Decipherment of ancient Egyptian scripts

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to de Sacy with this insight in 1815. Although he hoped to find phonetic signs in the hieroglyphic script, he was thwarted by the wide variety of phonetic spellings the script used. He concluded that phonetic hieroglyphs did not exist—with a major exception. In his 1802 publication de Sacy had said hieroglyphs might function phonetically when writing foreign words. In 1811 he suggested, after learning about a similar practice in Chinese writing, that a cartouche signified a word written phonetically—such as the name of a non-Egyptian ruler like Ptolemy. Young applied these suggestions to the cartouches on the Rosetta Stone. Some were short, consisting of eight signs, while others contained those same signs followed by many more. Young guessed that the long cartouches contained the Egyptian form of the title given to Ptolemy in the Greek inscription: "living for ever, beloved of

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death. Champollion often went astray by overestimating the similarity between classical Egyptian and Coptic. As Griffith put it in 1922, "In reality Coptic is a remote derivative from ancient Egyptian, like French from Latin; in some cases, therefore, Champollion's provisional transcripts produced good Coptic words, while mostly they were more or less meaningless or impossible, and in transcribing phrases either Coptic syntax was hopelessly violated or the order of hieroglyphic words had to be inverted. This was all very baffling and misleading." Champollion was also unaware that signs could spell two or three consonants as well as one. Instead he thought every phonetic sign represented one sound and each sound had a great many homophones. Thus the middle sign in the cartouches of Ramesses and Thutmose was biliteral, representing the consonant sequence

2033: 416: 19: 2377:, the foremost figure in British Egyptology during the mid-nineteenth century, published the first extensive dictionary of Egyptian in 1867, and in the same year Brugsch published the first volume of his dictionary of both hieroglyphic and demotic. Brugsch's dictionary established the modern understanding of the sounds of the Egyptian language, which draws upon the phonology of Semitic languages as Hincks suggested. Egyptologists have continued to refine their understanding of the language up to the present, but by this time it was on firm ground. Together with the decipherment of cuneiform in the same century, the decipherment of ancient Egyptian had opened the way for the study of the earliest stages of human history. 155:. He was convinced, however, that phonetic hieroglyphs were used only in writing non-Egyptian words. In the early 1820s Champollion compared Ptolemy's cartouche with others and realised the hieroglyphic script was a mixture of phonetic and ideographic elements. His claims were initially met with scepticism and with accusations that he had taken ideas from Young without giving credit, but they gradually gained acceptance. Champollion went on to roughly identify the meanings of most phonetic hieroglyphs and establish much of the grammar and vocabulary of ancient Egyptian. Young, meanwhile, largely deciphered demotic using the Rosetta Stone in combination with other Greek and demotic parallel texts. 700: 2187:

acquaintance of his, George Francis Grey, loaned him a box of Greek papyri found in Egypt. Upon examining them Young realised that one contained the same names as the demotic Casati text. The two texts were versions of the same document, in Greek and demotic, recording the sale of a portion of the offerings made on behalf of a group of deceased Egyptians. Young had long tried to obtain a second bilingual text to supplement the Rosetta Stone. With these texts in hand, he made major progress over the next few years. In the mid-1820s he was diverted by his other interests, but in 1827 he was spurred by a letter from an Italian scholar of Coptic,

2343:, which he published in 1837, explained the functions of biliteral signs, triliteral signs and phonetic complements, although those terms had not yet been coined. It listed 30 uniliteral signs, compared with more than 200 in Champollion's system and 24 in the modern understanding of the hieroglyphic script. Lepsius's letter greatly strengthened the case for Champollion's general approach to hieroglyphs while correcting its deficiencies, and it definitively moved the focus of Egyptology from decipherment to translation. Champollion, Rosellini and Lepsius are often considered the founders of Egyptology; Young is sometimes included as well. 1196:", the hieroglyphic versions being enclosed by cartouches. The Ptolemy cartouche was identifiable based on the Rosetta Stone, but Bankes could only guess based on the Greek text that the second represented Cleopatra's name. His copy of the text suggested this reading of the cartouche in pencil. Champollion, who saw the copy in January 1822, treated the cartouche as that of Cleopatra but never stated how he identified it; he could have done so in more than one way, given the evidence available to him. Bankes angrily assumed Champollion had taken his suggestion without giving credit and refused to give him any further help. 865:

translations of the hieroglyphic and demotic texts of the stone. They were in fact attempts to break the texts down into groups of signs to find areas where the Egyptian text was most likely to closely match the Greek. This approach was of limited use because the three texts were not exact translations of each other. Young spent months copying other Egyptian texts, which enabled him to see patterns in them that others missed. Like Zoëga, he recognised that there were too few hieroglyphs for each to represent one word, and he suggested that words were composed of two or three hieroglyphs each.

686:(1797), a compendium of knowledge about ancient Egypt. He catalogued hieroglyphic signs and concluded that there were too few distinct signs for each one to represent a single word, so to produce a full vocabulary they must have each had multiple meanings or changed meaning by combining with each other. He saw that the direction the signs faced indicated the direction in which a text was meant to be read, and he suggested that some signs were phonetic. Zoëga did not attempt to decipher the script, believing that doing so would require more evidence than was available in Europe at the time. 2289: 471: 1832:, which he completed on 22 September 1822. He read it to the Académie on 27 September, with Young among the audience. This letter is often regarded as the founding document of Egyptology, although it represented only a modest advance over Young's work. Yet it ended by suggesting, without elaboration, that phonetic signs might have been used in writing proper names from a very early point in Egyptian history. How Champollion reached this conclusion is mostly not recorded in contemporary sources. His own writings suggest that one of the keys was his conclusion that the 877:. Adopting some of the phonetic values proposed by Åkerblad, Young matched the eight hieroglyphs to their demotic equivalents and proposed that some signs represented several phonetic values while others stood for just one. He then attempted to apply the results to a cartouche of Berenice, the name of a Ptolemaic queen, with less success, although he did identify a pair of hieroglyphs that marked the ending of a feminine name. The result was a set of thirteen phonetic values for hieroglyphic and demotic signs. Six were correct, three partly correct, and four wrong. 842:, a Swedish diplomat and amateur linguist. Åkerblad had greater success, analysing the same sign-groups as de Sacy but identifying more signs correctly. In his letters to de Sacy Åkerblad proposed an alphabet of 29 demotic signs, half of which were later proven correct, and based on his knowledge of Coptic identified several demotic words within the text. De Sacy was sceptical of his results, and Åkerblad too gave up. Despite attempts by other scholars, little further progress was made until more than a decade later, when 583:, derived from the Coptic texts he had read and from ancient texts that he thought contained traditions derived from Egypt. His translations turned short texts containing only a few hieroglyphic characters into lengthy sentences of esoteric ideas. Unlike earlier European scholars, Kircher did realise that hieroglyphs could function phonetically, though he considered this function a late development. He also recognised one hieroglyph, 𓈗, as representing water and thus standing phonetically for the Coptic word for water, 604: 850: 629:, published from 1738 to 1741, included a long digression on hieroglyphs and the evolution of writing. It argued that hieroglyphs were not invented to encode religious secrets but for practical purposes, like any other writing system, and that the phonetic Egyptian script mentioned by Clement of Alexandria was derived from them. Warburton's approach, though purely theoretical, created the framework for understanding hieroglyphs that would dominate scholarship for the rest of the century. 315:. It discusses the meanings of individual hieroglyphs, though not how those signs were used to form phrases or sentences. Some of the meanings it describes are correct, but more are wrong, and all are misleadingly explained as allegories. For instance, Horapollo says an image of a goose means "son" because geese are said to love their children more than other animals. In fact the goose hieroglyph was used because the Egyptian words for "goose" and "son" incorporated the same consonants. 2100:, a non-royal Roman, written in hieroglyphs with no cartouche, next to characters that seemed to be ideographic. Phonetic signs were thus not limited to cartouches. To test his suspicions, Champollion compared hieroglyphic texts that seemed to contain the same content and noted discrepancies in spelling, which indicated the presence of homophones. He compared the resulting list of homophones with the table of phonetic signs from his work on the cartouches and found they matched. 5253: 5205: 5242: 5273: 5283: 5263: 1567: 1496: 1301: 1238: 955: 892: 835:

attempted to identify the phonetic signs within them, but beyond identifying the names of Ptolemy, Alexander and Arsinoe he made little progress. He realised that there were far more than 25 signs in demotic and that the demotic inscription was probably not a close translation of the Greek one, thus making the task more difficult. After publishing his results in 1802 he ceased working on the stone.

179: 2016:" mentioned by Manetho. These were native Egyptian kings, long predating Greek rule in Egypt, yet the writing of their names was partially phonetic. Now Champollion turned to the title of Ptolemy found in the longer cartouches in the Rosetta Stone. Champollion knew the Coptic words that would translate the Greek text and could tell that phonetic hieroglyphs such as 776:, which could allow the Egyptian text to be deciphered based on its Greek translation. The savants eagerly sought other fragments of the stela as well as other texts in Greek and Egyptian. No further pieces of the stone were ever found, and the only other bilingual texts the savants discovered were largely illegible and useless for decipherment. 2244:, were already applying Champollion's findings to the texts there. Champollion and Rosellini wanted to do so themselves, and together with some other scholars and artists they formed the Franco-Tuscan Expedition to Egypt. En route to Egypt Champollion stopped to look at a papyrus in the hands of a French antiquities dealer. It was a copy of the 2320:, an Irish clergyman whose primary interest was the decipherment of cuneiform, made important contributions in the 1830s and 1840s. Whereas Champollion's translations of texts had filled in gaps in his knowledge with informed guesswork, Hincks tried to proceed more systematically. He identified grammatical elements in Egyptian, such as 2140:, and responded to Champollion's slight in the subtitle: "Including the Author's Original Hieroglyphic Alphabet, As Extended by Mr Champollion". Champollion angrily responded, "I shall never consent to recognise any other original alphabet than my own, where it is a matter of the hieroglyphic alphabet properly called". The 1173:

subject of the undeciphered scripts, he was making no progress with them. As late as 1821 he believed that none of the scripts were phonetic. In the following years, however, he surged ahead. The details of how he did so cannot be fully known because of gaps in the evidence and conflicts in the contemporary accounts.

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that preceded and foreshadowed Christianity, and he hoped to understand this tradition through hieroglyphs. Like his Renaissance predecessors, he believed hieroglyphs represented an abstract form of communication rather than a language. To translate such a system of communication in a self-consistent

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Europeans were ignorant of Coptic as well. Scholars sometimes obtained Coptic manuscripts, but in the sixteenth century, when they began to seriously study the language, the ability to read it may have been limited to Coptic monks, and no Europeans of the time had the opportunity to learn from one of

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in Paris, and in that position provided Jean-François with the means to keep up with research on Egypt. By the time Young was working on hieroglyphs Champollion had published a compendium of the established knowledge on ancient Egypt and assembled a Coptic dictionary, but though he wrote much on the

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Young noticed the similarities between hieroglyphic and demotic signs and concluded that the hieroglyphic signs had evolved into the demotic ones. If so, Young reasoned, demotic could not be a purely phonetic script but must also include ideographic signs that were derived from hieroglyphs; he wrote

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in 1787, was among the first to work on the stone. Like Marcel and Raige he concentrated on relating the Greek text to the demotic script in the middle register. Based on Plutarch he assumed this script consisted of 25 phonetic signs. De Sacy looked for Greek proper names within the demotic text and

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took control of the country in 1805, European collectors descended on Egypt and carried away numerous antiquities, while artists copied others. No one knew these artefacts' historical context, but they contributed to the corpus of texts that scholars could compare when trying to decipher the writing

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article. Scholarly opinion ever since has been divided on whether Champollion was being truthful. Young would continue to push for greater acknowledgement, while expressing a mixture of admiration of Champollion's work and scepticism of some of his conclusions. Relations between them varied between

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said the middle script was "cursive characters of the ancient Egyptian language", identical to others he had seen on papyrus scrolls. He and Louis Rémi Raige began comparing the text of this register with the Greek one, reasoning that the middle register would be more fruitful than the hieroglyphic

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The Egyptologist Okasha El-Daly has argued that the tables of hieroglyphs in the works of Ibn Wahshiyya and Abu al-Qasim correctly identified the meaning of many of the signs. Other scholars have been sceptical of Ibn Wahshiyya's claims to understand the scripts he wrote about, and Tara Stephan, a

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Young's work on hieroglyphs petered out during the 1820s, but his work on demotic continued, aided by a fortuitous discovery. One of his sources for studying the script was a text in a collection known as the Casati papyri; Young had identified several Greek names in this text. In November 1822 an

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As the nature of hieroglyphs became clearer, detractors of this kind fell away, but the debate over how much Champollion owed to Young continues. Nationalist rivalry between the English and French exacerbates the issue. Egyptologists are often reluctant to criticise Champollion, who is regarded as

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put it in 1922, Young's results were "mixed up with many false conclusions, but the method pursued was infallibly leading to definite decipherment." Yet Young was less interested in ancient Egyptian texts themselves than in the writing systems as an intellectual puzzle, and his multiple scientific

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in the fifth century BC whose realm included Egypt. Champollion confirmed that the identifiable signs in the cartouche matched Xerxes's name, strengthening the evidence that phonetic hieroglyphs were used long before Greek rule in Egypt and supporting Saint-Martin's reading of the cuneiform text.

