266:, density-dependent processes can act at the host/vector interface or within the host/vector life-cycle stages. At the host/vector interface, density-dependence may influence the input of L3 larvae into the host's skin and the ingestion of microfilariae by the vector. Within the life-cycle stages taking place in the vector, density-dependence may influence the development of L3 larvae in vectors and vector life expectancy. Within the life-cycle stages taking place in the host, density-dependence may influence the development of microfilariae and host life expectancy.
251:
194:
215:
64:(separate sex) obligatory parasites, mated female worms are required to complete a transmission cycle. At low parasite densities, the probability of a female worm encountering a male worm and forming a mating pair can become so low that reproduction is restricted due to single sex infections. At higher parasite densities, the probability of mating pairs forming and successful reproduction increases. This has been observed in the population dynamics of
337:
Contrariwise, positive density-dependent or facilitation processes make elimination of a parasite population more likely. Facilitation processes cause the reproductive success of the parasite to decrease with lower worm burden. Thus, control measures that reduce parasite burden will automatically
107:. At low microfilariae densities, most microfilariae can be ruptured by teeth, preventing successful development of infective L3 larvae. As more larvae are ingested, the ones that become entangled in the teeth may protect the remaining larvae, which are then left undamaged during ingestion.
367:
Anderson and Gordon (1982) propose that the distribution of macroparasites in a host population is regulated by a combination of positive and negative density-dependent processes. In overdispersed distributions, a small proportion of hosts harbour most of the parasite population. Positive
120:
infection promotes immunosuppressive processes within the human host that suppress immunity against incoming infective L3 larvae. This suppression of anti-parasite immunity causes parasite establishment rates to increase with higher parasite burden.
350:
refers to minimum parasite density level for the parasite to persist in a population. Interventions that reduce parasite density to a level below this threshold will ultimately lead to the extinction of that parasite in that population.
277:
density-dependent processes occur in the life cycles of parasites. However, the extent to which one process predominates over the other vary widely according to the parasite, vector, and host involved. This is illustrated by the
329:
processes tend to restrict population growth rates and contribute to the stability of these populations. Interventions that lead to a reduction in parasite populations will cause a relaxation of density-dependent
241:
require at least seven days to mature into infective L3 larvae in the black fly, the worm load is restricted to levels that allow the black fly to survive for long enough to pass infective L3 larvae onto humans.
163:. Greater competition means an individual has a decreased contribution to the next generation i.e. offspring. Density-dependent mortality can be overcompensating, undercompensating or exactly compensating.
376:
of parasite populations. As mean parasite burden increases, negative density-dependent processes become more prominent and the distribution of the parasite population tends to become less overdispersed.
262:
life cycles, density-dependent processes can influence parasite fecundity, survival, and establishment. Density-dependent processes can act across multiple points of the macroparasite life cycle. For
211:
and its rates of egg production decrease as host infection intensity increases. Thus, the per-capita contribution of each worm to transmission decreases as a function of infection intensity.
519:
Duerr, H.P. (2003). "Density-dependent parasite establishment suggests infection-associated immunosuppression as an important mechanism for parasite density regulation in onchocerciasis".
476:
Snow, L.C. (2006). "Transmission dynamics of lymphatic filariasis: vector-specific density dependence in the development of
Wuchereria bancrofti infective larvae in mosquitoes".
380:
Consequently, interventions that lead to a reduction in parasite burden will tend to cause the parasite distribution to become overdispersed. For instance, time-series data for
724:
Anderson, R.M. (1982). "Processes influencing the distribution of parasite numbers within host populations with special emphasis on parasite-induced host mortalities".
129:
Negative density-dependence, or density-dependent restriction, describes a situation in which population growth is curtailed by crowding, predators and competition.
605:
Basanez, M.G. (1996). "Density-dependent processes in the onchocerciasis: relationship between microfilarial intake and mortality of the simuliid vector".
