977:
799:(LSP) is another technique used to overcome depth of field limitations in macro and micro photography. This method allows for high-magnification imaging with exceptional depth of field. LSP involves scanning a thin light plane across the subject that is mounted on a moving stage perpendicular to the light plane. This ensures the entire subject remains in sharp focus from the nearest to the farthest details, providing comprehensive depth of field in a single image. Initially developed in the 1960s and further refined in the 1980s and 1990s, LSP was particularly valuable in scientific and biomedical photography before digital focus stacking became prevalent.
1083:
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107:
62:
27:
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1035:
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47:
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834:. Therefore, the blue channel will have a greater depth of field than the other colours. The image processing identifies blurred regions in the red and green channels and in these regions copies the sharper edge data from the blue channel. The result is an image that combines the best features from the different
893:
for a given situation, with the photographer free to choose any value within the range, as conditions (e.g., potential motion blur) permit. Gibson gives a similar discussion, additionally considering blurring effects of camera lens aberrations, enlarging lens diffraction and aberrations, the negative
510:
is constant for constant image size. For example, if the focal length is doubled, the subject distance is also doubled to keep the subject image size the same. This observation contrasts with the common notion that "focal length is twice as important to defocus as f/stop", which applies to a constant
792:
Another approach is focus sweep. The focal plane is swept across the entire relevant range during a single exposure. This creates a blurred image, but with a convolution kernel that is nearly independent of object depth, so that the blur is almost entirely removed after computational deconvolution.
735:
Moreover, traditional depth-of-field formulas assume equal acceptable circles of confusion for near and far objects. Merklinger suggested that distant objects often need to be much sharper to be clearly recognizable, whereas closer objects, being larger on the film, do not need to be so sharp. The
514:
Motion pictures make limited use of aperture control; to produce a consistent image quality from shot to shot, cinematographers usually choose a single aperture setting for interiors (e.g., scenes inside a building) and another for exteriors (e.g., scenes in an area outside a building), and adjust
677:
The term "camera movements" refers to swivel (swing and tilt, in modern terminology) and shift adjustments of the lens holder and the film holder. These features have been in use since the 1800s and are still in use today on view cameras, technical cameras, cameras with tilt/shift or perspective
640:
Precise focus is only possible at an exact distance from a lens; at that distance, a point object will produce a small spot image. Otherwise, a point object will produce a larger or blur spot image that is typically and approximately a circle. When this circular spot is sufficiently small, it is
748:
by
Merklinger, would recommend focusing very close to infinity, and stopping down to make the bollard sharp enough. With this approach, foreground objects cannot always be made perfectly sharp, but the loss of sharpness in near objects may be acceptable if recognizability of distant objects is
1655:
876:
may cause greater loss of sharpness than the loss from diffraction. However, diffraction is a greater issue in close-up photography, and the overall image sharpness can be degraded as photographers are trying to maximize depth of field with very small apertures.
142:
For cameras that can only focus on one object distance at a time, depth of field is the distance between the nearest and the farthest objects that are in acceptably sharp focus in the image. "Acceptably sharp focus" is defined using a property called the
375:
154:, distance to subject (object to be imaged), the acceptable circle of confusion size, and aperture. Limitations of depth of field can sometimes be overcome with various techniques and equipment. The approximate depth of field can be given by:
1386:
1537:
248:
and circle of confusion, but changes in proportion to the square of the distance to the subject and inversely in proportion to the square of the focal length. As a result, photos taken at extremely close range (i.e., so small
448:
the depth of field (by the crop factor). The resulting image however will have a different field of view. If the focal length is altered to maintain the field of view, the change in focal length will counter the decrease of
888:
that will give the desired sharpness in the final image and yields a maximum depth of field for which the desired sharpness can be achieved. In combination, the two methods can be regarded as giving a maximum and minimum
663:, where the size is about half as large, the tolerance is stricter, 0.025 mm (0.00098 in). More modern practice for 35 mm productions set the circle of confusion limit at 0.025 mm (0.00098 in).
515:
exposure through the use of camera filters or light levels. Aperture settings are adjusted more frequently in still photography, where variations in depth of field are used to produce a variety of special effects.
701:, and at some virtual flat or curved surface the reduced clarity becomes unacceptable. Some photographers do calculations or use tables, some use markings on their equipment, some judge by previewing the image.
921:; the 35 mm lens in the image is typical. That lens includes distance scales in feet and meters; when a marked distance is set opposite the large white index mark, the focus is set to that distance. The
776:
combines multiple images focused on different planes, resulting in an image with a greater (or less, if so desired) apparent depth of field than any of the individual source images. Similarly, in order to
1819:. Most helicoid-focused lenses are marked with image plane-to-subject distances, so the focus determined from the lens distance scale is not exactly the harmonic mean of the marked near and far distances.
214:
944:
Photographers can use the lens scales to work backwards from the desired depth of field to find the necessary focus distance and aperture. For the 35 mm lens shown, if it were desired for the
269:
690:
of cameras with swivel set to zero have been discussed, formulated, and documented since before the 1940s, documenting calculations for cameras with non-zero swivel seem to have begun in 1990.
880:
Hansma and
Peterson have discussed determining the combined effects of defocus and diffraction using a root-square combination of the individual blur spots. Hansma's approach determines the
659:
motion pictures, the image area on the film is roughly 22 mm by 16 mm. The limit of tolerable error was traditionally set at 0.05 mm (0.0020 in) diameter, while for
736:
loss of detail in distant objects may be particularly noticeable with extreme enlargements. Achieving this additional sharpness in distant objects usually requires focusing beyond the
648:
The acceptable circle of confusion depends on how the final image will be used. The circle of confusion as 0.25 mm for an image viewed from 25 cm away is generally accepted.
1303:
444:
in counterintuitive ways. Because the circle of confusion is directly tied to the sensor size, decreasing the size of the sensor while holding focal length and aperture constant will
1488:
428:
1256:
This section covers some additional formula for evaluating depth of field; however they are all subject to significant simplifying assumptions: for example, they assume the
1089:
100–300 mm zoom lens. The depth of field, and thus hyperfocal distance, changes with the focal length as well as the f-stop. This lens is set to the hyperfocal distance for
1183:
and George Dawson first wrote about hyperfocal distance (or "focal range") in 1867. Louis Derr in 1906 may have been the first to derive a formula for hyperfocal distance.
756:
have taken the opposite position, maintaining that slight unsharpness in foreground objects is usually more disturbing than slight unsharpness in distant parts of a scene.
1127:
The hyperfocal distance has a property called "consecutive depths of field", where a lens focused at an object whose distance from the lens is at the hyperfocal distance
724:
Traditional depth-of-field formulas can be hard to use in practice. As an alternative, the same effective calculation can be done without regard to the focal length and
481:
because only the light travelling at shallower angles passes through the aperture so only cones of rays with shallower angles reach the image plane. In other words, the
240:
As distance or the size of the acceptable circle of confusion increases, the depth of field increases; however, increasing the size of the aperture (i.e., reducing
864:(i.e., narrow aperture stop opening sizes), and hence limits the potential depth of field. (This effect is not considered in the above formula giving approximate
948:
to extend from 1 m to 2 m, focus would be set so that index mark was centered between the marks for those distances, and the aperture would be set to
641:
visually indistinguishable from a point, and appears to be in focus. The diameter of the largest circle that is indistinguishable from a point is known as the
678:
control lenses, etc. Swiveling the lens or sensor causes the plane of focus (POF) to swivel, and also causes the field of acceptable focus to swivel with the
2312:
4856:
806:
is a method by which controlled aberrations are added to the optical system so that the focus and depth of field can be improved later in the process.
4798:
2926:
Ray, Sidney F. (2000). "The
Geometry of Image Formation". In Jacobson, Ralph E.; Ray, Sidney F.; Atteridge, Geoffrey G.; Axford, Norman R. (eds.).
159:
1768:; Conrad discusses this approach, under Different Circles of Confusion for Near and Far Limits of Depth of Field, and The Object Field Method, in
2128:
2103:
1650:{\displaystyle b={\frac {fm_{\mathrm {s} }}{N}}{\frac {x_{\mathrm {d} }}{s\pm x_{\mathrm {d} }}}=dm_{\mathrm {s} }{\frac {x_{\mathrm {d} }}{D}}.}
4936:
134:) reduces the size of the blur spots for points not in the focused plane, so that the blurring is imperceptible, and all points are within the
1248:
ratio increases, approaching unity at high magnification. For large apertures at typical portrait distances, the ratio is still close to 1:1.
1120:. As the hyperfocal distance is the focus distance giving the maximum depth of field, it is the most desirable distance to set the focus of a
4846:
4793:
4573:
5428:
732:
and later
Merklinger observe that the effective absolute aperture diameter can be used for similar formula in certain circumstances.
1765:
1197:
and infinity; when the lens is set at the red dot, that is, focused at the hyperfocal distance, the depth of field stretches from
1000:, represents the focus distance of approximately 1.33 m (the reciprocal of the mean of the reciprocals of 1 and 2 being 4/3).
3443:
2030:
712:
may be thought of as wedge-shaped, with the apex of the wedge nearest the camera; or they may be thought of as parallel to the
3549:
3301:
3012:
2991:
2215:." Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition, 1993. Proceedings CVPR'93., 1993 IEEE Computer Society Conference on. IEEE, 1993.
