozymes 568: 565: 506:protein design 475:Nanotechnology 471: 468: 463:double-helical 410: 407: 332:Paul Rothemund 302:(pictured) by 269:Nadrian Seeman 264: 261: 233:base sequences 222:Nadrian Seeman 163:nanotechnology 122: 121: 119: 118: 111: 104: 96: 93: 92: 91: 90: 78: 63: 62: 61: 60: 55: 50: 42: 41: 33: 32: 26: 25: 15: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 7141: 7130: 7127: 7126: 7124: 7109: 7104: 7099: 7097: 7092: 7087: 7085: 7084: 7075: 7073: 7072: 7063: 7062: 7059: 7053: 7050: 7048: 7045: 7043: 7040: 7039: 7037: 7035: 7031: 7025: 7022: 7020: 7017: 7016: 7014: 7012: 7008: 7002: 6999: 6997: 6994: 6993: 6991: 6989: 6985: 6979: 6976: 6974: 6971: 6969: 6966: 6964: 6961: 6960: 6958: 6956: 6952: 6944: 6941: 6940: 6939: 6938:Nanoparticles 6936: 6932: 6929: 6927: 6924: 6923: 6921: 6919: 6916: 6915: 6913: 6911: 6910:Nanomaterials 6907: 6901: 6898: 6896: 6893: 6891: 6888: 6886: 6883: 6882: 6880: 6878: 6874: 6870: 6864: 6861: 6859: 6856: 6854: 6853:Organizations 6851: 6849: 6846: 6845: 6843: 6841: 6837: 6833: 6826: 6821: 6819: 6814: 6812: 6807: 6806: 6803: 6796: 6793: 6792: 6780: 6776: 6772: 6768: 6764: 6760: 6756: 6752: 6747: 6742: 6738: 6734: 6730: 6726: 6722: 6717: 6712: 6708: 6704: 6700: 6696: 6692: 6687: 6682: 6678: 6674: 6670: 6666: 6662: 6658: 6654: 6649: 6648: 6646: 6637: 6633: 6628: 6623: 6618: 6613: 6609: 6605: 6601: 6596: 6591: 6587: 6583: 6579: 6575: 6571: 6563: 6559: 6555: 6551: 6547: 6543: 6539: 6535: 6530: 6525: 6521: 6516: 6511: 6507: 6503: 6499: 6495: 6491: 6486: 6481: 6477: 6472: 6467: 6463: 6459: 6455: 6451: 6447: 6443: 6439: 6434: 6429: 6425: 6421: 6417: 6413: 6409: 6405: 6401: 6396: 6395: 6393: 6379: 6373: 6369: 6361: 6353: 6349: 6345: 6339: 6335: 6331: 6327: 6319: 6311: 6307: 6303: 6299: 6295: 6289: 6285: 6281: 6277: 6273: 6265: 6257: 6253: 6249: 6245: 6241: 6235: 6231: 6227: 6223: 6219: 6211: 6203: 6199: 6195: 6189: 6185: 6181: 6177: 6169: 6161: 6157: 6153: 6149: 6145: 6139: 6135: 6131: 6127: 6123: 6115: 6107: 6103: 6099: 6095: 6091: 6085: 6081: 6077: 6073: 6069: 6061: 6053: 6049: 6044: 6039: 6035: 6031: 6027: 6023: 6019: 6011: 6009: 6007: 5998: 5994: 5990: 5986: 5982: 5978: 5970: 5961: 5956: 5952: 5948: 5944: 5936: 5934: 5932: 5923: 5919: 5914: 5909: 5905: 5901: 5897: 5893: 5889: 5885: 5881: 5873: 5865: 5861: 5856: 5851: 5847: 5843: 5839: 5835: 5831: 5823: 5815: 5811: 5807: 5803: 5799: 5795: 5791: 5787: 5783: 5775: 5767: 5763: 5759: 5755: 5751: 5747: 5743: 5739: 5735: 5727: 5719: 