Domain Name System

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signatures. DNSCrypt uses either TCP or UDP port 443, the same port as HTTPS encrypted web traffic. This introduced not only privacy regarding the content of the query, but also a significant measure of firewall-traversal capability. In 2019, DNSCrypt was further extended to support an "anonymized" mode, similar to the proposed "Oblivious DNS", in which an ingress node receives a query which has been encrypted with the public key of a different server, and relays it to that server, which acts as an egress node, performing the recursive resolution. Privacy of user/query pairs is created, since the ingress node does not know the content of the query, while the egress nodes does not know the identity of the client. DNSCrypt was first implemented in production by

3618: 5290: 3740:. A recursive query is one for which the DNS server answers the query completely by querying other name servers as needed. In typical operation, a client issues a recursive query to a caching recursive DNS server, which subsequently issues non-recursive queries to determine the answer and send a single answer back to the client. The resolver, or another DNS server acting recursively on behalf of the resolver, negotiates use of recursive service using bits in the query headers. DNS servers are not required to support recursive queries. 3351: 3855: 5274:(NIC), also function as registrars to end-users, in addition to providing access to the WHOIS datasets. The top-level domain registries, such as for the domains COM, NET, and ORG use a registry-registrar model consisting of many domain name registrars. In this method of management, the registry only manages the domain name database and the relationship with the registrars. The 3296:, expressly to provide a home for BIND development and maintenance. BIND versions from 4.9.3 onward were developed and maintained by ISC, with support provided by ISC's sponsors. As co-architects/programmers, Bob Halley and Paul Vixie released the first production-ready version of BIND version 8 in May 1997. Since 2000, over 43 different core developers have worked on BIND. 3676:) of the domain name record in question. Typically, such caching DNS servers also implement the recursive algorithm necessary to resolve a given name starting with the DNS root through to the authoritative name servers of the queried domain. With this function implemented in the name server, user applications gain efficiency in design and operation. 4802:(EDNS) that introduced optional protocol elements without increasing overhead when not in use. This was accomplished through the OPT pseudo-resource record that only exists in wire transmissions of the protocol, but not in any zone files. Initial extensions were also suggested (EDNS0), such as increasing the DNS message size in UDP datagrams. 4989:, in which data is distributed to caching resolvers under the pretense of being an authoritative origin server, thereby polluting the data store with potentially false information and long expiration times (time-to-live). Subsequently, legitimate application requests may be redirected to network hosts operated with malicious intent. 3955:

The DNS is used for efficient storage and distribution of IP addresses of blacklisted email hosts. A common method is to place the IP address of the subject host into the sub-domain of a higher level domain name, and to resolve that name to a record that indicates a positive or a negative indication.

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directory on a server in the NIC for retrieval of information about resources, contacts, and entities. She and her team developed the concept of domains. Feinler suggested that domains should be based on the location of the physical address of the computer. Computers at educational institutions would

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DNS over HTTPS (DoH) obviates many but not all of the risks, and its transport protocol (i.e. HTTPS) raises concerns of privacy due to (e.g.) 'cookies.' The Tor Network exists to provide TCP circuits with some freedom from tracking, surveillance, and blocking. Thus: In combination with Tor, DoH, and

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as an extension to unencrypted DNS, before DoH was standardized and widely deployed. Apple and Cloudflare subsequently deployed the technology in the context of DoH, as Oblivious DoH (ODoH). ODoH combines ingress/egress separation (invented in ODNS) with DoH's HTTPS tunneling and TLS transport-layer

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A common approach to reduce the burden on DNS servers is to cache the results of name resolution locally or on intermediary resolver hosts. Each DNS query result comes with a time to live (TTL), which indicates how long the information remains valid before it needs to be discarded or refreshed. This

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Name servers in delegations are identified by name, rather than by IP address. This means that a resolving name server must issue another DNS request to find out the IP address of the server to which it has been referred. If the name given in the delegation is a subdomain of the domain for which the

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standards framework, introduced DNS encryption on the downstream side of recursive resolvers, wherein clients encrypt query payloads using servers' public keys, which are published in the DNS (rather than relying upon third-party certificate authorities) and which may in turn be protected by DNSSEC

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use the UPDATE DNS opcode to add or remove resource records dynamically from a zone database maintained on an authoritative DNS server. This facility is useful to register network clients into the DNS when they boot or become otherwise available on the network. As a booting client may be assigned a

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of the DNS is called a DNS resolver. A resolver is responsible for initiating and sequencing the queries that ultimately lead to a full resolution (translation) of the resource sought, e.g., translation of a domain name into an IP address. DNS resolvers are classified by a variety of query methods,

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A label may contain zero to 63 characters. The null label of length zero is reserved for the root zone. The full domain name may not exceed the length of 253 characters in its textual representation. In the internal binary representation of the DNS the maximum length requires 255 octets of storage,

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Some applications such as web browsers maintain an internal DNS cache to avoid repeated lookups via the network. This practice can add extra difficulty when debugging DNS issues as it obscures the history of such data. These caches typically use very short caching times on the order of one minute.

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The DNS resolver will almost invariably have a cache (see above) containing recent lookups. If the cache can provide the answer to the request, the resolver will return the value in the cache to the program that made the request. If the cache does not contain the answer, the resolver will send the

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Originally, security concerns were not major design considerations for DNS software or any software for deployment on the early Internet, as the network was not open for participation by the general public. However, the expansion of the Internet into the commercial sector in the 1990s changed the

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was developed as a competing standard for DNS query transport in 2018, tunneling DNS query data over HTTPS, which transports HTTP over TLS. DoH was promoted as a more web-friendly alternative to DNS since, like DNSCrypt, it uses TCP port 443, and thus looks similar to web traffic, though they are

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procedure is a process in which a DNS resolver queries a chain of one or more DNS servers. Each server refers the client to the next server in the chain, until the current server can fully resolve the request. For example, a possible resolution of www.example.com would query a global root server,

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When performing a reverse lookup, the DNS client converts the address into these formats before querying the name for a PTR record following the delegation chain as for any DNS query. For example, assuming the IPv4 address 208.80.152.2 is assigned to Wikimedia, it is represented as a DNS name in

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Solutions preventing DNS inspection by local network operator are criticized for thwarting corporate network security policies and Internet censorship. They are also criticized from a privacy point of view, as giving away the DNS resolution to the hands of a small number of companies known for

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By the early 1980s, maintaining a single, centralized host table had become slow and unwieldy and the emerging network required an automated naming system to address technical and personnel issues. Postel directed the task of forging a compromise between five competing proposals of solutions to

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We investigate whether DoH traffic is distinguishable from encrypted Web traffic. To this end, we train a machine learning model to classify HTTPS traffic as either Web or DoH. With our DoH identification model in place, we show that an authoritarian ISP can identify ≈97.4% of the DoH packets

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org includes glue along with the delegation for example.org. The glue records are address records that provide IP addresses for ns1.example.org. The resolver uses one or more of these IP addresses to query one of the domain's authoritative servers, which allows it to complete the DNS query.

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53 for servers listening to queries. Such queries consist of a clear-text request sent in a single UDP packet from the client, responded to with a clear-text reply sent in a single UDP packet from the server. When the length of the answer exceeds 512 bytes and both client and server support

4690:. DNS records belonging to wildcard domain names specify rules for generating resource records within a single DNS zone by substituting whole labels with matching components of the query name, including any specified descendants. For example, in the following configuration, the DNS zone 3636:

Assuming the resolver has no cached records to accelerate the process, the resolution process starts with a query to one of the root servers. In typical operation, the root servers do not answer directly, but respond with a referral to more authoritative servers, e.g., a query for

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is a query of the DNS for domain names when the IP address is known. Multiple domain names may be associated with an IP address. The DNS stores IP addresses in the form of domain names as specially formatted names in pointer (PTR) records within the infrastructure top-level domain

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for example.org is ns1.example.org, a computer trying to resolve www.example.org first resolves ns1.example.org. As ns1 is contained in example.org, this requires resolving example.org first, which presents a circular dependency. To break the dependency, the name server for the

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domain name, a key point of divergence from a traditional phone-book view of the DNS. This process of using the DNS to assign proximal servers to users is key to providing faster and more reliable responses on the Internet and is widely used by most major Internet services.

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As a result of this distributed caching architecture, changes to DNS records do not propagate throughout the network immediately, but require all caches to expire and to be refreshed after the TTL. RFC 1912 conveys basic rules for determining appropriate TTL values.

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represents a notable exception: versions up to IE 3.x cache DNS records for 24 hours by default. Internet Explorer 4.x and later versions (up to IE 8) decrease the default timeout value to half an hour, which may be changed by modifying the default configuration.

3887:, until it either successfully finds a result or does not. It then returns its results to the DNS resolver; assuming it has found a result, the resolver duly caches that result for future use, and hands the result back to the software which initiated the request. 3882:

to set it; however, where systems administrators have configured systems to use their own DNS servers, their DNS resolvers point to separately maintained name servers of the organization. In any event, the name server thus queried will follow the process outlined

3118:). The DNS can be quickly and transparently updated, allowing a service's location on the network to change without affecting the end users, who continue to use the same hostname. Users take advantage of this when they use meaningful Uniform Resource Locators ( 3878:

request to one or more designated DNS servers. In the case of most home users, the Internet service provider to which the machine connects will usually supply this DNS server: such a user will either have configured that server's address manually or allowed

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E-mail servers can query blacklist.example to find out if a specific host connecting to them is in the blacklist. Many of such blacklists, either subscription-based or free of cost, are available for use by email administrators and anti-spam software.

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To improve efficiency, reduce DNS traffic across the Internet, and increase performance in end-user applications, the Domain Name System supports DNS cache servers which store DNS query results for a period of time determined in the configuration

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is data of type-specific relevance, such as the IP address for address records, or the priority and hostname for MX records. Well known record types may use label compression in the RDATA field, but "unknown" record types must not (RFC 3597).

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to DNS queries from data that have been configured by an original source, for example, the domain administrator or by dynamic DNS methods, in contrast to answers obtained via a query to another name server that only maintains a cache of data.

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is the fully qualified domain name of the node in the tree. On the wire, the name may be shortened using label compression where ends of domain names mentioned earlier in the packet can be substituted for the end of the current domain name.

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ICANN publishes the complete list of TLDs, TLD registries, and domain name registrars. Registrant information associated with domain names is maintained in an online database accessible with the WHOIS service. For most of the more than 290

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Although no technical limitation exists to prevent domain name labels from using any character that is representable by an octet, hostnames use a preferred format and character set. The characters allowed in labels are a subset of the

3838:. For IPv4, the domain is in-addr.arpa. For IPv6, the reverse lookup domain is ip6.arpa. The IP address is represented as a name in reverse-ordered octet representation for IPv4, and reverse-ordered nibble representation for IPv6. 5204:, that are charged with overseeing the name and number systems of the Internet. In addition to ICANN, each top-level domain (TLD) is maintained and serviced technically by an administrative organization, operating a registry. A 4847:(EDNS), larger UDP packets may be used. Use of DNS over UDP is limited by, among other things, its lack of transport-layer encryption, authentication, reliable delivery, and message length. In 1989, RFC 1123 specified optional 4964:

in December 2011. There are several free and open source software implementations that additionally integrate ODoH. It is available for a variety of operating systems, including Unix, Apple iOS, Linux, Android, and Windows.

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The DNS protocol uses two types of DNS messages, queries and responses; both have the same format. Each message consists of a header and four sections: question, answer, authority, and an additional space. A header field

5165:, the browser in Chrome, and the DNS resolver in the 8.8.8.8 service. Would this scenario be a case of a single corporate entity being in a position of overarching control of the entire namespace of the Internet? 4855:. Via fragmentation of long replies, TCP allows longer responses, reliable delivery, and re-use of long-lived connections between clients and servers. For larger responses, the server refers the client to TCP transport. 3846:(ARIN) for the 208.in-addr.arpa zone. ARIN's servers delegate 152.80.208.in-addr.arpa to Wikimedia to which the resolver sends another query for 2.152.80.208.in-addr.arpa, which results in an authoritative response. 5069:

Originally designed as a public, hierarchical, distributed and heavily cached database, DNS protocol has no confidentiality controls. User queries and nameserver responses are being sent unencrypted which enables

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servers. The resolver now queries the servers referred to, and iteratively repeats this process until it receives an authoritative answer. The diagram illustrates this process for the host that is named by the

3456:(letters, digits, hyphen). Domain names are interpreted in a case-independent manner. Labels may not start or end with a hyphen. An additional rule requires that top-level domain names should not be all-numeric. 3564:

were sometimes used interchangeably but the current practice is to use the latter form. A primary server is a server that stores the original copies of all zone records. A secondary server uses a special

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Some large ISPs have configured their DNS servers to violate rules, such as by disobeying TTLs, or by indicating that a domain name does not exist just because one of its name servers does not respond.

