Hindu temple - Knowledge

5929: 4651: 3576: 4631: 6052: 4349: 5961: 7229: 4640: 3808: 6993: 5630: 4170: 5518: 4681:, from about 1000 BCE; according to scholars, the word was used to denote any work of art. Some scholars suggest that the word "Silpa" has no direct or one-word translation in English, nor does the word "Silpin". "Silpa", explains Stella Kramrisch, is a multicolored word and incorporates art, skill, craft, ingenuity, imagination, form, expression and inventiveness of any art or craft. Similarly, "Shilpin", notes Kramrisch, is a complex Sanskrit word, describing any person who embodies art, science, culture, skill, and rhythm and employs creative principles to produce any divine form of expression. Silpins who built Hindu temples, as well as the artworks and sculptures within them, were considered by the ancient Sanskrit texts to deploy arts whose number are unlimited, Kala (techniques) that were 64 in number, and Vidya (science) that were of 32 types. 5479: 5564: 6080: 4707: 5530: 5498: 6560: 7261: 5909: 6001: 4723: 4689:

overseers) and Taksakas (sculptors). While the temple is under construction, all those working on the temple were revered and considered sacerdotal by the patron as well as others witnessing the construction. Further, it was a tradition that all tools and materials used in temple building and all creative work had the sanction of a sacrament. For example, if a carpenter or sculptor needed to fell a tree or cut a rock from a hill, he would propitiate the tree or rock with prayers, seeking forgiveness for cutting it from its surroundings, and explaining his intent and purpose. The axe used to cut the tree would be anointed with butter to minimize the hurt to the tree. Even in modern times, in some parts of India such as

4340: 10574:, Quote: "There were some institutions which may be called temple-colleges and strove for the promotion of education in the country. They also acted as great residential institutions and offered facilities for the study and stay of hundreds of students and teachers from far and near. Some of these were triple institutions, a college, a hostel and a hospital knit together. Many of such institutions are found described in the Chola inscriptions. (...) But the earliest known Vedic institution of advanced studies that existed in the Tamil country was the vidyasthana at Bahur near Pondicherry. A copper plate grant issued during the reign of Nripatungavarman (877 CE) records the gift of certain villages as 7132: 7292: 5981: 7349: 6451: 6124: 6816: 5576: 116: 4395: 4079:, describing where and how temples should be built. Sanskrit manuals have been found in India since the 6th century CE. Vastu-Sastra manuals included chapters on home construction, town planning, and how efficient villages, towns and kingdoms integrated temples, water bodies and gardens within them to achieve harmony with nature. While it is unclear, states Barnett, as to whether these temple and town planning texts were theoretical studies and if or when they were properly implemented in practice, the manuals suggest that town planning and Hindu temples were conceived as ideals of art and integral part of Hindu social and spiritual life. 3966: 6096: 7070: 4945:(hospice, kitchen) with the religious center where people from all social backgrounds could be fed and cared for. According to Zysk, both Buddhist monasteries and Hindu religious centers provided facilities to care for the sick and needy in the 1st millennium, but with the destruction of Buddhist centers after the 12th century, the Hindu religious institutions assumed these social responsibilities. According to George Michell, Hindu temples in South India were active charity centers and they provided free meal for wayfarers, pilgrims and devotees, as well as boarding facilities for students and hospitals for the sick. 85: 9555:. In Hindu temple manuals, design plans are described with 1, 4, 9, 16, 25, 36, 49, 64, 81 up to 1024 squares; 1 pada is considered the simplest plan, as a seat for a hermit or devotee to sit and meditate on, or make offerings with the Vedic fire in front. The second design of 4 padas lacks the central core, and is also a meditative constructive. The 9-pada design has a sacred surrounded center, and is the template for the smallest temple. Older Hindu temple vastu-mandalas may use the 9- through 49-pada series, but 64 is considered the most sacred geometric grid in Hindu temples. It is also called 105: 6025: 4404: 96: 5928: 5592: 7322: 3909: 6473: 5109: 4591:, a boundary and gateway separates the secular and the sacred, and this gateway door is grand. In Hindu tradition, this is discarded in favor of an open and diffusive architecture, where the secular world was not separated from the sacred, but transitioned and flowed into the sacred. The Hindu temple has structural walls, which were patterned usually within the 64-grid, or other geometric layouts. Yet the layout was open on all sides, except for the core space with a single opening for darsana. The temple space is laid out in a series of courts ( 4685:

age 5 to 12. The advanced students would continue in higher stages of Shilpa Sastra studies till the age of 25. Apart from specialist technical competence, the manuals suggest that best Silpins for building a Hindu temple are those who know the essence of Vedas and Agamas, consider themselves as students, keep well verse with principles of traditional sciences and mathematics, painting and geography. Further they are kind, free from jealousy, righteous, have their sense under control, of happy disposition, and ardent in everything they do.