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whose fields of expertise included physics, medicine and linguistics. By the time he turned his attention to Egypt he was regarded as one of the foremost intellectuals of the day. In 1814 he began corresponding with de Sacy about the Rosetta Stone, and after some months he produced what he called

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to be read, although Champollion could not read it well enough to fully understand what it was. In 1828 and 1829 the expedition travelled the length of the Egyptian course of the Nile, copying and collecting antiquities. After studying countless texts Champollion felt certain that his system was

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By 1824 the Rosetta Stone, with its limited hieroglyphic text, had become irrelevant for further progress on hieroglyphs. Champollion needed more texts to study, and few were available in France. From 1824 through 1826 he made two visits to Italy and studied the Egyptian antiquities found there,

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and an accompanying dictionary in instalments from 1836 to 1843. Both were incomplete, especially the dictionary, which was confusingly organised and contained many conjectural translations. These works' deficiencies reflected the incomplete state of understanding of Egyptian upon Champollion's

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mentioned Young as having worked on demotic and referred to Young's attempt to decipher the name of Berenice, but it did not mention Young's breakdown of Ptolemy's name nor that the feminine name-ending, which was also found in Cleopatra's name on the Philae Obelisk, had been Young's discovery.

2191:, that said Young's habit of moving from one subject to another hampered his achievements and suggested he could accomplish much more if he concentrated on ancient Egypt. Young spent the last two years of his life working on demotic. At one point he consulted Champollion, then a curator at the 2233:, a Pisan linguist who was swept up in Champollion's fervour for ancient Egypt and began studying with him. Champollion also worked on assembling a collection of Egyptian antiquities at the Louvre, including the texts he would later show to Young. In 1827 he published a revised edition of the 561:, Kircher produced flawed but pioneering translations and grammars of the language in the 1630s and 1640s. He guessed that Coptic was derived from the language of the ancient Egyptians, and his work on the subject was preparation for his ultimate goal, decipherment of the hieroglyphic script. 520:, but the antiquarians did not attempt to decipher these texts. Influenced by Horapollo and Plotinus, they saw hieroglyphs as a universal, image-based form of communication, not a means of recording a spoken language. From this belief sprang a Renaissance artistic tradition of using obscure 2115:

identified hundreds of hieroglyphic words, described differences between hieroglyphs and other scripts, analysed proper names and the uses of cartouches and described some of the language's grammar. Champollion was moving from deciphering a script to translating the underlying language.

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Young and other scholars recognised that hieratic represented an intermediate stage between hieroglyphic and demotic, but its exact nature, and whether it should be regarded as a distinct script from demotic, remained disputed throughout the period in which Young and Champollion were

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takes a moderate position: "Even if one allows that Champollion was more familiar with Young's initial work than he subsequently claimed, he remains the decipherer of the hieroglyphic script… Young discovered parts of an alphabet—a key—but Champollion unlocked an entire language."

1823:. In doing so he pointed out that hieroglyphs of stars in this text seemed to indicate that the nearby words referred to something related to stars, such as constellations. He called the signs used in this way "signs of the type", although he would later dub them "determinatives". 2024:

would fit these words. From there he could guess the phonetic meanings of several more signs. By Hartleben's account, upon making these discoveries Champollion raced to his brother's office at the Académie des Inscriptions, flung down a collection of copied inscriptions, cried

2221:, Champollion became the first person in centuries to identify the kings who had commissioned them, although in some cases his identifications were incorrect. He also looked at the museum's papyri and was able to discern their subject matter. Of particular interest was the 664:, who visited Egypt in the 1760s, produced the first systematic, though incomplete, list of distinct hieroglyphic signs. He also pointed out the distinction between hieroglyphic text and the illustrations that accompanied it, whereas earlier scholars had confused the two. 2362:'s essay "Hieratic Papyri", published in 1858, was the first major contribution to that subject. It emphasized that hieratic texts, not monumental hieroglyphic inscriptions, were the richest source for understanding the Egyptian language. Goodwin and his contemporary 2266:

After returning from Egypt, Champollion spent much of his time working on a full description of the Egyptian language, but he had little time to complete it. Beginning in late 1831 he suffered a series of increasingly debilitating strokes, and he died in March 1832.

1192:, an English antiquities collector, shipped the obelisk from Egypt to England and copied its inscriptions. These inscriptions were not a single bilingual text like that of the Rosetta Stone, as Bankes assumed, but both inscriptions contained the names "Ptolemy" and " 2465:, written the following September, gives no indication that hieroglyphs were used phonetically outside the cartouches. Robinson suggests Champollion might instead have realised the extent of phoneticism in December 1822, when his work was more advanced. 2373:, a parallel text like the Rosetta Stone whose inscriptions were all largely intact. The hieroglyphs could now be compared directly with their Greek translation, and the results proved the validity of Champollion's approach beyond reasonable doubt. 2447:

when it took place. Jacques-Joseph Champollion-Figeac's son, Aimé, repeated Rochas's account several years later, and Jacques-Joseph may have been the source for both. Hartleben's account is the earliest to connect the event to Huyot's inscription

462:, says El-Daly "vastly overemphasizes Ibn Waḥshiyya's accuracy". Ibn Wahshiyya and Abu al-Qasim did recognise that hieroglyphs could function phonetically as well as symbolically, a point that would not be acknowledged in Europe for centuries. 2199:

was published posthumously in 1831. It included a full translation of one text and large portions of the text of the Rosetta Stone. According to the Egyptologist John Ray, Young "probably deserves to be known as the decipherer of demotic."

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Although Kircher's basic assumptions were shared by his contemporaries, most scholars rejected or even ridiculed his translations. Nevertheless, his argument that Coptic was derived from the ancient Egyptian language was widely accepted.

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Europeans' contact with Egypt increased during the eighteenth century. More of them visited the country and saw its ancient inscriptions firsthand, and as they collected antiquities, the number of texts available for study increased.

2350:, who began studying Egyptian in 1839, was the first person to translate a full-length ancient Egyptian text; he published the first translations of Egyptian literary texts in 1856. In the words of one of de Rougé's students, 2129:

Believing that these discoveries had made Champollion's progress possible, Young expected to receive much of the credit for whatever Champollion ultimately produced. In private correspondence shortly after the reading of the

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Around this time Champollion made a second breakthrough. Although he counted about 860 hieroglyphic signs, a handful of those signs made up a large proportion of any given text. He also came upon a recent study of Chinese by

2133:, Young quoted a French saying that meant "It's the first step that counts", although he also said "if did borrow an English key, the lock was so dreadfully rusty, that no common arm would have strength enough to turn it". 143:. Young, building on their work, observed that demotic characters were derived from hieroglyphs and identified several of the phonetic signs in demotic. He also identified the meaning of many hieroglyphs, including phonetic 2111:, stated "Hieroglyphic writing is a complex system, a script all at once figurative, symbolic and phonetic, in one and the same text, in one and the same sentence, and, I might even venture, one and the same word." The 272:

Many Greek and Roman authors wrote about these scripts, and many were aware that the Egyptians had two or three writing systems, but none whose works survived into later times fully understood how the scripts worked.

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Written Coptic was not used to compose new texts after the fourteenth century, whereas copying of texts by monks continued down to the nineteenth century. Use of Coptic outside church ritual may have lasted in some

752:, divided into three registers of text, with its lower right corner and most of its upper register broken off. The stone was inscribed with three scripts: hieroglyphs in the top register, Greek at the bottom and 2442:

The earliest version of the story of Champollion's exclamation and fainting comes from an account written by an author named Adolphe Rochas in 1856, according to which Champollion was working on notes for the

2313:. Neither had he struck upon the concept now known as a "phonetic complement": a uniliteral sign that was added at the end of a word, re-spelling a sound that had already been written out in a different way. 1223:, different signs spelling the same sound. He proceeded to test these letters in other cartouches, identify the names of many Greek and Roman rulers of Egypt and extrapolate the values of still more letters. 538:

these monks, who did not travel outside Egypt. Scholars were also unsure whether Coptic was descended from the language of the ancient Egyptians; many thought it was instead related to other languages of the

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in mid-1821 he would have been better able to obtain a full copy, but it is not known whether he did so. It was about this time that he turned his attention to identifying phonetic sounds within cartouches.

2339:, a Prussian philologist who began studying the Egyptian language using Champollion's grammar. He struck up a friendship with Rosellini and began corresponding with him about the language. Lepsius's 2152:

As he continued to work on hieroglyphs, making mistakes alongside many successes, Champollion was embroiled in a related dispute, with scholars who rejected the validity of his work. Among them were

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Champollion announced these discoveries to the Académie des Inscriptions in April 1823. From there he progressed rapidly in identifying new signs and words. He concluded the phonetic signs made up a

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Over the next few months Champollion applied his hieroglyphic alphabet to many Egyptian inscriptions, identifying dozens of royal names and titles. During this period Champollion and the orientalist

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pointed out that many hieroglyphs represented combinations of two or three sounds rather than one, thus correcting one of the most fundamental faults in Champollion's work. Other scholars, such as

26: 568:, "Kircher has become, perhaps unfairly, the symbol of all that is absurd and fantastic in the story of the decipherment of Egyptian hieroglyphs". Kircher thought the Egyptians had believed in an 4685:

The Last Man Who Knew Everything: Thomas Young, the Anonymous Polymath Who Proved Newton Wrong, Explained How We See, Cured the Sick, and Deciphered the Rosetta Stone, among Other Feats of Genius

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The scholars who deciphered Egyptian differed on what to call this script. Thomas Young termed it "enchorial", based on the phrase referring to the script in the Greek text of the Rosetta Stone:

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had developed a fascination with ancient Egypt in adolescence, between about 1803 and 1805, and he had studied Near Eastern languages, including Coptic, under de Sacy and others. His brother,

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in 1819. It gave conjectural translations for 218 words in demotic and 200 in hieroglyphic and correctly correlated about 80 hieroglyphic signs with demotic equivalents. As the Egyptologist

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Hardly anyone attempted to decipher hieroglyphs for decades after Kircher's last works on the subject, although some contributed suggestions about the script that ultimately proved correct.

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text, most of which was missing. They guessed at the positions of proper names in the middle register, based on the position of those names in the Greek text, and managed to identify the

297:, in the third century AD, claimed hieroglyphs did not represent words but a divinely inspired, fundamental insight into the nature of the objects they depicted. In the following century 676:

was an offshoot of hieroglyphs. In 1785 he repeated Barthélémy's suggestion about cartouches, comparing it with a Chinese practice that set proper names apart from the surrounding text.

305:, but the translation was too loose to be useful in understanding the principles of the writing system. The only extensive discussion of hieroglyphs to survive into modern times was the 230:, emerged. It differed so greatly from its hieroglyphic ancestor that the relationship between the signs is difficult to recognise. Demotic became the most common system for writing the 768:, granting favours to Egypt's priesthoods. The text ended by calling for copies of the decree to be inscribed "in sacred, and native, and Greek characters" and set up in Egypt's major 285:, in the first century AD, referred to 25 Egyptian letters, suggesting he might have been aware of the phonetic aspect of hieroglyphic or demotic, but his meaning is unclear. Around AD 365:. With the loss of knowledge of both these scripts, the only records of the distant past were in limited and distorted sources. The major Egyptian example of such a source was 261:

signs, representing ideas. Phonetic signs included uniliteral, biliteral and triliteral signs, standing respectively for one, two or three sounds. Ideographic signs included

656:. Their work noted that non-hieroglyphic Egyptian scripts seemed to contain signs derived from hieroglyphs. Barthélemy also pointed out the oval rings, later to be known as 2354:, "de Rougé gave us the method which allowed us to utilise and bring to perfection the method of Champollion". Other scholars concentrated on the lesser-known scripts. 2164:. His opposition to Champollion culminated in a public argument with him in 1826, and he continued to advocate his own approach to hieroglyphs until his death in 1885. 2229:

BC, which would eventually furnish a framework for the chronology of Egyptian history but lay in pieces when Champollion saw it. While in Italy Champollion befriended

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Champollion was initially dismissive of Young's work, having seen only excerpts from Young's list of hieroglyphic and demotic words. After moving to Paris from

634: 2195:, who treated him amicably, gave him access to his notes about demotic and spent hours showing him the demotic texts in the Louvre's collection. Young's 430:

in Islamic times were sometimes believed to understand the ancient scripts. Several Arab scholars in the seventh through fourteenth centuries, including

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Stephan, Tara (2017). "Writing the Past: Ancient Egypt through the Lens of Medieval Islamic Thought". In Lowry, Joseph E.; Toorawa, Shawkat M. (eds.).

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Most of Champollion's collaborators lacked the linguistic abilities needed to advance the decipherment process, and many of them died early deaths.