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In theory, authoritative name servers are sufficient for the operation of the Internet. However, with only authoritative name servers operating, every DNS query must start with recursive queries at the

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When a name server is designated as the authoritative server for a domain name for which it does not have authoritative data, it presents a type of error called a "lame delegation" or "lame response".

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emerged as an IETF standard for encrypted DNS in 2016, utilizing Transport Layer Security (TLS) to protect the entire connection, rather than just the DNS payload. DoT servers listen on TCP port 853.

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The question section has a simpler format than the resource record format used in the other sections. Each question record (there is usually just one in the section) contains the following fields:

3514:. Each domain has at least one authoritative DNS server that publishes information about that domain and the name servers of any domains subordinate to it. The top of the hierarchy is served by the 3685:

typically provide recursive and caching name servers for their customers. In addition, many home networking routers implement DNS caches and recursion to improve efficiency in the local network.

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is needed to specify the mail exchanger IP address. As this has the result of excluding this domain name and its subdomains from the wildcard matches, an additional MX record for the subdomain

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DNS can also "leak" from otherwise secure or private connections, if attention is not paid to their configuration, and at times DNS has been used to bypass firewalls by malicious persons, and

4943:. The privacy gains of Oblivious DNS can be garnered through the use of the preexisting Tor network of ingress and egress nodes, paired with the transport-layer encryption provided by TLS. 4014:

To provide resilience in the event of computer or network failure, multiple DNS servers are usually provided for coverage of each domain. At the top level of global DNS, thirteen groups of

3328:(RR), which hold information associated with the domain name. The domain name itself consists of the label, concatenated with the name of its parent node on the right, separated by a dot. 5131:

and public DNS servers, which move the actual DNS resolution to a third-party provider, who usually promises little or no request logging and optional added features, such as DNS-level

3717:, a DNS resolver queries a DNS server that provides a record either for which the server is authoritative, or it provides a partial result without querying other servers. In case of a 3459:

The limited set of ASCII characters permitted in the DNS prevented the representation of names and words of many languages in their native alphabets or scripts. To make this possible,

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The original DNS protocol had limited provisions for extension with new features. In 1999, Paul Vixie published in RFC 2671 (superseded by RFC 6891) an extension mechanism, called

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Domain name resolvers determine the domain name servers responsible for the domain name in question by a sequence of queries starting with the right-most (top-level) domain label.

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implement the Domain Name System. A DNS name server is a server that stores the DNS records for a domain; a DNS name server responds with answers to queries against its database.

4072:. Each field is 16 bits long, and appears in the order given. The identification field is used to match responses with queries. The flag field consists of sub-fields as follows: 3039:(CNAME). Although not intended to be a general purpose database, DNS has been expanded over time to store records for other types of data for either automatic lookups, such as 4830:(UDP) for transport over IP. Its limitations have motivated numerous protocol developments for reliability, security, privacy, and other criteria, in the following decades. 2990:

service that is at its core. It defines the DNS protocol, a detailed specification of the data structures and data communication exchanges used in the DNS, as part of the

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The combination of DNS caching and recursive functions in a name server is not mandatory; the functions can be implemented independently in servers for special purposes.

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delivers a result and reduces the load on upstream DNS servers by caching DNS resource records for a period of time after an initial response from upstream DNS servers.

1884: 3732:, a DNS resolver queries a single DNS server, which may in turn query other DNS servers on behalf of the requester. For example, a simple stub resolver running on a 3842:

reverse order: 2.152.80.208.in-addr.arpa. When the DNS resolver gets a pointer (PTR) request, it begins by querying the root servers, which point to the servers of

4902:. It has "privacy properties similar to DNS over TLS (DoT) , and latency characteristics similar to classic DNS over UDP". This method is not the same as DNS over 3653:

is used in DNS servers to off-load the root servers, and as a result, root name servers actually are involved in only a relatively small fraction of all requests.

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The Domain Name System specifies a database of information elements for network resources. The types of information elements are categorized and organized with a

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e-Infrastructure and e-Services for Developing Countries: 8th International Conference, AFRICOMM 2016, Ouagadougou, Burkina Faso, December 6-7, 2016, Proceedings

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Hostnames and IP addresses are not required to match in a one-to-one relationship. Multiple hostnames may correspond to a single IP address, which is useful in

3005:. The Domain Name System maintains the domain name hierarchy and provides translation services between it and the address spaces. Internet name servers and a 4185:

After the flags word, the header ends with four 16-bit integers which contain the number of records in each of the sections that follow, in the same order.

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Every DNS zone must be assigned a set of authoritative name servers. This set of servers is stored in the parent domain zone with name server (NS) records.

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used a DoH-resolution mechanism to bypass local DNS resolution and steer all DNS queries from Apple's platforms to a set of Apple-operated name resolvers?

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specifies that opportunistic encryption and authenticated encryption may be supported, but did not make either server or client authentication mandatory.

3870:, and other Internet applications. When an application makes a request that requires a domain name lookup, such programs send a resolution request to the 3633:) of the known addresses of the root name servers. The hints are updated periodically by an administrator by retrieving a dataset from a reliable source. 5197: 3145:

is translated to the IP address of a server that is proximal to the user. The key functionality of the DNS exploited here is that different users can

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This mechanism would place a large traffic burden on the root servers, if every resolution on the Internet required starting at the root. In practice

5482: 5263:, etc., etc.) holds basic WHOIS data (i.e., registrar and name servers, etc.). Organizations, or registrants using ORG on the other hand, are on the 388: 6738: 5008:, add support for cryptographic authentication between trusted peers and are commonly used to authorize zone transfer or dynamic update operations. 7843: 3621:

A DNS resolver that implements the iterative approach mandated by RFC 1034; in this case, the resolver consults three name servers to resolve the

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already fielded an app that used its own DNS resolution mechanism independent of the platform upon which the app was running. What if the

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User privacy is further exposed by proposals for increasing the level of client IP information in DNS queries (RFC 7871) for the benefit of

3813:, i.e. the caching of the fact of non-existence of a record, is determined by name servers authoritative for a zone which must include the 3212:

Addresses were assigned manually. Computers, including their hostnames and addresses, were added to the primary file by contacting the SRI

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developed and maintained the first ARPANET directory. Maintenance of numerical addresses, called the Assigned Numbers List, was handled by

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The Domain Name System delegates the responsibility of assigning domain names and mapping those names to Internet resources by designating

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Users generally do not communicate directly with a DNS resolver. Instead DNS resolution takes place transparently in applications such as

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provides a mapping between a domain and a mail exchanger; this can provide an additional layer of fault tolerance and load distribution.

3929:, in which many web sites are served from a single host. Alternatively, a single hostname may resolve to many IP addresses to facilitate 7777: 5138:

Public DNS servers can be queried using traditional DNS protocol, in which case they provide no protection from local surveillance, or

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TTL is determined by the administrator of the authoritative DNS server and can range from a few seconds to several days or even weeks.

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is a person or organization who asked for domain registration. The registry receives registration information from each domain name

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service and was designed to avoid a single large central database. In addition, the DNS specifies the technical functionality of the

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is responsible for operating the database of names within its authoritative zone, although the term is most often used for TLDs. A

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Administrative responsibility for any zone may be divided by creating additional zones. Authority over the new zone is said to be

5613: 5232:(ccTLDs), the domain registries maintain the WHOIS (Registrant, name servers, expiration dates, etc.) information. For instance, 1811: 1754: 6499:

James F. Kurose and Keith W. Ross, Computer Networking: A Top-Down Approach, 6th ed. Essex, England: Pearson Educ. Limited, 2012

4997: 4492: 3843: 2963:) assigned to each of the associated entities. Most prominently, it translates readily memorized domain names to the numerical 6844: 5019:

are different names, yet users may be unable to distinguish them in a graphical user interface depending on the user's chosen

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published the original specifications in RFC 882 and RFC 883 in November 1983. These were updated in RFC 973 in January 1986.

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These RFCs are advisory in nature, but may provide useful information despite defining neither a standard or BCP. (RFC 1796)

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the principle of "Don't Do That, Then" (DDTT) to mitigate request fingerprinting, I describe DNS over HTTPS over Tor (DoHoT).

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monetizing user traffic and for centralizing DNS name resolution, which is generally perceived as harmful for the Internet.

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The domain name is broken into discrete labels which are concatenated; each label is prefixed by the length of that label.

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Some resolvers may override TTL values, as the protocol supports caching for up to sixty-eight years or no caching at all.

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The definitive descriptions of the rules for forming domain names appear in RFC 1035, RFC 1123, RFC 2181, and RFC 5892. A

1793: 238: 233: 203: 5086:. This deficiency is commonly used by cybercriminals and network operators for marketing purposes, user authentication on 7768: 3879: 3666:

of the Domain Name System and each user system would have to implement resolver software capable of recursive operation.

1924: 1866: 1515: 1328: 1027: 970: 614: 63: 6641: 6474: 5416:"Information fusion-based method for distributed domain name system cache poisoning attack detection and identification" 5278:(users of a domain name) are customers of the registrar, in some cases through additional subcontracting of resellers. 3591:

in its responses. This flag is usually reproduced prominently in the output of DNS administration query tools, such as

3254: 1847: 310: 253: 178: 4658:, the domain name system also defines several request types that are used only in communication with other DNS nodes ( 7058: 5309: 5221: 5216:, which is authorized (accredited) to assign names in the corresponding zone and publishes the information using the 3343:

may consist of as many domains and subdomains as the zone manager chooses. DNS can also be partitioned according to

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is the record type. It indicates the format of the data and it gives a hint of its intended use. For example, the

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Response code, can be NOERROR (0), FORMERR (1, Format error), SERVFAIL (2), NXDOMAIN (3, Nonexistent domain), etc.

6092: 6040: 5991: 5950: 5574: 4956: 4895: 4028:(DDNS) updates a DNS server with a client IP address on-the-fly, for example, when moving between ISPs or mobile 3247: 3173:

services. That data can be used to gain insight on, and track responsibility for, a given host on the Internet.

989: 7048: 6822: 5606: 4502:

network, all records (answer, authority, and additional sections) use the common format specified in RFC 1035:

4483:(RRset), having no special ordering. DNS resolvers return the entire set upon query, but servers may implement 3206: 1366: 123: 113: 5912: 5384: 5229: 5051: 5036: 4848: 3476: 3464: 3285: 3269: 3067: 1290: 1178: 876: 243: 223: 173: 3821:

field of the SOA record and the TTL of the SOA itself is used to establish the TTL for the negative answer.

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in the DNS protocol in communication with its primary to maintain an identical copy of the primary records.

6793: 6402: 5500: 5475: 5364: 4844: 4799: 4663: 2957: 2659: 1271: 1234: 671: 163: 158: 153: 17: 7022: 4651:(HS) exist. Each class is an independent name space with potentially different delegations of DNS zones. 4643:) for common DNS records involving Internet hostnames, servers, or IP addresses. In addition, the classes 4121:

Authoritative Answer, in a response, indicates if the DNS server is authoritative for the queried hostname

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The type can be QUERY (standard query, 0), IQUERY (inverse query, 1), or STATUS (server status request, 2)

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In this case, the name server providing the delegation must also provide one or more IP addresses for the

2971:. The Domain Name System has been an essential component of the functionality of the Internet since 1985. 7858: 7848: 6697: 3643: 3622: 3400:

The hierarchy of domains descends from right to left; each label to the left specifies a subdivision, or

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For proper operation of its domain name resolver, a network host is configured with an initial cache (

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registry approach, i.e. keeping the WHOIS data in central registries instead of registrar databases.

4710:, as well as a wildcarded MX record for all of its subdomains, must also be defined in the DNS zone. 3784: 3765: 3592: 3555: 3157:

The DNS reflects the structure of administrative responsibility on the Internet. Each subdomain is a

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Domain Name System (DNS) Security Extensions Mapping for the Extensible Provisioning Protocol (EPP)

6941: 5476:"Globally Distributed Content Delivery, IEEE Internet Computing, September/October 2002, pp. 50–58" 5379: 5264: 5237: 5098: 5083: 4625:

record specifies the mail server used to handle mail for a domain specified in an e-mail address.