65: 4083: 7368: 56: 6935: 6419: 5460: 4471: 7417: 6681: 5035: 4454:, built in the 8th century CE, is not a square but a rectangle in 2:3 proportion. Further, the temple explores a number of structures and shrines in 1:1, 1:2, 1:3, 2:5, 3:5 and 4:5 ratios. These ratios are exact, suggesting that the architect intended to use these harmonic ratios, and the rectangle pattern was not a mistake, nor an arbitrary approximation. Other examples of non-square harmonic ratios are found at the Naresar temple site of Madhya Pradesh and at the Nakti-Mata temple near 6462: 5720:, mandapa for sheltering the devotees and rituals in progress, as well as symbolic motifs relating to dharma, karma, kama, artha and moksha. Temple superstructures were built from stone, brick and wide range of materials. Entrance ways, walls and pillars were intricately carved, while parts of temple were decorated with gold, silver and jewels. Visnu, Siva and other deities were placed in Hindu temples, while Buddhists and Jains built their own temples, often side by side with Hindus. 13854: 5549: 8260: 5368:

rivers, and stupas, before the time of Buddha and Vardhamana Mahavira. As Jainism and Buddhism branched off from the religious tradition later to be called Hinduism, the ideas, designs and plans of ancient Vedic and Upanishad era shrines were adopted and evolved, likely from the competitive development of temples and arts in Jainism and Buddhism. Ancient reliefs found so far, states Michael Meister, suggest five basic shrine designs and combinations thereof in 1st millennium BCE:

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numbers and particular alignments connected to the temple's location and the relationship between the deity and the worshipper, the temple's design also illustrates the idea of recursion and the equivalency of the macrocosm and the microcosm. A temple incorporates all elements of the Hindu cosmos—presenting the good, the evil and the human, as well as the elements of the Hindu sense of cyclic time and the essence of life—symbolically presenting

4744: 3886:, the Supreme Principle, the sacred Universal, one without form, which is omnipresent, connects everything, and is the essence of everyone. A Hindu temple is meant to encourage reflection, facilitate purification of one's mind, and trigger the process of inner realization within the devotee. The specific process is left to the devotee's school of belief. The primary deity of different Hindu temples varies to reflect this spiritual spectrum. 6225: 125: 12494: 13821: 13736: 7806: 5024: 4792: 4830: 7185:"The temples serve as central locations where Hindus can come together to worship during holy festivals and socialize with other Hindus. Temples in America reflect the colorful kaleidoscopic aspects contained in Hinduism while unifying people who are disbursed throughout the American landscape." Numerous temples in North America and Europe have gained particular prominence and acclaim, many of which were built by the 7702: 7693: 7684: 7675: 7666: 7657: 7648: 7639: 7630: 7621: 7612: 7603: 7594: 7585: 6587: 13755: 13688: 7576: 7535: 7526: 7501: 7476: 7467: 7458: 7449: 7440: 8297: 7485: 3532: 12482: 7544: 6304: 7790: 7510: 6051: 7424: 7781: 7772: 7763: 7738: 7729: 7720: 7711: 13669: 7560: 6887: 7747: 5686: 5648: 5174: 13962: 7405:, management, and events. Since independence, the autonomy of individual Hindu religious denominations to manage their own affairs with respect to temples of their own denomination has been severely eroded and the state governments have taken control of major Hindu temples in some countries; however, in others, such as the United States, private temple management autonomy has been preserved. 4767:. Most worked part-time and received the use of temple farmland as reward. For those thus employed by the temple, according to Michell, "some gratuitous services were usually considered obligatory, such as dragging the temple chariots on festival occasions and helping when a large building project was undertaken". Temples also acted as refuge during times of political unrest and danger. 13783: 13924: 4207:

the circle is considered earthly, human and observed in everyday life (moon, sun, horizon, water drop, rainbow). Each supports the other. The square is divided into perfect 64 (or in some cases 81) sub-squares called padas. Each pada is conceptually assigned to a symbolic element, sometimes in the form of a deity. The central square(s) of the 64- or 81-grid is dedicated to