1573:
826:
294:
processes predominate. Thus, the number of L3 larvae per mosquito declines as the number of ingested microfilariae increases. Conversely, in
232:
vector. In this life-cycle, the life expectancy of the black fly vector decreases as the worm load ingested by the vector increases. Because
556:"Density-dependent effects on the weight of female Ascaris lumbricoides infections of humans and its impact on patterns of egg production"
1717:
1787:
1359:
1324:
205:
exists, where the birth rate falls as competition increases. In the context of gastrointestinal nematodes, the weight of female
2393:
1797:
1525:
386:
infection demonstrates that 10 years of vector control lead to reduced parasite burden with a more overdispersed distribution.
1802:
355:
processes increase the extinction threshold, making it easier to achieve using parasite control interventions. Conversely,
338:
reduce per-capita reproductive success and increase the likelihood of elimination when facilitation processes predominate.
334:, increasing per-capita rates of reproduction or survival, thereby contributing to population persistence and resilience.
1990:
1743:
1566:
1407:
819:
431:
1079:
776:
1540:
1822:
1535:
1402:
1114:
2207:
2080:
310:
processes predominate. Consequently, the number of L3 larvae per mosquito increases as the number of ingested
2253:
1852:
1807:
1559:
812:
1339:
2398:
1685:
2383:
2042:
933:
2107:
1827:
1314:
1031:
928:
689:
Duerr, H.P. (2005). "Determinants of the eradicability of filarial infections: a conceptual approach".
794:
2288:
1900:
1792:
1650:
1635:
1630:
1309:
1021:
160:
804:
2278:
2273:
2243:
2047:
1510:
1392:
799:
446:
May, R.M. (1977). "Togetherness among
Schistosomes: its effects on the dynamics of the infection".
325:
processes contribute to the resilience of macroparasite populations. At high parasite populations,
1551:
1182:
2122:
1985:
1895:
1763:
1645:
1615:
1472:
1437:
1157:
1124:
1099:
2268:
2212:
2147:
2010:
1945:
1880:
1442:
1230:
938:
918:
25:
110:
Positive density-dependence processes may also occur in macroparasite infections that lead to
2388:
2172:
2117:
1980:
1965:
1748:
1705:
1695:
1690:
1447:
1427:
1283:
1273:
1215:
1210:
1046:
898:
175:
78:
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2030:
2000:
1995:
1847:
1710:
1700:
1245:
1084:
873:
347:
280:
207:
95:
8:
2378:
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2187:
2157:
2102:
2015:
1905:
1890:
1837:
1670:
1605:
1487:
1417:
1349:
948:
116:
159:
This is also true for other organisms because an increased density means an increase in
99:, a filarial nematode, well-developed cibarial armatures in vectors can damage ingested
2359:
2308:
2303:
2112:
2075:
1817:
1773:
1595:
1520:
1422:
1354:
1344:
1278:
1225:
1036:
981:
943:
868:
749:
630:
582:
555:
501:
17:
532:
2248:
2217:
2005:
1832:
1640:
1505:
1482:
1220:
996:
908:
893:
878:
858:
772:
741:
706:
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664:
622:
587:
536:
493:
489:
459:
427:
179:
111:
49:
753:
634:
505:
372:
of parasite populations, whereas negative density-dependent processes contribute to
2202:
2065:
2057:
1975:
1857:
1842:
1778:
1758:
1675:
1665:
1660:
1625:
1457:
1397:
1268:
1069:
1011:
923:
883:
733:
698:
660:
651:
Churcher, T.S. (2006). "Density dependence and the control of helminth parasites".
614:
577:
567:
528:
485:
455:
423:
419:
250:
2338:
2197:
2167:
2162:
2152:
2085:
2070:
1950:
1930:
1812:
1680:
1586:
1477:
1387:
1329:
913:
839:
373:
222:
Parasite-induced vector mortality is a form of negative density-dependence. The
2318:
2142:
2095:
2025:
2020:
1915:
1782:
1655:
1462:
1452:
1432:
1235:
1200:
1139:
1016:
971:
863:
382:
369:
359:
processes complicates control measures by decreasing the extinction threshold.