1936:
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1722:
693:
More so than in the case of the zero swivel camera, there are various methods to form criteria and set up calculations for
2012:
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to be determined after the image is made. These are based or supported by computational imaging processes. For example,
4929:
4788:
4335:
2699:
813:
the lens is modified such that each colour channel has a different lens aperture. For example, the red channel may be
4544:
3220:
3181:
3165:
3114:
3087:
3031:
2962:
2935:
2908:
2858:
2822:
2795:
2674:
2622:
2138:
2745:
785:
can be generated from multiple photographs with different depths of field. Xiong and Shafer concluded, in part, "...
5759:
4511:
789:
the improvements on precisions of focus ranging and defocus ranging can lead to efficient shape recovery methods."
2265:
5764:
4976:
4830:
4808:
4297:
1953:
796:
20:
2815:
The INs and OUTs of FOCUS: An
Alternative Way to Estimate Depth-of-Field and Sharpness in the Photographic Image
4476:
3964:
3751:
642:
370:{\displaystyle {\text{DOF}}\approx 2Nc\left({\frac {u}{f}}\right)^{2}=2Nc\left(1-{\frac {1}{M_{T}}}\right)^{2}}
5039:
962:
can be obtained by measuring the depth of field and performing simple calculations. Some view cameras include
5421:
4922:
4385:
4317:
4070:
3597:
1974:
1124:. The hyperfocal distance is entirely dependent upon what level of sharpness is considered to be acceptable.
2669:(2nd combined ed.). Rochester, NY: Eastman Kodak Company, Professional and Finishing Markets Division.
4818:
4813:
1180:
902:
5034:
5754:
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1993:
1264:. They are suitable for practical photography, lens designers would use significantly more complex ones.
382:
1006:
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5236:
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4237:
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697:
when swivel is non-zero. There is a gradual reduction of clarity in objects as they move away from the
3136:
473:(the ratio of lens focal length to aperture diameter). Reducing the aperture diameter (increasing the
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4516:
4466:
4426:
4279:
4165:
4115:
3812:
3756:
3612:
3369:
3294:
3209:
2251:
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emulsion, and the printing paper. Couzin gave a formula essentially the same as Hansma's for optimal
849:
information about a scene, so the focus and depth of field can be altered after the photo is taken.
5414:
4722:
4312:
4045:
3837:
2564:
244:) or increasing the focal length reduces the depth of field. Depth of field changes linearly with
5126:
4682:
4486:
4390:
4254:
4105:
3942:
3847:
3490:
3379:
2452:
1769:
1659:
The minus sign applies to a foreground object, and the plus sign applies to a background object.
1381:{\displaystyle s={\frac {2D_{\mathrm {N} }D_{\mathrm {F} }}{D_{\mathrm {N} }+D_{\mathrm {F} }}},}
925:
scale below the distance scales includes markings on either side of the index that correspond to
3255:
2077:
5487:
5131:
4903:
4742:
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4249:
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3832:
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3657:
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2851:
Focusing the View Camera: A Scientific Way to Focus the View Camera and
Estimate Depth of Field
1909:
1696:
1257:
3002:
2981:
1883:
1785:, though such an expression obtains from simple algebraic manipulation of his Equation 3.
5619:
5158:
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686:
criteria, to also change the shape of the field of acceptable focus. While calculations for
84:) is the distance between the nearest and the farthest objects that are in acceptably sharp
5579:
5341:
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4461:
4456:
4451:
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4090:
4014:
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3937:
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3797:
3622:
3569:
3287:
3058:
2758:
2715:
2280:
1798:
was originally published as "Magnification and Depth of Detail in
Photomacrography" in the
1240:
in front of the subject. When the subject is at the hyperfocal distance or beyond, the far
901:
Hopkins, Stokseth, and
Williams and Becklund have discussed the combined effects using the
496:
on any focal length lens will give the same depth of field. This is evident from the above
5614:
1189:
Some cameras have their hyperfocal distance marked on the focus dial. For example, on the
1056:
lens with markings for the depth of field. The lens is set at the hyperfocal distance for
884:
that will give the maximum possible sharpness; Peterson's approach determines the minimum
8:
5688:
5599:
5387:
5154:
4588:
4561:
4531:
4185:
4100:
4009:
3887:
3867:
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3822:
3714:
3627:
3455:
3450:
1113:
1082:
1027:
737:
482:
431:
144:
127:
3062:
2762:
2719:
2284:
1434:, let the distance between the subject and the foreground or background be indicated by
629:
mm objective lens and full-frame DSLR camera. Focus point is on the first blocks column.
5629:
5569:
5477:
5462:
5211:
5191:
5136:
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3364:
3329:
2731:
2304:
2063:
1717:
1707:
1116:
is a distance from a lens beyond which all objects can be brought into an "acceptable"
35:
2885:
Peterson, Stephen (March–April 1996). "Image
Sharpness and Focusing the View Camera".
2465:
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5507:
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1932:
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to infinity. Some lenses have markings indicating the hyperfocal range for specific
778:
31:
5589:
5574:
5546:
5537:
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5472:
5445:
5258:
5246:
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3917:
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2288:
1712:
1398:
for shallow depths of field. Sometimes, view camera users refer to the difference
1184:
1121:
842:
803:
260:
equation shows that it is the ratio between distance and focal length that affects
16:
Distance between the nearest and the furthest objects that are in focus in an image
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5714:
5604:
5186:
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4670:
4287:
4040:
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3617:
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3132:
2226:
Near-Invariant Blur for Depth and 2D Motion via Time-Varying Light Field
Analysis
1395:
1261:
740:, sometimes almost at infinity. For example, if photographing a cityscape with a
729:
652:
1042:
5666:
5609:
5527:
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5314:
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5011:
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4307:
4075:
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3667:
3652:
3542:
3354:
3344:
3334:
2706:
Hopkins, H. H. (1955). "The frequency response of a defocused optical system".
2611:
2212:
1815:
extend between given near and far object distances is the harmonic mean of the
1691:
1666:
is less than the circle of confusion, the detail is within the depth of field.
1117:
846:
773:
469:
is controlled by the lens aperture diameter, which is usually specified as the
110:
Effect of aperture on blur and DOF (Depth of Field). The points in focus (
93:
85:
3273:
3264:—Interactive depth of field calculator with background blur simulation feature
3124:
2868:
1244:
is infinite, so the ratio is 1:∞; as the subject distance decreases, near:far
872:
typically require long exposure times to acquire acceptable image brightness,
741:
106:
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3724:
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3146:
3049:
Stokseth, Per A. (October 1969). "Properties of a Defocused Optical System".
2838:
2778:
2300:
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1505:
from the subject can be expressed as a function of the subject magnification
1391:
39:
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1701:
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151:
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which is the ratio of the lateral image size to the lateral subject size.
61:
26:
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1217:
Zeiss Ikon Contessa with red marks for hyperfocal distance 20 ft at
1109:
873:
857:
810:
802:
Other technologies use a combination of lens design and post-processing:
753:
672:
437:
2692:
Hansma, Paul K. (March–April 1996). "View Camera Focusing in Practice".
2130:
Digital Filmmaking: The Changing Art and Craft of Making Motion Pictures
2045:
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values.) In general photography this is rarely an issue; because large
660:
3249:
2817:(v. 1.0.3 ed.). Bedford, Nova Scotia: Seaboard Printing Limited.
2516:
Lenses in Photography: The Practical Guide to Optics for Photographers
1881:
1394:
of the near and far distances. In practice, this is equivalent to the
1213:
1187:
wrote in 1951 about the two methods of measuring hyperfocal distance.
1034:
5699:
5624:
5377:
5283:
5278:
5081:
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4772:
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4340:
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4160:
3522:
3485:
3480:
3465:
3418:
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782:
492:
For a given size of the subject's image in the focal plane, the same
2853:(v. 1.0 ed.). Bedford, Nova Scotia: Seaboard Printing Limited.
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5251:
5106:
5096:
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2648:
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1526:
1519:
1295:
470:
227:
2878:
2842:
2228:." ACM Transactions on Graphics, Vol. 32, No. 2, Article 13, 2013.
989:. The point half-way between the 1 m and 2 m marks, the
557:
523:
46:
4400:
3554:
3500:
2507:
1975:"Digital Camera Sensor Sizes: How it Influences Your Photography"
1856:
1086:
793:
This has the added benefit of dramatically reducing motion blur.
591:
3267:
2743:
Kay, Andrew; Mather, Jonathan; Walton, Harry (1 December 2011).
2239:"A simplified unit for making deep-field (scanning) Macrographs"
2013:"The Smaller the Sensor Size, the Shallower Your Depth of Field"
1838:
1781:
Peterson does not give a closed-form expression for the minimum
72:. Notice how much blurrier the background appears in this photo.
5554:
5367:
3952:
3374:
3324:
1766:
Apparent Depth of Field: Practical Use in Landscape Photography
1202:
1105:
89:
3279:
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4615:
4035:
3495:
2241:. Journal of Biological Photography, Vol. 59, No. 1, pp. 3-8.
1681:
1190:
1046:
209:{\displaystyle {\text{DOF}}\approx {\frac {2u^{2}Nc}{f^{2}}}}
2433:
1662:
The blur increases with the distance from the subject; when
2928:
The Manual of Photography: Photographic and Digital Imaging
2322:
2154:
970:
without the need for any calculations by the photographer.
