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agents. Harvie
Johnson (the last surviving original member of the Deacons for Defense and Justice) was interviewed by two agents during this period. He said they asked only how the Deacons obtained their weapons, never questioning him about the Klan activity or police actions they were responding to. Although the FBI and white media regarded the Deacons as bringers of race warfare, they actually worked closely with CORE in their nonviolent protests as a way to bring about change in Bogalusa. The Federal Government finally intervened and forced local police to uphold the law and protect citizens' right. As a result of the Deacons' actions the Klan had to restrict themselves to night terror raids. The Deacons served as a symbol of power and pride, and undermined the stereotype of black submission.
229:, a high school teacher, organized a second group that volunteered to monitor police arrests of African Americans while also working to keep the community safe. Thomas was one of the first volunteers to guard the house. According to historian Lance Hill, "Thomas was eager to work with CORE but he had reservations about the nonviolent terms imposed by the young activists". Around this time, CORE began protesting against the segregation of a public swimming pool as well as the Jonesboro Public Library. The Ku Klux Klan and local police organized a caravan to intimidate the protesters and the African American community in Jonesboro. Thomas and Kirkpatrick organized a twenty men group to protect the citizens of Jonesboro, starting the Deacons.
240:. Coretta Jackson acted as treasurer for The Deacons Of Defense and Justice. We Had been arrested for possession of a concealed weapon while protecting protesting students. The Deacons had strict membership criteria for applicants. They accepted only male American citizens over the age of 21. They preferred married men with military service, as well as registered voters. They refused men with a reputation for "hotheadedness". They vigorously upheld their stance of only acting in defense. They continued guarding CORE as a means to further the civil rights agenda. Every member of the Deacons had to pledge his life for the defense of justice, Black people, and for civil rights workers.
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hostile police ready to use fire trucks with hoses against them. A car carrying four
Deacons arrived. In view of the police, these men loaded their shotguns. The police ordered the fire truck to withdraw. This was the first time in the 20th century, as Hill observes, that "an armed Black organization had successfully used weapons to defend a lawful protest against an attack by law enforcement". Hill also wrote "In Jonesboro, the Deacons made history when they compelled Louisiana governor
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required them to maintain secrecy to avoid terrorist attacks. In addition, they recruited only mature male members, in contrast to other more informal self-defense efforts, in which women and teenagers sometimes played a role. Finally, the organization was relatively short-lived, fading by 1968. In that period, there was a national shift in attention to the issues of Blacks in the North and the rise of the Black Power movement in 1966. The
Deacons were overshadowed by
255:, in southeast Louisiana, on February 21, 1965, Kirkpatrick, Thomas and a CORE member worked with local leaders to organize the first affiliated Deacons chapter. Black activists in the company mill town were being attacked by the local and powerful Ku Klux Klan. The police and sheriff in Bogalusa as well as most government organizations were all infiltrated by the Klan. The only protection the people of Bogalusa had against the Klan was the Deacons. Although the
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outside CORE headquarters and patrolled the
African American community. The Deacons would protect both white and black activists as they canvassed looking for voters. They would also transport civil rights workers into and out of Bogalusa. There were by-laws that each member had to uphold. Sims was very clear about the roles of the Deacons: they were to act in self-defense only.
154:, publicly acknowledged a relationship between CORE and the Deacons for Defense in Louisiana. This alliance between the two organizations highlighted the concept of armed self-defense embraced by many Blacks in the South, who had long been subject to white violence. A significant portion of SNCC's southern-born leadership and staff also supported armed self-defense.
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In
Bogalusa, the Deacons worked with CORE on their campaigns. When the local police and Ku Klux Klan joined forces to attempt to harass two white CORE members and drive them out of town, the Deacons intervened on behalf of the white volunteers, protecting them from the police. The Deacons stood guard
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The Bureau ultimately produced more than 1,500 pages of comprehensive and relatively accurate records on the
Deacons and their activities, largely through numerous informants close to or who had infiltrated the organization. Members of the Deacons were repeatedly questioned and intimidated by F.B.I.
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in 1965, when marchers demonstrating for the vote reached the state capital from Selma. In 1967 Carmichael said, "Those of us who advocate Black Power are quite clear in our own minds that a 'non-violent' approach to civil rights is an approach black people cannot afford and a luxury white people do
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On July 8, 1965, at a nonviolent march on city hall, hundreds of whites gathered to throw rocks at the assembled protesters. The white antagonists surrounded the protesters. A twenty-one year old insurance salesman and Air Force veteran named Henry Austin confronted the mob and fired a warning shot.