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In November 1987, RFC 1034 and RFC 1035 superseded the 1983 DNS specifications. Several additional

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The right to use a domain name is delegated by domain name registrars which are accredited by the

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may appear identical on typical computer screens. This vulnerability is occasionally exploited in

4939:. A use which has become common since 2019 to warrant its own frequently used acronym is DNS over 6993:"Registration Data Access Protocol (RDAP) Operational Profile for gTLD Registries and Registrars" 6449: 6353: 5808: 5334: 4993: 4985:

Several vulnerability issues were discovered and exploited by malicious users. One such issue is

4932: 3507: 2991: 2781: 1538: 1143: 1083: 1065: 857: 360: 350: 143: 58: 42: 5415: 5349: 5329: 4827: 3066:(UDP) as transport over IP. Reliability, security, and privacy concerns spawned the use of the 3063: 3006: 1216: 228: 78: 3539: 3181:

Using a simpler, more memorable name in place of a host's numerical address dates back to the

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Internationalized Domain Names for Applications (IDNA):Background, Explanation, and Rationale

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of their allocated name space to other name servers. This mechanism provides distributed and

2311: 1902: 652: 355: 128: 6082: 6030: 5889: 5829: 4475:, the resource records (RRs). Each record has a type (name and number), an expiration time ( 6868: 6679: 6579: 6246: 6172: 6106: 6054: 6005: 5964: 5662: 5588: 5304: 5032: 4915: 4154:

Recursion Available, in a response, indicates if the replying DNS server supports recursion

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DNS serves other purposes in addition to translating names to IP addresses. For instance,

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to a designated name server. The parent zone ceases to be authoritative for the new zone.

3141:. When a user accesses a distributed Internet service using a URL, the domain name of the 8: 7265:

Internationalized Domain Names for Applications (IDNA):Definitions and Document Framework

5091: 4986: 4675: 4479:), a class, and type-specific data. Resource records of the same type are described as a 3941: 3758: 3079: 1774: 713: 7000: 5464:, Information Sciences Institute, J. Postel (Ed.), The Internet Society (September 1981) 3257:

students, Douglas Terry, Mark Painter, David Riggle, and Songnian Zhou, wrote the first

3012:

The most common types of records stored in the DNS database are for start of authority (

6923: 6730: 6712: 5523: 5443: 4936: 4476: 3830: 3617: 3032: 2618: 345: 4564:

Count of seconds that the RR stays valid (The maximum is 2−1, which is about 68 years)

3347:

where the separate classes can be thought of as an array of parallel namespace trees.

2967:

needed for locating and identifying computer services and devices with the underlying

7054: 6915: 6333: 6306: 6183: 6135: 5687: 5527: 5435: 5374: 5111:, which move DNS resolution to the VPN operator and hide user traffic from local ISP, 5058: 4852: 4518: 4499: 4421: 4213: 3903: 3575:

An authoritative server indicates its status of supplying definitive answers, deemed

3273: 3186: 3048: 3047:(RP) records. As a general purpose database, the DNS has also been used in combating 3036: 2947: 2918: 2851: 2829: 2761:, Web-based word processor, spreadsheet, presentation, form, and data storage service 1253: 273: 49: 6927: 6734: 6428: 5744:"Why Does the Net Still Work on Christmas? Paul Mockapetris - Internet Hall of Fame" 5447: 5289: 3416:

is a subdomain of example.com. This tree of subdivisions may have up to 127 levels.

3231:, for example. She and her team managed the Host Naming Registry from 1972 to 1989. 6907: 6722: 6669: 6619: 6569: 6537: 6275: 6236: 6162: 6096: 6044: 5995: 5954: 5858: 5652: 5578: 5515: 5427: 5319: 4867: 4783: 4775: 4015: 3817:(SOA) record when reporting no data of the requested type exists. The value of the 3789: 3780:

of the response. A glue record is a combination of the name server and IP address.

3523: 3515: 3488: 3390: 3236: 2968: 2803: 2009: 1347: 7285:

The Unicode Code Points and Internationalized Domain Names for Applications (IDNA)

3874:

in the local operating system, which in turn handles the communications required.

3494:) have adopted the IDNA system, guided by RFC 5890, RFC 5891, RFC 5892, RFC 5893. 7652:

Mapping Characters for Internationalized Domain Names in Applications (IDNA) 2008

6948: 5295: 5071: 4484: 4029: 3930: 3926: 3133:

function of the DNS is its central role in distributed Internet services such as

2197: 1653: 214: 7742: 7732: 7722: 7687: 7677: 7667: 7657: 7647: 7637: 7627: 7617: 7607: 7597: 7587: 7577: 7566: 7545: 7534: 7523: 7512: 7501: 7484: 7467: 7457: 7447: 7437: 7432:

Use of GOST Signature Algorithms in DNSKEY and RRSIG Resource Records for DNSSEC

7427: 7417: 7412:

Use of SHA-2 Algorithms with RSA in DNSKEY and RRSIG Resource Records for DNSSEC

7407: 7397: 7387: 7377: 7367: 7357: 7347: 7330: 7320: 7310: 7300: 7295:

Right-to-Left Scripts for Internationalized Domain Names for Applications (IDNA)

7290: 7280: 7270: 7260: 7250: 7240: 7230: 7220: 7210: 7200: 7190: 7180: 7170: 7160: 7150: 7140: 7130: 7120: 7110: 7100: 7090: 7080: 6682: 6663: 6623: 6607: 6603: 6599: 6595: 6591: 6582: 6563: 6541: 6249: 6230: 6210: 6206: 6202: 6198: 6175: 6156: 6109: 6086: 6057: 6034: 6008: 5985: 5967: 5944: 5665: 5646: 5591: 5568: 4871: 4787: 4779: 3772:. The delegating name server provides this glue in the form of records in the 3597:

that the responding name server is an authority for the domain name in question.

3055:(RBL). The DNS database is traditionally stored in a structured text file, the 7711: 6895: 5339: 5139: 5087: 4979: 4975: 4882: 4818:

server, it is not possible to provide static DNS assignments for such clients.

3810: 3393:; for example, the domain name www.example.com belongs to the top-level domain 3193:

that mapped host names to the numerical addresses of computers on the ARPANET.

3123: 3028: 2987: 2983: 2739: 2443: 2292: 1690: 1309: 264: 7760: 5431: 3264:

implementation for the Berkeley Internet Name Domain, commonly referred to as

1475:

Commercialization, privatization, broader access leads to the modern Internet:

7837: 6919: 6726: 5878:

Elizabeth Feinler, IEEE Annals, 3B2-9 man2011030074.3d 29/7/011 11:54 Page 74

5439: 5359: 5324: 5122: 5114: 5075: 4940: 4132:

TrunCation, indicates that this message was truncated due to excessive length

3911: 3867: 3663: 3336: 3134: 3002: 2914: 2873: 2825: 2636: 2123: 1446: 1197: 488: 5983: 5519: 4909: 3475:. In 2009, ICANN approved the installation of internationalized domain name 7782: 6226: 5642: 5501:"The Akamai Network: A Platform for High-Performance Internet Applications" 5344: 5143: 5128: 5079: 5000:(DNSSEC) modify DNS to add support for cryptographically signed responses. 4863: 4610: 4559: 3871: 3672: 3383: 3293: 3190: 3161:

of administrative autonomy delegated to a manager. For zones operated by a

2939: 2561: 2447: 2406: 2160: 560: 183: 7800: 3937:

to multiple server instances across an enterprise or the global Internet.

3239:. Mockapetris instead created the Domain Name System in 1983 while at the 1867:

ICANN begins accepting applications for new generic top-level domain names

5369: 5132: 5004:

has been proposed as an alternative to DNSSEC. Other extensions, such as

4839: 4810: 4495:(DNSSEC) work on the complete set of resource record in canonical order. 4025: 3914:

detects issues with the DNS server it displays a specific error message.

3863: 3733: 3694: 3511: 3375: 3261: 3091: 3021: 2952: 2777: 2758: 2085: 1731: 1630: 1427: 1046: 469: 7778:"Meet the seven people who hold the keys to worldwide internet security" 6911: 5104:

The main approaches that are in use to counter privacy issues with DNS:

5011:

Some domain names may be used to achieve spoofing effects. For example,

6559: 5473:

J. Dilley, B. Maggs, J. Parikh, H. Prokop, R. Sitaraman, and B. Weihl.

5174: 3814: 3289: 3277: 3198: 3126:

without having to know how the computer actually locates the services.

3013: 2964: 2047: 331: 6940:

APWG. "Global Phishing Survey: Domain Name Use and Trends in 1H2010."

4694:

specifies that all subdomains, including subdomains of subdomains, of

3922:

The Domain Name System includes several other functions and features.

3736:

typically makes a recursive query to the DNS server run by the user's

2700:, a collaborative encyclopedia intended to document all living species 7801:"Internet Governance and the Domain Name System: Issues for Congress" 7764: 6674: 6574: 6279: 6241: 6167: 6101: 6049: 6000: 5959: 5657: 5583: 5389: 5040: 4655: 3949: 3467:(IDNA) system, by which user applications, such as web browsers, map 3401: 3217: 3165:, administrative information is often complemented by the registry's 3056: 2998: 2979: 2821: 2599: 2330: 2066: 1649: 933: 4914:

Oblivious DNS (ODNS) was invented and implemented by researchers at

3350: 2978:

for each domain. Network administrators may delegate authority over

7821: 6717: 6406: 5908: 5394: 5260: 5170: 5147: 5044: 5020: 5001: 4952: 4790:

was incomplete and resulted in misinterpretations by implementers.

4644: 4618: 3854: 3472: 3340: 3213: 3158: 3083: 2943: 2891: 2869: 2847: 2640: 2466: 2349: 2216: 1955:

dial-up service provider, email, instant messaging, and web browser

1385: 791: 633: 7175:

DNSSEC and IPv6 A6 aware server/resolver message size requirements

6896:"Retrofitting Security into Network Protocols: The Case of DNSSEC" 5984:

Paul Hoffman; Andrew Sullivan; Kazunori Fujiwara (December 2015).

4143:

Recursion Desired, indicates if the client means a recursive query

4018:

exist, with additional "copies" of them distributed worldwide via

3078:

An often-used analogy to explain the DNS is that it serves as the

6837: 6662:

Huitema, Christian; Dickinson, Sara; Mankin, Allison (May 2022).

5498: 5462:

Internet Protocol - DARPA Internet Program Protocol Specification

5256: 5252: 5201: 5166: 4961: 4019: 3468: 3182: 2799: 2716: 2678: 2580: 2523: 2485: 2368: 2254: 731: 690: 507: 7382:

Use of SHA-256 in DNSSEC Delegation Signer (DS) Resource Records

7125:

A Mechanism for Prompt Notification of Zone Changes (DNS NOTIFY)

5896:. USENIX Association Software Tools Users Group. pp. 23–31. 5031:

look very similar or even identical. This problem, known as the

1927:

oversight passes to the global Internet community on October 1st

7632:

Requirements for a Mechanism Identifying a Name Server Instance

7612:

Application Techniques for Checking and Transformation of Names

7275:

Internationalized Domain Names in Applications (IDNA): Protocol

7050:

Broad Band: The Untold Story of the Women Who Made the Internet

6849: 6232:

Application Techniques for Checking and Transformation of Names

5236:, Germany NIC, holds the DE domain data. From about 2001, most 5118: 4903: 3945: 3710:. A resolution process may use a combination of these methods. 3040: 2910: 2542: 2504: 2235: 2178: 1408: 1102: 914: 810: 769: 579: 294: 188: 87: 67: 7402:

DNS Security (DNSSEC) Hashed Authenticated Denial of Existence

6429:"Ben Anderson: Why Web Browser DNS Caching Can Be A Bad Thing" 7255:

Measures for Making DNS More Resilient against Forged Answers

6996: 5233: 5217: 5121:

domains, hiding both name resolution and user traffic behind

4662:), such as when performing zone transfers (AXFR/IXFR) or for 3835: 3460: 3425: 3221: 3170: 2424: 2387: 2273: 2104: 1990: 1920: 1735: 1612: 1534: 1008: 838: 450: 315: 93: 6650:

correctly while only misclassifying 1 in 10,000 Web packets.

6557: 6266:

Fujiwara, Kazunori; Sullivan, Andrew; Hoffman, Paul (2024).

4851:(TCP) transport for DNS queries, replies and, particularly, 7827: 6478: 6450:"How Internet Explorer uses the cache for DNS host entries" 5414:

Wu, Hao; Dang, Xianglei; Wang, Lidong; He, Longtao (2016).

5117:, which replaces traditional DNS resolution with anonymous 5005: 4899: 4815: 3566: 3369: 3265: 3258: 3227: 3115: 3103: 3025: 2028: 1971: 1671: 1613:

Internet Corporation for Assigned Names and Numbers (ICANN)

1574: 773: 709: 431: 283: 278: 248: 198: 118: 83: 7550:

DNS Root Name Service Protocol and Deployment Requirements

7392:

Minimally Covering NSEC Records and DNSSEC On-line Signing

6794:""No Port 53, Who Dis?" A Year of DNS over HTTPS over Tor" 4886:

easily differentiable in practice without proper padding.

3748:

then a "com" server, and finally an "example.com" server.