2483:
2266:"Introduction to Wavefront Coding for Incoherent Imaging"
2183:
2181:
3252:
Simple depth of field and hyperfocal distance calculator
1875:
625:
Depth of field for different values of aperture using 50
2361:
2339:
2337:
2166:
764:
Some methods and equipment allow altering the apparent
2522:
2495:
2178:
2084:
385:
3270:—Demonstration of varying apertures on depth of field
2252:
Constructing a Scanning Light Photomacrography System
1540:
1442:
1306:
1267:
511:
subject distance, as opposed to constant image size.
465:
For a given subject framing and camera position, the
272:
253:) have a proportionally much smaller depth of field.
162:
3109:(2nd ed.). Feuerthalen, Switzerland: Sinar AG.
2585:
2421:
2385:
2349:
2334:
2031:"Why Does a Small Aperture Increase Depth of Field?"
1764:
Englander describes a similar approach in his paper
809:
The lens design can be changed even more: in colour
645:, or informally, simply as the circle of confusion.
2639:Couzin, Dennis (November 1982). "Depths of Field".
2409:
2193:
719:
218:for a given maximum acceptable circle of confusion
101:
3268:Lens Comparison: Nikon 50mm f/1.4D vs. 50mm f/1.4G
3208:
2744:
2610:
2471:
2397:
2373:
2263:
2108:. University of California Press. 1966. p. 56
1649:
1482:
1380:
937:extends between the distances that align with the
422:
369:
208:
2979:
2264:Mary, D.; Roche, M.; Theys, C.; Aime, C. (2013).
1882:Elizabeth Allen; Sophie Triantaphillidou (2011).
1844:
1421:
5746:
3215:(8th ed.). Hollywood, Cal.: The ASC Press.
3154:Williams, Charles S.; Becklund, Orville (1989).
3153:
2746:"Extended Depth of Field by Colored Apodization"
2439:
1430:and the foreground or background is at distance
635:
2742:
2601:
2328:
3245:Depth of Field in Photography—Beginner's Guide
3107:Creative Large Format: Basics and Applications
1857:Barbara London; Jim Stone; John Upton (2005).
1850:
1800:Journal of the Photographic Society of America
1236:beyond the subject is always greater than the
457:the depth of field (also by the crop factor).
5422:
4930:
3295:
3262:Bokeh simulator and depth of field calculator
3156:Introduction to the Optical Transfer Function
2980:Salvaggio, Nanette; Stroebel, Leslie (2009).
2254:." The McCrone Group (accessed July 7, 2024).
1994:"Sensor Size, Perspective and Depth of Field"
913:Many lenses include scales that indicate the
759:
744:in the foreground, this approach, termed the
3160:Reprinted 2002, Bellingham, WA: SPIE Press,
2665:. Kodak Publication No. N-16. Vol. II:
2528:
2127:Thomas Ohanian and Natalie Phillips (2013).
2078:"photoskop: Interactive Photography Lessons"
1742:Strictly, at an exact distance from a plane.
1193:LX focusing dial there is a red dot between
114:) project points onto the image plane (
65:The same scene as above with an aperture of
4847:Conservation and restoration of photographs
3004:Digital Photography for Science (Hardcover)
1927:Hecht, Eugene (2017). "5.2.3 Thin Lenses".
118:), but points at different distances (
5429:
5415:
4937:
4923:
4574:Comparison of digital and film photography
3302:
3288:
3256:photoskop: Interactive Photography Lessons
3174:Image Clarity: High-Resolution Photography
2983:Basic Photographic Materials and Processes
2848:
2812:
2244:
2187:
2160:
460:
4799:Photographs considered the most important
3104:
3051:Journal of the Optical Society of America
2785:
2663:Close-Up Photography and Photomacrography
2535:. London: Sampson Low, Son & Marston.
2513:
2489:
2367:
2172:
2070:
2043:
50:This photo was taken with an aperture of
4944:
3171:
3131:
3077:
3048:
2884:
2427:
2391:
1227:
1212:
1081:
1041:
1033:
860:causes images to lose sharpness at high
781:the 3-dimensional shape of an object, a
150:The depth of field can be determined by
105:
60:
57:, creating a mostly in-focus background.
45:
25:
3021:
3000:
2986:. Taylor & Francis. pp. 110–.
2705:
2545:
2529:Sutton, Thomas; Dawson, George (1867).
2415:
2090:
1888:. Taylor & Francis. pp. 111–.
1483:{\displaystyle x_{\mathrm {d} }=|D-s|.}
1138:to infinity, if the lens is focused to
1038:Minox LX camera with hyperfocal red dot
708:is rotated, the near and far limits of
5747:
3206:
2691:
2660:
2638:
2591:
2403:
2379:
2355:
2343:
2044:Reichmann, Michael (13 January 2009).
2010:
1931:(5th ed.). Pearson. p. 172.
1812:
1795:
1273:
1245:
1241:
1237:
1233:
1020:
1012:
990:
963:
945:
934:
922:
914:
898:, but did not discuss its derivation.
865:
852:
769:
765:
713:
709:
705:
698:
694:
687:
683:
679:
609:
575:
541:
497:
486:
478:
466:
450:
441:
261:
257:
135:
5410:
4918:
3283:
3082:(3rd ed.). London: Focal Press.
2957:(3rd ed.). Oxford: Focal Press.
2930:(9th ed.). Oxford: Focal Press.
2608:
2549:Minolta MD Zoom Lenses owner's manual
2518:. Garden City, NY: Garden City Press.
2468:", David M. Jacobson, 26 October 1996
2211:Xiong, Yalin, and Steven A. Shafer. "
2199:
1991:
1951:
1926:
1914:Stanford Computer Graphics Laboratory
1861:(8th ed.). Pearson. p. 58.
1794:The analytical section at the end of
130:. Decreasing the aperture size (
3158:. New York: Wiley. pp. 293–300.
1729:
966:calculators that indicate focus and
423:{\textstyle M_{T}=-{\frac {f}{u-f}}}
5436:
4794:Museums devoted to one photographer
3141:. Leipzig, Germany: B. G. Teubner.
2952:
2925:
2898:
2501:
2477:
1063:. The orange mark corresponding to
666:
13:
4336:Timeline of photography technology
3200:
2788:The Manual of Close-Up Photography
2708:Proceedings of the Royal Society A
2562:
2213:Depth from focusing and defocusing
1633:
1619:
1598:
1579:
1559:
1449:
1366:
1351:
1337:
1325:
1268:Focus and f-number from DOF limits
1163:, the depth of field will be from
1145:, the depth of field will be from
1074:). Focus is acceptable from under
929:. When the lens is set to a given
500:equation by noting that the ratio
14:
5776:
3238:
2011:Vinson, Jason (22 January 2016).
1755:is derived from the focal length.
1298:is smallest when focus is set to
1156:; if the lens is then focused to
827:, whilst the blue channel may be
4897:
4887:
4886:
3276:—A quick explainer video for DOF
3250:Online Depth of Field Calculator
2698:"Available as GIF images on the
2318:from the original on 2022-06-14.
1992:Malan, Francois (6 April 2018).
1131:will hold a depth of field from
1026:This section is an excerpt from
1005:
975:
958:On a view camera, the focus and
720:Object-field calculation methods
590:
556:
522:
102:Factors affecting depth of field
4898:
3309:
3211:American Cinematographer Manual
2891:Available as GIF images on the
2879:http://www.trenholm.org/hmmerk/
2843:http://www.trenholm.org/hmmerk/
2556:
2539:
2458:
2445:
2257:
2231:
2218:
2205:
2120:
2096:
2056:
2037:
2023:
1811:The focus distance to have the
1805:
1788:
1775:
1758:
1745:
1736:
1251:
917:for a given focus distance and
797:Light Scanning Photomacrography
92:. See also the closely related
21:Depth of field (disambiguation)
2901:Photographic Lenses and Optics
2849:Merklinger, Harold M. (1993).
2813:Merklinger, Harold M. (1992).
2004:
1985:
1967:
1945:
1920:
1902:
1473:
1459:
1422:Foreground and background blur
1015:scale on Tessina focusing dial
643:acceptable circle of confusion
485:are reduced or increasing the
1:
4386:Painted photography backdrops
4318:Golden triangle (composition)
3598:35 mm equivalent focal length
2572:Large Format Photography Info
2329:Kay, Mather & Walton 2011
1845:Salvaggio & Stroebel 2009
1826:
908:
636:Effect of circle of confusion
126:) project blurred images, or
3274:Depth of Field for Beginners
2790:. Garden City, NY: Amphoto.
2617:. New York Graphic Society.
2602:General and cited references
2466:Photographic Lenses Tutorial
2440:Williams & Becklund 1989
1831:
1802:, Vol. 26, No. 6, June 1960.
1426:If a subject is at distance
903:modulation transfer function
453:from the smaller sensor and
88:in an image captured with a
7:
4096:Intentional camera movement
3258:—Interactive depth of field
2955:Applied Photographic Optics
2873:Version 1.6.1 available in
2837:Version 1.03e available in
2532:A Dictionary of Photography
1952:Nasse, H. H. (March 2010).
1669:
10:
5781:
5695:Computer-generated imagery
5237:Unchained camera technique
4789:Most expensive photographs
4141:Multi-exposure HDR capture
3172:Williams, John B. (1990).
3026:. Tucson, AZ: H.P. Books.