7096: 13943: 13905: 5891:. Historian Sita Ram Goel's book "What happened to Hindu Temples" lists over 2000 sites where temples have been destroyed and mosques have been built over them. Some historians suggest that around 30,000 temples were destroyed by Islamic rulers between 1200 and 1800 CE. Destruction of Hindu temple sites was comparatively less in the southern parts of India, such as in 219: 4527:, awareness of self, the discovery of higher truths, true nature of reality, and a consciousness that is liberated and content. A Hindu temple reflects these core beliefs. The central core of almost all Hindu temples is not a large communal space; the temple is designed for the individual, a couple or a family—a small, private space to allow visitors to experience 3850:. It is a sacred site whose ambience and design attempts to symbolically condense the ideal tenets of the Hindu way of life. In a Hindu temple, all the cosmic components that produce and maintain life are there, from fire to water, from depictions of the natural world to gods, from genders that are feminine or masculine to those that are everlasting and universal. 7119:—a cluster of 70 temples with earliest dated to be from the 4th century CE and dedicated to Siva, while others are dedicated to Hindu deities Krishna, Vishnu and others. These temples, internally and with respect to each other, are also built on the Hindu perfect square grid concept. Other sites in Vietnam with Hindu temples include Phan Rang with the Cham temple 6905:), the capital of the Khmer Empire, as his state temple and eventual mausoleum. Breaking from the Shaiva tradition of previous kings, Angkor Wat was instead dedicated to Vishnu. The Spire in Khmer Hindu temple is called Giri (mountain) and symbolizes the residence of gods just like Meru does in Bali Hindu mythology and Ku (Guha) does in Burmese Hindu mythology. 4740:

wide spectrum of the Indian society, ranging from kings, queens, officials in the kingdom to merchants, priests and shepherds. Temples also managed lands endowed to it by its devotees upon their death. They would provide employment to the poorest. Some temples had large treasury, with gold and silver coins, and these temples served as banks.

3656:). The layout, the motifs, the plan and the building process recite ancient rituals, geometric symbolisms, and reflect beliefs and values innate within various schools of Hinduism. A Hindu temple is a spiritual destination for many Hindus, as well as landmarks around which ancient arts, community celebrations and the economy have flourished. 5960: 3894:

celebrate arts through dance and music, to get married or commemorate marriages, the birth of a child, other significant life events or the death of a loved one. In political and economic life, Hindu temples have served as a venue for succession within dynasties and landmarks around which economic activity thrived.

5238:: are images that were pacific, peaceful and expressive of love, compassion, kindness and other virtues in Hindu pantheon. These images would carry symbolic icons of peace, knowledge, music, wealth, flowers, sensuality among other things. In ancient India, these temples were predominant inside villages and towns. 9893:, page 8; Quote: "(...) one need not be religious in the minimal sense described to be accepted as a Hindu by Hindus, or describe oneself perfectly validly as Hindu. One may be polytheistic or monotheistic, monistic or pantheistic, even an agnostic, humanist or atheist, and still be considered a Hindu."; 5769:

It is the 5th through 7th century CE when outer design and appearances of Hindu temples in north India and south India began to widely diverge. Nevertheless, the forms, theme, symbolism and central ideas in the grid design remained same, before and after, pan-India as innovations were adopted to give

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since early times. These were attached to Hindu temples, particularly in South India, providing a bed and meal to pilgrims. They relied on any voluntary donation the visitor may leave and to land grants from local rulers. Some temples have operated their kitchens on a daily basis to serve the visitor

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The Hindu manuals of temple construction describe the education, characteristics of good artists and architects. The general education of a Hindu Shilpin in ancient India included Lekha or Lipi (alphabet, reading and writing), Rupa (drawing and geometry), Ganana (arithmetic). These were imparted from

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The architecture of Hindu temples is also symbolic. The whole structure fuses the daily life and its surroundings with the divine concepts, through a structure that is open yet raised on a terrace, transitioning from the secular towards the sacred, inviting the visitor inwards and upwards towards the