5715: 5710: 5705: 5701: 5697: 5693: 5689: 5685: 5677: 5669: 5665: 5660: 5655: 5651: 5647: 5643: 5639: 5635: 5627: 5619: 5615: 5611: 5607: 5602: 5597: 5593: 5589: 5585: 5581: 5573: 5565: 5561: 5556: 5551: 5547: 5543: 5539: 5535: 5531: 5527: 5523: 5515: 5513: 5504: 5500: 5495: 5490: 5486: 5482: 5478: 5474: 5470: 5466: 5462: 5454: 5446: 5442: 5438: 5434: 5430: 5426: 5422: 5418: 5411: 5403: 5399: 5395: 5391: 5387: 5383: 5376: 5368: 5364: 5359: 5354: 5350: 5346: 5342: 5338: 5334: 5330: 5326: 5319: 5303: 5296: 5288: 5284: 5280: 5276: 5272: 5268: 5261: 5245: 5238: 5230: 5226: 5221: 5216: 5212: 5208: 5205:(2): 99–109. 5204: 5200: 5196: 5188: 5180: 5176: 5172: 5168: 5164: 5160: 5153: 5138: 5132: 5128: 5127: 5118: 5110: 5106: 5102: 5098: 5094: 5090: 5086: 5082: 5078: 5074: 5066: 5058: 5054: 5050: 5046: 5042: 5038: 5034: 5030: 5026: 5022: 5018: 5010: 5002: 4998: 4994: 4990: 4986: 4982: 4974: 4966: 4962: 4958: 4954: 4950: 4946: 4942: 4938: 4934: 4930: 4926: 4918: 4916: 4914: 4905: 4901: 4897: 4893: 4889: 4885: 4878: 4870: 4866: 4861: 4856: 4852: 4848: 4844: 4840: 4836: 4832: 4828: 4820: 4812: 4808: 4803: 4798: 4794: 4790: 4786: 4782: 4778: 4774: 4770: 4762: 4754: 4750: 4745: 4740: 4736: 4732: 4728: 4724: 4720: 4716: 4712: 4704: 4696: 4692: 4688: 4684: 4680: 4676: 4671:DNA walkers: 4668: 4660: 4656: 4652: 4648: 4644: 4640: 4636: 4632: 4627:DNA walkers: 4624: 4616: 4612: 4608: 4604: 4600: 4596: 4592: 4588: 4583:DNA walkers: 4580: 4572: 4568: 4564: 4560: 4556: 4552: 4547:DNA walkers: 4544: 4536: 4532: 4528: 4524: 4520: 4516: 4512: 4507:DNA walkers: 4504: 4496: 4492: 4487: 4482: 4478: 4474: 4469: 4464: 4460: 4456: 4449: 4441: 4437: 4433: 4429: 4425: 4421: 4417: 4413: 4409: 4405: 4397: 4389: 4385: 4381: 4377: 4373: 4369: 4365: 4361: 4353: 4345: 4341: 4337: 4333: 4329: 4325: 4321: 4317: 4309: 4301: 4297: 4293: 4289: 4285: 4281: 4277: 4273: 4269: 4265: 4257: 4249: 4245: 4241: 4237: 4233: 4229: 4225: 4221: 4217: 4213: 4205: 4197: 4193: 4189: 4185: 4181: 4180:10.1038/16437 4177: 4173: 4169: 4165: 4161: 4153: 4145: 4141: 4137: 4133: 4129: 4125: 4117: 4109: 4105: 4101: 4097: 4093: 4089: 4081: 4073: 4069: 4065: 4061: 4057: 4053: 4049: 4045: 4041: 4033: 4025: 4021: 4017: 4013: 4009: 4005: 4001: 3993: 3985: 3981: 3976: 3971: 3967: 3963: 3959: 3955: 3951: 3943: 3935: 3931: 3926: 3921: 3917: 3913: 3909: 3905: 3901: 3897: 3893: 3885: 3877: 3873: 3869: 3865: 3861: 3857: 3853: 3849: 3841: 3833: 3829: 3825: 3821: 3817: 3813: 3809: 3805: 3801: 