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The
Deacons' militant confrontation with the Klan in Bogalusa throughout the summer of 1965 was planned to gain federal government intervention. These tactics proved successful when "in July 1965, escalating hostilities between the Deacons and the Klan in Bogalusa provoked the federal government to
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In the summer of 1965, the
Bogalusa chapter campaigned for integration and came into regular conflict with the Klan in the city. The state police established a base there in the spring in expectation of violence after the Deacons organized. Before the summer, the first Black deputy sheriff of the
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The
Deacons provided protection for CORE leader, James Farmer in 1965. Farmer arrived in Bogalusa in order to aid in desegregation and required the protection of the Deacons. They ensured his safety from the time he arrived at the New Orleans airport and provided security while Farmer spoke and
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During the day, the men concealed their guns. At night they carried them openly, as was allowed by the law, to discourage Klan activity at the site and in the Black community. In early 1965, Black students were picketing the local high school in
Jonesboro for integration. They were confronted by
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The Deacons attracted media attention for their protection of Charles Evers' desegregation campaign in Natchez, Mississippi. Attention was given to them because, unlike similar groups that had come before, the Deacons did not hide their names from the media. This coupled with their use of armed
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After the successful integration of the Jonesboro Public Library, the Ku Klux Klan burned crosses in response. The Deacons wrote leaflets threatening to kill anyone who burned a cross. The leaflets were distributed into the homes of white people by their black house workers. The cross-burnings
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plant (Georgia-Pacific after 1985, later acquired by another), led this new chapter of the Deacons for Defense. Charles Sims, a World War II veteran was the president of the Bogalusa chapter of the Deacons. He acted as spokesman for the Deacons, demanding fair treatment and threatening violent
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established a Freedom House in Jonesboro. It became a target of the Klan who resented white activists staying there. Because of repeated attacks on the Freedom House, as well as the church burnings, the Black community decided to organize to defend it. Before The Deacons of Defense and Justice
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According to a 2007 article by Dirks, the usual histories of the Civil Rights Movement tend to overlook such organizations as the Deacons. She says there are several reasons: First, the dominant ideology of the Movement was one of non-violence. Second, threats to the lives of Deacons' members
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Umoja wrote, "Finally, though expressing reservations, King conceded to Carmichael's proposals to maintain unity in the march and the movement. The involvement and association of the Deacons with the march signified a shift in the civil rights movement, which had been popularly projected as a
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or other white insurgents operated outside the law, and white-dominated police forces practiced discrimination against Blacks. In Jonesboro, an industrial town in northern Louisiana, the KKK harassed local activists, burned crosses on the lawns of African-American voters, and burned down five
150:(SNCC) and CORE supported armed self-defense, although they had long promoted non-violence as a tactic to achieve civil rights. They began to believe that changes in federal law were not sufficient to advance civil rights or to protect activists locally. National CORE leadership, including
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the hard truth is that these organizations produced few victories in their local projects in the Deep South--if success is measured by the ability to force changes in local government policy and create self-governing and sustainable local organizations that could survive when the national
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The Chicago Chapter of the Deacons for Defense and Justice was formed by Earnest Thomas, vice president of the Jonesboro chapter, in 1965. The Deacons intended to spread throughout the North and the West but were unsuccessful because their tactics were less effective outside of the South.
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became interested in the group. His office sent a memo to its Louisiana field offices: "Because of the potential for violence indicated, you are instructed to immediately initiate an investigation of the DDJ ." As was eventually exposed in the late 1970s, the FBI established the
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Smiley convinced King that he could not keep such weapons or plan armed "self-defense", as it was inconsistent with his public positions on non-violence. Dirks explored the emergence of Black groups for self-defense in Clarksdale and Natchez, Mississippi from 1960 to 1965.
164:, transformed his local NAACP chapter into an armed self-defense unit. He was criticized for this by the national leaders of the NAACP. After he was charged by the state with kidnapping a white couple whom he had sheltered during local violence related to the
43:, followed by a total of 20 other chapters in this state, Mississippi, Arkansas, and Alabama. It was intended to protect civil rights activists and their families, threatened both by white vigilantes and discriminatory treatment by police under
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use Reconstruction-era laws to order local police departments to protect civil rights workers". The Deacons also initiated a regional organizing campaign, founding a total of 21 formal chapters and 46 affiliates in other cities.
343:. He wanted a low-key affair, but was shot and wounded early in the march. Other major civil rights leaders and organizations recruited hundreds and then thousands of marchers in order to continue Meredith's effort.
491:. The film explores development of the group through events of 1964 and 1965. The plot follows the transition of a black family and community members from belief in non-violence to supporting armed self-defense.
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officially formed, two groups were operating in Jonesboro to protect African Americans. One group acted as sentries outside the Freedom House, led by Percy Lee Bradford, a stock room worker, and Earnest Thomas.
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Dirks, Annelieke. (2007). "Between Threat and Reality: The National Association for the Advancement of Colored People and the Emergence of Armed Self-Defense in Clarksdale and Natchez, Mississippi, 1960‒1965".