234:
224:
137:
737:
618:
193:
2372:
2343:
1319:
1293:
1250:
1240:
1195:
1162:
1054:
888:
843:
702:
395:
311:
259:
238:
145:
74:
33:
2328:
2313:
1970:
1940:
1885:
1768:
1733:
1610:
1109:
710:
672:
591:
572:
540:
497:
214:
133:
100:
45:
745:
626:
1620:
1167:
1129:
1104:
1094:
1059:
1006:
986:
153:
65:
185:
An example of a density-dependent variable is crowding and competition.
2333:
1910:
1875:
1515:
1467:
1412:
1382:
1288:
1205:
1149:
1026:
976:
263:
141:
29:
2238:
2192:
1920:
1364:
1334:
1134:
1089:
1064:
1001:
991:
966:
958:
903:
834:
302:
229:
202:
83:
317:
44:
Positive density-dependence, density-dependent facilitation, or the
2293:
2222:
1753:
1581:
1260:
1172:
1119:
1074:
149:
521:
Transactions of the Royal
Society of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene
32:. This article will focus on density dependence in the context of
2283:
2090:
1960:
1955:
1582:
1530:
1190:
835:
171:
152:
available to each cell becomes insufficient to allow continued
61:
296:
286:
104:
89:
290:
mosquitoes, which lack a well-developed cibarial armature,
254:
Density-dependence processes (red) in filariasis life cycle
306:
mosquitoes, which have well-developed cibarial armatures,
362:
414:
Hixon, M (2009), "Density
Dependence and Independence",
144:reaches a certain density, the amount of required
769:Modelling Onchocerciasis Transmission and Control
318:Implications for parasite persistence and control
2370:
356:
352:
331:
326:
322:
307:
291:
274:
270:
52:is facilitated by increased population density.
646:
644:
245:
73:Positive density-dependence processes occur in
124:
39:
1567:
820:
684:
682:
641:
103:and impede the development of infective L3
1788:Latitudinal gradients in species diversity
1574:
1560:
827:
813:
613:(4). Cambridge University Press: 331–355.
471:
469:
368:density-dependent processes contribute to
679:
581:
571:
418:, Chichester: John Wiley & Sons Ltd,
1686:Predator–prey (Lotka–Volterra) equations
1325:Tritrophic interactions in plant defense
766:
723:
650:
323:Negative density-dependent (restriction)
249:
213:
192:
1718:Random generalized Lotka–Volterra model
604:
466:
341:
228:life cycle involves transmission via a
2371:
1526:Herbivore adaptations to plant defense
553:
363:Implications for parasite distribution
1555:
808:
688:
518:
413:
1541:Predator avoidance in schooling fish
475:
1991:Intermediate disturbance hypothesis
445:
13:
1744:Ecological effects of biodiversity
800:Eradicability of filarial diseases
81:with a cibarial armature, such as
28:are regulated by the density of a
14:
2410:
1080:Generalist and specialist species
788:
771:. Rotterdam: Erasmus University.
478:Medical and Veterinary Entomology
218:Parasite-induced vector mortality
1803:Occupancy–abundance relationship
665:10.1111/j.1365-2656.2006.01154.x
490:10.1111/j.1365-2915.2006.00629.x
174:or environmental conditions and
136:, it describes the reduction in
1823:Relative abundance distribution
1536:Plant defense against herbivory
1403:Competitive exclusion principle
1115:Mesopredator release hypothesis
760:
48:describes a situation in which
1408:Consumer–resource interactions
717:
598:
547:
512:
439:
424:10.1002/9780470015902.a0021219
407:
170:, where other factors such as
168:density-independent inhibition
1:
2394:Evolutionary biology concepts
2254:Biological data visualization
2081:Environmental niche modelling
1808:Population viability analysis
533:10.1016/S0035-9203(03)90132-5
416:Encyclopedia of Life Sciences
401:
188:
1739:Density-dependent inhibition
460:10.1016/0025-5564(77)90030-X
269:In reality, combinations of
246:In macroparasite life cycles
7:
2208:Liebig's law of the minimum
2043:Resource selection function
934:Metabolic theory of ecology
389:
197:Density-dependent fecundity
125:Negative density-dependence
55:
40:Positive density-dependence
10:
2415:
2108:Niche apportionment models
1828:Relative species abundance
1032:Primary nutritional groups
929:List of feeding behaviours
178:may affect a population's
2357:
2289:Ecosystem based fisheries
2231:
2131:
2056:
1929:
1901:Interspecific competition
1866:
1793:Minimum viable population
1726:
1651:Maximum sustainable yield
1636:Intraspecific competition
1631:Effective population size
1594:
1511:Anti-predator adaptations
1496:
1375:
1302:
1259:
1181:
1148:
1045:
1022:Photosynthetic efficiency
957:
851:
738:10.1017/S0031182000055347
653:Journal of Animal Ecology
619:10.1017/S003118200006649X
161:intraspecific competition
77:life cycles that rely on
2279:Ecological stoichiometry
2244:Alternative stable state
703:10.1016/j.pt.2004.11.011
448:Mathematical Biosciences
2123:Ontogenetic niche shift
1986:Ideal free distribution
1896:Ecological facilitation
1646:Malthusian growth model
1616:Consumer-resource model
1473:Paradox of the plankton
1438:Energy systems language
1158:Chemoorganoheterotrophy
1125:Optimal foraging theory
1100:Heterotrophic nutrition
767:Plaisier, A.P. (1996).