3024:SLR Photographers Handbook
2786:Lefkowitz, Lester (1979).
2514:Kingslake, Rudolf (1951).
1954:"Depth of Field and Bokeh"
1704:(very deep depth of field)
1025:
982:Detail from a lens set to
768:, and some even allow the
760:Overcoming DOF limitations
670:
233:, and distance to subject
18:
5665:
5545:
5444:
5400:
5350:
5307:
5229:
5167:
5122:
5115:
5074:
5065:
5025:
4952:
4882:
4839:
4781:
4681:
4624:
4530:
4414:
4326:
4278:
4023:
3790:
3590:
3317:
3207:Hummel, Rob, ed. (2001).
3138:Die optischen Instrumente
3078:Stroebel, Leslie (1976).
2565:"Depth of Field in Depth"
2133:. CRC Press. p. 96.
1885:The Manual of Photography
1751:Notwithstanding that the
1070:is at the infinity mark (
4723:Digital image processing
3001:Savazzi, Enrico (2011).
2237:Root, N. (January 1991)
1496:of a detail at distance
432:transverse magnification
42:on a tilted page of text
5760:Photographic techniques
4831:Photography periodicals
4391:Photography and the law
3176:. Boston: Focal Press.
3105:Tillmanns, Urs (1997).
2953:Ray, Sidney F. (2002).
2903:. Oxford: Focal Press.
2899:Ray, Sidney F. (1994).
2661:Gibson, H. Lou (1975).
2453:Depth of Field in Depth
2273:EAS Publications Series
2105:Film and Its Techniques
1770:Depth of Field in Depth
1525:, or alternatively the
1492:The blur disk diameter
1272:For given near and far
682:; and depending on the
461:Effect of lens aperture
5765:Science of photography
5488:Dead-character costume
4743:Gelatin silver process
3767:Science of photography
3752:Photographic processes
3730:Perspective distortion
3071:10.1364/JOSA.59.001314
3022:Shipman, Carl (1977).
2728:10.1098/rspa.1955.0158
1723:Perspective distortion
1697:Depth-of-field adapter
1651:
1484:
1382:
1258:paraxial approximation
1224:
1101:
1079:
1039:
752:Other authors such as
424:
371:
210:
139:
73:
58:
43:
40:shallow depth of field
5159:multiple-camera setup
4196:Schlieren photography
3740:Photographic printing
3663:Exposure compensation
3080:View Camera Technique
2609:Adams, Ansel (1980).
1652:
1485:
1383:
1228:Near:far distribution
1216:
1096:at a focal length of
1085:
1045:
1037:
425:
372:
211:
109:
64:
49:
29:
5580:Infrared photography
4946:Cinematic techniques
3985:Straight photography
3623:Chromatic aberration
2771:10.1364/OL.36.004614
2629:Adams, Ansel. 1980.
1538:
1440:
1304:
1207:depth-of-field scale
483:circles of confusion
383:
270:
160:
128:circles of confusion
19:For other uses, see
4857:photographic plates
4532:Digital photography
3715:Hyperfocal distance
3628:Circle of confusion
3063:1969JOSA...59.1314S
2763:2011OptL...36.4614K
2720:1955RSPSA.231...91H
2293:10.1051/eas/1359005
2285:2013EAS....59...77R
1979:Cambridge In Colour
1114:hyperfocal distance
1028:Hyperfocal distance
1021:Hyperfocal distance
853:Diffraction and DOF
746:object field method
738:hyperfocal distance
145:circle of confusion
5755:Geometrical optics
5630:Tilted plane focus
5570:Forced perspective
5478:Costumed character
5463:Air bladder effect
5082:Wide / Long / Full
4351:Autochrome Lumière
4346:Analog photography
4171:Pigeon photography
3965:Social documentary
3444:discontinued films
2504:, p. 230-231.
2050:Luminous Landscape
1718:Numerical aperture
1708:Light-field camera
1647:
1480:
1378:
1225:
1122:fixed-focus camera
1102:
1080:
1040:
841:At the extreme, a
420:
367:
206:
140:
74:
59:
44:
5742:
5741:
5738:
5737:
5615:Schüfftan process
5595:Multiple exposure
5508:Prosthetic makeup
5396:
5395:
5373:Freeze-frame shot
5358:Establishing shot
5225:
5224:
5132:Over-the-shoulder
4912:
4911:
4703:Collodion process
4639:Chromogenic print
4626:Color photography
4136:Multiple exposure
4111:Lo-fi photography
3643:Color temperature
3057:(10): 1314–1321.
3014:978-0-557-91133-2
2993:978-0-240-80984-7
2893:Large Format page
2757:(23): 4614–4616.
2700:Large Format page
2696:. pp. 54–57.
2653:Available in PDF
2163:, pp. 49–56.
2080:. April 25, 2015.
1938:978-1-292-09693-3
1895:978-0-240-52037-7
1868:978-0-13-448202-6
1817:object conjugates
1730:Explanatory notes
1642:
1605:
1569:
1373:
438:Image sensor size
418:
354:
303:
276:
204:
166:
5772:
5715:Optical printing
5590:Lighting effects
5575:Front projection
5538:Theatrical blood
5498:Miniature effect
5473:Bullet hit squib
5431:
5424:
5417:
5408:
5407:
5351:Other techniques
5140:
5120:
5119:
5116:Camera placement
5072:
5071:
4939:
4932:
4925:
4916:
4915:
4901:
4900:
4890:
4889:
4763:Print permanence
4708:Cross processing
4666:CMYK color model
4651:Color management
4604:Foveon X3 sensor
4599:Three-CCD camera
4243:Miniature faking
4201:Sabattier effect
3818:Astrophotography
3673:Zebra patterning
3304:
3297:
3290:
3281:
3280:
3234:
3214:
3195:
3159:
3150:
3133:von Rohr, Moritz
3128:
3101:
3074:
3045:
3018:
2997:
2976:
2949:
2922:
2890:
2887:Photo Techniques
2872:
2836:
2809:
2782:
2748:
2739:
2714:(1184): 91–103.
2697:
2694:Photo Techniques
2688:
2667:Photomacrography
2652:
2635:
2616:
2595:
2589:
2583:
2582:
2580:
2578:
2569:
2560:
2554:
2553:
2546:Minolta (1985).
2543:
2537:
2536:
2526:
2520:
2519:
2511:
2505:
2499:
2493:
2492:, p. 67-68.
2487:
2481:
2475:
2469:
2462:
2456:
2449:
2443:
2437:
2431:
2425:
2419:
2413:
2407:
2401:
2395:
2389:
2383:
2377:
2371:
2365:
2359:
2353:
2347:
2341:
2332:
2326:
2320:
2319:
2317:
2270:
2261:
2255:
2248:
2242:
2235:
2229:
2222:
2216:
2209:
2203:
2197:
2191:
2185:
2176:
2170:
2164:
2158:
2152:
2151:
2149:
2147:
2124:
2118:
2117:
2115:
2113:
2100:
2094:
2088:
2082:
2081:
2074:
2068:
2067:
2060:
2054:
2053:
2041:
2035:
2034:
2027:
2021:
2020:
2008:
2002:
2001:
1998:Photography Life
1989:
1983:
1982:
1971:
1965:
1964:
1958:
1949:
1943:
1942:
1924:
1918:
1917:
1910:"Depth of field"
1906:
1900:
1899:
1879:
1873:
1872:
1854:
1848:
1847:, pp. 110-.