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in the following year acknowledged Young's work, but in it Champollion said he had arrived at his conclusions independently, without seeing Young's

2275: 2188: 1215:, was represented by a single hieroglyph in Cleopatra's cartouche and a doubled version of the same glyph in Ptolemy's cartouche. A fifth sound, 660:, that enclosed small groups of signs in many hieroglyphic texts, and in 1762 he suggested that cartouches contained the names of kings or gods. 4396: 4899: 1996:

signs appeared together at a point corresponding to the word for "birth" in the Greek text, and from Coptic, in which the word for "birth" was

1976:. The sign that appeared twice at the end of the cartouche stood for "s" in the cartouche of Ptolemy. If the name in the cartouche began with 1169: 166:, refined the understanding of Egyptian enough that by the 1850s it was possible to fully translate ancient Egyptian texts. Combined with the 127:. It was hoped that the Egyptian text could be deciphered through its Greek translation, especially in combination with the evidence from the 2092:, which showed that even Chinese writing used phonetic characters extensively, and that its ideographic signs had to be combined into many 557:, in the mid-seventeenth century. Basing his work on Arabic grammars and dictionaries of Coptic acquired in Egypt by an Italian traveller, 4850:

The Code-Breaker's Secret Diaries: The Perilous Expedition through Plague-Ridden Egypt to Uncover the Ancient Mysteries of the Hieroglyphs

4925: 2160:, a German orientalist. Some championed Young at the same time. The scholar who held out longest against Champollion's decipherment was 438:, are said to have understood hieroglyphs, although because their works on the subject have not survived these claims cannot be tested. 5393: 2263:

applicable to hieroglyphic texts from every period of Egyptian history, and he apparently coined the term "determinative" while there.

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Champollion broke down the hieroglyphs in Ptolemy's name differently from Young and found that three of his conjectured phonetic signs—

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The first copies of the stone's inscriptions were sent to France in 1800. In 1801 the French army in Egypt was besieged by British and

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component, but perception of hieroglyphs as purely ideographic hampered efforts to understand them as late as the eighteenth century.

5319: 4997: 1840:", a royal name found in the works of Manetho, and that some of his other evidence came from copies of inscriptions in Egypt made by 116: 2469:

and Diance Greco Josefowicz argue that there is no sign in the primary documents that the breakthrough came earlier than March 1823.

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Hartleben said that according to an established "tradition" Champollion came to this realisation on his birthday, 23 December 1821.

1960:, who wrote the most extensive biography of Champollion in 1906, the breakthrough came on 14 September 1822, a few days before the 811: 415: 1149:

interests made it difficult for him to concentrate on decipherment. He achieved little more on the subject in the next few years.

5226: 5054: 2032: 1401: 1269: 1055: 923: 1917: 1914: 1861: 1920: 1867: 1864: 1724: 1705: 1629: 1610: 1591: 1536: 1534: 1522: 1519: 1517: 1442: 1423: 1420: 1382: 1278: 1275: 1272: 1267: 1096: 1077: 1074: 1036: 932: 929: 926: 921: 1858: 1648: 1525: 1363: 1264: 1017: 918: 4857: 4819: 4800: 4781: 4762: 4743: 4717: 4694: 4668: 4642: 4616: 4592: 4570: 4551: 4493: 4474: 4447: 4425: 4406: 4382: 1764: 1762: 1743: 1686: 1667: 1544: 1542: 1539: 1531: 1528: 1344: 1325: 1261: 1259: 998: 979: 915: 913: 5172: 319: 5408: 5286: 5044: 5039: 4920: 725: 93: 4892: 4440:

The Riddle of the Rosetta: How an English Polymath and a French Polyglot Discovered the Meaning of Egyptian Hieroglyphs

748:

noticed that one of the stones from a demolished wall in the fort was covered with writing. It was an ancient Egyptian

721: 2008:. If the latter two signs had the same values as in the Ramesses cartouche, the name in the second cartouche would be 682:, the most knowledgeable scholar of Coptic in the late eighteenth century, made several insights about hieroglyphs in 5553: 5009: 1161: 170:

at approximately the same time, their work opened up the once-inaccessible texts from early stages of human history.

318:

Both hieroglyphic and demotic began to disappear in the third century AD. The temple-based priesthoods died out and

5162: 4930: 804: 2332:. Hincks also improved the understanding of hieratic, which had been neglected in Egyptological studies thus far. 281:

BC, explicitly described hieroglyphs as an ideographic script, and most classical authors shared this assumption.

5596: 5591: 5194: 5140: 4992: 2000:. Another cartouche contained three signs, two of them the same as in the Ramesses cartouche. The first sign, an 827: 136: 76:

was increasingly used in their place. Later generations' knowledge of the older scripts was based on the work of

18: 2328:, that did not exist in Coptic, and he argued that the sounds of the Egyptian language were similar to those of 5266: 5167: 2409:

or "demotic", a Greek word meaning "in common use". Champollion's term eventually became the conventional name.

873:". Therefore, he concentrated on the first eight signs, which should correspond to the Greek form of the name, 2096:

to form a full vocabulary. Few hieroglyphs seemed to be ligatures. And Champollion had identified the name of

5581: 5502: 5312: 4953: 4948: 4885: 5403: 5100: 4975: 4943: 1219:, seemed to be written with different signs in each cartouche, but Champollion decided these signs must be 625: 84:

authors whose understanding was faulty. It was thus widely believed that Egyptian scripts were exclusively

4870:

Miscellaneous Works of the Late Thomas Young, Volume III: Hieroglyphical Essays and Correspondence, &c

1157: 234:, and hieroglyphic and hieratic were thereafter mostly restricted to religious uses. In the fourth century 53: 22: 5601: 5576: 5184: 5147: 5095: 5014: 2374: 2259: 745: 5606: 5337: 5034: 4503: 2358:

was the first since Young's death to advance the study of demotic, publishing a grammar of it in 1855.

1145: 800: 525: 2397:, meaning "of the country", "vernacular", or "native". Jean-François Champollion used a term from the 1140: 653: 450:, including hieroglyphs, with tables listing their meanings. In the thirteenth or fourteenth century, 5548: 5157: 5125: 5110: 5105: 5004: 4958: 2246: 2168:

the founder of their discipline, and by extension can be reluctant to credit Young. The Egyptologist

2081: 2068: 2056: 580: 530: 167: 732:, to study the land and its ancient monuments. In July 1799, when French soldiers were rebuilding a 505: 5305: 5276: 5152: 5073: 5024: 2359: 2157: 1968:

contained four hieroglyphic signs. Champollion guessed, or drew on the same guess found in Young's

1837: 853: 843: 733: 375:

BC. The original text was lost, and it survived only in summaries and quotations by Roman authors.

57: 803:. By its terms, the Rosetta Stone passed to the British. Upon the stone's arrival in Britain, the 382:, the last form of the Egyptian language, continued to be spoken by most Egyptians well after the 5461: 5441: 5418: 5387: 5361: 4626: 497: 426:

Arab scholars were aware of the connection between Coptic and the ancient Egyptian language, and

331: 254: 2346:

Lepsius was one of a new generation of Egyptologists who emerged in the mid-nineteenth century.

2301: 2281: 2225:, a papyrus listing Egyptian rulers and the lengths of their reigns up to the thirteenth century 839: 140: 5256: 5189: 5029: 2241: 1138:

Young summarised his work in his article "Egypt", published anonymously in a supplement to the

652:

collected and published a large number of Egyptian inscriptions from 1752 to 1767, assisted by

459: 383: 446:, in the ninth and tenth centuries, wrote treatises containing dozens of scripts known in the 5611: 5221: 4366: 4362: 2398: 2107:

in which vowels were only sometimes written. A summary of his findings, published in 1824 as

2093: 838:

In the same year de Sacy gave a copy of the stone's inscriptions to a former student of his,

815: 649: 645: 639: 612: 591:

sound. He became the first European to correctly identify a phonetic value for a hieroglyph.

290: 4611:. Contributions by Whitfield Diffie, Mary Fischer, and R. S. Simpson. British Museum Press. 1828: 699: 644:

became the first European to identify a non-hieroglyphic ancient Egyptian text in 1704, and

5398: 5246: 5204: 5061: 4970: 4963: 4602: 2336: 2321: 2293: 2169: 2138:

An Account of Some Recent Discoveries in Hieroglyphical Literature and Egyptian Antiquities

2104: 1936: 1883: 757: 480: 394:. Coptic began to die out in the twelfth century, and thereafter it survived mainly as the 371:, a history of the country written by an Egyptian priest named Manetho in the third century 298: 293:

hinted that some signs were phonetic but concentrated on the signs' metaphorical meanings.

206:, a system of pictorial signs used mainly for formal texts, originated sometime around 3200 203: 183: 159: 4507: 4398:

Middle Egyptian: An Introduction to the Language and Culture of Hieroglyphs, Third Edition

2347: 163: 52:

in the early nineteenth century through the work of several European scholars, especially

8: 5586: 5066: 4987: 2288: 1972:

article, that the circular first sign represented the sun. The Coptic word for "sun" was

1189: 814:

in Europe. Egypt was chaotic in the wake of the French and British withdrawal, but after

772:. Upon reading this passage in the Greek inscription the French realised the stone was a 575: 395: 323: 2461:, author of a more recent biography, argues that this date is too early, given that the 470: 5507: 5356: 5120: 5083: 4982: 4678: 4657: 4527: 4463: 2458: 2230: 1841: 1816: 780: 753: 718: 558: 554: 509: 475: 227: 191: 101: 69: 4457:

Curran, Brian A. (2003). "The Renaissance Afterlife of Ancient Egypt (1400–1650)". In

2363: 246:

and demotic were used side-by-side in Egypt under Ptolemaic rule and then that of the

5078: 5019: 4853: 4815: 4796: 4777: 4758: 4739: 4713: 4706: 4690: 4683: 4664: 4638: 4631: 4612: 4588: 4566: 4547: 4539: 4489: 4470: 4443: 4421: 4402: 4392: 4378: 4371: 2329: 2076: 2064: 1957: 1165: 665: 620: 539: 454:

copied an ancient Egyptian text and assigned phonetic values to several hieroglyphs.

439: 239: 231: 178: 132: 4633:

The Story of Decipherment, from Egyptian Hieroglyphs to Maya Script, Revised Edition

4606: 5532: 5371: 5135: 5049: 4732: 4580: 4519: 2355: 2161: 1833: 569: 521: 513: 431: 274: 4838: 807:

made engravings of its text and sent them to academic institutions across Europe.

2466: 2222: 1826:

Champollion announced his proposed readings of the Greco-Roman cartouches in his

769: 673: 669: 661: 391: 379: 327: 311:, a work probably written in the fourth century AD and attributed to a man named 128: 89: 73: 4544:

The Copts and the West, 1439–1822: The European Discovery of the Egyptian Church

2335:

The scholar who corrected the most fundamental faults in Champollion's work was

2089: 269:, which were used to specify the meaning of a word written with phonetic signs. 5471: 5456: 5328: 5115: 4868: 4708:

Cracking the Egyptian Code: The Revolutionary Life of Jean-François Champollion

2370: 2351: 2325: 1964:

was written, when Champollion was examining Huyot's copies. One cartouche from

1820: 1185: 831: 796: 484:(1650), with fanciful translations given for the figures and hieroglyphs on an 77: 41: 4727: 1984:, it might thus match "Ramesses", suggesting the sign in the middle stood for 679: 158:

Decipherment efforts languished after Young and Champollion died, but in 1837

72:

scripts, ceased to be understood in the fourth and fifth centuries AD, as the

5570: 5497: 4908: 2317: 773: 712: 704: 603: 447: 443: 419: 399: 307: 266: 243: 199: 124: 120: 112: 45: 367: 250:. Hieroglyphs became increasingly obscure, used mainly by Egyptian priests. 5527: 5177: 4435: 3662: 2210: 427: 247: 81: 61: 49: 1490: 1232: 579:(1652–1655), Kircher proceeded by guesswork based on his understanding of 88:, representing ideas rather than sounds. Some attempts at decipherment by 4652: 2420: 2255: 2153: 2060: 2045: 849: 741: 707:

stela as it may have originally appeared, with all three registers intact

517: 493: 362: 258: 97: 85: 4755:

Arabic Humanities, Islamic Thought: Essays in Honor of Everett K. Rowson

615:, 1752, comparing hieroglyphs to similar signs in other Egyptian scripts 5512: 5216: 4877: 4812:

Wonderful Things: A History of Egyptology, 2. The Golden Age: 1881–1914

4531: 4458: 4007: 2895: 1965: 565: 496:

Europeans became interested in hieroglyphs, beginning around 1422 when

4130: 3935: 3328: 2197:

Rudiments of an Egyptian Dictionary in the Ancient Enchorial Character

25:

in 1823, holding his list of phonetic hieroglyphic signs. Portrait by

5481: 5476: 5466: 3609: 2402: 2037: 2013: 1220: 1193: 765: 657: 358: 312: 152: 148: 4793:

Wonderful Things: A History of Egyptology, 1. From Antiquity to 1881

4523: 3477: 2341:

Lettre à M. le Professeur H. Rosellini sur l'Alphabet hiéroglyphique

573:

way was impossible. Therefore, in his works on hieroglyphs, such as

218:

system derived from hieroglyphs that was used mainly for writing on

5451: 5446: 5436: 5366: 5351: 5088: 2097: 2072: 2041: 1177: 861: 550: 294: 282: 262: 211: 187: 105: 65: 5297: 4019: 3713: 3628: 3626: 3624: 524:

loosely based on the imagery described in Horapollo, pioneered by

504:

in Greece and brought it to the attention of antiquarians such as

5431: 5130: 4774:

Egyptian Oedipus: Athanasius Kircher and the Secrets of Antiquity

4373:

The Keys of Egypt: The Obsession to Decipher Egyptian Hieroglyphs

3995: 3638: 3597: 3192: 737: 485: 302: 301:

copied another author's translation of a hieroglyphic text on an

219: 215: 4149: 4147: 4145: 3971: 3899: 3848: 3812: 3773: 3573: 3537: 3247: 3245: 3243: 3168: 2859: 2835: 2511: 5517: 3790: 3788: 3691: 3689: 3674: 3621: 3561: 3513: 3393: 3287: 2251: 2218: 2192: 1819:

of the text surrounding an Egyptian temple relief known as the

1188:, an obelisk bearing both a Greek and an Egyptian inscription. 886: 546: 339: 144: 4291: 3383: 3381: 3379: 2958: 2661: 2487: 1988:. Further confirmation came from the Rosetta Stone, where the 346:

394, and the last known demotic text was inscribed there in AD

135:. Doing so proved difficult, despite halting progress made by 5426: 4734:

The Rosetta Stone: The Story of the Decoding of Hieroglyphics

4267: 4231: 4171: 4142: 4067: 4055: 4043: 3983: 3911: 3441: 3240: 3216: 3156: 2924: 2922: 2214: 2005: 830:, a prominent French linguist who had deciphered the Persian 749: 4183: 4159: 4079: 4031: 3947: 3889: 3887: 3860: 3824: 3785: 3761: 3725: 3686: 3585: 3465: 3453: 2907: 2765: 2763: 2639: 2637: 2622: 5522: 4563:

The Myth of Egypt and Its Hieroglyphs in European Tradition

4279: 4120: 4118: 3650: 3525: 3501: 3405: 3376: 3364: 3340: 3316: 3277: 3275: 3262: 3260: 3144: 3105: 2975: 2973: 2883: 2799: 2748: 2001: 1501: 1243: 897: 870: 792:

in the name of Ptolemy, but they made no further progress.

335: 151:

containing the name of an Egyptian king of foreign origin,

4738:. Translated by Steven Rendall. Four Walls Eight Windows. 3489: 3180: 3132: 3122: 3120: 3093: 3069: 2919: 2736: 2697: 2649: 779:

The savants did make some progress with the stone itself.

672:

had some historical connection to ancient Egypt, believed

668:, one of several scholars of the time who speculated that 512:. Poggio recognised that there were hieroglyphic texts on 465: 4339: 4255: 4243: 4219: 4207: 4195: 4091: 3884: 3872: 3749: 2811: 2760: 2634: 2528: 2526: 2063:, which bore a hieroglyphic cartouche as well as text in 226:

BC, a third script derived from hieratic, known today as

4315: 4303: 4115: 3923: 3272: 3257: 2970: 2946: 2871: 2787: 2775: 2726: 2724: 2709: 2685: 2598: 2550: 2029:" ("I've done it!") and collapsed in a days-long faint. 545:

The first European to make sense of Coptic was a German

173: 60:. Ancient Egyptian forms of writing, which included the 4103: 3117: 3021: 2574: 2217:. By reading the inscriptions on dozens of statues and 4840:

Précis du système hiéroglyphique des anciens égyptiens

4465:

The Wisdom of Egypt: Changing Visions Through the Ages

3737: 3701: 3417: 3204: 2997: 2610: 2538: 2523: 2499: 2258:

to his son and successor. It became the first work of

2209:

particularly those recently shipped from Egypt to the

3836: 3800: 3306: 3304: 3302: 3228: 3081: 3057: 3045: 2985: 2934: 2847: 2823: 2721: 2673: 2149:

cordial and contentious until Young's death in 1829.

2136:

In 1823 Young published a book on his Egyptian work,

1485:

Champollion's analysis of the cartouche of Cleopatra

564:

According to the standard biographical dictionary of

222:, was nearly as old. Beginning in the seventh century 4327: 3429: 2562: 648:

published a large collection of such texts in 1724.