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The majority of Hindu temples in Java were dedicated to Shiva, who Javanese Hindus considered as the God who commands the energy to destroy, recombine and recreate the cycle of life. Small temples were often dedicated to Shiva and his family (wife Durga, son Ganesha). Larger temple complexes include

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rulers, these gateways became a dominant feature of a temple's outer appearance, eventually overshadowing the inner sanctuary which became obscured from view by the gopuram's colossal size. It also dominated the inner sanctum in amount of ornamentation. Often a shrine has more than one gopuram. They

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or images, but larger temples usually do. Personal Hindu temples at home or a hermitage may have a pada for yoga or meditation, but be devoid of anthropomorphic representations of god. Nature or others arts may surround him or her. To a Hindu yogin, states Gopinath Rao, one who has realised the Self

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and the lonely sacred. In the same spirit, Hindu temples are not just sacred spaces; they are also secular spaces. Their meaning and purpose have extended beyond spiritual life to social rituals and daily life, offering thus a social meaning. Some temples have served as a venue to mark festivals, to

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Many members of the diaspora from the Indian subcontinent have established Hindu temples outside India as a means of preserving and celebrating cultural and spiritual heritage abroad. Describing the hundreds of temples that can be found throughout the United States, scholar Gail M. Harley observes,

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Destruction, conversion, and rebuilding Many Hindu temples have been destroyed, some, after rebuilding, several times. Deliberate temple destruction usually had religious motives. Richard Eaton has listed 80 campaigns of Hindu temple site destruction stretching over centuries, particularly from the

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have been found from 2nd to 3rd century, but none of the temple structures have survived. Scholars theorize that those ancient temples of India, later referred to as Hindu temples, were modeled after domestic structure—a house or a palace. Beyond shrines, nature was revered, in forms such as trees,

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In arid western parts of India, such as Rajasthan and Gujarat, Hindu communities built large walk-in wells that served as the only source of water in dry months but also served as social meeting places and carried religious significance. These monuments went down into the earth towards subterranean

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in the early 2nd millennium, were dominated by non-Brahmins. These assumed many educational functions, including the exposition, recitation and public discourses of Sanskrit and Vedic texts. Some temple schools offered wide range of studies, ranging from Hindu scriptures to Buddhist texts, grammar,

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Hindu temples over time became wealthy from grants and donations from royal patrons as well as private individuals. Major temples became employers and patrons of economic activity. They sponsored land reclamation and infrastructure improvements, states Michell, including building facilities such as

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states that South Indian temples managed regional development function, such as irrigation projects, land reclamation, post-disaster relief and recovery. These activities were paid for by the donations (melvarum) they collected from devotees. According to James Heitzman, these donations came from a

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The four cardinal directions help create the axis of a Hindu temple, around which is formed a perfect square in the space available. The circle of the mandala circumscribes the square. The square is considered divine for its perfection and as a symbolic product of knowledge and human thought, while

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suggest temples may also be built where a natural source of water is not present. Here too, they recommend that a pond be built preferably in front or to the left of the temple with water gardens. If water is neither present naturally nor by design, water is symbolically present at the consecration

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Between 1,100 and 1,500 additional Hindu temples were built, but abandoned by Hindus and Buddhists as Islam spread in Java circa 15th to 16th century. In last 200 years, some of these have been rediscovered mostly by farmers while preparing their lands for crops. Most of these ancient temples were

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In larger temples, the central space typically is surrounded by an ambulatory for the devotee to walk around and ritually circumambulate the Purusa, the universal essence. Often this space is visually decorated with carvings, paintings or images meant to inspire the devotee. In some temples, these

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of Odisha, authored by Ramacandra Bhattaraka Kaulacara in the 9th or 10th centuries CE, is another Sanskrit treatise on Temple Architecture. Silpa Prakasa describes the geometric principles in every aspect of the temple and symbolism such as 16 emotions of human beings carved as 16 types of female

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through worship, sacrifice, and prayers. It is considered the house of the god to whom it is dedicated. Hindu temple architecture, which makes extensive use of squares and circles, has its roots in Vedic traditions, which also influence the temples' construction and symbolism. Through astronomical