1842:
1820:
1814:
1809:
1803:
1792:
1786:
1784:
1779:
1773:
1762:
1756:
1754:
1749:
1743:
1740:
1713:Miniature faking
1665:
1656:
1654:
1653:
1648:
1643:
1638:
1637:
1636:
1626:
1624:
1623:
1622:
1606:
1604:
1603:
1602:
1601:
1584:
1583:
1582:
1572:
1570:
1565:
1564:
1563:
1562:
1548:
1531:
1524:
1517:
1513:
1504:
1495:
1489:
1487:
1486:
1481:
1476:
1462:
1454:
1453:
1452:
1433:
1429:
1413:
1387:
1385:
1384:
1379:
1374:
1372:
1371:
1370:
1369:
1356:
1355:
1354:
1343:
1342:
1341:
1340:
1330:
1329:
1328:
1314:
1293:
1284:
1275:
1247:
1243:
1239:
1235:
1223:
1221:
1205:, also called a
1200:
1196:
1185:Rudolf Kingslake
1176:
1169:
1162:
1155:
1151:
1144:
1137:
1130:
1099:
1095:
1093:
1077:
1073:
1069:
1067:
1062:
1060:
1055:
1053:
1014:
1009:
999:
997:
992:
988:
986:
979:
969:
965:
961:
954:
952:
947:
940:
936:
932:
928:
924:
920:
916:
897:
892:
887:
883:
871:
867:
863:
843:plenoptic camera
837:
833:
831:
826:
824:
819:
817:
804:Wavefront coding
788:
771:
767:
727:
715:
711:
707:
700:
696:
689:
685:
681:
667:Camera movements
656:
628:
618:
614:
611:
607:
605:
600:
594:
584:
580:
577:
573:
571:
566:
560:
550:
546:
543:
539:
537:
532:
526:
509:
499:
495:
488:
480:
477:) increases the
476:
468:
452:
443:
429:
427:
426:
421:
419:
417:
403:
395:
394:
376:
374:
373:
368:
366:
365:
360:
356:
355:
353:
352:
340:
314:
313:
308:
304:
296:
277:
274:
263:
259:
256:Rearranging the
252:
247:
243:
236:
232:
225:
221:
215:
213:
212:
207:
205:
203:
202:
193:
186:
185:
172:
167:
164:
137:
71:
69:
56:
54:
36:defocused effect
32:macro photograph
5780:
5779:
5775:
5774:
5773:
5771:
5770:
5769:
5745:
5744:
5743:
5734:
5661:
5620:Shutter effects
5605:Rear projection
5541:
5440:
5438:Special effects
5435:
5406:
5392:
5346:
5303:
5230:Camera movement
5221:
5212:Worm's-eye view
5163:
5138:
5111:
5061:
5021:
4948:
4943:
4913:
4908:
4878:
4835:
4777:
4768:Push processing
4684:
4677:
4671:RGB color model
4620:
4526:
4410:
4322:
4288:Diagonal method
4274:
4019:
3923:Photojournalism
3786:
3618:Black-and-white
3586:
3565:Slide projector
3560:Movie projector
3439:available films
3313:
3308:
3241:
3223:
3203:
3201:Further reading
3198:
3184:
3117:
3090:
3034:
3015:
2994:
2965:
2938:
2911:
2861:
2825:
2798:
2677:
2625:
2604:
2599:
2598:
2590:
2586:
2576:
2574:
2567:
2561:
2557:
2544:
2540:
2527:
2523:
2512:
2508:
2500:
2496:
2488:
2484:
2476:
2472:
2463:
2459:
2450:
2446:
2438:
2434:
2426:
2422:
2414:
2410:
2402:
2398:
2390:
2386:
2378:
2374:
2366:
2362:
2354:
2350:
2342:
2335:
2327:
2323:
2315:
2268:
2262:
2258:
2249:
2245:
2236:
2232:
2223:
2219:
2210:
2206:
2198:
2194:
2188:Merklinger 1992
2186:
2179:
2171:
2167:
2161:Merklinger 1993
2159:
2155:
2145:
2143:
2141:
2125:
2121:
2111:
2109:
2102:
2101:
2097:
2089:
2085:
2076:
2075:
2071:
2062:
2061:
2057:
2042:
2038:
2029:
2028:
2024:
2009:
2005:
1990:
1986:
1973:
1972:
1968:
1956:
1950:
1946:
1939:
1925:
1921:
1908:
1907:
1903:
1896:
1880:
1876:
1869:
1855:
1851:
1843:
1839:
1834:
1829:
1824:
1823:
1810:
1806:
1793:
1789:
1782:
1780:
1776:
1763:
1759:
1752:
1750:
1746:
1741:
1737:
1732:
1727:
1672:
1663:
1632:
1631:
1627:
1625:
1618:
1617:
1613:
1597:
1596:
1592:
1585:
1578:
1577:
1573:
1571:
1558:
1557:
1553:
1549:
1547:
1539:
1536:
1535:
1532:, according to
1529:
1522:
1515:
1514:, focal length
1512:
1506:
1503:
1497:
1493:
1472:
1458:
1448:
1447:
1443:
1441:
1438:
1437:
1431:
1427:
1424:
1412:
1405:
1399:
1396:arithmetic mean
1365:
1364:
1360:
1350:
1349:
1345:
1344:
1336:
1335:
1331:
1324:
1323:
1319:
1315:
1313:
1305:
1302:
1301:
1294:, the required
1292:
1286:
1283:
1277:
1270:
1262:Gaussian optics
1254:
1230:
1219:
1218:
1211:
1210:
1198:
1194:
1171:
1164:
1157:
1153:
1146:
1139:
1132:
1128:
1097:
1091:
1090:
1075:
1071:
1065:
1064:
1058:
1057:
1051:
1050:
1031:
1023:
1016:
1010:
1001:
995:
994:
984:
983:
980:
967:
959:
950:
949:
938:
930:
926:
918:
911:
895:
890:
885:
881:
869:
861:
855:
835:
829:
828:
822:
821:
820:, green may be
815:
814:
786:
762:
742:traffic bollard
730:Moritz von Rohr
725:
722:
675:
669:
661:16 mm film
654:
638:
633:
632:
631:
630:
626:
622:
621:
620:
616:
612:
603:
602:
598:
595:
587:
586:
582:
578:
569:
568:
564:
561:
553:
552:
548:
544:
535:
534:
530:
527:
501:
493:
474:
463:
407:
402:
390:
386:
384:
381:
380:
361:
348:
344:
339:
332:
328:
327:
309:
295:
291:
290:
273:
271:
268:
267:
250:
245:
241:
234:
230:
223:
222:, focal length
219:
198:
194:
181:
177:
173:
171:
163:
161:
158:
157:
104:
67:
66:
52:
51:
24:
17:
12:
11:
5:
5778:
5768:
5767:
5762:
5757:
5740:
5739:
5736:
5735:
5733:
5732:
5727:
5722:
5717:
5712:
5707:
5702:
5697:
5692:
5682:
5677:
5671:
5669:
5663:
5662:
5660:
5659:
5654:
5653:
5652:
5647:
5642:
5632:
5627:
5622:
5617:
5612:
5610:Reverse motion
5607:
5602:
5597:
5592:
5587:
5582:
5577:
5572:
5567:
5562:
5557:
5551:
5549:
5543:
5542:
5540:
5535:
5530:
5528:Matte painting
5525:
5520:
5515:
5510:
5505:
5495:
5490:
5485:
5480:
5475:
5470:
5465:
5460:
5453:Aerial rigging
5450:
5448:
5442:
5441:
5434:
5433:
5426:
5419:
5411:
5405:
5404:
5401:
5398:
5397:
5394:
5393:
5391:
5390:
5385:
5380:
5375:
5370:
5365:
5360:
5354:
5352:
5348:
5347:
5345:
5344:
5339:
5338:
5337:
5332:
5327:
5325:Depth of field
5322:
5311:
5309:
5305:
5304:
5302:
5301:
5296:
5291:
5286:
5281:
5276:
5271:
5266:
5261:
5256:
5255:
5254:
5244:
5239:
5233:
5231:
5227:
5226:
5223:
5222:
5220:
5219:
5214:
5209:
5204:
5199:
5194:
5189:
5184:
5179:
5173:
5171:
5165:
5164:
5162:
5161:
5152:
5147:
5142:
5137:Point-of-view
5134:
5129:
5123:
5117:
5113:
5112:
5110:
5109:
5104:
5099:
5094:
5089:
5084:
5078:
5076:
5069:
5063:
5062:
5060:
5059:
5058:
5057:
5052:
5047:
5037:
5031:
5029:
5023:
5022:
5020:
5019:
5014:
5009:
5004:
4999:
4994:
4989:
4984:
4979:
4974:
4969:
4964:
4958:
4956:
4950:
4949:
4942:
4941:
4934:
4927:
4919:
4910:
4909:
4907:
4906:
4895:
4883:
4880:
4879:
4877:
4876:
4871:
4866:
4861:
4860:
4859:
4854:
4843:
4841:
4837:
4836:
4834:
4833:
4828:
4827:
4826:
4821:
4816:
4811:
4801:
4796:
4791:
4785:
4783:
4779:
4778:
4776:
4775:
4770:
4765:
4760:
4755:
4750:
4745:
4740:
4735:
4730:
4725:
4720:
4715:
4710:
4705:
4700:
4695:
4689:
4687:
4679:
4678:
4676:
4675:
4674:
4673:
4668:
4663:
4658:
4648:
4643:
4642:
4641:
4630:
4628:
4622:
4621:
4619:
4618:
4613:
4608:
4607:
4606:
4601:
4596:
4591:
4581:
4576:
4571:
4566:
4565:
4564:
4559:
4554:
4553:
4552:
4540:Digital camera
4536:
4534:
4528:
4527:
4525:
4524:
4519:
4514:
4509:
4504:
4499:
4494:
4489:
4484:
4479:
4474:
4469:
4464:
4459:
4454:
4449:
4444:
4439:
4434:
4429:
4424:
4418:
4416:
4412:
4411:
4409:
4408:
4403:
4398:
4393:
4388:
4383:
4378:
4373:
4368:
4366:Camera obscura
4363:
4358:
4353:
4348:
4343:
4338:
4332:
4330:
4324:
4323:
4321:
4320:
4315:
4310:
4308:Rule of thirds
4305:
4300:
4295:
4290:
4284:
4282:
4276:
4275:
4273:
4272:
4267:
4262:
4257:
4252:
4247:
4246:
4245:
4235:
4230:
4229:
4228:
4218:
4213:
4208:
4203:
4198:
4193:
4188:
4183:
4178:
4173:
4168:
4163:
4158:
4153:
4148:
4143:
4138:
4133:
4128:
4123:
4118:
4113:
4108:
4103:
4098:
4093:
4088:
4083:
4078:
4076:Harris shutter
4073:
4071:Hand-colouring
4068:
4063:
4058:
4053:
4048:
4043:
4038:
4033:
4027:
4025:
4021:
4020:
4018:
4017:
4012:
4007:
4002:
3997:
3992:
3987:
3982:
3977:
3972:
3967:
3962:
3961:
3960:
3950:
3945:
3940:
3935:
3930:
3925:
3920:
3915:
3910:
3905:
3900:
3895:
3890:
3885:
3880:
3875:
3870:
3865:
3860:
3855:
3850:
3845:
3840:
3835:
3830:
3825:
3820:
3815:
3810:
3805:
3800:
3794:
3792:
3788:
3787:
3785:
3784:
3779:
3774:
3769:
3764:
3762:Red-eye effect
3759:
3754:
3749:
3748:
3747:
3737:
3732:
3727:
3722:
3717:
3712:
3707:
3702:
3697:
3696:
3695:
3690:
3680:
3675:
3670:
3668:Exposure value
3665:
3660:
3655:
3653:Depth of focus
3650:
3648:Depth of field
3645:
3640:
3635:
3630:
3625:
3620:
3615:
3610:
3605:
3600:
3594:
3592:
3588:
3587:
3585:
3584:
3579:
3578:
3577:
3567:
3562:
3557:
3552:
3547:
3546:
3545:
3540:
3535:
3530:
3525:
3520:
3515:
3505:
3504:
3503:
3498:
3493:
3488:
3483:
3478:
3473:
3468:
3463:
3453:
3448:
3447:
3446:
3441:
3436:
3431:
3426:
3421:
3411:
3410:
3409:
3404:
3394:
3393:
3392:
3387:
3382:
3377:
3372:
3367:
3362:
3357:
3352:
3347:
3342:
3337:
3332:
3321:
3319:
3315:
3314:
3307:
3306:
3299:
3292:
3284:
3278:
3277:
3271:
3265:
3259:
3253:
3247:
3240:
3239:External links
3237:
3236:
3235:
3221:
3202:
3199:
3197:
3196:
3182:
3169:
3151:
3129:
3115:
3102:
3088:
3075:
3046:
3032:
3019:
3013:
2998:
2992:
2977:
2963:
2950:
2936:
2923:
2909:
2896:
2882:
2859:
2846:
2823:
2810:
2796:
2783:
2751:Optics Letters
2740:
2703:
2689:
2675:
2658:
2649:10.5594/J00204
2636:
2623:
2605:
2603:
2600:
2597:
2596:
2584:
2563:Conrad, Jeff.