3549: 1227:Champollion's analysis of the cartouche of Ptolemy 516:and other Egyptian artefacts imported to Europe in 4731: 4705: 4682: 4659:The Rosetta Stone and the Rebirth of Ancient Egypt 4656: 4630: 4608:Cracking Codes: The Rosetta Stone and Decipherment 4462: 4434: 4370: 3959: 3941: 3719: 3668: 3644: 3615: 3603: 3352: 3334: 3299: 3033: 3009: 2586: 2517: 2493: 2071:, believed the cuneiform text to bear the name of 257:, representing sounds in the spoken language, and 5568: 4418:Who Was Who in Egyptology, 4th Revised Edition 1211:—fitted into Cleopatra's cartouche. A fourth, 1152: 822: 5313: 4893: 4852:. Translated by Martin Rynja. Gibson Square. 2067:. Saint-Martin, based on the earlier work of 881:Young's analysis of the cartouche of Ptolemy 320:Egypt was gradually converted to Christianity 4726: 4361: 3977: 3905: 3854: 3818: 3779: 3767: 3632: 3579: 3567: 3531: 3519: 3399: 3293: 3251: 3174: 3162: 3150: 3111: 1815:In July Champollion rebutted an analysis by 4771: 4585:Ancient Egyptian: A Linguistic Introduction 2964: 2928: 2901: 2300:Champollion-Figeac published his brother's 2237:that included some of his recent findings. 2203: 1170:Académie des Inscriptions et Belles-Lettres 810:Reports from Napoleon's expedition spurred 353:Most of history before the first millennium 5320: 5306: 4900: 4886: 4867:Young, Thomas (1855). Leitch, John (ed.). 2156:, a veteran of Napoleon's expedition, and 357:BC was recorded in Egyptian scripts or in 4809: 4790: 4601: 4415: 4345: 4297: 4285: 4273: 4261: 4249: 4237: 4225: 4213: 4201: 4177: 4153: 4136: 4097: 4049: 4025: 4013: 3989: 3929: 3917: 3893: 3878: 3755: 3591: 3495: 3471: 3281: 3266: 3222: 3198: 3186: 3138: 3126: 3099: 3027: 2877: 2754: 2703: 2655: 2505: 2270: 2240:Antiquarians living in Egypt, especially 410: 4907: 4703: 4677: 4579: 4538: 4502: 4321: 4309: 4189: 4165: 4124: 4109: 4085: 4073: 4061: 4037: 4001: 3953: 3866: 3830: 3794: 3731: 3695: 3656: 3543: 3507: 3483: 3459: 3447: 3423: 3411: 3387: 3370: 3322: 3210: 2889: 2865: 2841: 2817: 2805: 2667: 2643: 2616: 2556: 2532: 2366:greatly advanced the study of hieratic. 2287: 2274: 2031: 848: 698: 602: 469: 414: 334:was written by priests at the Temple of 238:BC, Egypt came to be ruled by the Greek 177: 17: 5392:Languages by writing system / 4752: 4560: 4483: 3346: 3075: 3003: 2979: 2952: 2940: 2913: 2853: 2829: 2793: 2781: 2742: 2730: 2715: 2691: 2679: 2628: 2604: 2580: 2423:communities into the twentieth century. 466:Fifteenth through seventeenth centuries 422:'s attempted translation of hieroglyphs 186:signs (left) through several stages of 5569: 4814:. American University in Cairo Press. 4795:. American University in Cairo Press. 4456: 2769: 724:in 1798, Bonaparte brought with him a 117:Napoleon Bonaparte's campaign in Egypt 5301: 4881: 4873:(in English and French). John Murray. 4508:"The Decipherment of the Hieroglyphs" 4391: 4333: 3555: 2544: 598: 390:642, but it gradually lost ground to 253:All three scripts contained a mix of 174:Egyptian scripts and their extinction 104:acknowledged the script might have a 5262: 4625: 3743: 3707: 3680: 3358: 3310: 3234: 3087: 3063: 3051: 3039: 3015: 2991: 2592: 2568: 2181: 689: 5327: 5282: 4848:Champollion, Jean-François (2009). 4837:Champollion, Jean-François (1824). 4651: 4512:The Journal of Egyptian Archaeology 3965: 3842: 3806: 3435: 2012:, corresponding to the royal name " 330:, it came to supplant demotic. The 115:, discovered in 1799 by members of 13: 5399:Ancient languages corpuses by size 4830: 4486:Egyptology: The Missing Millennium 4438:; Josefowicz, Diane Greco (2020). 4416:Bierbrier, Morris L., ed. (2012). 27:Victorine-Angélique-Amélie Rumilly 14: 5623: 5010:Ancient Egyptian race controversy 1162:Jacques Joseph Champollion-Figeac 500:discovered a copy of Horapollo's 5281: 5271: 5261: 5252: 5251: 5240: 5203: 2451: 2176: 2109:Précis du système hiéroglyphique 2050:Précis du système hiéroglyphique 2004:, was a known symbol of the god 1565: 1494: 1299: 1236: 953: 890: 805:Society of Antiquaries of London 726:corps of scientists and scholars 694: 609:Recueil d'antiquités égyptiennes 405: 265:, representing whole words, and 5272: 4843:(in French). Treuttel et Würtz. 4776:. University of Chicago Press. 4730:; Valbelle, Dominique (2002) . 2436: 2426: 2412: 2369:In 1866 Lepsius discovered the 2254:cast as posthumous advice from 828:Antoine-Isaac Silvestre de Sacy 202:had two major writing systems. 182:Table showing the evolution of 137:Antoine-Isaac Silvestre de Sacy 4587:. Cambridge University Press. 4565:. Princeton University Press. 4442:. Princeton University Press. 4401:. Cambridge University Press. 4354: 3942:Buchwald & Josefowicz 2020 3720:Buchwald & Josefowicz 2020 3669:Buchwald & Josefowicz 2020 3645:Buchwald & Josefowicz 2020 3616:Buchwald & Josefowicz 2020 3604:Buchwald & Josefowicz 2020 3335:Buchwald & Josefowicz 2020 2518:Buchwald & Josefowicz 2020 2494:Buchwald & Josefowicz 2020 2387: 2247:Instructions of King Amenemhat 799:forces and surrendered in the 756:in the middle. The text was a 1: 4420:. Egypt Exploration Society. 4016:, pp. 123, 127, 212–213. 2476: 2309:, but Champollion read it as 2080:This was a major step in the 1184:A crucial clue came from the 684:De origine et usu obeliscorum 570:ancient theological tradition 123:in hieroglyphic, demotic and 5404:Undeciphered writing systems 4772:Stolzenberg, Daniel (2013). 4663:. Harvard University Press. 4461:; Champion, Timothy (eds.). 4139:, pp. 173–174, 177–178. 3486:, pp. 122–123, 132–133. 2904:, pp. 198–199, 224–225. 2481: 626:The Divine Legation of Moses 7: 5409:Creators of writing systems 5195:Egypt–Mesopotamia relations 5015:Population history of Egypt 4712:. Oxford University Press. 4546:. Oxford University Press. 4504:Griffith, Francis Llewellyn 2260:ancient Egyptian literature 2119: 1153:Champollion's breakthroughs 823:De Sacy, Åkerblad and Young 326:wrote in the Greek-derived 10: 5628: 5338:Index of language articles 3683:, pp. 72–74, 100–101. 1906: 1850: 1754: 1735: 1716: 1697: 1678: 1659: 1640: 1621: 1602: 1583: 1556: 1509: 1504: 1489: 1434: 1412: 1393: 1374: 1355: 1336: 1317: 1290: 1251: 1246: 1146:Francis Llewellyn Griffith 1088: 1066: 1047: 1028: 1009: 990: 971: 944: 905: 900: 801:Capitulation of Alexandria 710: 5541: 5490: 5417: 5380: 5344: 5335: 5235: 5212: 5201: 4939: 4916: 4810:Thompson, Jason (2015b). 4791:Thompson, Jason (2015a). 4704:Robinson, Andrew (2012). 3671:, pp. 372, 385, 509. 2082:decipherment of cuneiform 2069:Georg Friedrich Grotefend 2057:Antoine-Jean Saint-Martin 2040:spellings of the name of 1508: 1250: 1231: 1158:Jean-François Champollion 904: 885: 812:a mania for ancient Egypt 728:, generally known as the 717:When French forces under 531:Hypnerotomachia Poliphili 168:decipherment of cuneiform 54:Jean-François Champollion 23:Jean-François Champollion 5394:by first written account 5247:Ancient Egypt portal 4484:El-Daly, Okasha (2005). 4028:, pp. 149–151, 166. 4004:, pp. 155–159, 165. 3978:Adkins & Adkins 2000 3906:Adkins & Adkins 2000 3855:Adkins & Adkins 2000 3819:Adkins & Adkins 2000 3780:Adkins & Adkins 2000 3768:Adkins & Adkins 2000 3633:Adkins & Adkins 2000 3580:Adkins & Adkins 2000 3568:Adkins & Adkins 2000 3546:, pp. 136–137, 144. 3532:Adkins & Adkins 2000 3520:Adkins & Adkins 2000 3400:Adkins & Adkins 2000 3294:Adkins & Adkins 2000 3252:Solé & Valbelle 2002 3201:, pp. 108, 132–134. 3175:Solé & Valbelle 2002 3163:Solé & Valbelle 2002 3151:Solé & Valbelle 2002 3112:Solé & Valbelle 2002 2868:, pp. 201, 205–210. 2844:, pp. 199, 218–219. 2380: 2360:Charles Wycliffe Goodwin 2204:Champollion's last years 2158:Heinrich Julius Klaproth 746:Pierre-François Bouchard 703:A reconstruction of the 581:ancient Egyptian beliefs 361:, the writing system of 198:For most of its history 131:, the last stage of the 5362:History of the alphabet 4637:. Thames & Hudson. 4561:Iversen, Erik (1993) . 2401:of the Greek historian 1141:Encyclopædia Britannica 654:Jean-Jacques Barthélemy 498:Cristoforo Buondelmonti 5597:Methods in archaeology 5592:History of translation 2670:, pp. 27–29, 195. 2297: 2285: 2271:Mid-nineteenth century 2242:John Gardner Wilkinson 2052: 1164:, was an assistant to 857: 736:fort near the town of 708: 623:'s religious treatise 616: 489: 460:medieval Islamic world 423: 411:Medieval Islamic world 384:Arab conquest of Egypt 332:last hieroglyphic text 277:, in the first century 195: 37: 4921:Glossary of artifacts 3450:, pp. 53–54, 61. 2916:, pp. 95–96, 98. 2631:, pp. 26, 30–31. 2291: 2278: 2035: 2027:Je tiens mon affaire! 1778:Champollion's reading 1456:Champollion's reading 852: 740:that they had dubbed 702: 650:Anne Claude de Caylus 646:Bernard de Montfaucon 613:Anne Claude de Caylus 606: 473: 452:Abu al-Qasim al-Iraqi 418: 291:Clement of Alexandria 181: 21: 5582:Egyptian hieroglyphs 4300:, pp. 211, 273. 4076:, pp. 226, 235. 4064:, pp. 200, 213. 3582:, pp. 182, 187. 3462:, pp. 113, 127. 3349:, pp. 135, 141. 3337:, pp. 137, 237. 3225:, pp. 119, 124. 3177:, pp. 9, 24–26. 2337:Karl Richard Lepsius 2294:Karl Richard Lepsius 2282:Grammaire égyptienne 2105:consonantal alphabet 1836:contained the name " 860:Young was a British 840:Johan David Åkerblad 481:Obeliscus Pamphilius 299:Ammianus Marcellinus 160:Karl Richard Lepsius 141:Johan David Åkerblad 5067:Cursive hieroglyphs 4276:, pp. 268–269. 4240:, pp. 272–273. 4192:, pp. 244–245. 4180:, pp. 198–199. 4168:, pp. 242–243. 4156:, pp. 178–181. 4088:, pp. 239–242. 4052:, pp. 166–170. 4040:, pp. 181–182. 3992:, pp. 168–171. 3980:, pp. 213–214. 3956:, pp. 229–230. 3944:, pp. 407–408. 3920:, pp. 121–123. 3908:, pp. 232–234. 3869:, pp. 217–218. 3857:, pp. 240–241. 3833:, pp. 130–133. 3821:, pp. 188–189. 3797:, pp. 217–219. 3782:, pp. 190–192. 3734:, pp. 129–130. 3698:, pp. 148–149. 3659:, pp. 140–142. 3635:, pp. 180–181. 3618:, pp. 384–386. 3594:, pp. 118–119. 3570:, pp. 176–177. 3522:, pp. 173–175. 3510:, pp. 133–136. 3474:, pp. 113–116. 3414:, pp. 161–162. 3402:, pp. 153–154. 3390:, pp. 159–161. 3373:, pp. 153–154. 3325:, pp. 155–156. 3296:, pp. 121–122. 3078:, pp. 106–107. 2967:, pp. 227–230. 2892:, pp. 226–227. 2808:, pp. 195–196. 2772:, pp. 106–108. 2745:, pp. 264–264. 2302:grammar of Egyptian 1486: 1228: 1190:William John Bankes 882: 846:entered the field. 