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761:: For example, Rubin (2016) discusses the Perceived Awareness of the Research Hypothesis (PARH). This 4-item scale is usually presented at the end of a research session. In responding to the scale, participants indicate the extent to which they believe that they are aware of the researchers' hypotheses during the research. Researchers then compute a mean PARH score and correlate this with their key effects. Significant
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Barabasz, A. F., & Barabasz, M. (1992). Research designs and considerations. In E. Frornm & M. R. Nash (Eds.), Contemporary hypnosis research (pp. 173-200). New York: Guilford. The preceding paper attributes the concept to Weber, S. J., & Cook, T. D. (1972). Subject effects in laboratory
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that they will somehow be evaluated, leading them to figure out a way to 'beat' the experiment to attain good scores in the alleged evaluation. Rather than giving an honest answer, participants may change some or all of their answers to match the experimenter's requirements, that demand
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against the demand characteristics explanation. Pre-experimental questionnaires can also cause demand characteristics as well as post-experimental questionnaires. A different experimenter than the one that conducted the actual experiment to the participants should distribute the
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characteristics can change participant's behaviour to appear more socially or morally responsible. Demand characteristics cannot be eliminated from experiments, but demand characteristics can be studied to see their effect on such experiments.
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refers to an experimental artifact where participants form an interpretation of the experiment's purpose and subconsciously change their behavior to fit that interpretation. Typically, demand characteristics are considered an
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Orne, Martin T. (1962). "On the social psychology of the psychological experiment: With particular reference to demand characteristics and their implications.". American
Psychologist 17 (11): 776–783. doi:10.1037/h0043424
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Masling, J. (1966) Role-related behavior of the subject and psychologist and its effect upon psychological data. In D. Levine (Ed.), The
Nebraska symposium on motivation. Lincoln, NE: University of Nebraska Press. Pp.
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research: An examination of subject roles, demand characteristics, and valid inference. Psychological
Bulletin, 77(4), 273-295. The papers are described in, and citations copied from
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Researchers use a number of different approaches for reducing the effect of demand characteristics in research situations. Some of the more common approaches include the following:
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800:: If the purpose of the experiment is not clear or ambiguous, then the participants may guess many different hypotheses and cause the data to be skewed even more.
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Nichols, A. L., & Maner, J. K. (2008). The good subject effect: Investigating participant demand characteristics. Journal of
General Psychology, 135, 151-165.
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in which the participant is so concerned about how the experimenter might evaluate the responses that the participant behaves in a socially desirable way.
710:) in which the participant attempts to discern the experimenter's hypotheses and to confirm them. The participant does not want to "ruin" the experiment.
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Weber and Cook have described some demand characteristics as involving the participant taking on a role in the experiment. These roles include:
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721:) in which the participant attempts to discern the experimenter's hypotheses, but only in order to destroy the credibility of the study.
822:: The central tendency of a social group can affect ratings of its intragroup variability in the absence of social identity concerns.
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Rubin, M. (2016). The
Perceived Awareness of the Research Hypothesis Scale: Assessing the influence of demand characteristics.
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indicate that demand characteristics may be related to the research results. Nonsignificant correlations provide tentative
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Herber, Thomas John. (May 2006). The
Effects of Hypnotic Ego Strengthening on Self-esteem (masters degree thesis) (p. 43).
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Artifacts in
Behavioral Research: Robert Rosenthal and Ralph L. Rosnow's Classic Books, beginning with page 110
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other than that intended by the experimenter. Pioneering research was conducted on demand characteristics by
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Rubin, M., & Badea, C. (2010). Journal of
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