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founded the Deacons for Defense in November 1964 to protect civil rights workers, their families and the Black community against the local KKK. Most of the Deacons were veterans with combat experience from the
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retaliation in the event of attack. Sims considered the Deacons a "defense guard unit" who had formed simply "because we got tired of the women, the children being harassed by the white night-riders".
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organizations departed ... The Deacons' campaigns frequently resulted in substantial and unprecedented victories at the local level, producing real power and self-sustaining organizations.
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laws. Drawn into local rivalries between Black and white children for swimming hole rights, Thomas learned that rights and access come not to those who ask but rather those who fight.
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to intervene in the city's civil rights crisis and require a compromise with city leaders — the first capitulation to the civil rights movement by a Deep South governor".
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Thomas, who had military training, quickly emerged as the leader of this budding defense organization. He was joined by Kirkpatrick, a civil rights activist and member of
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In his 2006 book, Hill discusses the difficulties in achieving change on the local level in the South after national leaders and activists left. He wrote,
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He then shot an advancing attacker three times in the chest. After the shooting the mob dispersed. Both Austin and the attacker survived the encounter.
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program, through which its agents were involved in many illegal activities against organizations that Hoover deemed "a threat to the American way".
172:. After Williams' return in 1969, his trial on these charges was scheduled in 1975; that year the state reviewed the case and withdrew the charges.
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in 2015. Fundraising continues for a civil rights museum in Bogalusa to honor the work of the Deacons for Defense; it was expected to open in 2018.
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encouraged having the Deacons provide security for the remainder of the march. After some debate, many civil rights leaders agreed, including Rev.
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had been passed, Black people were making little progress toward integration of public facilities in the city or registering to vote. Activists
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in 1964 including the torching of five churches, a Masonic hall and a Baptist center. Given these threats, Earnest "Chilly Willy" Thomas and
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205:. Born in Jonesboro on November 20, 1935, Thomas grew up in the segregated state decades after the white-dominated state legislature had
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122:(FOR), observed during a house visit to King that the police did not allow the minister a weapon permit, but "the place is an arsenal."
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Even Martin Luther King Jr.—the icon of nonviolence—employed armed bodyguards and had guns in his house during the early stages of the
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was another activist who armed herself; she said that in 1964 during Freedom Summer, she kept several loaded guns under her bed.
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Umoja, A. O. (1999). "The Ballot and the Bullet: A Comparative Analysis of Armed Resistance in the Civil Rights Movement".
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304:. Such support by the Deacons allowed the NAACP and CORE to formally observe their traditional parameters of non-violence.
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Encyclopedia of African American History: 1896 to the Present: from the Age of Segregation to the Twenty-First Century
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self-defense group founded in November 1964, during the civil rights era in the United States, in the mill town of
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958:, 1997–1998, prize-winning student paper, Dept. of History, Loyola University New Orleans; accessed May 18, 2017
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had said that the Deacons "forced the Klan to re-evaluate their actions and often change their undergarments".
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47:. The Bogalusa chapter gained national attention during the summer of 1965 in its violent struggles with the
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According to Hill, local (armed) groups laid the foundation for equal opportunities for African Americans.
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609:(1st ed.). Washington, D.C.: Teaching for Change and the Poverty & Race Research Action Council.
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and a period of extensive voter education and organizing for registration, especially in Mississippi, the
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Hill, Rickey (2011). "The Bogalusa Movement: Self-Defense and Black Power in the Civil Rights Struggle".
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movement. Blacks worked to gain control of more political and economic activities in their communities.
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in Bogalusa commemorates one of the leaders of the Deacons in that city; it was listed on the
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wrote a fictional short story, "Deacons for Defense", based on events in Bogalusa, Louisiana.
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1117:"Bogalusa Marks 59th Anniversary of Pivotal Civil Rights Moment at Robert "Bob" Hicks House"
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442:. The Robert "Bob" Hicks Foundation is in the process of restoring and preserving the house.
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The Deacons were instrumental in other campaigns led by the Civil Rights Movement. Activist
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African Americans were harassed and attacked by white KKK vigilantes in the mill town of
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self-defense, and modest beginnings, made them heroes to harassed black communities.
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596:"Understanding Self-Defense in the Civil Rights Movement Through Visual Arts"
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The Deacons had a relationship with other civil rights groups that practiced
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By 1968, the Deacons' activities were declining, following passage of the
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236:(SCLC), who had been ordained that year as a minister in the Pentecostal
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The Deacons for Defense: armed resistance and the civil rights movement
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Race and Democracy: The Civil Rights Struggle in Louisiana, 1915-1972
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back into Civil Rights Teaching: A Resource Guide for K-12 Classrooms
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in 1961, Williams and his wife left the country, going into exile in
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The Deacons were not the first champions of armed-defense during the
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103:, but in November 1964, they were the first to organize as a force.