560:Parasites & Vectors
275:positive (facilitation)
26:population growth rates
2269:Ecological forecasting
2213:Marginal value theorem
2011:Landscape epidemiology
1946:Cross-boundary subsidy
1881:Biological interaction
1231:Microbial intelligence
919:Green world hypothesis
691:Trends in Parasitology
573:10.1186/1756-3305-2-11
271:negative (restriction)
255:
219:
198:
140:division. When a cell
2274:Ecological humanities
2173:Ecological energetics
2118:Niche differentiation
1981:Habitat fragmentation
1749:Ecological extinction
1696:Small population size
1448:Feed conversion ratio
1428:Ecological succession
1360:San Francisco Estuary
1274:Ecological efficiency
1216:Microbial cooperation
253:
217:
196:
24:processes occur when
2299:Evolutionary ecology
2264:Ecological footprint
2259:Ecological economics
2183:Ecological threshold
2178:Ecological indicator
2048:Source–sink dynamics
2001:Land change modeling
1996:Insular biogeography
1848:Species distribution
1587:Modelling ecosystems
1246:Microbial metabolism
1085:Intraguild predation
874:Biogeochemical cycle
840:Modelling ecosystems
348:extinction threshold
342:Extinction threshold
208:Ascaris lumbricoides
96:Wuchereria bancrofti
2399:Population dynamics
2349:Theoretical ecology
2324:Natural environment
2188:Ecosystem diversity
2158:Ecological collapse
2148:Bateman's principle
2103:Limiting similarity
2016:Landscape limnology
1838:Species homogeneity
1676:Population modeling
1671:Population dynamics
1488:Trophic state index
117:Onchocerca volvulus
2384:Cellular processes
2360:Outline of ecology
2309:Industrial ecology
2304:Functional ecology
2168:Ecological deficit
2113:Niche construction
2076:Ecosystem engineer
1853:Species–area curve
1774:Introduced species
1589:: Other components
1521:Deimatic behaviour
1423:Ecological network
1355:North Pacific Gyre
1340:hydrothermal vents
1279:Ecological pyramid
1226:Microbial food web
1037:Primary production
982:Foundation species
795:Density dependence
554:Walker, M (2009).
256:
220:
201:Density-dependent
199:
166:There also exists
18:population ecology
2366:
2365:
2249:Balance of nature
2006:Landscape ecology
1891:Community ecology
1833:Species diversity
1769:Indicator species
1764:Gradient analysis
1641:Logistic function
1549:
1548:
1506:Animal coloration
1483:Trophic mutualism
1221:Microbial ecology
1012:Photoheterotrophs
997:Myco-heterotrophy
909:Ecosystem ecology
894:Carrying capacity
859:Abiotic component
180:carrying capacity
112:immunosuppression
50:population growth
22:density-dependent
2406:
2066:Ecological niche
2038:selection theory
1858:Umbrella species
1843:Species richness
1779:Invasive species
1759:Flagship species
1666:Population cycle
1661:Overexploitation
1626:Ecological yield
1576:
1569:
1562:
1553:
1552:
1458:Mesotrophic soil
1398:Climax community
1330:Marine food webs
1269:Biomagnification
1070:Chemoorganotroph
924:Keystone species
884:Biotic component
829:
822:
815:
806:
805:
783:
782:
764:
758:
757:
721:
715:
714:
686:
677:
676:
659:(6): 1313–1320.