3794: 3786: 3782: 3778: 3774: 3770: 3766: 3762: 3758: 3750: 3742: 3738: 3734: 3730: 3725: 3720: 3716: 3712: 3708: 3704: 3700: 3696: 3688: 3686: 3677: 3673: 3669: 3665: 3661: 3657: 3653: 3649: 3645: 3641: 3637: 3630: 3622: 3618: 3614: 3610: 3606: 3602: 3598: 3594: 3590: 3586: 3578: 3570: 3566: 3562: 3558: 3550: 3542: 3538: 3533: 3528: 3524: 3520: 3516: 3512: 3508: 3504: 3500: 3492: 3484: 3480: 3476: 3472: 3468: 3464: 3460: 3456: 3452: 3448: 3444: 3436: 3428: 3424: 3420: 3416: 3412: 3408: 3404: 3396: 3388: 3384: 3380: 3376: 3372: 3368: 3360: 3358: 3356: 3354: 3345: 3341: 3337: 3333: 3328: 3323: 3319: 3315: 3311: 3307: 3299: 3291: 3287: 3282: 3277: 3273: 3269: 3265: 3261: 3257: 3253: 3249: 3241: 3233: 3229: 3224: 3219: 3215: 3211: 3207: 3203: 3199: 3191: 3183: 3179: 3175: 3171: 3163: 3155: 3151: 3147: 3143: 3135: 3127: 3123: 3119: 3115: 3111: 3110:10.1038/28998 3107: 3103: 3099: 3095: 3091: 3083: 3075: 3071: 3066: 3061: 3056: 3051: 3047: 3043: 3039: 3031: 3029: 3020: 3016: 3012: 3008: 3004: 3000: 2996: 2992: 2988: 2984: 2977: 2969: 2965: 2960: 2955: 2950: 2945: 2941: 2937: 2933: 2925: 2917: 2913: 2909: 2905: 2901: 2897: 2893: 2889: 2884: 2879: 2875: 2871: 2863: 2855: 2851: 2847: 2843: 2839: 2835: 2827: 2819: 2815: 2810: 2805: 2801: 2797: 2793: 2789: 2785: 2777: 2775: 2773: 2771: 2769: 2760: 2756: 2752: 2748: 2744: 2740: 2736: 2732: 2724: 2722: 2720: 2718: 2709: 2705: 2700: 2695: 2691: 2687: 2683: 2679: 2675: 2671: 2667: 2659: 2651: 2647: 2643: 2639: 2635: 2631: 2627: 2623: 2619: 2615: 2607: 2599: 2593: 2589: 2581: 2573: 2567: 2563: 2555: 2547: 2543: 2538: 2533: 2528: 2523: 2519: 2515: 2511: 2503: 2501: 2499: 2490: 2486: 2481: 2476: 2472: 2468: 2464: 2460: 2456: 2452: 2448: 2440: 2438: 2436: 2419: 2415: 2414:The Scientist 2411: 2403: 2395: 2391: 2387: 2383: 2379: 2375: 2371: 2367: 2360: 2352: 2348: 2343: 2338: 2334: 2330: 2326: 2322: 2318: 2314: 2310: 2305:DNA origami: 2302: 2300: 2291: 2287: 2283: 2279: 2275: 2271: 2267: 2263: 2259: 2255: 2248: 2243:DNA origami: 2240: 2238: 2236: 2227: 2223: 2219: 2215: 2211: 2207: 2203: 2199: 2191: 2183: 2179: 2175: 2171: 2167: 2163: 2155: 2147: 2143: 2139: 2135: 2131: 2127: 2123: 2119: 2111: 2109: 2107: 2105: 2096: 2092: 2088: 2084: 2080: 2076: 2072: 2068: 2064: 2060: 2056: 2049: 2041: 2037: 2033: 2029: 2025: 2021: 2017: 2013: 2005: 2003: 2001: 1999: 1997: 1988: 1982: 1978: 1974: 1969: 1964: 1960: 1955:DNA origami: 1952: 1950: 1941: 1937: 1932: 1927: 1923: 1919: 1915: 1911: 1907: 