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1061:"Second Amendment Freedoms Aided the Civil Rights Movement"
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538:"Robert Hicks, Leader in Armed Rights Group, Dies at 81"
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601:. In Menkart, Deborah; Murray, Alana D.; View (eds.).
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Racially motivated violence against African Americans
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Hicks at his Hicks House in Bogalusa, Louisiana. The
1180:. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press.
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937:
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1208:, University of Georgia Press: 1995/reprint 1999.
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1019:Black Power: The Politics of Liberation in America
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461:The Deacons in Bogalusa are the subject of a 2003
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358:Stokely Carmichael had first made a speech about
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2305:Revolutionary People's Constitutional Convention
871:. Oxford University Press. 2009. pp. 23–24.
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446:
139:churches, a Masonic hall, and a Baptist center.
1251:Seth Hague, "Niggers Ain't Gonna Run This Town"
956:Seth Hague, "Niggers Ain't Gonna Run This Town"
2152:The Black Panthers: Vanguard of the Revolution
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118:, an organizer of the nonviolent and pacifist
2107:Charles Garry: Streetfighter in the Courtroom
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471:. Based on D'Antonio's story and produced by
401:about the Deacons in Jonesboro, FBI Director
39:—the first affiliated chapter was founded in
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975:. Undone. November 21, 2016. Archived from
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148:Student Non-violent Coordinating Committee
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346:According to in a 1999 article, activist
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2041:Black Power, We're Goin' Survive America
1003:
830:Encyclopedia of African American History
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387:, which became noted for its militancy.
234:Southern Christian Leadership Conference
106:According to historian Annelieke Dirks,
2347:African Americans' rights organizations
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1115:Holdiness, Timothy (February 1, 2024).
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457:https://www.imdb.com/name/nm1256877/
440:National Register of Historic Places
178:Mississippi Freedom Democratic Party
160:, president of the NAACP chapter in
89:National Register of Historic Places
1813:Lowndes County Freedom Organization
759:
638:
561:Journal for the Study of Radicalism
184:Founding of the Deacons for Defense
13:
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31:. On February 21, 1965—the day of
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2286:Sweet Sweetback's Baadasssss Song
2021:Revolutionary Black Panther Party
1281:"Deacons for Defense and Justice"
1244:
1095:The Robert 'Bob' Hicks Foundation
536:Douglas Martin (April 24, 2010).
308:marched at desegregation events.
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2317:
2245:1968 Olympics Black Power salute
1022:. pp. 44–56. Archived from
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391:FBI investigation begins in 1965
2074:Eldridge Cleaver, Black Panther
2006:New Afrikan Black Panther Party
1793:Deacons for Defense and Justice
1509:Jalil Muntaqim (Anthony Bottom)
1219:Johnson, Allen (July 6, 2004).
1134:
1108:
1091:"Bogalusa Civil Rights History"
1083:
1049:
1016:; Hamilton, Charles V. (1967).
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21:Deacons for Defense and Justice
2265:New Haven Black Panther trials
2101:In the Event Anyone Disappears
1955:Viduthalai Chiruthaigal Katchi
923:10.5816/blackscholar.41.3.0043
227:Frederick Douglass Kirkpatrick
194:Frederick Douglass Kirkpatrick
1:
2016:New Panther Vanguard Movement
1991:Black Riders Liberation Party
1221:"The Education of Lance Hill"
724:Review of Lance Hill's book (
517:
447:Representation in other media
438:in Bogalusa is listed on the
251:After traveling 300 miles to
146:notes that by 1965, both the
1996:Black Women's Defense League
1862:United Front Against Fascism
1747:Akua Njeri (Deborah Johnson)
594:James-Wilson, Sonia (2004).
288:was assassinated by whites.
120:Fellowship of Reconciliation
7:
2160:Judas and the Black Messiah
1844:Free Breakfast for Children
834:. ABC-CLIO. 2010. pp.
495:
222:Congress of Racial Equality
207:disenfranchised most blacks
10:
2388:
2260:Murder of Betty Van Patter
2088:The Murder of Fred Hampton
2067:Interview with Bobby Seale
666:10.1177/002193479902900406
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56:Voting Rights Act of 1965
2047:Black Panthers: A Report
1885:American Indian Movement
1650:Michael "Cetewayo" Tabor
699:"By Any Means Necessary"
653:Journal of Black Studies
436:Robert "Bob" Hicks House
355:'nonviolent movement."'
331:organized the June 1966
257:Civil Rights Act of 1964
134:, local chapters of the
85:Robert "Bob" Hicks House
2122:All Power to the People
2011:New Black Panther Party
2001:Huey P. Newton Gun Club
1905:Black Panthers (Israel)
1585:Marshall "Eddie" Conway
1479:Elbert "Big Man" Howard
1172:Hill, Lance E. (2004).