576:Oedipus Aegyptiacus 506:Niccolò de' Niccoli 396:liturgical language 324:Egyptian Christians 5602:History of writing 5577:Egyptian languages 5503:Canadian syllabics 5372:Scripts in Unicode 5357:History of writing 5040:Funerary practices 4603:Parkinson, Richard 4540:Hamilton, Alastair 2757:, pp. 52, 59. 2547:, pp. 1, 6–8. 2463:Lettre à M. Dacier 2298: 2286: 2231:Ippolito Rosellini 2126:Lettre à M. Dacier 2053: 1842:Jean-Nicolas Huyot 1829:Lettre à M. Dacier 1817:Jean-Baptiste Biot 1484: 1226: 1168:, the head of the 880: 858: 781:Jean-Joseph Marcel 719:Napoleon Bonaparte 709: 635:Jean-Pierre Rigord 617: 599:Eighteenth century 559:Pietro Della Valle 555:Athanasius Kircher 510:Poggio Bracciolini 490: 476:Athanasius Kircher 424: 196: 102:early modern times 38: 5607:Ancient languages 5562: 5561: 5554:In Southeast Asia 5295: 5294: 5050:Great Royal Wives 5020:Prehistoric Egypt 4859:978-1-903933-83-1 4821:978-977-416-692-1 4802:978-977-416-599-3 4783:978-0-226-92415-1 4764:978-90-04-34329-0 4745:978-1-56858-226-9 4719:978-0-19-991499-9 4696:978-0-13-134304-7 4670:978-0-674-02493-9 4644:978-0-500-28105-5 4618:978-0-7141-1916-8 4594:978-0-521-44384-5 4581:Loprieno, Antonio 4572:978-0-691-02124-9 4553:978-0-19-928877-9 4495:978-1-84472-062-0 4476:978-1-84472-005-7 4449:978-0-691-20091-0 4427:978-0-85698-207-1 4408:978-1-107-05364-9 4384:978-0-06-019439-0 4377:. HarperCollins. 4288:, pp. 41–42. 3845:, pp. 69–71. 3809:, pp. 67–69. 3746:, pp. 78–79. 3710:, pp. 75–78. 3498:, pp. 33–34. 3438:, pp. 49–51. 3254:, pp. 47–51. 3237:, pp. 62–63. 3189:, pp. 20–22. 3165:, pp. 27–28. 3141:, pp. 29–30. 3102:, pp. 98–99. 3090:, pp. 57–59. 3066:, pp. 53–54. 3054:, pp. 43–45. 2994:, pp. 48–49. 2982:, pp. 98–99. 2955:, pp. 96–97. 2820:, pp. 27–29. 2796:, pp. 67–69. 2784:, pp. 64–65. 2718:, pp. 67–69. 2706:, pp. 51–52. 2694:, pp. 66–67. 2658:, pp. 22–23. 2646:, pp. 38–39. 2607:, pp. 47–49. 2583:, pp. 45–46. 2571:, pp. 17–18. 2559:, pp. 12–13. 2348:Emmanuel de Rougé 2330:Semitic languages 2252:wisdom literature 2182:Young and demotic 2170:Richard Parkinson 2077:Achaemenid Empire 2065:Persian cuneiform 2036:Hieroglyphic and 1958:Hermine Hartleben 1954: 1953: 1928: 1927: 1924: 1923: 1901: 1900: 1875: 1874: 1871: 1870: 1813: 1812: 1772: 1771: 1768: 1767: 1751: 1750: 1747: 1746: 1732: 1731: 1728: 1727: 1713: 1712: 1709: 1708: 1694: 1693: 1690: 1689: 1675: 1674: 1671: 1670: 1656: 1655: 1652: 1651: 1637: 1636: 1633: 1632: 1618: 1617: 1614: 1613: 1599: 1598: 1595: 1594: 1573: 1572: 1560: 1559: 1552: 1551: 1548: 1547: 1482: 1481: 1450: 1449: 1446: 1445: 1431: 1430: 1427: 1426: 1409: 1408: 1405: 1404: 1390: 1389: 1386: 1385: 1371: 1370: 1367: 1366: 1352: 1351: 1348: 1347: 1333: 1332: 1329: 1328: 1307: 1306: 1294: 1293: 1286: 1285: 1282: 1281: 1166:Bon-Joseph Dacier 1136: 1135: 1104: 1103: 1100: 1099: 1085: 1084: 1081: 1080: 1063: 1062: 1059: 1058: 1044: 1043: 1040: 1039: 1025: 1024: 1021: 1020: 1006: 1005: 1002: 1001: 987: 986: 983: 982: 961: 960: 948: 947: 940: 939: 936: 935: 690:Identifying signs 666:Joseph de Guignes 621:William Warburton 587:, as well as the 540:ancient Near East 526:Francesco Colonna 440:Dhul-Nun al-Misri 240:Ptolemaic dynasty 232:Egyptian language 164:Emmanuel de Rougé 133:Egyptian language 5619: 5491:Current examples 5472:Semi-syllabaries 5322: 5315: 5308: 5299: 5298: 5285: 5284: 5275: 5274: 5265: 5264: 5255: 5254: 5245: 5244: 5243: 5207: 4902: 4895: 4888: 4879: 4878: 4874: 4863: 4844: 4825: 4806: 4787: 4768: 4749: 4737: 4723: 4711: 4700: 4688: 4679:Robinson, Andrew 4674: 4662: 4648: 4636: 4622: 4598: 4576: 4557: 4535: 4499: 4480: 4468: 4453: 4436:Buchwald, Jed Z. 4431: 4412: 4388: 4376: 4349: 4343: 4337: 4331: 4325: 4319: 4313: 4307: 4301: 4295: 4289: 4283: 4277: 4271: 4265: 4259: 4253: 4247: 4241: 4235: 4229: 4223: 4217: 4211: 4205: 4199: 4193: 4187: 4181: 4175: 4169: 4163: 4157: 4151: 4140: 4134: 4128: 4122: 4113: 4107: 4101: 4095: 4089: 4083: 4077: 4071: 4065: 4059: 4053: 4047: 4041: 4035: 4029: 4023: 4017: 4011: 4005: 3999: 3993: 3987: 3981: 3975: 3969: 3963: 3957: 3951: 3945: 3939: 3933: 3927: 3921: 3915: 3909: 3903: 3897: 3891: 3882: 3876: 3870: 3864: 3858: 3852: 3846: 3840: 3834: 3828: 3822: 3816: 3810: 3804: 3798: 3792: 3783: 3777: 3771: 3765: 3759: 3753: 3747: 3741: 3735: 3729: 3723: 3717: 3711: 3705: 3699: 3693: 3684: 3678: 3672: 3666: 3660: 3654: 3648: 3642: 3636: 3630: 3619: 3613: 3607: 3601: 3595: 3589: 3583: 3577: 3571: 3565: 3559: 3553: 3547: 3541: 3535: 3529: 3523: 3517: 3511: 3505: 3499: 3493: 3487: 3481: 3475: 3469: 3463: 3457: 3451: 3445: 3439: 3433: 3427: 3421: 3415: 3409: 3403: 3397: 3391: 3385: 3374: 3368: 3362: 3356: 3350: 3344: 3338: 3332: 3326: 3320: 3314: 3308: 3297: 3291: 3285: 3279: 3270: 3264: 3255: 3249: 3238: 3232: 3226: 3220: 3214: 3208: 3202: 3196: 3190: 3184: 3178: 3172: 3166: 3160: 3154: 3148: 3142: 3136: 3130: 3124: 3115: 3109: 3103: 3097: 3091: 3085: 3079: 3073: 3067: 3061: 3055: 3049: 3043: 3037: 3031: 3025: 3019: 3013: 3007: 3001: 2995: 2989: 2983: 2977: 2968: 2965:Stolzenberg 2013 2962: 2956: 2950: 2944: 2938: 2932: 2929:Stolzenberg 2013 2926: 2917: 2911: 2905: 2902:Stolzenberg 2013 2899: 2893: 2887: 2881: 2875: 2869: 2863: 2857: 2851: 2845: 2839: 2833: 2827: 2821: 2815: 2809: 2803: 2797: 2791: 2785: 2779: 2773: 2767: 2758: 2752: 2746: 2740: 2734: 2728: 2719: 2713: 2707: 2701: 2695: 2689: 2683: 2677: 2671: 2665: 2659: 2653: 2647: 2641: 2632: 2626: 2620: 2614: 2608: 2602: 2596: 2590: 2584: 2578: 2572: 2566: 2560: 2554: 2548: 2542: 2536: 2530: 2521: 2515: 2509: 2503: 2497: 2491: 2470: 2455: 2449: 2440: 2434: 2430: 2424: 2416: 2410: 2391: 2356:Heinrich Brugsch 2228: 2162:Gustav Seyffarth 2075:, a king of the 1911: 1910: 1907: 1903: 1902: 1855: 1854: 1851: 1847: 1846: 1834:Abydos King List 1809:Feminine ending 1759: 1758: 1755: 1740: 1739: 1736: 1721: 1720: 1717: 1702: 1701: 1698: 1683: 1682: 1679: 1664: 1663: 1660: 1645: 1644: 1641: 1626: 1625: 1622: 1607: 1606: 1603: 1588: 1587: 1584: 1569: 1568: 1514: 1513: 1510: 1502: 1498: 1497: 1491: 1487: 1483: 1439: 1438: 1435: 1417: 1416: 1413: 1398: 1397: 1394: 1379: 1378: 1375: 1360: 1359: 1356: 1341: 1340: 1337: 1322: 1321: 1318: 1303: 1302: 1256: 1255: 1252: 1244: 1240: 1239: 1233: 1229: 1225: 1093: 1092: 1089: 1071: 1070: 1067: 1052: 1051: 1048: 1033: 1032: 1029: 1014: 1013: 1010: 995: 994: 991: 976: 975: 972: 957: 956: 910: 909: 906: 898: 894: 893: 887: 883: 879: 763: 643: 436:Ayub ibn Maslama 432:Jabir ibn Hayyan 389: 374: 356: 349: 345: 288: 280: 275:Diodorus Siculus 237: 225: 209: 96:scholars in the 35: 5627: 5626: 5622: 5621: 5620: 5618: 5617: 5616: 5567: 5566: 5563: 5558: 5537: 5486: 5413: 5388:Writing systems 5376: 5340: 5331: 5329:Writing systems 5326: 5296: 5291: 5241: 5239: 5231: 5208: 5199: 4935: 4912: 4906: 4866: 4860: 4847: 4836: 4833: 4831:Further reading 4828: 4822: 4803: 4784: 4765: 4746: 4720: 4697: 4671: 4645: 4619: 4595: 4573: 4554: 4524:10.2307/3855155 4496: 4477: 4450: 4428: 4409: 4393:Allen, James P. 4385: 4357: 4352: 4344: 4340: 4332: 4328: 4324:, pp. 8–9. 4320: 4316: 4308: 4304: 4296: 4292: 4284: 4280: 4272: 4268: 4260: 4256: 4248: 4244: 4236: 4232: 4224: 4220: 4212: 4208: 4200: 4196: 4188: 4184: 4176: 4172: 4164: 4160: 4152: 4143: 4135: 4131: 4123: 4116: 4108: 4104: 4096: 4092: 4084: 4080: 4072: 4068: 4060: 4056: 4048: 4044: 4036: 4032: 4024: 4020: 4012: 4008: 4000: 3996: 3988: 3984: 3976: 3972: 3964: 3960: 3952: 3948: 3940: 3936: 3928: 3924: 3916: 3912: 3904: 3900: 3892: 3885: 3877: 3873: 3865: 3861: 3853: 3849: 3841: 3837: 3829: 3825: 3817: 3813: 3805: 3801: 3793: 3786: 3778: 3774: 3766: 3762: 3754: 3750: 3742: 3738: 3730: 3726: 3718: 3714: 3706: 3702: 3694: 3687: 3679: 3675: 3667: 3663: 3655: 3651: 3643: 3639: 3631: 3622: 3614: 3610: 3602: 3598: 3590: 3586: 3578: 3574: 3566: 3562: 3554: 3550: 3542: 3538: 3530: 3526: 3518: 3514: 3506: 3502: 3494: 3490: 3482: 3478: 3470: 3466: 3458: 3454: 3446: 3442: 3434: 3430: 3422: 3418: 3410: 3406: 3398: 3394: 3386: 3377: 3369: 3365: 3357: 3353: 3345: 3341: 3333: 3329: 3321: 3317: 3309: 3300: 3292: 3288: 3280: 3273: 3265: 3258: 3250: 3241: 3233: 3229: 3221: 3217: 3209: 3205: 3197: 3193: 3185: 3181: 3173: 3169: 3161: 3157: 3153:, pp. 4–5. 3149: 3145: 3137: 3133: 3125: 3118: 3114:, pp. 2–3. 3110: 3106: 3098: 3094: 3086: 3082: 3074: 3070: 3062: 3058: 3050: 3046: 3038: 3034: 3026: 3022: 3014: 3010: 3002: 2998: 2990: 2986: 2978: 2971: 2963: 2959: 2951: 2947: 2939: 2935: 2927: 2920: 2912: 2908: 2900: 2896: 2888: 2884: 2876: 2872: 2864: 2860: 2852: 2848: 2840: 2836: 2828: 2824: 2816: 2812: 2804: 2800: 2792: 2788: 2780: 2776: 2768: 2761: 2753: 2749: 2741: 2737: 2729: 2722: 2714: 2710: 2702: 2698: 2690: 2686: 2678: 2674: 2666: 2662: 2654: 2650: 2642: 2635: 2627: 2623: 2615: 2611: 2603: 2599: 2591: 2587: 2579: 2575: 2567: 2563: 2555: 2551: 2543: 2539: 2531: 2524: 2516: 2512: 2504: 2500: 2492: 2488: 2484: 2479: 2474: 2473: 2467:Jed Z. Buchwald 2459:Andrew Robinson 2456: 2452: 2441: 2437: 2431: 2427: 2417: 2413: 2392: 2388: 2383: 2364:François Chabas 2326:auxiliary verbs 2273: 2226: 2223:Turin King List 2211:Egyptian Museum 2206: 2184: 2179: 2122: 1980:and ended with 1934: 1881: 1763: 1566: 1543: 1535: 1518: 1495: 1300: 1268: 1260: 1237: 1155: 1110:Young's reading 954: 922: 914: 891: 825: 761: 715: 697: 692: 674:Chinese writing 670:Chinese culture 662:Carsten Niebuhr 637: 601: 468: 458:scholar of the 413: 408: 387: 380:Coptic language 372: 354: 347: 343: 328:Coptic alphabet 286: 278: 235: 223: 207: 176: 129:Coptic language 74:Coptic alphabet 42:writing systems 29: 12: 11: 5: 5625: 5615: 5614: 5609: 5604: 5599: 5594: 5589: 5584: 5579: 5560: 5559: 5557: 5556: 5551: 5545: 5543: 5542:Related topics 5539: 5538: 5536: 5535: 5530: 5525: 5520: 5515: 5510: 5505: 5500: 5494: 5492: 5488: 5487: 5485: 5484: 5479: 5474: 5469: 5464: 5459: 5454: 5449: 5444: 5439: 5434: 5429: 5423: 5421: 5415: 5414: 5412: 5411: 5406: 5401: 5396: 5390: 5384: 5382: 5378: 5377: 5375: 5374: 5369: 5364: 5359: 5354: 5348: 5346: 5342: 5341: 5336: 5333: 5332: 5325: 5324: 5317: 5310: 5302: 5293: 5292: 5290: 5289: 5279: 5269: 5259: 5249: 5236: 5233: 5232: 5230: 5229: 5224: 5219: 5213: 5210: 5209: 5202: 5200: 5198: 5197: 5192: 5187: 5182: 5181: 5180: 5175: 5165: 5160: 5155: 5150: 5145: 5144: 5143: 5138: 5128: 5123: 5118: 5113: 5108: 5103: 5098: 5093: 5092: 5091: 5086: 5076: 5071: 5070: 5069: 5059: 5058: 5057: 5047: 5042: 5037: 5032: 5027: 5022: 5017: 5012: 5007: 5002: 5001: 5000: 4990: 4985: 4980: 4979: 4978: 4968: 4967: 4966: 4961: 4956: 4946: 4940: 4937: 4936: 4934: 4933: 4928: 4923: 4917: 4914: 4913: 4905: 4904: 4897: 4890: 4882: 4876: 4875: 4864: 4858: 4845: 4832: 4829: 4827: 4826: 4820: 4807: 4801: 4788: 4782: 4769: 4763: 4750: 4744: 4724: 4718: 4701: 4695: 4675: 4669: 4649: 4643: 4623: 4617: 4599: 4593: 4577: 4571: 4558: 4552: 4536: 4500: 4494: 4481: 4475: 4454: 4448: 4432: 4426: 4413: 4407: 4389: 4383: 4363:Adkins, Lesley 4358: 4356: 4353: 4351: 4350: 4348:, p. 273. 