1903: 1899: 1891: 1889: 1887: 1885: 1883: 1881: 1879: 1877: 1875: 1866: 1862: 1857: 1852: 1848: 1844: 1840: 1836: 1832: 1824: 1822: 1820: 1818: 1816: 1806: 1799: 1795:History: See 1792: 1784: 1780: 1776: 1772: 1768: 1764: 1760: 1756: 1748: 1746: 1744: 1742: 1740: 1731: 1725: 1721: 1713: 1711: 1709: 1700: 1696: 1692: 1688: 1684: 1680: 1676: 1672: 1668: 1664: 1656: 1654: 1649: 1640: 1637: 1635: 1632: 1630: 1627: 1625: 1622: 1621: 1617: 1611: 1606: 1603: 1597: 1592: 1585: 1583: 1579: 1575: 1571: 1566: 1564: 1560: 1556: 1552: 1547: 1545: 1541: 1537: 1534: 1530: 1526: 1522: 1518: 1510: 1506: 1502: 1498: 1489: 1487: 1483: 1479: 1474: 1472: 1468: 1464: 1460: 1456: 1452: 1445: 1432: 1428: 1424: 1420: 1416: 1412: 1409:steps in the 1408: 1404: 1400: 1397: 1393: 1388: 1385: 1384:DNA computing 1380: 1379: 1378: 1369: 1367: 1363: 1359: 1355: 1345: 1343: 1339: 1335: 1331: 1327: 1323: 1319: 1315: 1314:lipid bilayer 1311: 1307: 1303: 1299: 1295: 1291: 1287: 1283: 1278: 1275: 1271: 1267: 1263: 1259: 1255: 1251: 1247: 1243: 1239: 1235: 1231: 1227: 1223: 1219: 1215: 1211: 1207: 1203: 1199: 1195: 1191: 1187: 1186:biocompatible 1182: 1180: 1176: 1172: 1168: 1164: 1159: 1157: 1153: 1149: 1143: 1141: 1138:function and 1137: 1133: 1129: 1125: 1121: 1117: 1113: 1109: 1105: 1101: 1097: 1093: 1092:basic science 1083: 1081: 1076: 1071: 1069: 1065: 1060: 1056: 1051: 1049: 1044: 1039: 1028: 1025: 1021: 1017: 1012: 1008: 1003: 999: 996: 992: 988: 984: 978: 968: 961: 956: 950: 941: 939: 935: 931: 927: 923: 919: 915: 911: 907: 903: 899: 889: 887: 885: 881: 877: 876:stoichiometry 873: 872:base sequence 868: 863: 860: 856: 852: 848: 844: 840: 836: 826: 824: 819: 817: 813: 809: 804: 802: 798: 795:known as the 794: 790: 786: 782: 776: 774: 771: 766: 762: 752: 748: 744: 734: 725: 713: 709: 705: 696: 692: 688: 684: 681: 680:complementary 677: 673: 663: 654: 640: 638: 635: 625: 623: 619: 615: 610: 606: 602: 597: 595: 591: 590:base sequence 587: 583: 578: 575: 564: 562: 558: 554: 550: 546: 545:complementary 542: 538: 534: 530: 526: 522: 518: 513: 511: 510:nanoparticles 507: 503: 499: 495: 491: 487: 484: 480: 476: 464: 460: 456: 451: 444: 440: 436: 432: 428: 424: 420: 415: 406: 403: 400: 399: 394: 389: 387: 383: 379: 378: 373: 368: 363: 361: 357: 353: 349: 348:Bernard Yurke 345: 340: 338: 333: 329: 325: 321: 317: 313: 305: 301: 296: 292: 290: 286: 282: 278: 274: 270: 260: 258: 254: 250: 246: 242: 238: 234: 231: 230:complementary 227: 223: 218: 216: 212: 