1121:The Bogalusa Daily News
512:Chambers v. Mississippi
417:According to columnist
385:The Black Panther Party
295:
238:Church of God in Christ
2136:A Huey P. Newton Story
1920:George Jackson Brigade
1910:British Black Panthers
1890:Black Guerrilla Family
1474:Raymond "Masai" Hewitt
377:
352:Martin Luther King Jr.
162:Monroe, North Carolina
124:
112:Montgomery bus boycott
2211:Revolutionary Suicide
1986:Black Panther Militia
1895:Black Liberation Army
1832:Programs and projects
1676:Lorenzo Kom'boa Ervin
1645:Russell Maroon Shoatz
1142:"Deacons for Defense"
1026:on November 13, 2014.
573:10.1353/jsr.2008.0019
475:, it was directed by
372:
316:stopped in response.
130:In many areas of the
108:
101:civil rights movement
2367:Jonesboro, Louisiana
2352:History of Louisiana
2300:Black power movement
2275:Rice–Poindexter case
2227:Black Against Empire
2081:Finally Got the News
2034:Films and television
1259:, Southern Institute
1059:(February 6, 2007).
626:on February 22, 2012
341:Jackson, Mississippi
190:Jonesboro, Louisiana
71:(2003), directed by
65:A television movie,
29:Jonesboro, Louisiana
2372:Bogalusa, Louisiana
2325:Black Panther Party
1960:White Panther Party
1940:Polynesian Panthers
1691:Robert Hillary King
1610:Denise Oliver-Velez
1319:Black Panther Party
1264:Deacons for Defense
1148:. February 16, 2003
1014:Carmichael, Stokely
979:on November 4, 2017
468:Deacons for Defense
68:Deacons for Defense
41:Bogalusa, Louisiana
2095:Teach Our Children
1981:Assata's Daughters
1823:Robert F. Williams
1763:Stokely Carmichael
1630:George W. Sams Jr.
1570:Veronza Bowers Jr.
1459:Barbara Easley-Cox
1409:JoNina Abron-Ervin
1046:, p. 264-265.
707:. pp. 54–56.
542:The New York Times
502:Robert F. Williams
489:Jonathan Silverman
421:in 2007, activist
398:The New York Times
348:Stokely Carmichael
337:Memphis, Tennessee
333:March Against Fear
158:Robert F. Williams
2334:
2333:
2029:
2028:
1950:The Pink Panthers
1857:Rainbow Coalition
1850:The Black Panther
1839:Ten-Point Program
1776:
1775:
1565:Dhoruba bin Wahad
1504:Joan Tarika Lewis
1424:William Lee Brent
1203:Adam Fairclough,
911:The Black Scholar
453:Michael D'Antonio
286:Washington Parish
271:, workers at the
144:Akinyele O. Umoja
2379:
2326:
2321:
2320:
2280:Robert Templeton
2255:Intercommunalism
2238:Related articles
2219:A Taste of Power
2144:Night Catches Us
1900:Black Liberators
1875:
1874:
1798:W. E. B. Du Bois
1655:James Dixon York
1538:East Coast based
1402:West Coast based
1399:
1398:
1395:
1393:
1365:Kathleen Cleaver
1360:Eldridge Cleaver
1320:
1311:
1304:
1297:
1288:
1287:
1277:
1240:
1238:
1236:
1231:on April 1, 2012
1227:. Archived from
1191:
1179:
1158:
1157:
1155:
1153:
1138:
1132:
1131:
1129:
1127:
1112:
1106:
1105:
1103:
1101:
1087:
1081:
1080:
1078:
1076:
1071:on April 3, 2007
1067:. Archived from
1053:
1047:
1041:
1028:
1027:
1010:
1001:
995:
989:
988:
986:
984:
965:
959:
953:
947:
941:
935:
934:
906:
885:
879:
873:
872:
865:
840:
839:
833:
824:
757:
751:
745:
739:
733:
723:
721:
719:
697:(June 4, 2004).