1885:

Montevideo Statement on the Future of Internet Cooperation

7452:

Specification for DNS over Transport Layer Security (TLS)

7205:

Domain Name System (DNS) Case Insensitivity Clarification

6299:

Nemeth, Evi; Snyder, Garth; Hein, Trent R. (2006-10-30).

6158:

Domain Name System (DNS) Case Insensitivity Clarification

5738: 5736: 5178: 5108: 4910:

Oblivious DoH (ODoH) and predecessor Oblivious DNS (ODNS)

4826:

From the time of its origin in 1983 the DNS has used the

4218: 4088: 3998:. This hostname is either not configured, or resolves to 3751: 3737: 3588: 3142: 3119: 2946:, services, and other resources on the Internet or other 1952: 1755:

UN World Summit on the Information Society (WSIS) phase I

1593: 1404: 103: 7706:, but due to their age are not clearly labeled as such. 7245:

Automated Updates of DNS Security (DNSSEC) Trust Anchors

6695: 5781: 4617:

record lists which name servers can answer lookups on a

3776:

of the DNS response, and provides the delegation in the

3768:

mentioned in the delegation. This information is called

3082:

for the Internet by translating human-friendly computer

7105:

Requirements for Internet Hosts—Application and Support

6696:

Schmitt, Paul; Edmundson, Anne; Feamster, Nick (2019).

6640:

Csikor, Levente; Divakaran, Dinil Mon (February 2021).

6265: 5906: 5759: 5757: 3070:(TCP) as well as numerous other protocol developments. 7372:

Protocol Modifications for the DNS Security Extensions

7135:

Dynamic Updates in the domain name system (DNS UPDATE)

6661: 6565:

Dynamic Updates in the Domain Name System (DNS UPDATE)

5733: 4099:

Indicates if the message is a query (0) or a reply (1)

2950:(IP) networks. It associates various information with 1848:

First internationalized country code top-level domains

6799:. Network and Distributed System Security Symposium. 4609:

record is used to translate from a domain name to an

4048:

The header section consists of the following fields:

1903:

NetMundial international Internet governance proposal

544:

NPL followed by the ARPANET carry their first packets

7335:

Secret Key Transaction Authentication for DNS (TSIG)

7325:

DNS Transport over TCP - Implementation Requirements

6326:

Bissyande, Tegawendé F.; Sie, Oumarou (2017-10-09).

5769: 5754: 5730:

IEEE Annals man2011030074.3d 29/7/011 11:54 Page 74

5712: 5604: 5285: 3656: 3358:, organized into zones, each served by a name server 3303:

have proposed extensions to the core DNS protocols.

5894:

Summer Conference, Salt Lake City 1984: Proceedings

5888:Terry, Douglas B.; et al. (June 12–15, 1984). 5700: 5251:registry model is used. The domain registry (e.g., 5198:

Internet Corporation for Assigned Names and Numbers

5161:Google is the dominant provider of the platform in 4032:, or when the IP address changes administratively. 3404:of the domain to the right. For example, the label 598:

Merit Network's packet-switched network operational

7195:Handling of Unknown DNS Resource Record (RR) Types 6823:"DNSCrypt – Critical, fundamental, and about time" 6698:"Oblivious DNS: Practical Privacy for DNS Queries" 5852: 4955:protocol, which was developed in 2011 outside the 3378:consists of one or more parts, technically called 7462:Usage Profiles for DNS over TLS and DNS over DTLS 6642:"Privacy of DNS over HTTPS: Requiem for a Dream?" 6132:International Domain Name Law: ICANN and the UDRP 5887: 5881: 3884: 7835: 7824:, Open Source Guide – DNS for Rocket Scientists. 7506:Selection and Operation of Secondary DNS Servers 7362:Resource Records for the DNS Security Extensions 6756:"Oblivious DNS Deployed by Cloudflare and Apple" 6298: 6080: 6028: 4540:Type of RR in numeric form (e.g., 15 for MX RRs) 3944:use DNS to find the best mail server to deliver 7622:Threat Analysis of the Domain Name System (DNS) 7592:Common DNS Operational and Configuration Errors 7215:The Role of Wildcards in the Domain Name System 7095:Domain Names - Implementation and Specification 6893: 6639: 6558:S. Thomson; Y. Rekhter; J. Bound (April 1997). 6546:The Role of Wildcards in the Domain Name System 6154: 5570:Domain Names - Implementation and Specification 5054:can also be used to help validate DNS results. 4045:) controls the content of these four sections. 3609: 3471:strings into the valid DNS character set using 3465:Internationalizing Domain Names in Applications 3220:during business hours. Later, Feinler set up a 1557:very high-speed Backbone Network Service (vBNS) 821:Merging the networks and creating the Internet: 7747:DNS Encodings of Network Names and Other Types 7682:DNS Query Name Minimisation to Improve Privacy 7340: 6958: 6956: 6869:"Oblivious DoH · DNSCrypt/dnscrypt-proxy Wiki" 5900: 5499:Nygren., E.; Sitaraman R. K.; Sun, J. (2010). 5240:(gTLD) registries have adopted this so-called 5064: 4974:requirements for security measures to protect 4529:Name of the node to which this record pertains 3386:, and delimited by dots, such as example.com. 3354:The hierarchical Domain Name System for class 3272:substantially revised the DNS implementation. 1830:First meeting of the Internet Governance Forum 1794:UN Working Group on Internet Governance (WGIG) 7830:– site where you can do experiments with DNS. 6088:Domain Names - Domain Concepts and Facilities 6036:Domain Names - Domain Concepts and Facilities 5946:Domain Names - Domain Concepts and Facilities 4833: 4654:In addition to resource records defined in a 3546:An authoritative name server can either be a 3538:name server is a name server that only gives 3086:into IP addresses. For example, the hostname 382: 7539:Domain Name System (DNS) IANA Considerations 7155:Negative Caching of DNS Queries (DNS NCACHE) 6894:Herzberg, Amir; Shulman, Haya (2014-01-01). 6523:Domain Name System (DNS) IANA Considerations 6512:, D. Eastlake 3rd (November 2008), Section 3 6510:Domain Name System (DNS) IANA Considerations 6426: 6325: 5413: 4996:, leading to many attack possibilities; the 4774:The role of wildcard records was refined in 3529: 1596:changes pricing model from hourly to monthly 7582:Domain Name System Structure and Delegation 6953: 6861: 6188:: CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list ( 6076: 6074: 6031:"Name space specifications and terminology" 5942: 5686:(5th ed.). O'Reilly Media. p. 3. 5566: 5191: 5061:data, since it is often seen as innocuous. 4575:Length of RDATA field (specified in octets) 3209:(ISI), whose team worked closely with SRI. 3062:The Domain Name System originally used the 1923:contract with U.S. Dept. of Commerce ends, 1122:Federal Internet Exchanges (FIX East|FIXes) 7352:DNS Security Introduction and Requirements 6533: 6531: 6225: 6221: 6219: 5979: 5977: 5938: 5936: 5934: 5932: 5930: 5890:"The Berkeley Internet Name Domain Server" 5830:"Paul Mockapetris | Internet Hall of Fame" 5641: 5270:Some domain name registries, often called 4992:DNS responses traditionally do not have a 3579:, by setting a protocol flag, called the " 3502:The Domain Name System is maintained by a 3420:as it also stores the length of the name. 3185:era. The Stanford Research Institute (now 1492:New Internet architecture with commercial 389: 375: 30:"DNS" redirects here. For other uses, see 7662:Running a Root Server Local to a Resolver 7494: 6716: 6673: 6573: 6240: 6166: 6100: 6048: 5999: 5958: 5681: 5656: 5582: 5562: 5560: 5558: 5556: 5554: 5552: 5315:Decentralized object location and routing 3757:delegation is being provided, there is a 3059:, but other database systems are common. 527:Symposium on Operating Systems Principles 27:System to identify resources on a network 7235:DNS Name Server Identifier (NSID) Option 6820: 6525:, D. Eastlake 3rd (November 2008), p. 11 6083:"How the database is divided into zones" 6071: 6022: 5247:For top-level domains on COM and NET, a 4678:which specify names that start with the 3853: 3616: 3518:, the servers to query when looking up ( 3487:of the existing top-level domain names ( 3452:, and hyphen. This rule is known as the 3428:character set, consisting of characters 3370:Domain name syntax, internationalization 3349: 7844:Internet properties established in 1983 7799:Kruger, Lennard G. (18 November 2016). 7145:Clarifications to the DNS Specification 6791: 6551: 6528: 6216: 6148: 6129: 5974: 5927: 5853:Andrei Robachevsky (26 November 2013). 5200:(ICANN) or other organizations such as 4877: 4805: 3721:, the non-recursive query of its local 3637:"www.wikipedia.org" is referred to the 3149:receive different translations for the 3001:, the domain name hierarchy and the IP 1465:North American Network Operators' Group 14: 7836: 7798: 7737:Domain Administrators Operations Guide 7718:– Specified original top-level domains 7702:These RFCs have an official status of 7185:DNS Extensions to Support IP Version 6 7085:Domain Names - Concepts and Facilities 6962: 5635: 5605:Champika Wijayatunga (February 2015). 5549: 4998:Domain Name System Security Extensions 4889: 4821: 4814:different IP address each time from a 4793: 4493:Domain Name System Security Extensions 4326: 3844:American Registry for Internet Numbers 3752:Circular dependencies and glue records 3320:. Each node or leaf in the tree has a 3043:records, or for human queries such as 3031:(MX), name servers (NS), pointers for 7758: 7556: 7165:Indicating Resolver Support of DNSSEC 7046: 6857:from the original on 25 October 2019. 6776: 6475:"Domain Name System (DNS) Parameters" 5787: 5775: 5763: 5718: 5706: 5454: 4858: 4782:, because the original definition in 4035: 3917: 3510:. The nodes of this database are the 2997:The Internet maintains two principal 7775: 7477: 7315:Extension Mechanisms for DNS (EDNS0) 6647:. National University of Singapore. 6628:Extension Mechanisms for DNS (EDNS0) 6134:. Bloomsbury Publishing. p. 8. 5648:Role of the Domain Name System (DNS) 5355:IPv6 brokenness and DNS whitelisting 4066:Number of authority resource records 3316:The domain name space consists of a 3311: 2938:) is a hierarchical and distributed 2602:anonymous news and information leaks 2161:Yahoo Groups (formerly Yahoo! Clubs) 1710:New top-level domain names activated 7786:. Guardian News & Media Limited 7771:from the original on 29 March 2023. 7528:DNS Proxy Implementation Guidelines 7225:HMAC SHA TSIG Algorithm Identifiers 6845:"Anonymized DNSCrypt specification" 6821:Ulevitch, David (6 December 2011). 6668:. Internet Engineering Task Force. 6665:DNS over Dedicated QUIC Connections 5943:Mockapetris, Paul (November 1987). 5682:Liu, Cricket; Albitz, Paul (2006). 5567:Mockapetris, Paul (November 1987). 5508:ACM SIGOPS Operating Systems Review 5035:, is acute in systems that support 4894:RFC 9250, published in 2022 by the 4669: 4466: 4443:Type of RR (A, AAAA, MX, TXT, etc.) 4400: 3890: 3718: 3650: 615:Internet Assigned Numbers Authority 24: 7073: 7068: 6081:Paul Mockapetris (November 1987). 6029:Paul Mockapetris (November 1987). 5150:, which do provide such protection 4968: 3110:2606:2800:220:1:248:1893:25c8:1946 2942:that provides a naming system for 1105:founded, allows commercial traffic 712:protocol approved and deployed on 693:commercial packet-switched network 25: 7870: 7752: 7571:Choosing a Name for Your Computer 7517:Classless IN-ADDR.ARPA delegation 7305:Non-Terminal DNS Name Redirection 6999:. 3 December 2015. Archived from 6833:from the original on 1 July 2020. 6806:from the original on 2021-03-21. 6777:Pauly, Tommy (2 September 2021). 6427:Ben Anderson (7 September 2011). 5310:Comparison of DNS server software 4923:encryption in a single protocol. 3994:is not blacklisted and points to 3824: 3796: 3657:Recursive and caching name server 3389:The right-most label conveys the 3280:then took over BIND maintenance. 3241:University of Southern California 3203:University of Southern California 953:First .COM domain name registered 7776:Ball, James (28 February 2014). 7115:Incremental Zone Transfer in DNS 6981:from the original on 2019-09-30. 6744:from the original on 2022-01-21. 6155:D. Eastlake 3rd (January 2006). 5488:from the original on 2015-04-17. 5288: 5220:protocol. As of 2015, usage of 4674:The domain name system supports 3849: 3688: 3477:country code top-level domains ( 3216:(NIC), directed by Feinler, via 400: 7053:. New York: Portfolio/Penguin. 7015: 6985: 6934: 6887: 6814: 6792:Muffett, Alec (February 2021). 6785: 6770: 6748: 6689: 6655: 6633: 6613: 6515: 6502: 6493: 6467: 6442: 6420: 6395: 6371: 6346: 6319: 6305:. Addison-Wesley Professional. 6292: 6259: 6123: 5915:from the original on 2019-06-30 5872: 5846: 5822: 5793: 5724: 5623:from the original on 2015-12-22 5537:from the original on 2010-12-02 4926: 4896:Internet Engineering Task Force 3554:server. Historically the terms 3497: 3248:Internet Engineering Task Force 3189:) maintained a text file named 990:Internet Engineering Task Force 414:Early research and development: 7808:Congressional Research Service 6705:Privacy Enhancing Technologies 5675: 5598: 5492: 5467: 5407: 5230:country code top-level domains 5037:internationalized domain names 4639:of a record is set to IN (for 4432:Name of the requested resource 3207:Information Sciences Institute 1935:Examples of Internet services: 1367:Classless Inter-Domain Routing 13: 1: 6972:The Internet Protocol Journal 6403:"Providers ignoring DNS TTL?" 6302:Linux Administration Handbook 5907:Internet Systems Consortium. 5401: 5385:List of managed DNS providers 5052:forward-confirmed reverse DNS 5039:, as many character codes in 4849:Transmission Control Protocol 4165:Zero, reserved for future use 3996:6.113.0.203.blacklist.example 3973:5.113.0.203.blacklist.example 3971:is blacklisted. It points to 3408:specifies a subdomain of the 3068:Transmission Control Protocol 2894:, massive open online courses 1179:Advanced Network and Services 877:Simple Mail Transfer Protocol 434:networking concepts developed 7472:DNS Queries over HTTPS (DoH) 5365:Public recursive name server 4845:Extension Mechanisms for DNS 4800:Extension Mechanisms for DNS 4698:use the mail exchanger (MX) 4506:Resource record (RR) fields 4409:Resource record (RR) fields 3610:Address resolution mechanism 3604: 3567:automatic updating mechanism 3306: 3094:translates to the addresses 2660:Amazon Elastic Compute Cloud 1447:Full text web search engines 1272:Commercial Internet eXchange 1235:Wide area information server 672:Transmission Control Program 7: 7854:Application layer protocols 7727:Domain Administrators Guide 7341:Proposed security standards 6963:Huston, Geoff (July 2019). 