208: 204: 200: 196: 192: 191:basic science 188: 187:DNA computers 184: 180: 176: 172: 168: 164: 160: 156: 149: 145: 141: 137: 136:nucleic acids 133: 128: 117: 112: 110: 105: 103: 98: 97: 95: 94: 89: 84: 79: 77: 72: 67: 66: 65: 64: 59: 56: 54: 51: 49: 46: 45: 44: 43: 39: 35: 34: 31: 28: 27: 23: 22: 19: 7081: 7069: 7047:Nanorobotics 6972: 6885:Nanomedicine 6877:applications 6754: 6750: 6724: 6721:ChemPhysChem 6720: 6694: 6690: 6656: 6652: 6644: 6607: 6603: 6573: 6569: 6537: 6533: 6497: 6493: 6445: 6442:Nano Letters 6441: 6406:(6): 64–75. 6403: 6399: 6391: 6367: 6360: 6325: 6318: 6275: 6271: 6264: 6221: 6217: 6210: 6175: 6168: 6128:: Unit2.12. 6125: 6121: 6114: 6071: 6067: 6060: 6025: 6021: 5980: 5977:ChemPhysChem 5976: 5969: 5950: 5946: 5887: 5883: 5872: 5837: 5833: 5822: 5789: 5785: 5774: 5741: 5738:Nano Letters 5737: 5726: 5691: 5687: 5676: 5641: 5637: 5626: 5583: 5580:Nano Letters 5579: 5572: 5529: 5526:Nano Letters 5525: 5468: 5464: 5453: 5420: 5416: 5410: 5385: 5381: 5375: 5332: 5328: 5318: 5308:22 September 5306:. Retrieved 5295: 5270: 5266: 5260: 5250:22 September 5248:. Retrieved 5237: 5202: 5199:HFSP Journal 5198: 5187: 5162: 5158: 5152: 5140:. Retrieved 5125: 5117: 5076: 5072: 5065: 5024: 5020: 5009: 4984: 4980: 4973: 4932: 4928: 4887: 4883: 4877: 4834: 4830: 4819: 4776: 4772: 4761: 4718: 4714: 4703: 4678: 4674: 4667: 4634: 4630: 4623: 4590: 4586: 4579: 4554: 4551:Nano Letters 4550: 4543: 4518: 4514: 4503: 4458: 4448: 4407: 4403: 4396: 4366:(2): 93–96. 4363: 4359: 4352: 4319: 4315: 4308: 4267: 4263: 4256: 4215: 4211: 4204: 4163: 4159: 4152: 4127: 4123: 4116: 4091: 4087: 4080: 4050:(1): 61–66. 4047: 4043: 4032: 4007: 4003: 3992: 3957: 3953: 3942: 3899: 3896:Nano Letters 3895: 3884: 3851: 3847: 3840: 3807: 3803: 3793: 3760: 3757:Nano Letters 3756: 3749: 3698: 3694: 3643: 3639: 3629: 3588: 3584: 3577: 3560: 3556: 3549: 3506: 3502: 3491: 3450: 3446: 3435: 3410: 3406: 3395: 3370: 3366: 3309: 3306:Nano Letters 3305: 3298: 3255: 3252:Nano Letters 3251: 3240: 3205: 3201: 3190: 3173: 3169: 3162: 3145: 3141: 3134: 3093: 3089: 3082: 3048:(12): e424. 3045: 3042:PLOS Biology 3041: 2986: 2982: 2976: 2939: 2936:PLOS Biology 2935: 2924: 2873: 2869: 2862: 2837: 2833: 2826: 2791: 2787: 2734: 2730: 2673: 2669: 2658: 2617: 2613: 2606: 2587: 2584:Background: 2580: 2561: 2558:Background: 2554: 2520:(12): e431. 2517: 2514:PLOS Biology 2513: 2454: 2451:Nano Letters 2450: 2422:. 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