2555:
2538:
2521:
2506:
2494:
2490:Tillmanns 1997
2482:
2480:, p. 315.
2470:
2457:
2455:", Jeff Conrad
2444:
2432:
2420:
2408:
2396:
2384:
2372:
2368:Lefkowitz 1979
2360:
2348:
2333:
2321:
2256:
2243:
2230:
2224:Bando et al. "
2217:
2204:
2192:
2177:
2173:Tillmanns 1997
2165:
2153:
2139:
2119:
2095:
2093:, p. 109.
2083:
2069:
2064:"Ken Rockwell"
2055:
2036:
2033:. 18 May 2012.
2022:
2003:
1984:
1966:
1961:Zeiss Lenspire
1944:
1937:
1919:
1901:
1894:
1874:
1867:
1849:
1836:
1835:
1833:
1830:
1828:
1825:
1822:
1821:
1804:
1787:
1774:
1757:
1744:
1734:
1733:
1731:
1728:
1726:
1725:
1720:
1715:
1710:
1705:
1699:
1694:
1692:Depth of focus
1689:
1684:
1679:
1673:
1671:
1668:
1646:
1641:
1635:
1630:
1621:
1616:
1612:
1609:
1600:
1595:
1591:
1588:
1581:
1576:
1568:
1561:
1556:
1552:
1546:
1543:
1510:
1501:
1479:
1475:
1471:
1468:
1465:
1461:
1457:
1451:
1446:
1423:
1420:
1410:
1403:
1377:
1368:
1363:
1359:
1353:
1348:
1339:
1334:
1327:
1322:
1318:
1312:
1309:
1290:
1281:
1269:
1266:
1253:
1250:
1229:
1226:
1032:
1024:
1022:
1019:
1018:
1017:
1011:
1004:
1002:
981:
974:
910:
907:
854:
851:
847:4D light field
774:focus stacking
761:
758:
721:
718:
668:
665:
637:
634:
624:
623:
596:
589:
588:
562:
555:
554:
528:
521:
520:
519:
518:
517:
462:
459:
456:
447:
416:
413:
410:
406:
401:
398:
393:
389:
364:
359:
351:
347:
343:
338:
335:
331:
326:
323:
320:
317:
312:
307:
302:
299:
294:
289:
286:
283:
280:
201:
197:
192:
189:
184:
180:
176:
170:
103:
100:
95:depth of focus
78:depth of field
15:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
5777:
5766:
5763:
5761:
5758:
5756:
5753:
5752:
5750:
5731:
5728:
5726:
5723:
5721:
5718:
5716:
5713:
5711:
5708:
5706:
5703:
5701:
5698:
5696:
5693:
5690:
5686:
5683:
5681:
5678:
5676:
5673:
5672:
5670:
5668:
5664:
5658:
5655:
5651:
5650:Speed ramping
5648:
5646:
5643:
5641:
5638:
5637:
5636:
5633:
5631:
5628:
5626:
5623:
5621:
5618:
5616:
5613:
5611:
5608:
5606:
5603:
5601:
5598:
5596:
5593:
5591:
5588:
5586:
5583:
5581:
5578:
5576:
5573:
5571:
5568:
5566:
5563:
5561:
5558:
5556:
5553:
5552:
5550:
5548:
5544:
5539:
5536:
5534:
5531:
5529:
5526:
5524:
5521:
5519:
5516:
5514:
5511:
5509:
5506:
5503:
5499:
5496:
5494:
5491:
5489:
5486:
5484:
5483:Creature suit
5481:
5479:
5476:
5474:
5471:
5469:
5466:
5464:
5461:
5458:
5454:
5451:
5449:
5447:
5443:
5439:
5432:
5427:
5425:
5420:
5418:
5413:
5412:
5409:
5403:
5402:
5399:
5389:
5386:
5384:
5381:
5379:
5376:
5374:
5371:
5369:
5366:
5364:
5361:
5359:
5356:
5355:
5353:
5349:
5343:
5340:
5336:
5333:
5331:
5328:
5326:
5323:
5321:
5318:
5317:
5316:
5313:
5312:
5310:
5306:
5300:
5297:
5295:
5292:
5290:
5289:Walk and talk
5287:
5285:
5282:
5280:
5277:
5275:
5272:
5270:
5267:
5265:
5262:
5260:
5257:
5253:
5250:
5249:
5248:
5245:
5243:
5240:
5238:
5235:
5234:
5232:
5228:
5218:
5215:
5213:
5210:
5208:
5205:
5203:
5200:
5198:
5195:
5193:
5190:
5188:
5185:
5183:
5180:
5178:
5175:
5174:
5172:
5170:
5166:
5160:
5156:
5153:
5151:
5148:
5146:
5143:
5141:
5135:
5133:
5130:
5128:
5125:
5124:
5121:
5118:
5114:
5108:
5105:
5103:
5100:
5098:
5095:
5093:
5090:
5088:
5085:
5083:
5080:
5079:
5077:
5073:
5070:
5068:
5064:
5056:
5055:Sound effects
5053:
5051:
5048:
5046:
5043:
5042:
5041:
5038:
5036:
5033:
5032:
5030:
5028:
5024:
5018:
5015:
5013:
5010:
5008:
5005:
5003:
5000:
4998:
4995:
4993:
4990:
4988:
4985:
4983:
4980:
4978:
4975:
4973:
4970:
4968:
4965:
4963:
4960:
4959:
4957:
4955:
4951:
4947:
4940:
4935:
4933:
4928:
4926:
4921:
4920:
4917:
4905:
4896:
4894:
4885:
4884:
4881:
4875:
4872:
4870:
4867:
4865:
4862:
4858:
4855:
4853:
4850:
4849:
4848:
4845:
4844:
4842:
4838:
4832:
4829:
4825:
4822:
4820:
4817:
4815:
4812:
4810:
4807:
4806:
4805:
4804:Photographers
4802:
4800:
4797:
4795:
4792:
4790:
4787:
4786:
4784:
4780:
4774:
4771:
4769:
4766:
4764:
4761:
4759:
4756:
4754:
4751:
4749:
4746:
4744:
4741:
4739:
4736:
4734:
4731:
4729:
4726:
4724:
4721:
4719:
4716:
4714:
4711:
4709:
4706:
4704:
4701:
4699:
4696:
4694:
4693:Bleach bypass
4691:
4690:
4688:
4686:
4680:
4672:
4669:
4667:
4664:
4662:
4661:primary color
4659:
4657:
4654:
4653:
4652:
4649:
4647:
4646:Reversal film
4644:
4640:
4637:
4636:
4635:
4632:
4631:
4629:
4627:
4623:
4617:
4614:
4612:
4611:Image sharing
4609:
4605:
4602:
4600:
4597:
4595:
4592:
4590:
4587:
4586:
4585:
4582:
4580:
4577:
4575:
4572:
4570:
4567:
4563:
4560:
4558:
4555:
4551:
4548:
4547:
4546:
4543:
4542:
4541:
4538:
4537:
4535:
4533:
4529:
4523:
4520:
4518:
4515:
4513:
4512:United States
4510:
4508:
4505:
4503:
4500:
4498:
4495:
4493:
4490:
4488:
4485:
4483:
4480:
4478:
4475:
4473:
4470:
4468:
4465:
4463:
4460:
4458:
4455:
4453:
4450:
4448:
4445:
4443:
4440:
4438:
4435:
4433:
4430:
4428:
4425:
4423:
4420:
4419:
4417:
4413:
4407:
4404:
4402:
4399:
4397:
4394:
4392:
4389:
4387:
4384:
4382:
4379:
4377:
4374:
4372:
4371:Daguerreotype
4369:
4367:
4364:
4362:
4359:
4357:
4354:
4352:
4349:
4347:
4344:
4342:
4339:
4337:
4334:
4333:
4331:
4329:
4325:
4319:
4316:
4314:
4311:
4309:
4306:
4304:
4301:
4299:
4296:
4294:
4291:
4289:
4286:
4285:
4283:
4281:
4277:
4271:
4268:
4266:
4263:
4261:
4258:
4256:
4253:
4251:
4248:
4244:
4241:
4240:
4239:
4236:
4234:
4231:
4227:
4224:
4223:
4222:
4219:
4217:
4216:Stopping down
4214:
4212:
4209:
4207:
4204:
4202:
4199:
4197:
4194:
4192:
4189:
4187:
4184:
4182:
4181:Rephotography
4179:
4177:
4174:
4172:
4169:
4167:
4164:
4162:
4159:
4157:
4154:
4152:
4149:
4147:
4144:
4142:
4139:
4137:
4134:
4132:
4129:
4127:
4124:
4122:
4119:
4117:
4116:Long-exposure
4114:
4112:
4109:
4107:
4104:
4102:
4099:
4097:
4094:
4092:
4089:
4087:
4084:
4082:
4079:
4077:
4074:
4072:
4069:
4067:
4064:
4062:
4059:
4057:
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4047:
4044:
4042:
4039:
4037:
4034:
4032:
4029:
4028:
4026:
4022:
4016:
4013:
4011:
4008:
4006:
4003:
4001:
3998:
3996:
3993:
3991:
3988:
3986:
3983:
3981:
3978:
3976:
3973:
3971:
3968:
3966:
3963:
3959:
3956:
3955:
3954:
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3946:
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3941:
3939:
3936:
3934:
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3926:
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3916:
3914:
3911:
3909:
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3899:
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3894:
3891:
3889:
3886:
3884:
3881:
3879:
3876:
3874:
3871:
3869:
3866:
3864:
3861:
3859:
3856:
3854:
3851:
3849:
3846:
3844:
3841:
3839:
3836:
3834:
3831:
3829:
3826:
3824:
3821:
3819:
3816:
3814:
3813:Architectural
3811:
3809:
3806:
3804:
3801:
3799:
3796:
3795:
3793:
3789:
3783:
3780:
3778:
3775:
3773:
3772:Shutter speed
3770:
3768:
3765:
3763:
3760:
3758:
3755:
3753:
3750:
3746:
3743:
3742:
3741:
3738:
3736:
3733:
3731:
3728:
3726:
3725:Metering mode
3723:
3721:
3718:
3716:
3713:
3711:
3708:
3706:
3703:
3701:
3698:
3694:
3691:
3689:
3686:
3685:
3684:
3681:
3679:
3676:
3674:
3671:
3669:
3666:
3664:
3661:
3659:
3656:
3654:
3651:
3649:
3646:
3644:
3641:
3639:
3638:Color balance
3636:
3634:
3631:
3629:
3626:
3624:
3621:
3619:
3616:
3614:
3611:
3609:
3606:
3604:
3603:Angle of view
3601:
3599:
3596:
3595:
3593:
3589:
3583:
3580:
3576:
3573:
3572:
3571:
3568:
3566:
3563:
3561:
3558:
3556:
3553:
3551:
3550:Manufacturers
3548:
3544:
3541:
3539:
3536:
3534:
3531:
3529:
3526:
3524:
3521:
3519:
3516:
3514:
3511:
3510:
3509:
3506:
3502:
3499:
3497:
3494:
3492:
3489:
3487:
3484:
3482:
3479:
3477:
3474:
3472:
3469:
3467:
3464:
3462:
3459:
3458:
3457:
3454:
3452:
3449:
3445:
3442:
3440:
3437:
3435:
3432:
3430:
3427:
3425:
3422:
3420:
3417:
3416:
3415:
3412:
3408:
3405:
3403:
3400:
3399:
3398:
3395:
3391:
3388:
3386:
3383:
3381:
3378:
3376:
3373:
3371:
3368:
3366:
3363:
3361:
3358:
3356:
3353:
3351:
3348:
3346:
3343:
3341:
3338:
3336:
3333:
3331:
3328:
3327:
3326:
3323:
3322:
3320:
3316:
3312:
3305:
3300:
3298:
3293:
3291:
3286:
3285:
3282:
3275:
3272:
3269:
3266:
3263:
3260:
3257:
3254:
3251:
3248:
3246:
3243:
3242:
3232:
3228:
3224:
3222:0-935578-15-3
3218:
3213:
3212:
3205:
3204:
3193:
3189:
3185:
3183:0-240-80033-8
3179:
3175:
3170:
3167:
3166:0-8194-4336-0
3163:
3157:
3152:
3148:
3144:
3140:
3139:
3134:
3130:
3126:
3122:
3118:
3116:3-7231-0030-9
3112:
3108:
3103:
3099:
3095:
3091:
3089:0-240-50901-3
3085:
3081:
3076:
3072:
3068:
3064:
3060:
3056:
3052:
3047:
3043:
3039:
3035:
3033:0-912656-59-X
3029:
3025:
3020:
3016:
3010:
3006:
3005:
2999:
2995:
2989:
2985:
2984:
2978:
2974:
2970:
2966:
2964:0-240-51540-4
2960:
2956:
2951:
2947:
2943:
2939:
2937:0-240-51574-9
2933:
2929:
2924:
2920:
2916:
2912:
2910:0-240-51387-8
2906:
2902:
2897:
2894:
2888:
2883:
2880:
2876:
2870:
2866:
2862:
2860:0-9695025-2-4
2856:
2852:
2847:
2844:
2840:
2834:
2830:
2826:
2824:0-9695025-0-8
2820:
2816:
2811:
2807:
2803:
2799:
2797:0-8174-2456-3
2793:
2789:
2784:
2780:
2776:
2772:
2768:
2764:
2760:
2756:
2752:
2747:
2741:
2737:
2733:
2729:
2725:
2721:
2717:
2713:
2709:
2704:
2701:
2695:
2690:
2686:
2682:
2678:
2676:0-87985-160-0
2672:
2668:
2664:
2659:
2656:
2650:
2646:
2643:: 1096–1098.
2642:
2641:SMPTE Journal
2637:
2634:
2632:
2626:
2624:9780821210925
2620:
2615:
2614:
2607:
2606:
2594:, p. 55.
2593:
2588:
2573:
2566:
2559:
2551:
2550:
2542:
2534:
2533:
2525:
2517:
2510:
2503:
2498:
2491:
2486:
2479:
2474:
2467:
2461:
2454:
2448:
2441:
2436:
2429:
2428:Stokseth 1969
2424:
2417:
2412:
2405:
2400:
2393:
2392:Peterson 1996
2388:
2381:
2376:
2370:, p. 84.
2369:
2364:
2358:, p. 53.
2357:
2352:
2346:, p. 64.
2345:
2340:
2338:
2330:
2325:
2314:
2310:
2306:
2302:
2298:
2294:
2290:
2286:
2282:
2278:
2274:
2267:
2260:
2253:
2247:
2240:
2234:
2227:
2221:
2214:
2208:
2202:, p. 51.
2201:
2196:
2189:
2184:
2182:
2175:, p. 71.
2174:
2169:
2162:
2157:
2142:
2140:9781136053542
2136:
2132:
2131:
2123:
2107:
2106:
2099:
2092:
2087:
2079:
2073:
2065:
2059:
2051:
2047:
2040:
2032:
2026:
2018:
2014:
2007:
1999:
1995:
1988:
1980:
1976:
1970:
1963:(Whitepaper).