648:
639:
638:
602:
596:
595:
585:
575:
551:
545:
544:
516:
510:
509:
473:
464:
463:
454:(3–4): 301–343.
443:
437:
436:
411:
93:mosquitoes. For
2414:
2413:
2409:
2408:
2407:
2405:
2404:
2403:
2369:
2368:
2367:
2362:
2353:
2339:Systems ecology
2227:
2198:Extinction debt
2163:Ecological debt
2153:Bioluminescence
2134:
2127:
2096:marine habitats
2071:Ecological trap
2052:
1932:
1925:
1868:
1862:
1818:Rapoport's rule
1813:Priority effect
1754:Endemic species
1722:
1681:Population size
1597:
1590:
1580:
1550:
1545:
1498:
1492:
1478:Trophic cascade
1388:Bioaccumulation
1371:
1298:
1255:
1177:
1144:
1041:
953:
914:Ecosystem model
847:
833:
791:
786:
779:
765:
761:
722:
718:
687:
680:
649:
642:
603:
599:
552:
548:
517:
513:
474:
467:
444:
440:
434:
412:
408:
404:
392:
374:underdispersion
365:
344:
320:
284:life cycle. In
248:
191:
127:
58:
42:
12:
11:
5:
2412:
2402:
2401:
2396:
2391:
2386:
2381:
2364:
2363:
2358:
2355:
2354:
2352:
2351:
2346:
2341:
2336:
2331:
2326:
2321:
2319:Microecosystem
2316:
2311:
2306:
2301:
2296:
2291:
2286:
2281:
2276:
2271:
2266:
2261:
2256:
2251:
2246:
2241:
2235:
2233:
2229:
2228:
2226:
2225:
2220:
2218:Thorson's rule
2215:
2210:
2205:
2200:
2195:
2190:
2185:
2180:
2175:
2170:
2165:
2160:
2155:
2150:
2145:
2143:Assembly rules
2139:
2137:
2129:
2128:
2126:
2125:
2120:
2115:
2110:
2105:
2100:
2099:
2098:
2088:
2083:
2078:
2073:
2068:
2062:
2060:
2054:
2053:
2051:
2050:
2045:
2040:
2028:
2026:Patch dynamics
2023:
2021:Metapopulation
2018:
2013:
2008:
2003:
1998:
1993:
1988:
1983:
1978:
1973:
1968:
1963:
1958:
1953:
1948:
1943:
1937:
1935:
1927:
1926:
1924:
1923:
1918:
1916:Storage effect
1913:
1908:
1903:
1898:
1893:
1888:
1883:
1878:
1872:
1870:
1864:
1863:
1861:
1860:
1855:
1850:
1845:
1840:
1835:
1830:
1825:
1820:
1815:
1810:
1805:
1800:
1798:Neutral theory
1795:
1790:
1785:
1783:Native species
1776:
1771:
1766:
1761:
1756:
1751:
1746:
1741:
1736:
1730:
1728:
1724:
1723:
1721:
1720:
1715:
1714:
1713:
1708:
1698:
1693:
1688:
1683:
1678:
1673:
1668:
1663:
1658:
1656:Overpopulation
1653:
1648:
1643:
1638:
1633:
1628:
1623:
1618:
1613:
1608:
1602:
1600:
1592:
1591:
1579:
1578:
1571:
1564:
1556:
1547:
1546:
1544:
1543:
1538:
1533:
1528:
1523:
1518:
1513:
1508:
1502:
1500:
1494:
1493:
1491:
1490:
1485:
1480:
1475:
1470:
1465:
1463:Nutrient cycle
1460:
1455:
1453:Feeding frenzy
1450:
1445:
1440:
1435:
1433:Energy quality
1430:
1425:
1420:
1415:
1410:
1405:
1400:
1395:
1393:Cascade effect
1390:
1385:
1379:
1377:
1373:
1372:
1370:
1369:
1368:
1367:
1362:
1357:
1352:
1347:
1342:
1337:
1327:
1322:
1317:
1312:
1306:
1304:
1300:
1299:
1297:
1296:
1291:
1286:
1281:
1276:
1271:
1265:
1263:
1257:
1256:
1254:
1253:
1248:
1243:
1238:
1236:Microbial loop
1233:
1228:
1223:
1218:
1213:
1208:
1203:
1201:Lithoautotroph
1198:
1193:
1187:
1185:
1183:Microorganisms
1179:
1178:
1176:
1175:
1170:
1165:
1160:
1154:
1152:
1146:
1145:
1143:
1142:
1140:Prey switching
1137:
1132:
1127:
1122:
1117:
1112:
1107:
1102:
1097:
1092:
1087:
1082:
1077:
1072:
1067:
1062:
1057:
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1049:
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1024:
1019:
1017:Photosynthesis
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989:
984:
979:
974:
972:Chemosynthesis
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864:Abiotic stress
861:
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797:
790:
789:External links
787:
785:
784:
777:
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732:(2): 373–398.