5855:"Happy 30th Birthday, DNS!" 5281: 5272:network information centers 5065:Privacy and tracking issues 5023:. In many fonts the letter 4946: 4586:Additional RR-specific data 3644:fully qualified domain name 3623:fully qualified domain name 3282:Internet Systems Consortium 3268:. In 1985, Kevin Dunlap of 3073: 2031:online auction and shopping 1030:upgraded to 1.5 Mbit/s (T1) 10: 7875: 7759:Vixie, Paul (4 May 2007). 7697: 7672:DNS Privacy Considerations 7442:The EDNS(0) Padding Option 7040: 6965:"DNS Privacy and the IETF" 6779:"Oblivious DNS Over HTTPS" 6610:. 6379:"What is DNS propagation?" 6213:. 5173:app included DoH? What if 4834:DNS over UDP/TCP/53 (Do53) 4589:Variable, as per RDLENGTH 4393: 4390: 4379: 4376: 4329: 3683:Internet service providers 3382:, that are conventionally 3331:The tree sub-divides into 3214:Network Information Center 3176: 2976:authoritative name servers 2086:Outlook (formerly Hotmail) 1331:upgraded to 45 Mbit/s (T3) 561:Network Information Center 29: 7047:Evans, Claire L. (2018). 6568:. Network Working Group. 6235:. Network Working Group. 6161:. Network Working Group. 5651:. Network Working Group. 5432:10.1049/iet-ifs.2014.0386 5135:or pornography blocking. 5099:Content Delivery Networks 5084:man-in-the-middle attacks 4394:Number of additional RRs 4365: 4362: 4339: 4323: 4320: 4207: 4204: 4201: 4198: 4193: 3785:authoritative name server 3766:authoritative name server 3530:Authoritative name server 3139:content delivery networks 2314:peer-to-peer file sharing 2257:peer-to-peer file sharing 2050:classified advertisements 1293:allows commercial traffic 1200:allows commercial traffic 860:protocol suite formalized 751:Internet Activities Board 405:Internet history timeline 6727:10.2478/popets-2019-0028 6630:, P. Vixie (August 1999) 5420:IET Information Security 5380:List of DNS record types 5265:Public Interest Registry 5238:Generic top-level domain 5192:Domain name registration 5186:DNS Privacy and the IETF 4933:virtual private networks 4712: 4473:list of DNS record types 4391:Number of authority RRs 4070:Number of additional RRs 3053:real-time blackhole list 2681:cloud-based file hosting 839:Computer Science Network 582:switched-circuit network 6900:IEEE Internet Computing 6130:Lindsay, David (2007). 5520:10.1145/1842733.1842736 5335:DNS management software 5072:network packet sniffing 4994:cryptographic signature 3858:DNS resolution sequence 3506:system, which uses the 3284:was founded in 1994 by 3090:within the domain name 2992:Internet protocol suite 2782:threshold pledge system 2723:music streaming service 2238:mobile internet service 2181:Internet payment system 1974:Internet movie database 1084:Border Gateway Protocol 1066:Internet protocol suite 674:specification published 43:Internet protocol suite 7495:Best Current Practices 7489:New DNS RR Definitions 6594:. Updated by RFC 6548:, E. Lewis (July 2006) 5834:internethalloffame.org 5748:internethalloffame.org 5350:Hierarchical namespace 5330:DNS Long-Lived Queries 5189: 4828:User Datagram Protocol 3859: 3626: 3359: 3064:User Datagram Protocol 3007:communication protocol 2469:social networking site 2371:social networking site 1162:ARPANET decommissioned 917:split off from ARPANET 6454:Microsoft Corporation 5909:"The History of BIND" 5805:Internet Hall of Fame 5224:is being considered. 5159: 5125:counter-surveillance, 4920:University of Chicago 4898:, describes DNS over 3857: 3646:"www.wikipedia.org". 3620: 3353: 3276:, Phil Almquist, and 2144:automatic translation 2088:free web-based e-mail 1674:allows broader access 653:PARC Universal Packet 6197:Updated by RFC 5811:on 14 September 2018 5607:"DNS Abuse Handling" 5305:Alternative DNS root 5033:IDN homograph attack 4931:DNS may be run over 4916:Princeton University 4878:DNS over HTTPS (DoH) 4806:Dynamic zone updates 4676:wildcard DNS records 4485:round-robin ordering 4377:Number of questions 4076:Header flags format 3975:, which resolves to 3942:mail transfer agents 3783:For example, if the 3719:caching DNS resolver 3625:"www.wikipedia.org". 3581:Authoritative Answer 3504:distributed database 3483:. In addition, many 3301:Request for Comments 3051:(spam) by storing a 2698:Encyclopedia of Life 2643:and virtual bookshop 2427:Anonymous imageboard 2390:Internet voice calls 2295:Anonymous imageboard 1217:Archie search engine 973:with 56 kbit/s links 714:public data networks 636:network demonstrated 32:DNS (disambiguation) 7716:Domain Requirements 7602:The Naming of Hosts 7003:on 22 December 2015 6942:10/15/2010 apwg.org 6912:10.1109/MIC.2014.14 6201:. Updates RFC 5911:. History of BIND. 5801:"Elizabeth Feinler" 5080:DNS cache poisoning 5050:Techniques such as 4987:DNS cache poisoning 4937:tunneling protocols 4890:DNS over QUIC (DoQ) 4822:Transport protocols 4811:Dynamic DNS updates 4794:Protocol extensions 4702:. The A record for 4507: 4491:. In contrast, the 4481:resource record set 4410: 4190: 4077: 4058:Number of questions 3759:circular dependency 3715:non-recursive query 3508:client–server model 3318:tree data structure 3037:domain name aliases 3033:reverse DNS lookups 2352:business networking 2219:Anonymous textboard 1775:National LambdaRail 1633:wireless networking 1467:(NANOG) established 934:OSI Reference Model 794:standard introduced 7859:Internet Standards 7849:Domain Name System 7557:Informational RFCs 7023:"Find a Registrar" 6947:2012-10-03 at the 6875:. DNSCrypt project 6588:Proposed Standard. 6383:IONOS Digitalguide 6358:IONOS Digitalguide 6195:Proposed Standard. 5790:, p. 120–121. 4859:DNS over TLS (DoT) 4505: 4498:When sent over an 4408: 4380:Number of answers 4188: 4075: 4036:DNS message format 3918:Other applications 3860: 3831:reverse DNS lookup 3815:Start of Authority 3774:additional section 3627: 3360: 3045:responsible person 2932:Domain Name System 2619:Google Street View 1428:Mosaic web browser 1350:(ISOC) established 896:Domain Name System 655:development begins 617:(IANA) established 472:concepts conceived 7478:Experimental RFCs 6758:. 9 December 2020 6590:Updates RFC 6360:. 27 January 2022 6339:978-3-319-66742-3 6312:978-0-13-700275-7 6268:"DNS Terminology" 6229:(February 2004). 6141:978-1-84113-584-7 6095:. sec. 4.2. 6043:. sec. 3.1. 5693:978-0-596-10057-5 5645:(February 2003). 5375:Split-horizon DNS 4593: 4592: 4500:Internet Protocol 4461: 4460: 4398: 4397: 4183: 4182: 4062:Number of answers 4016:root name servers 3935:load distribution 3904:Internet Explorer 3778:authority section 3562:primary/secondary 3516:root name servers 3335:beginning at the 3324:and zero or more 3312:Domain name space 3195:Elizabeth Feinler 3187:SRI International 3129:An important and 3049:unsolicited email 3016:), IP addresses ( 2969:network protocols 2948:Internet Protocol 2928: 2927: 2919:social networking 2852:social networking 2830:social networking 2488:media file series 2200:review aggregator 1537:updated to allow 399: 398: 50:Application layer 16:(Redirected from 7866: 7818: 7816: 7814: 7805: 7795: 7793: 7791: 7772: 7761:"DNS Complexity" 7064: 7035: 7034: 7032: 7030: 7019: 7013: 7012: 7010: 7008: 6989: 6983: 6982: 6980: 6969: 6960: 6951: 6938: 6932: 6931: 6891: 6885: 6884: 6882: 6880: 6865: 6859: 6858: 6841: 6835: 6834: 6818: 6812: 6811: 6805: 6798: 6789: 6783: 6782: 6774: 6768: 6767: 6765: 6763: 6752: 6746: 6745: 6743: 6720: 6702: 6693: 6687: 6686: 6677: 6675:10.17487/RFC9250 6659: 6653: 6652: 6646: 6637: 6631: 6617: 6611: 6586: 6577: 6575:10.17487/RFC2136 6555: 6549: 6535: 6526: 6519: 6513: 6506: 6500: 6497: 6491: 6490: 6488: 6486: 6471: 6465: 6464: 6462: 6461: 6446: 6440: 6439: 6437: 6435: 6424: 6418: 6417: 6415: 6414: 6399: 6393: 6392: 6390: 6389: 6375: 6369: 6368: 6366: 6365: 6350: 6344: 6343: 6323: 6317: 6316: 6296: 6290: 6289: 6287: 6286: 6280:10.17487/RFC9499 6263: 6257: 6253: 6244: 6242:10.17487/RFC3696 6223: 6214: 6193: 6187: 6179: 6170: 6168:10.17487/RFC4343 6152: 6146: 6145: 6127: 6121: 6120: 6118: 6116: 6104: 6102:10.17487/RFC1034 6078: 6069: 6068: 6066: 6064: 6052: 6050:10.17487/RFC1034 6026: 6020: 6019: 6017: 6015: 6003: 6001:10.17487/RFC7719 5981: 5972: 5971: 5962: 5960:10.17487/RFC1034 5940: 5925: 5924: 5922: 5920: 5904: 5898: 5897: 5885: 5879: 5876: 5870: 5869: 5867: 5865: 5859:Internet Society 5850: 5844: 5843: 5841: 5840: 5826: 5820: 5819: 5817: 5816: 5807:. Archived from 5797: 5791: 5785: 5779: 5773: 5767: 5761: 5752: 5751: 5740: 5731: 5728: 5722: 5716: 5710: 5704: 5698: 5697: 5679: 5673: 5669: 5660: 5658:10.17487/RFC3467 5639: 5633: 5632: 5630: 5628: 5622: 5611: 5602: 5596: 5595: 5586: 5584:10.17487/RFC1035 5564: 5547: 5546: 5544: 5542: 5536: 5505: 5496: 5490: 5489: 5487: 5480: 5471: 5465: 5458: 5452: 5451: 5411: 5320:Domain hijacking 5298: 5293: 5292: 5187: 5027:and the numeral 5018: 5014: 4770: 4767: 4764: 4761: 4758: 4755: 4752: 4749: 4746: 4743: 4740: 4737: 4734: 4731: 4728: 4725: 4722: 4719: 4716: 4689: 4685: 4670:Wildcard records 4508: 4504: 4467:Resource records 4411: 4407: 4401:Question section 4360: 4355: 4350: 4345: 4337: 4191: 4187: 4078: 4074: 4004: 4003: 3997: 3992: 3991: 3981: 3980: 3974: 3969: 3968: 3891:Broken resolvers 3811:Negative caching 3790:top level domain 3391:top-level domain 3326:resource records 3237:Paul Mockapetris 3225:have the domain 3124:e-mail addresses 3112: 3111: 3100: 3099: 3089: 2922: 2921: 2907: 2905: 2896: 2895: 2888: 2886: 2877: 2876: 2866: 2864: 2855: 2854: 2844: 2842: 2833: 2832: 2818: 2816: 2807: 2806: 2804:digital currency 2796: 2794: 2785: 2784: 2774: 2772: 2763: 2762: 2755: 2753: 2744: 2743: 2736: 2734: 2725: 2724: 2713: 2711: 2702: 2701: 2694: 2692: 2683: 2682: 2675: 2673: 2664: 2663: 2656: 2654: 2645: 2644: 2633: 2631: 2622: 2621: 2615: 2613: 2604: 2603: 2596: 2594: 2585: 2584: 2577: 2575: 2566: 2565: 2558: 2556: 2547: 2546: 2539: 2537: 2528: 2527: 2520: 2518: 2509: 2508: 2501: 2499: 2490: 2489: 2482: 2480: 2471: 2470: 2463: 2461: 2452: 2451: 2440: 2438: 2429: 2428: 2421: 2419: 2410: 2409: 2403: 2401: 2392: 2391: 2384: 2382: 2373: 2372: 2365: 2363: 2354: 2353: 2346: 2344: 2335: 2334: 2327: 2325: 2316: 2315: 2308: 2306: 2297: 2296: 2289: 2287: 2278: 2277: 2270: 2268: 2259: 2258: 2251: 2249: 2240: 2239: 2232: 2230: 2221: 2220: 2213: 2211: 2202: 2201: 2194: 2192: 2183: 2182: 2175: 2173: 2164: 2163: 2157: 2155: 2146: 2145: 2138: 2136: 2127: 2126: 2120: 2118: 2109: 2108: 2101: 2099: 2090: 2089: 2082: 2080: 2071: 2070: 2063: 2061: 2052: 2051: 2044: 2042: 2033: 2032: 2025: 2023: 2014: 2013: 2006: 2004: 1995: 1994: 1987: 1985: 1976: 1975: 1968: 1966: 1957: 1956: 1949: 1947: 1929: 1928: 1917: 1915: 1906: 1905: 1899: 1897: 1888: 1887: 1881: 1879: 1870: 1869: 1863: 1861: 1852: 1851: 1844: 1842: 1833: 1832: 1826: 1824: 1815: 1814: 1812:UN WSIS phase II 1808: 1806: 1797: 1796: 1790: 1788: 1779: 1778: 1771: 1769: 1758: 1757: 1751: 1749: 1740: 1739: 1724: 1722: 1713: 1712: 1706: 1704: 1695: 