4346:Thompson 2015a 4338: 4326: 4314: 4312:, p. 245. 4302: 4298:Thompson 2015a 4290: 4286:Parkinson 1999 4278: 4274:Thompson 2015a 4266: 4264:, p. 268. 4262:Thompson 2015a 4254: 4252:, p. 217. 4250:Bierbrier 2012 4242: 4238:Thompson 2015a 4230: 4228:, p. 476. 4226:Bierbrier 2012 4218: 4216:, p. 198. 4214:Thompson 2015a 4206: 4204:, p. 199. 4202:Thompson 2015a 4194: 4182: 4178:Thompson 2015a 4170: 4158: 4154:Thompson 2015a 4141: 4137:Thompson 2015a 4129: 4127:, p. 243. 4114: 4102: 4100:, p. 175. 4098:Thompson 2015a 4090: 4078: 4066: 4054: 4050:Thompson 2015a 4042: 4030: 4026:Thompson 2015a 4018: 4014:Thompson 2015a 4006: 3994: 3990:Thompson 2015a 3982: 3970: 3958: 3946: 3934: 3930:Parkinson 1999 3922: 3918:Thompson 2015a 3910: 3898: 3896:, p. 202. 3894:Thompson 2015b 3883: 3881:, p. 121. 3879:Thompson 2015a 3871: 3859: 3847: 3835: 3823: 3811: 3799: 3784: 3772: 3770:, p. 208. 3760: 3758:, p. 120. 3756:Thompson 2015a 3748: 3736: 3724: 3722:, p. 422. 3712: 3700: 3685: 3673: 3661: 3649: 3647:, p. 385. 3637: 3620: 3608: 3606:, p. 388. 3596: 3592:Thompson 2015a 3584: 3572: 3560: 3548: 3536: 3534:, p. 173. 3524: 3512: 3500: 3496:Parkinson 1999 3488: 3476: 3472:Thompson 2015a 3464: 3452: 3440: 3428: 3416: 3404: 3392: 3375: 3363: 3351: 3339: 3327: 3315: 3298: 3286: 3284:, p. 111. 3282:Thompson 2015a 3271: 3269:, p. 110. 3267:Thompson 2015a 3256: 3239: 3227: 3223:Thompson 2015a 3215: 3203: 3199:Thompson 2015a 3191: 3187:Parkinson 1999 3179: 3167: 3155: 3143: 3139:Parkinson 1999 3131: 3127:Parkinson 1999 3116: 3104: 3100:Thompson 2015a 3092: 3080: 3068: 3056: 3044: 3032: 3028:Thompson 2015a 3020: 3008: 3006:, p. 105. 2996: 2984: 2969: 2957: 2945: 2933: 2931:, p. 203. 2918: 2906: 2894: 2882: 2880:, p. 296. 2878:Bierbrier 2012 2870: 2858: 2846: 2834: 2822: 2810: 2798: 2786: 2774: 2759: 2755:Thompson 2015a 2747: 2735: 2720: 2708: 2704:Thompson 2015a 2696: 2684: 2672: 2660: 2656:Thompson 2015a 2648: 2633: 2621: 2609: 2597: 2585: 2573: 2561: 2549: 2537: 2535:, p. 151. 2522: 2520:, p. 120. 2510: 2506:Parkinson 1999 2498: 2485: 2483: 2480: 2478: 2475: 2472: 2471: 2450: 2435: 2425: 2421:Upper Egyptian 2411: 2385: 2384: 2382: 2379: 2371:Canopus Decree 2352:Gaston Maspero 2279:Champollion's 2272: 2269: 2205: 2202: 2183: 2180: 2178: 2175: 2121: 2118: 1952: 1951: 1948: 1947: 1944: 1943: 1940: 1939: 1930: 1929: 1926: 1925: 1922: 1921: 1918: 1915: 1899: 1898: 1895: 1894: 1891: 1890: 1887: 1886: 1877: 1876: 1873: 1872: 1869: 1868: 1865: 1862: 1859: 1821:Dendera Zodiac 1811: 1810: 1807: 1804: 1801: 1798: 1795: 1792: 1789: 1786: 1783: 1780: 1774: 1773: 1770: 1769: 1766: 1765: 1752: 1749: 1748: 1745: 1744: 1733: 1730: 1729: 1726: 1725: 1714: 1711: 1710: 1707: 1706: 1695: 1692: 1691: 1688: 1687: 1676: 1673: 1672: 1669: 1668: 1657: 1654: 1653: 1650: 1649: 1638: 1635: 1634: 1631: 1630: 1619: 1616: 1615: 1612: 1611: 1600: 1597: 1596: 1593: 1592: 1581: 1575: 1574: 1571: 1570: 1563: 1561: 1558: 1557: 1554: 1553: 1550: 1549: 1546: 1545: 1540: 1537: 1532: 1529: 1526: 1523: 1520: 1506: 1505: 1499: 1480: 1479: 1476: 1473: 1470: 1467: 1464: 1461: 1458: 1452: 1451: 1448: 1447: 1444: 1443: 1432: 1429: 1428: 1425: 1424: 1421: 1410: 1407: 1406: 1403: 1402: 1391: 1388: 1387: 1384: 1383: 1372: 1369: 1368: 1365: 1364: 1353: 1350: 1349: 1346: 1345: 1334: 1331: 1330: 1327: 1326: 1315: 1309: 1308: 1305: 1304: 1297: 1295: 1292: 1291: 1288: 1287: 1284: 1283: 1280: 1279: 1276: 1273: 1270: 1265: 1262: 1248: 1247: 1241: 1186:Philae Obelisk 1154: 1151: 1134: 1133: 1130: 1127: 1124: 1121: 1118: 1115: 1112: 1106: 1105: 1102: 1101: 1098: 1097: 1086: 1083: 1082: 1079: 1078: 1075: 1064: 1061: 1060: 1057: 1056: 1045: 1042: 1041: 1038: 1037: 1026: 1023: 1022: 1019: 1018: 1007: 1004: 1003: 1000: 999: 988: 985: 984: 981: 980: 969: 963: 962: 959: 958: 951: 949: 946: 945: 942: 941: 938: 937: 934: 933: 930: 927: 924: 919: 916: 902: 901: 895: 832:Pahlavi script 824: 821: 711:Main article: 696: 693: 691: 688: 600: 597: 467: 464: 412: 409: 407: 404: 322:, and because 267:determinatives 255:phonetic signs 175: 172: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 5624: 5613: 5610: 5608: 5605: 5603: 5600: 5598: 5595: 5593: 5590: 5588: 5585: 5583: 5580: 5578: 5575: 5574: 5572: 5565: 5555: 5552: 5550: 5547: 5546: 5544: 5540: 5534: 5531: 5529: 5526: 5524: 5521: 5519: 5516: 5514: 5511: 5509: 5506: 5504: 5501: 5499: 5496: 5495: 5493: 5489: 5483: 5480: 5478: 5475: 5473: 5470: 5468: 5465: 5463: 5460: 5458: 5455: 5453: 5450: 5448: 5445: 5443: 5440: 5438: 5435: 5433: 5430: 5428: 5425: 5424: 5422: 5420: 5416: 5410: 5407: 5405: 5402: 5400: 5397: 5395: 5391: 5389: 5386: 5385: 5383: 5379: 5373: 5370: 5368: 5365: 5363: 5360: 5358: 5355: 5353: 5350: 5349: 5347: 5343: 5339: 5334: 5330: 5323: 5318: 5316: 5311: 5309: 5304: 5303: 5300: 5288: 5280: 5278: 5270: 5268: 5260: 5258: 5250: 5248: 5238: 5237: 5234: 5228: 5225: 5223: 5222:Egyptologists 5220: 5218: 5215: 5214: 5211: 5206: 5196: 5193: 5191: 5188: 5186: 5183: 5179: 5176: 5174: 5171: 5170: 5169: 5166: 5164: 5161: 5159: 5156: 5154: 5151: 5149: 5146: 5142: 5139: 5137: 5134: 5133: 5132: 5129: 5127: 5124: 5122: 5119: 5117: 5114: 5112: 5109: 5107: 5104: 5102: 5099: 5097: 5094: 5090: 5087: 5085: 5082: 5081: 5080: 5077: 5075: 5072: 5068: 5065: 5064: 5063: 5060: 5056: 5053: 5052: 5051: 5048: 5046: 5043: 5041: 5038: 5036: 5033: 5031: 5028: 5026: 5023: 5021: 5018: 5016: 5013: 5011: 5008: 5006: 5003: 4999: 4996: 4995: 4994: 4991: 4989: 4986: 4984: 4981: 4977: 4974: 4973: 4972: 4969: 4965: 4962: 4960: 4957: 4955: 4952: 4951: 4950: 4947: 4945: 4942: 4941: 4938: 4932: 4929: 4927: 4924: 4922: 4919: 4918: 4915: 4910: 4909:Ancient Egypt 4903: 4898: 4896: 4891: 4889: 4884: 4883: 4880: 4872: 4871: 4865: 4861: 4855: 4851: 4846: 4842: 4841: 4835: 4834: 4823: 4817: 4813: 4808: 4804: 4798: 4794: 4789: 4785: 4779: 4775: 4770: 4766: 4760: 4756: 4751: 4747: 4741: 4736: 4735: 4729: 4725: 4721: 4715: 4710: 4709: 4702: 4698: 4692: 4687: 4686: 4680: 4676: 4672: 4666: 4661: 4660: 4654: 4650: 4646: 4640: 4635: 4634: 4628: 4627:Pope, Maurice 4624: 4620: 4614: 4610: 4609: 4604: 4600: 4596: 4590: 4586: 4582: 4578: 4574: 4568: 4564: 4559: 4555: 4549: 4545: 4541: 4537: 4533: 4529: 4525: 4521: 4517: 4513: 4509: 4505: 4501: 4497: 4491: 4488:. UCL Press. 4487: 4482: 4478: 4472: 4469:. UCL Press. 4467: 4466: 4460: 4455: 4451: 4445: 4441: 4437: 4433: 4429: 4423: 4419: 4414: 4410: 4404: 4400: 4399: 4394: 4390: 4386: 4380: 4375: 4374: 4368: 4364: 4360: 4359: 4347: 4342: 4336:, p. 11. 4335: 4330: 4323: 4322:Loprieno 1995 4318: 4311: 4310:Robinson 2012 4306: 4299: 4294: 4287: 4282: 4275: 4270: 4263: 4258: 4251: 4246: 4239: 4234: 4227: 4222: 4215: 4210: 4203: 4198: 4191: 4190:Robinson 2012 4186: 4179: 4174: 4167: 4166:Robinson 2012 4162: 4155: 4150: 4148: 4146: 4138: 4133: 4126: 4125:Robinson 2012 4121: 4119: 4112:, p. 45. 4111: 4110:Griffith 1951 4106: 4099: 4094: 4087: 4086:Robinson 2012 4082: 4075: 4074:Robinson 2012 4070: 4063: 4062:Robinson 2012 4058: 4051: 4046: 4039: 4038:Robinson 2012 4034: 4027: 4022: 4015: 4010: 4003: 4002:Robinson 2012 3998: 3991: 3986: 3979: 3974: 3968:, p. 46. 3967: 3962: 3955: 3954:Robinson 2006 3950: 3943: 3938: 3932:, p. 40. 3931: 3926: 3919: 3914: 3907: 3902: 3895: 3890: 3888: 3880: 3875: 3868: 3867:Robinson 2012 3863: 3856: 3851: 3844: 3839: 3832: 3831:Robinson 2012 3827: 3820: 3815: 3808: 3803: 3796: 3795:Robinson 2006 3791: 3789: 3781: 3776: 3769: 3764: 3757: 3752: 3745: 3740: 3733: 3732:Robinson 2012 3728: 3721: 3716: 3709: 3704: 3697: 3696:Robinson 2012 3692: 3690: 3682: 3677: 3670: 3665: 3658: 3657:Robinson 2012 3653: 3646: 3641: 3634: 3629: 3627: 3625: 3617: 3612: 3605: 3600: 3593: 3588: 3581: 3576: 3569: 3564: 3558:, p. 10. 3557: 3552: 3545: 3544:Robinson 2012 3540: 3533: 3528: 3521: 3516: 3509: 3508:Robinson 2012 3504: 3497: 3492: 3485: 3484:Robinson 2012 3480: 3473: 3468: 3461: 3460:Robinson 2012 3456: 3449: 3448:Robinson 2012 3444: 3437: 3432: 3426:, p. 41. 3425: 3424:Griffith 1951 3420: 3413: 3412:Robinson 2006 3408: 3401: 3396: 3389: 3388:Robinson 2006 3384: 3382: 3380: 3372: 3371:Robinson 2006 3367: 3361:, p. 66. 3360: 3355: 3348: 3343: 3336: 3331: 3324: 3323:Robinson 2006 3319: 3313:, p. 67. 3312: 3307: 3305: 3303: 3295: 3290: 3283: 3278: 3276: 3268: 3263: 3261: 3253: 3248: 3246: 3244: 3236: 3231: 3224: 3219: 3213:, p. 11. 3212: 3211:Robinson 2012 3207: 3200: 3195: 3188: 3183: 3176: 3171: 3164: 3159: 3152: 3147: 3140: 3135: 3129:, p. 20. 3128: 3123: 3121: 3113: 3108: 3101: 3096: 3089: 3084: 3077: 3072: 3065: 3060: 3053: 3048: 3042:, p. 43. 3041: 3036: 3030:, p. 75. 3029: 3024: 3018:, p. 53. 3017: 3012: 3005: 3000: 2993: 2988: 2981: 2976: 2974: 2966: 2961: 2954: 2949: 2943:, p. 58. 2942: 2937: 2930: 2925: 2923: 2915: 2910: 2903: 2898: 2891: 2890:Hamilton 2006 2886: 2879: 2874: 2867: 2866:Hamilton 2006 2862: 2856:, p. 93. 2855: 2850: 2843: 2842:Hamilton 2006 2838: 2832:, p. 90. 2831: 2826: 2819: 2818:Hamilton 2006 2814: 2807: 2806:Hamilton 2006 2802: 2795: 2790: 2783: 2778: 2771: 2766: 2764: 2756: 2751: 2744: 2739: 2733:, p. 72. 2732: 2727: 2725: 2717: 2712: 2705: 2700: 2693: 2688: 2682:, p. 66. 2681: 2676: 2669: 2668:Hamilton 2006 2664: 2657: 2652: 2645: 2644:Griffith 1951 2640: 2638: 2630: 2625: 2619:, p. 26. 2618: 2617:Loprieno 1995 2613: 2606: 2601: 2595:, p. 19. 2594: 2589: 2582: 2577: 2570: 2565: 2558: 2557:Loprieno 1995 2553: 2546: 2541: 2534: 2533:Robinson 2006 2529: 2527: 2519: 2514: 2508:, p. 30. 