716:
678:
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527:(2): 242–250.
511:
484:(3): 261–272.
465:
438:
433:978-0470016176
432:
405:
403:
400:
399:
398:
391:
388:
383:Onchocerciasis
370:overdispersion
364:
361:
343:
340:
319:
316:
264:filarial worms
247:
244:
225:Onchocerciasis
190:
187:
146:growth factors
126:
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57:
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41:
38:
9:
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2344:Urban ecology
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2203:Kleiber's law
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1976:Foster's rule
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1294:Trophic level
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1251:Phage ecology
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1241:Microbial mat
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1199:
1197:
1196:Bacteriophage
1194:
1192:
1189:
1188:
1186:
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1180:
1174:
1171:
1169:
1166:
1164:
1163:Decomposition
1161:
1159:
1156:
1155:
1153:
1151:
1147:
1141:
1138:
1136:
1133:
1131:
1128:
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1118:
1116:
1113:
1111:
1110:Mesopredators
1108:
1106:
1103:
1101:
1098:
1096:
1093:
1091:
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1083:
1081:
1078:
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1056:
1055:Apex predator
1053:
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1038:
1035:
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988:
985:
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975:
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968:
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922:
920:
917:
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905:
902:
900:
897:
895:
892:
890:
889:Biotic stress
887:
885:
882:
880:
877:
875:
872:
870:
867:
865:
862:
860:
857:
856:
854:
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845:
841:
837:
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825:
823:
818:
816:
811:
810:
807:
801:
798:
796:
793:
792:
780:
778:90-72245-68-7
774:
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763:
755:
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470:
461:
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453:
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442:
435:
429:
425:
421:
417:
410:
406:
397:
396:Plant density
394:
393:
387:
385:
384:
378:
375:
371:
360:
358:
354:
349:
339:
335:
333:
328:
324:
315:
313:
312:microfilariae
309:
305:
304:
299:
298:
293:
289:
288:
283:
282:
276:
272:
267:
265:
261:
260:macroparasite
252:
243:
240:
239:microfilariae
237:
236:
231:
227:
226:
216:
212:
210:
209:
204:
195:
186:
183:
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177:
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157:
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147:
143:
139:
135:
130:
122:
119:
118:
113:
108:
106:
102:
101:microfilariae
98:
97:
92:
91:
86:
85:
80:
76:
75:macroparasite
71:
69:
68:
63:
53:
51:
47:
37:
36:life cycles.
35:
34:macroparasite
31:
27:
23:
19:
2389:Epidemiology
2329:Regime shift
2314:Macroecology
2035:
2031:
1971:Edge effects
1941:Biogeography
1886:Commensalism
1738:
1734:Biodiversity
1611:Allee effect
1350:kelp forests
1303:Example webs
1168:Detritivores
1007:Organotrophs
987:Kinetotrophs
939:Productivity
768:
762:
729:
726:Parasitology
725:
719:
697:(2): 88–96.