1694: 1687: 1685: 1676: 1675: 1668: 1666: 1657: 1656: 1646: 1644: 1635: 1634: 1627: 1625: 1616: 1615: 1609: 1607: 1598: 1597: 1590: 1588: 1579: 1578: 1571: 1569: 1560: 1559: 1553: 1551: 1542: 1541: 1531: 1529: 1520: 1519: 1512: 1510: 1501: 1500: 1489: 1487: 1469: 1468: 1461: 1459: 1450: 1449: 1443: 1441: 1432: 1431: 1424: 1422: 1413: 1412: 1401: 1399: 1390: 1389: 1382: 1380: 1371: 1370: 1363: 1361: 1352: 1351: 1348:Internet Society 1344: 1342: 1333: 1332: 1325: 1323: 1314: 1313: 1306: 1304: 1295: 1294: 1287: 1285: 1276: 1275: 1268: 1266: 1257: 1256: 1250: 1248: 1239: 1238: 1231: 1229: 1220: 1219: 1213: 1211: 1202: 1201: 1194: 1192: 1183: 1182: 1175: 1173: 1164: 1163: 1159: 1157: 1148: 1147: 1136: 1134: 1125: 1124: 1118: 1116: 1107: 1106: 1099: 1097: 1088: 1087: 1080: 1078: 1069: 1068: 1061: 1059: 1050: 1049: 1043: 1041: 1032: 1031: 1024: 1022: 1013: 1012: 1005: 1003: 994: 993: 986: 984: 975: 974: 967: 965: 956: 955: 949: 947: 938: 937: 930: 928: 919: 918: 911: 909: 900: 899: 892: 890: 881: 880: 873: 871: 862: 861: 854: 852: 843: 842: 835: 833: 815: 814: 807: 805: 796: 795: 788: 786: 777: 776: 766: 764: 755: 754: 747: 745: 736: 735: 728: 726: 717: 716: 706: 704: 695: 694: 687: 685: 676: 675: 668: 666: 657: 656: 649: 647: 638: 637: 630: 628: 619: 618: 611: 609: 600: 599: 595: 593: 584: 583: 576: 574: 565: 564: 557: 555: 546: 545: 541: 539: 530: 529: 523: 521: 512: 511: 504: 502: 493: 492: 485: 483: 474: 473: 466: 464: 455: 454: 453:networking ideas 447: 445: 436: 435: 428: 426: 401: 391: 384: 377: 39: 38: 21: 7874: 7873: 7869: 7868: 7867: 7865: 7864: 7863: 7834: 7833: 7812: 7810: 7803: 7789: 7787: 7755: 7700: 7692:DNS Terminology 7559: 7497: 7480: 7343: 7076: 7074:Standards track 7071: 7069:Further reading 7061: 7043: 7038: 7028: 7026: 7025:. VeriSign, Inc 7021: 7020: 7016: 7006: 7004: 6991: 6990: 6986: 6978: 6967: 6961: 6954: 6949:Wayback Machine 6939: 6935: 6892: 6888: 6878: 6876: 6867: 6866: 6862: 6843: 6842: 6838: 6819: 6815: 6803: 6796: 6790: 6786: 6775: 6771: 6761: 6759: 6754: 6753: 6749: 6741: 6700: 6694: 6690: 6660: 6656: 6644: 6638: 6634: 6618: 6614: 6556: 6552: 6536: 6529: 6520: 6516: 6507: 6503: 6498: 6494: 6484: 6482: 6473: 6472: 6468: 6459: 6457: 6448: 6447: 6443: 6433: 6431: 6425: 6421: 6412: 6410: 6401: 6400: 6396: 6387: 6385: 6377: 6376: 6372: 6363: 6361: 6352: 6351: 6347: 6340: 6324: 6320: 6313: 6297: 6293: 6284: 6282: 6264: 6260: 6224: 6217: 6181: 6180: 6153: 6149: 6142: 6128: 6124: 6114: 6112: 6079: 6072: 6062: 6060: 6027: 6023: 6013: 6011: 5987:DNS Terminology 5982: 5975: 5941: 5928: 5918: 5916: 5905: 5901: 5886: 5882: 5877: 5873: 5863: 5861: 5851: 5847: 5838: 5836: 5828: 5827: 5823: 5814: 5812: 5799: 5798: 5794: 5786: 5782: 5774: 5770: 5762: 5755: 5750:. 23 July 2012. 5742: 5741: 5734: 5729: 5725: 5717: 5713: 5705: 5701: 5694: 5680: 5676: 5640: 5636: 5626: 5624: 5620: 5609: 5603: 5599: 5565: 5550: 5540: 5538: 5534: 5503: 5497: 5493: 5485: 5478: 5474: 5472: 5468: 5459: 5455: 5412: 5408: 5404: 5399: 5296:Internet portal 5294: 5287: 5284: 5257:BigRock and PDR 5194: 5188: 5185: 5088:captive portals 5067: 5016: 5012: 4971: 4969:Security issues 4949: 4929: 4912: 4892: 4880: 4861: 4836: 4824: 4808: 4796: 4772: 4771: 4768: 4765: 4762: 4759: 4756: 4753: 4750: 4747: 4744: 4741: 4738: 4735: 4732: 4729: 4726: 4723: 4720: 4717: 4714: 4687: 4683: 4672: 4469: 4403: 4358: 4353: 4348: 4343: 4335: 4038: 4001: 4000: 3995: 3989: 3988: 3978: 3977: 3972: 3966: 3965: 3931:fault tolerance 3927:virtual hosting 3920: 3893: 3852: 3827: 3799: 3754: 3745:iterative query 3730:recursive query 3691: 3659: 3612: 3607: 3532: 3500: 3372: 3314: 3309: 3179: 3109: 3108: 3097: 3096: 3088:www.example.com 3087: 3076: 3029:mail exchangers 2909: 2903: 2901: 2899: 2890: 2884: 2882: 2880: 2868: 2862: 2860: 2858: 2846: 2840: 2838: 2836: 2820: 2814: 2812: 2810: 2798: 2792: 2790: 2788: 2776: 2770: 2768: 2766: 2757: 2751: 2749: 2747: 2738: 2732: 2730: 2728: 2715: 2709: 2707: 2705: 2696: 2690: 2688: 2686: 2677: 2671: 2669: 2667: 2658: 2652: 2650: 2648: 2635: 2629: 2627: 2625: 2617: 2611: 2609: 2607: 2598: 2592: 2590: 2588: 2579: 2573: 2571: 2569: 2560: 2554: 2552: 2550: 2541: 2535: 2533: 2531: 2522: 2516: 2514: 2512: 2503: 2497: 2495: 2493: 2484: 2478: 2476: 2474: 2465: 2459: 2457: 2455: 2442: 2436: 2434: 2432: 2423: 2417: 2415: 2413: 2405: 2399: 2397: 2395: 2386: 2380: 2378: 2376: 2367: 2361: 2359: 2357: 2348: 2342: 2340: 2338: 2329: 2323: 2321: 2319: 2310: 2304: 2302: 2300: 2291: 2285: 2283: 2281: 2272: 2266: 2264: 2262: 2253: 2247: 2245: 2243: 2234: 2228: 2226: 2224: 2215: 2209: 2207: 2205: 2198:Rotten Tomatoes 2196: 2190: 2188: 2186: 2177: 2171: 2169: 2167: 2159: 2153: 2151: 2149: 2140: 2134: 2132: 2130: 2122: 2116: 2114: 2112: 2103: 2097: 2095: 2093: 2084: 2078: 2076: 2074: 2065: 2059: 2057: 2055: 2046: 2040: 2038: 2036: 2027: 2021: 2019: 2017: 2012:online retailer 2008: 2002: 2000: 1998: 1989: 1983: 1981: 1979: 1970: 1964: 1962: 1960: 1951: 1945: 1943: 1941: 1919: 1913: 1911: 1909: 1901: 1895: 1893: 1891: 1883: 1877: 1875: 1873: 1865: 1859: 1857: 1855: 1846: 1840: 1838: 1836: 1828: 1822: 1820: 1818: 1810: 1804: 1802: 1800: 1792: 1786: 1784: 1782: 1773: 1767: 1765: 1763: 1753: 1747: 1745: 1743: 1726: 1720: 1718: 1716: 1708: 1702: 1700: 1698: 1689: 1683: 1681: 1679: 1670: 1664: 1662: 1660: 1654:Abilene Network 1648: 1642: 1640: 1638: 1629: 1623: 1621: 1619: 1611: 1605: 1603: 1601: 1592: 1586: 1584: 1582: 1573: 1567: 1565: 1563: 1555: 1549: 1547: 1545: 1533: 1527: 1525: 1523: 1514: 1508: 1506: 1504: 1491: 1485: 1483: 1481: 1463: 1457: 1455: 1453: 1445: 1439: 1437: 1435: 1426: 1420: 1418: 1416: 1403: 1397: 1395: 1393: 1384: 1378: 1376: 1374: 1365: 1359: 1357: 1355: 1346: 1340: 1338: 1336: 1327: 1321: 1319: 1317: 1308: 1302: 1300: 1298: 1289: 1283: 1281: 1279: 1270: 1264: 1262: 1260: 1252: 1246: 1244: 1242: 1233: 1227: 1225: 1223: 1215: 1209: 1207: 1205: 1196: 1190: 1188: 1186: 1177: 1171: 1169: 1167: 1161: 1155: 1153: 1151: 1138: 1132: 1130: 1128: 1120: 1114: 1112: 1110: 1101: 1095: 1093: 1091: 1082: 1076: 1074: 1072: 1063: 1057: 1055: 1053: 1045: 1039: 1037: 1035: 1026: 1020: 1018: 1016: 1007: 1001: 999: 997: 988: 982: 980: 978: 969: 963: 961: 959: 951: 945: 943: 941: 932: 926: 924: 922: 913: 907: 905: 903: 894: 888: 886: 884: 875: 869: 867: 865: 856: 850: 848: 846: 837: 831: 829: 827: 809: 803: 801: 799: 790: 784: 782: 780: 768: 762: 760: 758: 749: 743: 741: 739: 730: 724: 722: 720: 708: 702: 700: 698: 689: 683: 681: 679: 670: 664: 662: 660: 651: 645: 643: 641: 632: 626: 624: 622: 613: 607: 605: 603: 597: 591: 589: 587: 578: 572: 570: 568: 559: 553: 551: 549: 543: 537: 535: 533: 525: 519: 517: 515: 510:planning begins 506: 500: 498: 496: 487: 481: 479: 477: 468: 462: 460: 458: 449: 443: 441: 439: 430: 424: 422: 420: 395: 215:Transport layer 35: 28: 23: 22: 15: 12: 11: 5: 7872: 7862: 7861: 7856: 7851: 7846: 7832: 7831: 7825: 7819: 7796: 7773: 7754: 7753:External links 7751: 7750: 7749: 7739: 7729: 7719: 7699: 7696: 7695: 7694: 7684: 7674: 7664: 7654: 7644: 7634: 7624: 7614: 7604: 7594: 7584: 7574: 7558: 7555: 7554: 7553: 7542: 7531: 7520: 7509: 7496: 7493: 7492: 7491: 7479: 7476: 7475: 7474: 7464: 7454: 7444: 7434: 7424: 7414: 7404: 7394: 7384: 7374: 7364: 7354: 7342: 7339: 7338: 7337: 7327: 7317: 7307: 7297: 7287: 7277: 7267: 7257: 7247: 7237: 7227: 7217: 7207: 7197: 7187: 7177: 7167: 7157: 7147: 7137: 7127: 7117: 7107: 7097: 7087: 7075: 7072: 7070: 7067: 7066: 7065: 7059: 7042: 7039: 7037: 7036: 7014: 6984: 6952: 6933: 6886: 6860: 6836: 6827:Cisco Umbrella 6813: 6784: 6769: 6747: 6711:(2): 228–244. 6688: 6654: 6632: 6612: 6550: 6527: 6514: 6501: 6492: 6466: 6441: 6419: 6394: 6370: 6345: 6338: 6318: 6311: 6291: 6272:tools.ietf.org 6258: 6255:Informational. 6215: 6147: 6140: 6122: 6070: 6021: 5973: 5926: 5899: 5880: 5871: 5845: 5821: 5792: 5780: 5778:, p. 120. 5768: 5766:, p. 119. 5753: 5732: 5723: 5721:, p. 113. 5711: 5709:, p. 112. 5699: 5692: 5674: 5671:Informational. 5634: 5597: 5548: 5491: 5466: 5453: 5405: 5403: 5400: 5398: 5397: 5392: 5387: 5382: 5377: 5372: 5367: 5362: 5357: 5352: 5347: 5342: 5340:DNS over HTTPS 5337: 5332: 5327: 5322: 5317: 5312: 5307: 5301: 5300: 5299: 5283: 5280: 5193: 5190: 5183: 5154: 5153: 5152: 5151: 5140:DNS over HTTPS 5126: 5112: 5066: 5063: 4980:authentication 4976:data integrity 4970: 4967: 4948: 4945: 4928: 4925: 4911: 4908: 4891: 4888: 4883:DNS over HTTPS 4879: 4876: 4860: 4857: 4853:zone transfers 4835: 4832: 4823: 4820: 4807: 4804: 4795: 4792: 4739:*.a.x.example. 4713: 4680:asterisk label 4671: 4668: 4591: 4590: 4587: 4584: 4580: 4579: 4576: 4573: 4569: 4568: 4565: 4562: 4556: 4555: 4552: 4549: 4545: 4544: 4541: 4538: 4534: 4533: 4530: 4527: 4523: 4522: 4515: 4512: 4489:load balancing 4468: 4465: 4459: 4458: 4455: 4452: 4448: 4447: 4444: 4441: 4437: 4436: 4433: 4430: 4426: 4425: 4418: 4415: 4402: 4399: 4396: 4395: 4392: 4389: 4386: 4382: 4381: 4378: 4375: 4372: 4368: 4367: 4364: 4361: 4356: 4351: 4346: 4341: 4338: 4332: 4331: 4328: 4327:Transaction ID 4325: 4322: 4318: 4317: 4314: 4311: 4308: 4305: 4302: 4299: 4296: 4293: 4290: 4287: 4284: 4281: 4278: 4275: 4272: 4269: 4266: 4263: 4260: 4257: 4254: 4251: 4248: 4245: 4242: 4239: 4236: 4233: 4230: 4227: 4224: 4221: 4216: 4210: 4209: 4206: 4203: 4200: 4197: 4181: 4180: 4177: 4174: 4170: 4169: 4166: 4163: 4159: 4158: 4155: 4152: 4148: 4147: 4144: 4141: 4137: 4136: 4133: 4130: 4126: 4125: 4122: 4119: 4115: 4114: 4111: 4108: 4104: 4103: 4100: 4097: 4093: 4092: 4085: 4082: 4050:Identification 4037: 4034: 4008: 4007: 3984: 3919: 3916: 3892: 3889: 3868:e-mail clients 3851: 3848: 3826: 3825:Reverse lookup 3823: 3798: 3797:Record caching 3795: 3753: 3750: 3690: 3687: 3658: 3655: 3611: 3608: 3606: 3603: 3595:, to indicate 3531: 3528: 3499: 3496: 3371: 3368: 3313: 3310: 3308: 3305: 3253:In 1984, four 3178: 3175: 3147:simultaneously 3135:cloud services 3075: 3072: 3003:address spaces 2984:fault-tolerant 2958:identification 2926: 2925: 2924: 2923: 2897: 2878: 2856: 2834: 2808: 2786: 2764: 2745: 2726: 2703: 2684: 2665: 2646: 2623: 2605: 2586: 2567: 2548: 2529: 2510: 2491: 2472: 2453: 2444:The Pirate Bay 2430: 2411: 2393: 2374: 2355: 2336: 2317: 2298: 2279: 2260: 2241: 2222: 2203: 2184: 2165: 2147: 2128: 2110: 2091: 2072: 2053: 2034: 2015: 1996: 1977: 1958: 1931: 1930: 1907: 1889: 1871: 1853: 1834: 1816: 1798: 1780: 1760: 1759: 1741: 1714: 1696: 1691:Dot-com bubble 1677: 1658: 1636: 1617: 1599: 1580: 1561: 1543: 1521: 1518:decommissioned 1502: 1471: 1470: 1451: 1433: 1414: 1391: 1372: 1353: 1334: 1315: 1310:World Wide Web 1296: 1277: 1258: 1240: 1221: 1203: 1198:UUNET/Alternet 1184: 1165: 1149: 1126: 1108: 1089: 1070: 1051: 1033: 1014: 995: 976: 957: 939: 920: 901: 882: 863: 844: 817: 816: 797: 778: 756: 737: 718: 696: 677: 658: 639: 620: 601: 585: 566: 547: 531: 513: 494: 475: 456: 437: 408: 407: 397: 396: 394: 393: 386: 379: 371: 368: 367: 366: 365: 358: 353: 348: 343: 335: 334: 328: 327: 326: 325: 318: 313: 308: 303: 298: 288: 287: 286: 281: 268: 267: 265:Internet layer 261: 260: 259: 258: 251: 246: 241: 236: 231: 226: 218: 217: 211: 210: 209: 208: 201: 196: 191: 186: 181: 176: 171: 166: 161: 156: 151: 146: 141: 136: 131: 126: 121: 116: 111: 106: 101: 96: 91: 81: 76: 71: 61: 53: 52: 46: 45: 