691:
678:
677:
647:
636:
635:
633:
631:
625:
619:. Archived from
600:
591:
585:
584:
555:
546:
545:
533:
463:television movie
273:Crown-Zellerbach
216:In 1964, during
174:Fannie Lou Hamer
25:African-American
2387:
2386:
2382:
2381:
2380:
2378:
2377:
2376:
2337:
2336:
2335:
2330:
2324:
2309:
2233:
2203:Blood in My Eye
2174:
2025:
1969:
1945:Red Guard Party
1871:Inspired groups
1866:
1827:
1772:
1768:Connie Matthews
1751:
1715:
1659:
1560:Kuwasi Balagoon
1545:Mumia Abu-Jamal
1533:
1391:
1389:
1384:
1343:
1322:
1318:
1315:
1247:
1234:
1232:
1199:
1197:Further reading
1194:
1188:
1162:
1161:
1151:
1149:
1140:
1139:
1135:
1125:
1123:
1113:
1109:
1099:
1097:
1089:
1088:
1084:
1074:
1072:
1054:
1050:
1042:
1031:
1011:
1004:
996:
992:
982:
980:
967:
966:
962:
954:
950:
942:
938:
907:
888:
880:
876:
867:
866:
843:
826:
825:
760:
752:
748:
740:
736:
728:Further reading
717:
715:
692:
681:
648:
639:
629:
627:
623:
617:
598:
592:
588:
556:
549:
534:
525:
520:
507:T. R. M. Howard
498:
481:Forest Whitaker
449:
431:
403:J. Edgar Hoover
393:
364:Mobile, Alabama
298:
186:
97:
77:Forest Whitaker
17:
12:
11:
5:
2385:
2375:
2374:
2369:
2364:
2359:
2354:
2349:
2332:
2331:
2329:
2328:
2314:
2311:
2310:
2308:
2307:
2302:
2297:
2290:
2282:
2277:
2272:
2267:
2262:
2257:
2252:
2247:
2241:
2239:
2235:
2234:
2232:
2231:
2223:
2215:
2207:
2199:
2195:Seize the Time
2191:
2182:
2180:
2176:
2175:
2173:
2172:
2164:
2156:
2148:
2140:
2132:
2126:
2118:
2110:
2104:
2098:
2092:
2084:
2078:
2070:
2064:
2058:
2054:Black Panthers
2050:
2044:
2037:
2035:
2031:
2030:
2027:
2026:
2024:
2023:
2018:
2013:
2008:
2003:
1998:
1993:
1988:
1983:
1977:
1975:
1971:
1970:
1968:
1967:
1962:
1957:
1952:
1947:
1942:
1937:
1932:
1927:
1922:
1917:
1915:Dalit Panthers
1912:
1907:
1902:
1897:
1892:
1887:
1881:
1879:
1872:
1868:
1867:
1865:
1864:
1859:
1854:
1846:
1841:
1835:
1833:
1829:
1828:
1826:
1825:
1820:
1815:
1810:
1805:
1800:
1795:
1790:
1784:
1782:
1778:
1777:
1774:
1773:
1771:
1770:
1765:
1759:
1757:
1753:
1752:
1750:
1749:
1744:
1739:
1734:
1732:William O'Neal
1729:
1723:
1721:
1717:
1716:
1714:
1713:
1711:Albert Woodfox
1708:
1706:Herman Wallace
1703:
1698:
1693:
1688:
1683:
1678:
1673:
1667:
1665:
1664:Southern based
1661:
1660:
1658:
1657:
1652:
1647:
1642:
1637:
1632:
1627:
1622:
1617:
1612:
1607:
1605:Lonnie McLucas
1602:
1597:
1592:
1587:
1582:
1580:W. Paul Coates
1577:
1575:Safiya Bukhari
1572:
1567:
1562:
1557:
1555:Ashanti Alston
1552:
1550:Sundiata Acoli
1547:
1541:
1539:
1535:
1534:
1532:
1531:
1529:Michael Zinzun
1526:
1524:Robert Trivers
1521:
1519:Geronimo Pratt
1516:
1511:
1506:
1501:
1499:George Jackson
1496:
1491:
1489:Ericka Huggins
1486:
1481:
1476:
1471:
1466:
1461:
1456:
1454:B. Kwaku Duren
1451:
1446:
1441:
1436:
1431:
1426:
1421:
1419:Charles Barron
1416:
1411:
1405:
1403:
1396:
1386:
1385:
1383:
1382:
1380:David Hilliard
1377:
1372:
1367:
1362:
1357:
1351:
1349:
1345:
1344:
1342:
1341:
1336:
1334:Huey P. Newton
1330:
1328:
1324:
1323:
1314:
1313:
1306:
1299:
1291:
1285:
1284:
1278:
1260:
1254:
1246:
1245:External links
1243:
1242:
1241:
1216:
1198:
1195:
1193:
1192:
1186:
1168:
1167:
1166:
1160:
1159:
1133:
1107:
1082:
1057:Blackwell, Ken
1048:
1029:
1002:
1000:, p. 167.
990:
960:
948:
946:, p. 265.
936:
886:
874:
841:
758:
746:
734:
695:Marqusee, Mike
679:
637:
615:
586:
547:
522:
521:
519:
516:
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504:
497:
494:
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459:
448:
445:
444:
443:
430:
427:
392:
389:
367:not deserve."