694:
690:
656:
652:
610:
607:Parasitology
606:
600:
563:
559:
549:
524:
520:
514:
481:
477:
451:
447:
441:
415:
409:
381:
379:
366:
353:Facilitation
345:
336:
332:restrictions
321:
308:facilitation
301:
295:
285:
281:W. bancrofti
279:
268:
257:
233:
223:
221:
206:
200:
184:
176:disturbances
167:
165:
158:
134:cell biology
131:
128:
115:
109:
94:
88:
82:
72:
67:Schistosomes
66:
59:
46:Allee effect
43:
21:
15:
1966:Disturbance
1869:interaction
1691:Recruitment
1621:Depensation
1413:Copiotrophs
1284:Energy flow
1206:Lithotrophy
1150:Decomposers
1130:Planktivore
1105:Insectivore
1095:Heterotroph
1060:Bacterivore
1027:Phototrophs
977:Chemotrophs
949:Restoration
899:Competition
357:restriction
327:restriction
314:increases.
292:restriction
235:O. volvulus
154:cell growth
2379:Cell cycle
2373:Categories
2334:Sexecology
1911:Parasitism
1876:Antibiosis
1711:Resistance
1706:Resilience
1596:Population
1516:Camouflage
1468:Oligotroph
1383:Ascendency
1345:intertidal
1335:cold seeps
1289:Food chain
1090:Herbivores
1065:Carnivores
992:Mixotrophs
967:Autotrophs
846:components
402:References
142:population
30:population
2239:Allometry
2193:Emergence
1921:Symbiosis
1906:Mutualism
1701:Stability
1606:Abundance
1418:Dominance
1376:Processes
1365:tide pool
1261:Food webs
1135:Predation
1120:Omnivores
1047:Consumers
1002:Mycotroph
959:Producers
904:Ecosystem
869:Behaviour
566:(1): 11.
303:Anopheles
230:black fly
203:fecundity
150:nutrients
84:Anopheles
62:dioecious
2294:Endolith
2223:Xerosere
2135:networks
1951:Ecocline
1497:Defense,
1173:Detritus
1075:Foraging
944:Resource
754:19196511
711:15664532
673:17032363
635:42555004
592:19208229
541:14584385
506:23152390
498:17044876
390:See also
189:Examples
56:Examples
2284:Ecopath
2091:Habitat
1961:Ecotype
1956:Ecotone
1933:ecology
1931:Spatial
1867:Species
1727:Species
1598:ecology
1583:Ecology
1531:Mimicry
1499:counter
1443:f-ratio
1191:Archaea
879:Biomass
852:General
844:Trophic
836:Ecology
746:7145478
627:8873475
583:2672930
172:weather
79:vectors
1315:Rivers
1211:Marine
775:
752:
744:
709:
671:
633:
625:
590:
580:
539:
504:
496:
430:
105:larvae
2232:Other
2133:Other
2086:Guild
2058:Niche
1310:Lakes
750:S2CID
631:S2CID
502:S2CID
297:Aedes
287:Culex
90:Culex
1320:Soil
773:ISBN
742:PMID
707:PMID
669:PMID
623:PMID
588:PMID
537:PMID
494:PMID
428:ISBN
346:The
300:and
273:and
148:and
138:cell
734:doi
699:doi
661:doi
615:doi
611:113
578:PMC
568:doi
529:doi
486:doi
456:doi
420:doi
258:In
132:In
87:or
60:In
16:In
2375::
1781:/
1585::
842::
838::
748:.
740:.
730:85
728:.
705:.
695:21
693:.
681:^
667:.
657:75
655:.
643:^
629:.
621:.
609:.
586:.
576:.
562:.
558:.
535:.
525:97
523:.
500:.
492:.
482:20
480:.
468:^
452:35
450:.
426:,
182:.
156:.
114:.
70:.
20:,
2036:K
2034:/
2032:r
1575:e
1568:t
1561:v
828:e
821:t
814:v
781:.
756:.
736::
713:.
701::
675:.
663::
637:.
617::
594:.
570::
564:2
543:.
531::
508:.
488::
462:.
458::
422::
Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License. Additional terms may apply.