2507: 2502: 2495: 2490: 2486: 2468: 2464: 2460: 2454: 2446: 2439: 2429: 2422: 2415: 2408: 2404: 2400: 2396: 2390: 2386: 2378: 2376: 2372: 2367: 2365: 2361: 2357: 2353: 2349: 2344: 2342: 2338: 2333: 2331: 2327: 2323: 2319: 2318:Edward Hincks 2314: 2312: 2308: 2303: 2295: 2290: 2284: 2283: 2277: 2268: 2264: 2261: 2257: 2253: 2249: 2248: 2243: 2238: 2236: 2232: 2224: 2220: 2216: 2212: 2201: 2198: 2194: 2190: 2189:Amedeo Peyron 2177:Reading texts 2174: 2171: 2165: 2163: 2159: 2155: 2150: 2147: 2143: 2139: 2134: 2132: 2127: 2117: 2114: 2110: 2106: 2101: 2099: 2095: 2091: 2085: 2083: 2078: 2074: 2070: 2066: 2062: 2059:examined the 2058: 2051: 2047: 2043: 2039: 2034: 2030: 2028: 2023: 2019: 2015: 2011: 2007: 2003: 1999: 1995: 1991: 1987: 1983: 1979: 1975: 1971: 1967: 1963: 1959: 1956:According to 1950: 1949: 1946: 1945: 1942: 1941: 1938: 1932: 1931: 1919: 1916: 1913: 1912: 1909: 1908: 1905: 1904: 1897: 1896: 1893: 1892: 1889: 1888: 1885: 1879: 1878: 1866: 1863: 1860: 1857: 1856: 1853: 1852: 1849: 1848: 1845: 1843: 1839: 1835: 1831: 1830: 1824: 1822: 1818: 1808: 1805: 1802: 1799: 1796: 1793: 1790: 1787: 1784: 1781: 1779: 1776: 1775: 1761: 1760: 1757: 1756: 1753: 1742: 1741: 1738: 1737: 1734: 1723: 1722: 1719: 1718: 1715: 1704: 1703: 1700: 1699: 1696: 1685: 1684: 1681: 1680: 1677: 1666: 1665: 1662: 1661: 1658: 1647: 1646: 1643: 1642: 1639: 1628: 1627: 1624: 1623: 1620: 1609: 1608: 1605: 1604: 1601: 1590: 1589: 1586: 1585: 1582: 1580: 1577: 1576: 1564: 1562: 1555: 1541: 1538: 1533: 1530: 1527: 1524: 1521: 1516: 1515: 1512: 1511: 1507: 1503: 1500: 1493: 1492: 1488: 1477: 1474: 1471: 1468: 1465: 1462: 1459: 1457: 1454: 1453: 1441: 1440: 1437: 1436: 1433: 1422: 1419: 1418: 1415: 1414: 1411: 1400: 1399: 1396: 1395: 1392: 1381: 1380: 1377: 1376: 1373: 1362: 1361: 1358: 1357: 1354: 1343: 1342: 1339: 1338: 1335: 1324: 1323: 1320: 1319: 1316: 1314: 1311: 1310: 1298: 1296: 1289: 1277: 1274: 1271: 1266: 1263: 1258: 1257: 1254: 1253: 1249: 1245: 1242: 1235: 1234: 1230: 1224: 1222: 1218: 1214: 1210: 1206: 1202: 1197: 1195: 1191: 1187: 1182: 1179: 1174: 1171: 1167: 1163: 1159: 1150: 1147: 1143: 1142: 1131: 1128: 1125: 1122: 1119: 1116: 1113: 1111: 1108: 1107: 1095: 1094: 1091: 1090: 1087: 1076: 1073: 1072: 1069: 1068: 1065: 1054: 1053: 1050: 1049: 1046: 1035: 1034: 1031: 1030: 1027: 1016: 1015: 1012: 1011: 1008: 997: 996: 993: 992: 989: 978: 977: 974: 973: 970: 968: 965: 964: 952: 950: 943: 931: 928: 925: 920: 917: 912: 911: 908: 907: 903: 899: 896: 889: 888: 884: 878: 876: 872: 866: 863: 855: 851: 847: 845: 841: 836: 833: 829: 820: 817: 813: 808: 806: 802: 798: 793: 791: 787: 782: 777: 775: 774:parallel text 771: 767: 760:issued in 197 759: 755: 751: 747: 744:, Lieutenant 743: 739: 735: 731: 727: 723: 722:invaded Egypt 720: 714: 713:Rosetta Stone 706: 705:Rosetta Stone 701: 695:Rosetta Stone 687: 685: 681: 677: 675: 671: 667: 663: 659: 655: 651: 647: 641: 636: 630: 628: 627: 622: 614: 610: 605: 596: 592: 590: 586: 582: 578: 577: 571: 567: 562: 560: 556: 552: 548: 543: 541: 535: 533: 532: 528:'s 1499 book 527: 523: 519: 515: 511: 507: 503: 502:Hieroglyphica 499: 495: 487: 483: 482: 477: 472: 463: 461: 455: 453: 449: 448:Islamic world 445: 444:Ibn Wahshiyya 441: 437: 433: 429: 421: 420:Ibn Wahshiyya 417: 406:Early efforts 403: 401: 400:Coptic Church 397: 393: 385: 381: 376: 370: 369: 364: 360: 351: 341: 337: 333: 329: 325: 321: 316: 314: 310: 309: 308:Hieroglyphica 304: 300: 296: 292: 284: 276: 270: 268: 264: 260: 256: 251: 249: 245: 241: 233: 229: 221: 217: 213: 205: 201: 200:ancient Egypt 193: 189: 185: 180: 171: 169: 165: 161: 156: 154: 150: 146: 142: 138: 134: 130: 126: 122: 121:parallel text 118: 114: 113:Rosetta Stone 109: 107: 103: 99: 95: 91: 87: 83: 79: 75: 71: 67: 63: 59: 55: 51: 47: 46:ancient Egypt 43: 33: 28: 24: 20: 16: 5612:Decipherment 5564: 5467:Pictographic 5462:Phonogrammic 4949:Architecture 4869: 4849: 4839: 4811: 4792: 4773: 4754: 4733: 4728:Solé, Robert 4707: 4689:. Pi Press. 4684: 4658: 4653:Ray, John D. 4632: 4607: 4584: 4562: 4543: 4515: 4511: 4485: 4464: 4439: 4417: 4397: 4372: 4341: 4329: 4317: 4305: 4293: 4281: 4269: 4257: 4245: 4233: 4221: 4209: 4197: 4185: 4173: 4161: 4132: 4105: 4093: 4081: 4069: 4057: 4045: 4033: 4021: 4009: 3997: 3985: 3973: 3961: 3949: 3937: 3925: 3913: 3901: 3874: 3862: 3850: 3838: 3826: 3814: 3802: 3775: 3763: 3751: 3739: 3727: 3715: 3703: 3676: 3664: 3652: 3640: 3611: 3599: 3587: 3575: 3563: 3551: 3539: 3527: 3515: 3503: 3491: 3479: 3467: 3455: 3443: 3431: 3419: 3407: 3395: 3366: 3354: 3347:Iversen 1993 3342: 3330: 3318: 3289: 3230: 3218: 3206: 3194: 3182: 3170: 3158: 3146: 3134: 3107: 3095: 3083: 3076:Iversen 1993 3071: 3059: 3047: 3035: 3023: 3011: 3004:Iversen 1993 2999: 2987: 2980:Iversen 1993 2960: 2953:Iversen 1993 2948: 2941:El-Daly 2005 2936: 2914:Iversen 1993 2909: 2897: 2885: 2873: 2861: 2854:Iversen 1993 2849: 2837: 2830:Iversen 1993 2825: 2813: 2801: 2794:Iversen 1993 2789: 2782:Iversen 1993 2777: 2750: 2743:Stephan 2017 2738: 2731:El-Daly 2005 2716:El-Daly 2005 2711: 2699: 2692:El-Daly 2005 2687: 2680:El-Daly 2005 2675: 2663: 2651: 2629:Iversen 1993 2624: 2612: 2605:Iversen 1993 2600: 2588: 2581:Iversen 1993 2576: 2564: 2552: 2540: 2513: 2501: 2496:, p. 6. 2489: 2462: 2453: 2444: 2438: 2428: 2414: 2406: 2394: 2389: 2375:Samuel Birch 2368: 2345: 2340: 2334: 2315: 2310: 2306: 2299: 2292:Portrait of 2280: 2265: 2250:, a work of 2245: 2239: 2234: 2207: 2196: 2185: 2166: 2151: 2145: 2141: 2137: 2135: 2130: 2125: 2123: 2112: 2108: 2102: 2090:Abel Rémusat 2086: 2054: 2049: 2048:, copied in 2026: 2021: 2017: 2009: 1997: 1993: 1989: 1985: 1981: 1977: 1973: 1969: 1961: 1955: 1827: 1825: 1814: 1777: 1578: 1455: 1312: 1216: 1212: 1208: 1204: 1200: 1198: 1183: 1175: 1156: 1139: 1137: 1109: 966: 874: 867: 859: 854:Thomas Young 844:Thomas Young 837: 826: 816:Muhammad Ali 809: 794: 789: 785: 778: 729: 716: 683: 680:Jørgen Zoëga 678: 631: 624: 618: 608: 593: 588: 584: 574: 563: 544: 536: 529: 501: 491: 479: 474:A page from 456: 428:Coptic monks 425: 377: 366: 352: 317: 306: 271: 252: 248:Roman Empire 197: 184:hieroglyphic 157: 110: 62:hieroglyphic 58:Thomas Young 39: 15: 5482:Syllabaries 5452:Logographic 5447:Ideogrammic 5287:WikiProject 5101:Mathematics 5062:Hieroglyphs 4976:Portraiture 4944:Agriculture 4931:Main topics 4459:Ucko, Peter 4367:Adkins, Roy 4355:Works cited 2770:Curran 2003 2296:around 1850 2256:Amenemhat I 2154:Edme Jomard 2061:Caylus vase 2046:Caylus vase 1937:hieroglyphs 1884:hieroglyphs 1120:inessential 742:Fort Julien 638: [ 518:Roman times 494:Renaissance 492:During the 363:Mesopotamia 259:ideographic 204:Hieroglyphs 98:Middle Ages 86:ideographic 30: [ 5587:Egyptology 5571:Categories 5513:Devanagari 5217:Egyptology 5185:Technology 5148:Philosophy 5096:Literature 4988:Chronology 4334:Allen 2014 3556:Allen 2014 2545:Allen 2014 2477:References 2146:Britannica 1970:Britannica 1966:Abu Simbel 1579:Hieroglyph 1313:Hieroglyph 1221:homophones 1132:OSH or OS 967:Hieroglyph 875:Ptolemaios 658:cartouches 607:Page from 566:Egyptology 368:Aegyptiaca 50:deciphered 5549:In Africa 5533:Mongolian 5477:Shorthand 5437:Alphabets 5367:Graphemes 5121:Mythology 5045:Geography 5035:Dynasties 4983:Astronomy 4757:. Brill. 4629:(1999) . 4518:: 38–46. 4506:(1951) . 3744:Pope 1999 3708:Pope 1999 3681:Pope 1999 3359:Pope 1999 3311:Pope 1999 3235:Pope 1999 3088:Pope 1999 3064:Pope 1999 3052:Pope 1999 3040:Pope 1999 3016:Pope 1999 2992:Pope 1999 2593:Pope 1999 2569:Pope 1999 2482:Citations 2403:Herodotus 2395:ενχωριοις 2322:particles 2094:ligatures 2038:cuneiform 2014:Tuthmosis 1194:Cleopatra 1123:LO or OLE 819:systems. 766:Ptolemy V 522:symbolism 359:cuneiform 313:Horapollo 263:logograms 153:Ptolemy V 149:cartouche 119:, bore a 5442:Featural 5432:Abugidas 5352:Language 5345:Overview 5257:Category 5178:District 5173:Capitals 5158:Religion 5141:Titulary 5131:Pharaohs 5111:Military 5106:Medicine 5089:Hieratic 5079:Language 5005:Clothing 4959:Obelisks 4681:(2006). 4655:(2007). 4605:(1999). 4583:(1995). 4542:(2006). 4395:(2014). 4369:(2000). 3966:Ray 2007 3843:Ray 2007 3807:Ray 2007 3436:Ray 2007 2433:working. 2407:δημοτική 2120:Disputes 2098:Antinous 2073:Xerxes I 2042:Xerxes I 2010:Thothmes 1933:Thutmose 1880:Ramesses 1838:Ramesses 1178:Grenoble 862:polymath 551:polymath 514:obelisks 295:Plotinus 283:Plutarch 212:Hieratic 188:hieratic 106:phonetic 94:European 66:hieratic 44:used in 5508:Chinese 5457:Numeral 5277:Outline 5267:Commons 5227:Museums 5163:Scribes 5153:Pottery 5084:Demotic 5074:History 5025:Cuisine 4954:Revival 4532:3855155 2448:copies. 2044:on the 1126:MA or M 856:in 1822 797:Ottoman 770:temples 754:demotic 738:Rosetta 730:savants 488:in Rome 486:obelisk 398:of the 303:obelisk 228:demotic 220:papyrus 216:cursive 194:(right) 192:demotic 90:Islamic 70:demotic 5518:Hangul 5498:Arabic 5427:Abjads 5126:People 4993:Cities 4911:topics 4856: 4818: 4799: 4780: 4761: 4742: 4716: 4693: 4667: 4641: 4615: 4591: 4569: 4550: 4530: 4492: 4473: 4446: 4424: 4405: 4381: 2445:Lettre 2235:Précis 2227: 2219:stelae 2193:Louvre 2142:Précis 2131:Lettre 2113:Précis 1962:Lettre 764:BC by 762: 758:decree 734:Mamluk 547:Jesuit 392:Arabic 388: 373: 355: 348: 344: 340:Philae 287: 279: 242:, and 236: 224: 208: 145:glyphs 5528:Latin 5419:Types 5381:Lists 5190:Trade 5168:Sites 5116:Music 5030:Dance 4964:Pylon 4926:Index 4528:JSTOR 2399:works 2381:Notes 2215:Turin 2006:Thoth 750:stela 642:] 386:in AD 350:452. 342:in AD 244:Greek 190:into 147:in a 125:Greek 82:Roman 78:Greek 48:were 34:] 5523:Kana 5136:List 5055:List 4998:List 4854:ISBN 4816:ISBN 4797:ISBN 4778:ISBN 4759:ISBN 4740:ISBN 4714:ISBN 4691:ISBN 4665:ISBN 4639:ISBN 4613:ISBN 4589:ISBN 4567:ISBN 4548:ISBN 4490:ISBN 4471:ISBN 4444:ISBN 4422:ISBN 4403:ISBN 4379:ISBN 2324:and 2124:The 2020:and 2002:ibis 1998:mise 1992:and 1207:and 871:Ptah 788:and 549:and 508:and 442:and 434:and 378:The 336:Isis 289:200 214:, a 210:BC. 139:and 111:The 100:and 92:and 80:and 68:and 56:and 40:The 4971:Art 4520:doi 2213:in 1935:in 1882:in 611:by 478:'s 338:at 5573:: 4526:. 4516:37 4514:. 4510:. 4365:; 4144:^ 4117:^ 3886:^ 3787:^ 3688:^ 3623:^ 3378:^ 3301:^ 3274:^ 3259:^ 3242:^ 3119:^ 2972:^ 2921:^ 2762:^ 2723:^ 2636:^ 2525:^ 2405:: 2307:ms 2084:. 1982:ss 1978:Re 1974:re 1844:. 1478:S 1203:, 640:fr 585:mu 553:, 542:. 534:. 402:. 64:, 32:fr 5321:e 5314:t 5307:v 4901:e 4894:t 4887:v 4862:. 4824:. 4805:. 4786:. 4767:. 4748:. 4722:. 4699:. 4673:. 4647:. 4621:. 4597:. 4575:. 4556:. 4534:. 4522:: 4498:. 4479:. 4452:. 4430:. 4411:. 4387:. 2311:m 2025:" 2022:t 2018:p 1994:s 1990:m 1986:m 1806:A 1803:R 1800:T 1797:A 1794:P 1791:O 1788:E 1785:L 1782:K 1475:E 1472:M 1469:L 1466:O 1463:T 1460:P 1217:t 1213:e 1209:o 1205:l 1201:p 1129:I 1117:T 1114:P 790:t 786:p 589:m 36:.

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