26: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 7871: 7860: 7857: 7855: 7852: 7850: 7847: 7845: 7842: 7841: 7839: 7829: 7828:Mess with DNS 7826: 7823: 7820: 7809: 7802: 7797: 7785: 7784: 7779: 7774: 7770: 7766: 7762: 7757: 7756: 7748: 7744: 7740: 7738: 7734: 7730: 7728: 7724: 7720: 7717: 7713: 7709: 7708: 7707: 7705: 7693: 7689: 7685: 7683: 7679: 7675: 7673: 7669: 7665: 7663: 7659: 7655: 7653: 7649: 7645: 7643: 7639: 7635: 7633: 7629: 7625: 7623: 7619: 7615: 7613: 7609: 7605: 7603: 7599: 7595: 7593: 7589: 7585: 7583: 7579: 7575: 7572: 7568: 7564: 7563: 7562: 7551: 7547: 7543: 7540: 7536: 7532: 7529: 7525: 7521: 7518: 7514: 7510: 7507: 7503: 7499: 7498: 7490: 7486: 7482: 7481: 7473: 7469: 7465: 7463: 7459: 7455: 7453: 7449: 7445: 7443: 7439: 7435: 7433: 7429: 7425: 7423: 7419: 7415: 7413: 7409: 7405: 7403: 7399: 7395: 7393: 7389: 7385: 7383: 7379: 7375: 7373: 7369: 7365: 7363: 7359: 7355: 7353: 7349: 7345: 7344: 7336: 7332: 7328: 7326: 7322: 7318: 7316: 7312: 7308: 7306: 7302: 7298: 7296: 7292: 7288: 7286: 7282: 7278: 7276: 7272: 7268: 7266: 7262: 7258: 7256: 7252: 7248: 7246: 7242: 7238: 7236: 7232: 7228: 7226: 7222: 7218: 7216: 7212: 7208: 7206: 7202: 7198: 7196: 7192: 7188: 7186: 7182: 7178: 7176: 7172: 7168: 7166: 7162: 7158: 7156: 7152: 7148: 7146: 7142: 7138: 7136: 7132: 7128: 7126: 7122: 7118: 7116: 7112: 7108: 7106: 7102: 7098: 7096: 7092: 7088: 7086: 7082: 7078: 7077: 7062: 7060:9780735211759 7056: 7052: 7051: 7045: 7044: 7024: 7018: 7002: 6998: 6994: 6988: 6977: 6973: 6966: 6959: 6957: 6950: 6946: 6943: 6937: 6929: 6925: 6921: 6917: 6913: 6909: 6905: 6901: 6897: 6890: 6874: 6870: 6864: 6856: 6852: 6851: 6846: 6840: 6832: 6828: 6824: 6817: 6810: 6802: 6795: 6788: 6780: 6773: 6757: 6751: 6740: 6736: 6732: 6728: 6724: 6719: 6714: 6710: 6706: 6699: 6692: 6684: 6681: 6676: 6671: 6667: 6666: 6658: 6651: 6643: 6636: 6629: 6625: 6621: 6616: 6609: 6605: 6601: 6597: 6593: 6589: 6584: 6581: 6576: 6571: 6567: 6566: 6561: 6554: 6547: 6543: 6539: 6534: 6532: 6524: 6518: 6511: 6505: 6496: 6480: 6476: 6470: 6455: 6451: 6445: 6430: 6423: 6408: 6404: 6398: 6384: 6380: 6374: 6359: 6355: 6349: 6341: 6335: 6331: 6330: 6322: 6314: 6308: 6304: 6303: 6295: 6281: 6277: 6273: 6269: 6262: 6256: 6251: 6248: 6243: 6238: 6234: 6233: 6228: 6222: 6220: 6212: 6208: 6204: 6200: 6196: 6191: 6185: 6177: 6174: 6169: 6164: 6160: 6159: 6151: 6143: 6137: 6133: 6126: 6111: 6108: 6103: 6098: 6094: 6090: 6089: 6084: 6077: 6075: 6059: 6056: 6051: 6046: 6042: 6038: 6037: 6032: 6025: 6010: 6007: 6002: 5997: 5993: 5989: 5988: 5980: 5978: 5969: 5966: 5961: 5956: 5952: 5948: 5947: 5939: 5937: 5935: 5933: 5931: 5914: 5910: 5903: 5895: 5891: 5884: 5875: 5860: 5856: 5849: 5835: 5831: 5825: 5810: 5806: 5802: 5796: 5789: 5784: 5777: 5772: 5765: 5760: 5758: 5749: 5745: 5739: 5737: 5727: 5720: 5715: 5708: 5703: 5695: 5689: 5685: 5678: 5672: 5667: 5664: 5659: 5654: 5650: 5649: 5644: 5638: 5619: 5615: 5608: 5601: 5593: 5590: 5585: 5580: 5576: 5572: 5571: 5563: 5561: 5559: 5557: 5555: 5553: 5533: 5529: 5525: 5521: 5517: 5513: 5509: 5502: 5495: 5484: 5477: 5470: 5463: 5457: 5449: 5445: 5441: 5437: 5433: 5429: 5425: 5421: 5417: 5410: 5406: 5396: 5393: 5391: 5388: 5386: 5383: 5381: 5378: 5376: 5373: 5371: 5368: 5366: 5363: 5361: 5360:Multicast DNS 5358: 5356: 5353: 5351: 5348: 5346: 5343: 5341: 5338: 5336: 5333: 5331: 5328: 5326: 5325:DNS hijacking 5323: 5321: 5318: 5316: 5313: 5311: 5308: 5306: 5303: 5302: 5297: 5291: 5286: 5279: 5277: 5273: 5268: 5267:exclusively. 5266: 5262: 5258: 5254: 5250: 5245: 5243: 5239: 5235: 5231: 5225: 5223: 5219: 5215: 5211: 5207: 5203: 5199: 5182: 5180: 5176: 5172: 5168: 5164: 5158: 5149: 5145: 5141: 5137: 5136: 5134: 5133:advertisement 5130: 5127: 5124: 5123:onion routing 5120: 5116: 5113: 5110: 5107: 5106: 5105: 5102: 5100: 5095: 5093: 5089: 5085: 5081: 5077: 5076:DNS hijacking 5073: 5062: 5060: 5055: 5053: 5048: 5046: 5042: 5038: 5034: 5030: 5026: 5022: 5009: 5007: 5003: 4999: 4995: 4990: 4988: 4983: 4981: 4977: 4966: 4963: 4958: 4954: 4944: 4942: 4938: 4934: 4924: 4921: 4917: 4907: 4905: 4901: 4897: 4887: 4884: 4875: 4873: 4869: 4865: 4856: 4854: 4850: 4846: 4841: 4838:UDP reserves 4831: 4829: 4819: 4817: 4812: 4803: 4801: 4791: 4789: 4785: 4781: 4777: 4711: 4709: 4705: 4701: 4697: 4693: 4681: 4677: 4667: 4665: 4661: 4657: 4652: 4650: 4646: 4642: 4638: 4633: 4630: 4626: 4624: 4620: 4616: 4612: 4608: 4604: 4600: 4597: 4588: 4585: 4582: 4581: 4577: 4574: 4571: 4570: 4566: 4563: 4561: 4558: 4557: 4553: 4550: 4547: 4546: 4542: 4539: 4536: 4535: 4531: 4528: 4525: 4524: 4520: 4516: 4513: 4510: 4509: 4503: 4501: 4496: 4494: 4490: 4486: 4482: 4478: 4474: 4464: 4456: 4453: 4450: 4449: 4445: 4442: 4439: 4438: 4434: 4431: 4428: 4427: 4423: 4419: 4416: 4413: 4412: 4406: 4387: 4384: 4383: 4373: 4370: 4369: 4357: 4352: 4347: 4342: 4334: 4333: 4319: 4315: 4312: 4309: 4306: 4303: 4300: 4297: 4294: 4291: 4288: 4285: 4282: 4279: 4276: 4273: 4270: 4267: 4264: 4261: 4258: 4255: 4252: 4249: 4246: 4243: 4240: 4237: 4234: 4231: 4228: 4225: 4222: 4220: 4217: 4215: 4212: 4211: 4196: 4192: 4186: 4178: 4175: 4172: 4171: 4167: 4164: 4161: 4160: 4156: 4153: 4150: 4149: 4145: 4142: 4139: 4138: 4134: 4131: 4128: 4127: 4123: 4120: 4117: 4116: 4112: 4109: 4106: 4105: 4101: 4098: 4095: 4094: 4090: 4086: 4083: 4080: 4079: 4073: 4071: 4067: 4063: 4059: 4055: 4051: 4046: 4044: 4033: 4031: 4027: 4023: 4021: 4017: 4012: 4005: 3993: 3985: 3982: 3970: 3962: 3961: 3960: 3959:For example: 3957: 3953: 3951: 3947: 3943: 3938: 3936: 3932: 3928: 3923: 3915: 3913: 3912:Google Chrome 3908: 3905: 3901: 3897: 3888: 3886: 3881: 3875: 3873: 3869: 3865: 3856: 3850:Client lookup 3847: 3845: 3839: 3837: 3832: 3822: 3820: 3816: 3812: 3807: 3803: 3794: 3791: 3786: 3781: 3779: 3775: 3771: 3767: 3762: 3760: 3749: 3746: 3741: 3739: 3735: 3731: 3726: 3724: 3720: 3716: 3711: 3709: 3705: 3704:non-recursive 3701: 3696: 3689:DNS resolvers 3686: 3684: 3680: 3677: 3675: 3674: 3667: 3665: 3654: 3652: 3647: 3645: 3640: 3634: 3632: 3624: 3619: 3615: 3602: 3599: 3598: 3594: 3590: 3586: 3582: 3578: 3577:authoritative 3573: 3570: 3568: 3563: 3559: 3558: 3553: 3549: 3544: 3541: 3537: 3536:authoritative 3527: 3525: 3521: 3517: 3513: 3509: 3505: 3495: 3493: 3491: 3486: 3482: 3480: 3474: 3470: 3466: 3463:approved the 3462: 3457: 3455: 3451: 3447: 3443: 3439: 3435: 3431: 3427: 3421: 3417: 3415: 3411: 3407: 3403: 3398: 3396: 3392: 3387: 3385: 3381: 3377: 3367: 3365: 3357: 3352: 3348: 3346: 3342: 3338: 3334: 3329: 3327: 3323: 3319: 3304: 3302: 3297: 3295: 3291: 3287: 3283: 3279: 3275: 3271: 3267: 3263: 3260: 3256: 3251: 3249: 3244: 3242: 3238: 3232: 3230: 3229: 3223: 3219: 3215: 3210: 3208: 3204: 3200: 3196: 3192: 3188: 3184: 3174: 3172: 3168: 3164: 3160: 3155: 3152: 3148: 3144: 3140: 3136: 3132: 3127: 3125: 3121: 3117: 3113: 3105: 3101: 3098:93.184.216.34 3093: 3085: 3081: 3071: 3069: 3065: 3060: 3058: 3054: 3050: 3046: 3042: 3038: 3034: 3030: 3027: 3023: 3019: 3015: 3010: 3008: 3004: 3000: 2995: 2993: 2989: 2985: 2981: 2977: 2972: 2970: 2966: 2962: 2959: 2955: 2954: 2949: 2945: 2941: 2937: 2933: 2920: 2916: 2915:video sharing 2912: 2898: 2893: 2879: 2875: 2874:photo sharing 2871: 2857: 2853: 2849: 2835: 2831: 2827: 2826:photo sharing 2823: 2809: 2805: 2801: 2787: 2783: 2779: 2765: 2760: 2746: 2742:search engine 2741: 2727: 2722: 2718: 2704: 2699: 2685: 2680: 2666: 2661: 2647: 2642: 2638: 2624: 2620: 2606: 2601: 2587: 2583:microblogging 2582: 2568: 2564:virtual globe 2563: 2549: 2544: 2530: 2526:video sharing 2525: 2511: 2507:image hosting 2506: 2492: 2487: 2473: 2468: 2454: 2449: 2445: 2431: 2426: 2412: 2408: 2394: 2389: 2375: 2370: 2356: 2351: 2337: 2332: 2318: 2313: 2299: 2294: 2280: 2276:search engine 2275: 2261: 2256: 2242: 2237: 2223: 2218: 2204: 2199: 2185: 2180: 2166: 2162: 2148: 2143: 2129: 2125: 2124:Google Search 2111: 2107:search engine 2106: 2092: 2087: 2073: 2069:search engine 2068: 2054: 2049: 2035: 2030: 2016: 2011: 1997: 1993:web directory 1992: 1978: 1973: 1959: 1954: 1940: 1939: 1938: 1937: 1936: 1926: 1922: 1908: 1904: 1890: 1886: 1872: 1868: 1854: 1849: 1835: 1831: 1817: 1813: 1799: 1795: 1781: 1776: 1762: 1761: 1756: 1742: 1737: 1733: 1729: 1715: 1711: 1697: 1692: 1678: 1673: 1659: 1655: 1651: 1637: 1632: 1618: 1614: 1600: 1595: 1581: 1576: 1562: 1558: 1544: 1540: 1536: 1522: 1517: 1503: 1499: 1496:connected at 1495: 1480: 1479: 1478: 1477: 1476: 1466: 1452: 1448: 1434: 1429: 1415: 1410: 1406: 1392: 1387: 1373: 1368: 1354: 1349: 1335: 1330: 1316: 1311: 1297: 1292: 1278: 1273: 1259: 1255: 1241: 1236: 1222: 1218: 1204: 1199: 1185: 1180: 1166: 1150: 1145: 1141: 1127: 1123: 1109: 1104: 1090: 1085: 1071: 1067: 1052: 1048: 1034: 1029: 1015: 1010: 996: 991: 977: 972: 958: 954: 940: 935: 921: 916: 902: 897: 883: 878: 864: 859: 845: 840: 826: 825: 824: 823: 822: 812: 798: 793: 779: 775: 771: 757: 752: 738: 733: 719: 715: 711: 697: 692: 678: 673: 659: 654: 640: 635: 621: 616: 602: 586: 581: 567: 562: 548: 532: 528: 514: 509: 495: 490: 489:Merit Network 476: 471: 457: 452: 438: 433: 419: 418: 417: 416: 415: 410: 409: 406: 403: 402: 392: 387: 385: 380: 378: 373: 372: 370: 369: 364: 363: 359: 357: 354: 352: 349: 347: 344: 342: 339: 338: 337: 336: 333: 330: 329: 324: 323: 319: 317: 314: 312: 309: 307: 304: 302: 299: 296: 292: 289: 285: 282: 280: 277: 276: 275: 272: 271: 270: 269: 266: 263: 262: 257: 256: 252: 250: 247: 245: 242: 240: 237: 235: 232: 230: 227: 225: 222: 221: 220: 219: 216: 213: 212: 207: 206: 202: 200: 197: 195: 192: 190: 187: 185: 182: 180: 177: 175: 172: 170: 167: 165: 162: 160: 157: 155: 152: 150: 147: 145: 142: 140: 137: 135: 132: 130: 127: 125: 122: 120: 117: 115: 112: 110: 107: 105: 102: 100: 97: 95: 92: 89: 85: 82: 80: 77: 75: 72: 69: 65: 62: 60: 57: 56: 55: 54: 51: 48: 47: 44: 41: 40: 37: 33: 19: 7811:. Retrieved 7807: 7788:. Retrieved 7783:The Guardian 7781: 7746: 7736: 7726: 7715: 7701: 7691: 7681: 7671: 7661: 7651: 7641: 7631: 7621: 7611: 7601: 7591: 7581: 7570: 7560: 7549: 7538: 7527: 7516: 7505: 7488: 7471: 7461: 7451: 7441: 7431: 7421: 7411: 7401: 7391: 7381: 7371: 7361: 7351: 7334: 7324: 7314: 7304: 7294: 7284: 7274: 7264: 7254: 7244: 7234: 7224: 7214: 7204: 7194: 7184: 7174: 7164: 7154: 7144: 7134: 7124: 7114: 7104: 7094: 7084: 7049: 7027:. Retrieved 7017: 7005:. Retrieved 7001:the original 6987: 6971: 6936: 6906:(1): 66–71. 6903: 6899: 6889: 6877:. Retrieved 6872: 6863: 6853:. DNSCrypt. 6848: 6839: 6826: 6816: 6807: 6787: 6772: 6760:. Retrieved 6750: 6708: 6704: 6691: 6664: 6657: 6648: 6635: 6627: 6615: 6587: 6564: 6553: 6545: 6522: 6517: 6509: 6504: 6495: 6483:. Retrieved 6481:. DNS RCODEs 6469: 6458:. Retrieved 6444: 6432:. Retrieved 6422: 6411:. Retrieved 6397: 6386:. Retrieved 6382: 6373: 6362:. Retrieved 6357: 6348: 6332:. Springer. 6328: 6321: 6301: 6294: 6283:. Retrieved 6271: 6261: 6254: 6231: 6194: 6157: 6150: 6131: 6125: 6113:. Retrieved 6087: 6061:. Retrieved 6035: 6024: 6012:. Retrieved 5986: 5945: 5917:. Retrieved 5902: 5893: 5883: 5874: 5862:. Retrieved 5848: 5837:. Retrieved 5833: 5824: 5813:. Retrieved 5809:the original 5804: 5795: 5783: 5771: 5747: 5726: 5714: 5702: 5684:DNS and BIND 5683: 5677: 5670: 5647: 5637: 5625:. Retrieved 5600: 5569: 5541:November 19, 5539:. 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