1962:
1955:
1948:
1940:
1934:
1930:
1923:
1915:
1911:
1905:
1897:
1891:
1887:
1886:
1878:
1870:
1864:
1860:
1853:
1846:
1841:
1837:
1818:
1808:
1801:
1797:
1796:Gibson (1975)
1791:
1778:
1771:
1767:
1761:
1748:
1739:
1735:
1724:
1721:
1719:
1716:
1714:
1711:
1709:
1706:
1703:
1700:
1698:
1695:
1693:
1690:
1688:
1685:
1683:
1680:
1678:
1677:Angle of view
1675:
1674:
1667:
1660:
1657:
1644:
1639:
1628:
1614:
1610:
1607:
1593:
1589:
1586:
1574:
1566:
1554:
1550:
1544:
1541:
1533:
1528:
1521:
1509:
1500:
1490:
1477:
1469:
1466:
1463:
1455:
1444:
1435:
1419:
1417:
1409:
1402:
1397:
1393:
1392:harmonic mean
1388:
1375:
1361:
1357:
1346:
1332:
1320:
1316:
1310:
1307:
1299:
1297:
1289:
1280:
1265:
1263:
1259:
1249:
1215:
1208:
1204:
1192:
1188:
1186:
1182:
1181:Thomas Sutton
1178:
1174:
1167:
1160:
1149:
1142:
1135:
1125:
1123:
1119:
1115:
1111:
1107:
1088:
1084:
1048:
1044:
1036:
1029:
1008:
1003:
978:
973:
972:
971:
956:
942:
906:
904:
899:
878:
875:
859:
850:
848:
844:
839:
812:
807:
805:
800:
798:
794:
790:
784:
780:
775:
757:
755:
750:
747:
743:
739:
733:
731:
717:
702:
691:
674:
664:
662:
658:
649:
646:
644:
593:
559:
525:
516:
512:
508:
504:
490:
484:
472:
458:
454:
445:
439:
435:
433:
414:
411:
408:
404:
399:
396:
391:
387:
377:
362:
357:
349:
345:
341:
336:
333:
329:
324:
321:
318:
315:
310:
305:
300:
297:
292:
287:
284:
281:
278:
265:
254:
238:
229:
216:
199:
195:
190:
187:
182:
178:
174:
168:
155:
153:
148:
146:
133:
129:
125:
121:
117:
113:
108:
99:
97:
96:
91:
87:
83:
79:
63:
48:
41:
37:
33:
28:
22:
5725:Split screen
5720:Smallgantics
5710:Match moving
5518:Pyrotechnics
5468:Animatronics
5324:
5308:Lens effects
5169:Camera angle
5157: /
5040:Non-diegetic
4869:Polaroid art
4758:K-14 process
4753:Instant film
4748:Gum printing
4698:C-41 process
4683:Photographic
4584:Image sensor
4579:Film scanner
4233:Sun printing
4166:Print toning
3958:space selfie
3928:Pictorialism
3858:Ethnographic
3838:Conservation
3710:Guide number
3705:Focal length
3647:
3210:
3173:
3155:
3137:
3106:
3079:
3054:
3050:
3023:
3007:. Lulu.com.
3003:
2982:
2954:
2927:
2900:
2886:
2850:
2814:
2787:
2754:
2750:
2711:
2707:
2693:
2666:
2662:
2640:
2630:
2628:
2612:
2587:
2575:. Retrieved
2571:
2558:
2552:. p. 9.
2548:
2541:
2531:
2524:
2515:
2509:
2497:
2485:
2473:
2460:
2447:
2435:
2423:
2416:Hopkins 1955
2411:
2399:
2387:
2375:
2363:
2351:
2324:
2276:
2272:
2259:
2250:Clarke, T. "
2246:
2233:
2220:
2207:
2195:
2168:
2156:
2144:. Retrieved
2129:
2122:
2110:. Retrieved
2104:
2098:
2091:Savazzi 2011
2086:
2072:
2058:
2049:
2039:
2025:
2016:
2006:
1997:
1987:
1978:
1969:
1960:
1947:
1928:
1922:
1913:
1904:
1884:
1877:
1858:
1852:
1840:
1816:
1807:
1799:
1790:
1777:
1760:
1747:
1738:
1702:Frazier lens
1687:Camera angle
1661:
1658:
1534:
1507:
1498:
1491:
1436:
1425:
1416:focus spread
1415:
1407:
1400:
1389:
1300:
1287:
1278:
1271:
1255:
1252:DOF formulae
1231:
1206:
1179:
1172:
1165:
1158:
1147:
1140:
1133:
1126:
1103:
1078:to infinity.
957:
943:
912:
900:
879:
856:
840:
808:
801:
795:
791:
763:
751:
745:
734:
723:
703:
692:
676:
650:
647:
639:
513:
506:
502:
491:
464:
436:
378:
266:
255:
239:
217:
156:
152:focal length
149:
141:
131:
123:
119:
115:
111:
94:
81:
77:
75:
34:showing the
5730:Stop motion
5705:Introvision
5685:Compositing
5675:Bullet time
5657:Stop motion
5645:Slow motion
5640:Fast motion
5585:Lens flares
5560:Bullet time
5533:Sugar glass
5523:Rubber mask
5457:wire-flying
5363:Master shot
5217:Dutch angle
5127:Perspective
4874:Stereoscopy
4733:E-6 process
4728:Dye coupler
4656:color space
4569:Digiscoping
4562:camera back
4477:Philippines
4406:Visual arts
4396:Glass plate
4381:Heliography
4280:Composition
4255:Ultraviolet
4211:Stereoscopy
4206:Slow motion
4191:Scanography
4106:Kite aerial
4051:Contre-jour
3943:Post-mortem
3933:Pornography
3913:Neues Sehen
3848:Documentary
3782:Zone System
3757:Reciprocity
3683:Film format
3613:Backscatter
3591:Terminology
3461:beauty dish
3365:rangefinder
3330:light-field
3311:Photography
2592:Hansma 1996
2577:10 February
2404:Couzin 1982
2380:Hansma 1996
2356:Gibson 1975
2344:Gibson 1975
2146:24 February
2112:24 February
1859:Photography
1110:photography
1098:100 mm
874:motion blur
858:Diffraction
811:apodization
779:reconstruct
754:Ansel Adams
749:paramount.
673:View camera
5749:Categories
5680:Chroma key
5635:Time-lapse
5600:Filtration
5565:Dolly zoom
5493:Kitbashing
5299:Dolly zoom
5197:Crane shot
5192:Bird's-eye
5187:High-angle
5075:Field size
5050:Film score
4992:Lens flare
4962:Background
4864:Lomography
4685:processing
4634:Print film
4550:comparison
4517:Uzbekistan
4467:Luxembourg
4427:Bangladesh
4376:Dufaycolor
4356:Box camera
4313:Simplicity
4270:Zoom burst
4265:Xerography
4260:Vignetting
4250:Time-lapse
4238:Tilt–shift
4131:Mordançage
4121:Luminogram
4086:Holography
4081:High-speed
4061:Fill flash
4046:Burst mode
4024:Techniques
4005:Vernacular
4000:Underwater
3995:Toy camera
3975:Still life
3903:Monochrome
3893:High-speed
3843:Cloudscape
3833:Conceptual
3735:Photograph
3720:Lens flare
3700:Film speed
3582:Zone plate
3528:wide-angle
3513:long-focus
3125:1193525959
2869:1072495227
2631:The Camera
2613:The Camera
2200:Adams 1980
1827:References
1076:0.7 m
993:limits at
941:markings.
909:DOF scales
671:See also:
379:Note that
5700:Go motion
5625:Slit-scan
5547:In-camera
5446:Practical
5378:Long take
5284:SnorriCam
5279:Steadicam
5259:Hand-held
5207:Low-angle
5045:Narration
5007:Rembrandt
4809:Norwegian
4773:Stop bath
4718:Developer
4713:Cyanotype
4341:Ambrotype
4303:Lead room
4226:Slit-scan
4161:Photogram
4156:Panoramic
4066:Fireworks
3898:Landscape
3543:telephoto
3491:reflector
3486:monolight
3481:lens hood
3466:cucoloris
3407:safelight
3318:Equipment
3147:750993595
2779:0146-9592
2736:121289809
2309:120502243
2301:1633-4760
2279:: 77–92.
2017:Fstoppers
1832:Citations
1590:±
1467:−
927:f-numbers
870:f-numbers
862:f-numbers
845:captures
836:f-numbers
783:depth map
704:When the
412:−
400:−
337:−
279:≈
169:≈
5513:Puppetry
5383:One-shot
5269:Tracking
5252:Whip pan
5202:Jib shot
5107:Two shot
5097:Close-up
5087:American
5067:Shooting
5035:Diegetic
4982:High-key
4954:Lighting
4893:Category
4589:CMOS APS
4487:Slovenia
4415:Regional
4361:Calotype
4298:Headroom
4176:Redscale
4091:Infrared
4041:Brenizer
4015:Wildlife
3938:Portrait
3883:Forensic
3873:Fine-art
3808:Aircraft
3798:Abstract
3678:F-number
3658:Exposure
3633:Clipping
3608:Aperture
3476:hot shoe
3402:enlarger
3397:Darkroom
3231:49686312
3192:19514912
3135:(1906).
2973:47868399
2946:44267873
2919:31648843
2889:: 51–53.
2833:23651332
2502:Ray 1994
2478:Ray 1994
2313:Archived
1783:f-number
1753:f-number
1670:See also
1527:aperture
1520:f-number
1406:−
1296:f-number
1199:2 m
1195:2 m
968:f-number
960:f-number
939:f-number
931:f-number
919:f-number
896:f-number
891:f-number
886:f-number
882:f-number
726:f-number
597:Aperture
563:Aperture
529:Aperture
494:f-number
475:f-number
471:f-number
455:increase
446:decrease
440:affects
246:f-number
242:f-number
228:f-number
5689:digital
5687: (
5555:Bipacks
5502:hanging
5500: (
5455: (
5342:Zooming
5330:Shallow
5320:Racking
5247:Panning
5242:Tilting
5145:Reverse
5102:Italian
4997:Low-key
4904:Outline
4840:Related
4522:Vietnam
4507:Ukraine
4442:Denmark
4422:Albania
4401:Tintype
4328:History
4293:Framing
4186:Rollout
4151:Panning
4101:Kirlian
4010:Wedding
3888:Glamour
3868:Fashion
3853:Eclipse
3823:Banquet
3745:Albumen
3555:Monopod
3533:fisheye
3501:softbox
3355:pinhole
3345:instant
3335:digital
3098:3856606
3059:Bibcode
3042:3403925
2806:4883084
2759:Bibcode
2716:Bibcode
2685:1991448
2281:Bibcode
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2046:"DOF2"
1935:
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