329:James Meredith
297:
294:
246:John McKeithen
218:Freedom Summer
185:
182:
166:Freedom Riders
96:
93:
15:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
2384:
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2301:
2298:
2295:
2294:Panther Power
2291:
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2200:
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2196:
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2183:
2181:
2177:
2170:
2169:
2168:The Big Cigar
2165:
2162:
2161:
2157:
2154:
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2149:
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2141:
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2038:
2036:
2032:
2022:
2019:
2017:
2014:
2012:
2009:
2007:
2004:
2002:
1999:
1997:
1994:
1992:
1989:
1987:
1984:
1982:
1979:
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1966:
1963:
1961:
1958:
1956:
1953:
1951:
1948:
1946:
1943:
1941:
1938:
1936:
1933:
1931:
1928:
1926:
1925:Gray Panthers
1923:
1921:
1918:
1916:
1913:
1911:
1908:
1906:
1903:
1901:
1898:
1896:
1893:
1891:
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1837:
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1834:
1830:
1824:
1821:
1819:
1816:
1814:
1811:
1809:
1808:Harry Haywood
1806:
1804:
1801:
1799:
1796:
1794:
1791:
1789:
1786:
1785:
1783:
1779:
1769:
1766:
1764:
1761:
1760:
1758:
1754:
1748:
1745:
1743:
1742:Marion Stamps
1740:
1738:
1735:
1733:
1730:
1728:
1725:
1724:
1722:
1720:Chicago based
1718:
1712:
1709:
1707:
1704:
1702:
1699:
1697:
1694:
1692:
1689:
1687:
1684:
1682:
1679:
1677:
1674:
1672:
1669:
1668:
1666:
1662:
1656:
1653:
1651:
1648:
1646:
1643:
1641:
1640:Assata Shakur
1638:
1636:
1633:
1631:
1628:
1626:
1623:
1621:
1618:
1616:
1615:Larry Pinkney
1613:
1611:
1608:
1606:
1603:
1601:
1600:Warren Kimbro
1598:
1596:
1593:
1591:
1588:
1586:
1583:
1581:
1578:
1576:
1573:
1571:
1568:
1566:
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1561:
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1540:
1536:
1530:
1527:
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1520:
1517:
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1507:
1505:
1502:
1500:
1497:
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1482:
1480:
1477:
1475:
1472:
1470:
1467:
1465:
1462:
1460:
1457:
1455:
1452:
1450:
1449:Emory Douglas
1447:
1445:
1442:
1440:
1437:
1435:
1434:Bunchy Carter
1432:
1430:
1427:
1425:
1422:
1420:
1417:
1415:
1412:
1410:
1407:
1406:
1404:
1400:
1397:
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1387:
1381:
1378:
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1373:
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1361:
1358:
1356:
1353:
1352:
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1346:
1340:
1337:
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1332:
1331:
1329:
1325:
1321:
1312:
1307:
1305:
1300:
1298:
1293:
1292:
1289:
1282:
1279:
1276:
1271:
1267:
1266:2003 TV movie
1265:
1261:
1258:
1255:
1252:
1249:
1248:
1230:
1226:
1222:
1217:
1215:
1214:9780820331140
1211:
1207:
1206:
1201:
1200:
1189:
1187:9780807828472
1183:
1178:
1177:
1170:
1169:
1164:
1163:
1147:
1143:
1137:
1122:
1118:
1111:
1096:
1092:
1086:
1070:
1066:
1062:
1058:
1052:
1045:
1040:
1038:
1036:
1034:
1025:
1021:
1020:
1015:
1009:
1007:
999:
994:
978:
974:
970:
969:"The Deacons"
964:
957:
952:
945:
940:
932:
928:
924:
920:
916:
912:
905:
903:
901:
899:
897:
895:
893:
891:
884:, p. 25.
883:
878:
870:
864:
862:
860:
858:
856:
854:
852:
850:
848:
846:
837:
832:
831:
823:
821:
819:
817:
815:
813:
811:
809:
807:
805:
803:
801:
799:
797:
795:
793:
791:
789:
787:
785:
783:
781:
779:
777:
775:
773:
771:
769:
767:
765:
763:
756:, p. 24.
755:
750:
744:, p. 10.
743:
738:
731:
729:
714:
710:
706:
705:
700:
696:
690:
688:
686:
684:
675:
671:
667:
663:
659:
655:
654:
646:
644:
642:
622:
618:
616:9781878554185
612:
608:
604:
597:
590:
582:
578:
574:
570:
566:
562:
554:
552:
543:
539:
532:
530:
528:
523:
513:
510:
508:
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503:
500:
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490:
486:
482:
478:
474:
470:
469:
464:
460:
458:
454:
451:
450:
441:
437:
433:
432:
429:Commemoration
426:
424:
420:
419:Ken Blackwell
415:
411:
409:
404:
400:
399:
388:
386:
380:
376:
371:
368:
365:
361:
356:
353:
349:
344:
342:
338:
335:, to go from
334:
330:
325:
321:
317:
313:
309:
305:
303:
293:
289:
287:
281:
277:
274:
270:
266:
263:(1929–2010),
262:
258:
254:
249:
247:
241:
239:
235:
230:
228:
223:
219:
214:
212:
208:
204:
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191:
181:
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137:
133:
128:
123:
121:
117:
113:
107:
104:
102:
92:
90:
86:
82:
78:
75:and starring
74:
70:
69:
63:
61:
57:
52:
50:
46:
45:Jim Crow laws
42:
38:
37:assassination
34:
30:
26:
23:was an armed
22:
2284:
2225:
2217:
2209:
2201:
2193:
2185:
2166:
2158:
2150:
2142:
2134:
2129:Public Enemy
2128:
2120:
2113:
2106:
2100:
2094:
2086:
2080:
2072:
2066:
2060:
2052:
2046:
2040:
1878:Contemporary
1849:
1803:Frantz Fanon
1792:
1686:James Forman
1671:H. Rap Brown
1635:Afeni Shakur
1625:Nile Rodgers
1620:Alex Rackley
1590:Jamal Joseph
1494:Bobby Hutton
1484:John Huggins
1469:Reggie Forte
1439:Mark Comfort
1414:Richard Aoki
1375:Fred Hampton
1355:Elaine Brown
1263:
1233:. Retrieved
1229:the original
1224:
1204:
1175:
1165:Bibliography
1152:February 19,
1150:. Retrieved
1145:
1136:
1126:February 19,
1124:. Retrieved
1120:
1110:
1100:February 19,
1098:. Retrieved
1094:
1085:
1073:. Retrieved
1069:the original
1065:Townhall.com
1051:
1024:the original
1018:
993:
983:November 24,
981:. Retrieved
977:the original
973:Gimlet Media
972:
963:
951:
939:
917:(3): 43–54.
914:
910:
877:
868:
829:
749:
737:
725:
716:. Retrieved
702:
657:
651:
628:. Retrieved
621:the original
606:
603:Putting the
602:
589:
564:
560:
541:
466:
416:
412:
396:
394:
381:
378:
373:
369:
357:
345:
326:
322:
318:
314:
310:
306:
302:non-violence
299:
290:
282:
278:
265:Charles Sims
250:
242:
231:
215:
203:World War II
187:
156:
152:James Farmer
141:
136:Ku Klux Klan
129:
125:
116:Glenn Smiley
109:
105:
98:
67:
64:
53:
49:Ku Klux Klan
20:
18:
2187:Soul on Ice
1965:Young Lords
1935:Ngā Tamatoa
1852:(newspaper)
1788:Black power
1701:Malik Rahim
1696:Pete O'Neal
1444:Aaron Dixon
1339:Bobby Seale
485:Ossie Davis
360:Black Power
269:A. Z. Young
60:Black Power
2341:Categories
2270:Panther 21
2250:COINTELPRO
1974:Subsequent
1930:I Wor Kuen
1781:Influences
1737:Bobby Rush
1727:Mark Clark
1681:Mark Essex
1595:Chaka Khan
1514:Pat Parker
1429:Ed Bullins
1370:Donald Cox
1348:Leadership
1283:, FBI file
1257:Lance Hill
704:The Nation
660:(4): 558.
518:References
408:COINTELPRO
199:Korean War
132:Deep South
2323:Category|
1818:Malcolm X
1464:Kent Ford
1044:Hill 2004
998:Hill 2004
944:Hill 2004
931:147399560
882:Hill 2004
754:Hill 2004
742:Hill 2004
713:0027-8378
674:144632145
581:162926738
567:: 71–98.
477:Bill Duke
423:Roy Innis
261:Bob Hicks
114:in 1956.
73:Bill Duke
33:Malcolm X
2296:" (2000)
1327:Founders
1075:April 7,
726:see the
605:Movement
496:See also
473:Showtime
253:Bogalusa
211:Jim Crow
142:Scholar
2114:Panther
1392:Members
1235:May 31,
730:section
718:May 31,
630:May 31,
483:, with
176:of the
95:History
2289:(1971)
2230:(2013)
2222:(1992)
2214:(1973)
2206:(1972)
2198:(1970)
2190:(1968)
2171:(2024)
2163:(2021)
2155:(2015)
2147:(2010)
2139:(2001)
2131:(1999)
2125:(1996)
2117:(1995)
2109:(1992)
2103:(1974)
2097:(1973)
2091:(1971)
2083:(1970)
2077:(1969)
2069:(1969)
2063:(1969)
2061:Mayday
2057:(1968)
2049:(1968)
2043:(1968)
1756:Others
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