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However, devotees aspiring to a personal relationship with the Supreme Lord, whom they worship variously as Krishna or Shiva, for example, tend to reverse such hierarchical views of self-realization, holding that the personal form of the deity, as the source of the Brahma-jyoti, or the light into

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From names to forms, from images to stories carved into the walls of a temple, symbolism is everywhere in a Hindu temple. Life principles such as the pursuit of joy, connection and emotional pleasure (kama) are fused into mystical, erotic and architectural forms in Hindu temples. These motifs and

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may be a separate structure in older temples, but in newer temples this space is integrated into the temple superstructure. Mega-temple sites have a main temple surrounded by smaller temples and shrines, but these are still arranged by principles of symmetry, grids and mathematical precision. An

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Temples in Kerala have a different architectural style (keeping the same essence of Vastu), especially due to climatic differences Kerala have with other parts of India with larger rainfall. The temple roof is mostly tiled and is sloped and the walls are often square, the innermost shrine being

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A Hindu temple has a Shikhara (Vimana or Spire) that rises symmetrically above the central core of the temple. These spires come in many designs and shapes, but they all have mathematical precision and geometric symbolism. One of the common principles found in Hindu temple spires is circles and

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Susan Lewandowski states that the underlying principle in a Hindu temple is the belief that all things are one, that everything is connected. The pilgrim is welcomed through 64-grid or 81-grid mathematically structured spaces, a network of art, pillars with carvings and statues that display and

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In Hinduism, temples are considered sacred spaces where the divine is believed to manifest, and devotees visit these places to experience the presence and blessings of the deity. The customs and etiquette for visiting temples varies across India. Devotees in major temples may bring in symbolic

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to care for the sick and destitute. Another inscription dated to 1069 at a Vishnu temple in Tamil Nadu describes a hospital attached to the temple, listing the nurses, physicians, medicines and beds for patients. Similarly, a stone inscription in Andhra Pradesh dated to about 1262 mentions the

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According to Silparatna, a Hindu temple project would start with a Yajamana (patron), and include a Sthapaka (guru, spiritual guide and architect-priest), a Sthapati (architect) who would design the building, a Sutragrahin (surveyor), and many Vardhakins (workers, masons, painters, plasterers,

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in south India, that stretches towards the sky. Sometimes, in makeshift temples, the dome may be replaced with symbolic bamboo with few leaves at the top. The vertical dimension's cupola or dome is designed as a pyramid, a cone or other mountain-like shape, once again using the principle of

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The appropriate site for a temple, suggests ancient Sanskrit texts, is near water and gardens, where lotus and flowers bloom, where swans, ducks and other birds are heard, and where animals rest without fear of injury or harm. These harmonious places were recommended in these texts with the

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The temple architecture of Goa is quite unique. As Portuguese colonial hegemony increased, Goan Hindu temples became the rallying point to local resistance. Many these temples are not more than 500 years old, and are a unique blend of original Goan temple architecture, Dravidian, Nagar and

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Hindu temples come in many styles, are situated in diverse locations, deploy different construction methods and are adapted to different deities and regional beliefs, yet almost all of them share certain core ideas, symbolism and themes. They are found in South Asia, particularly

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figures. These styles were perfected in Hindu temples prevalent in the eastern states of India. Other ancient texts found expand these architectural principles, suggesting that different parts of India developed, invented and added their own interpretations. For example, in the

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and temples had by the 10th-century attached medical care along with their religious and educational roles. This is evidenced by various inscriptions found in Bengal, Andhra Pradesh and elsewhere. An inscription dated to about 930 CE states the provision of a physician to two

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Almost all Hindu temples take two forms: a house or a palace. A house-themed temple is a simple shelter that serves as a deity's home. The temple is a place where the devotee visits, just like he or she would visit a friend or relative. The use of moveable and immoveable

8432:; Quote: "The Hindu temple is designed to bring about contact between man and the gods of Hinduism religion" (...) "The architecture of the Hindu temple symbolically represents this quest by setting out to dissolve or decrease the boundaries between man and the divine". 4226:. The symmetric Vastu-purusa-mandala grids are sometimes combined to form a temple superstructure with two or more attached squares. The temples face sunrise, and the entrance for the devotee is typically this east side. The mandala pada facing sunrise is dedicated to 5063:, Ankol Mata Vav, Sikotari Vav and others. The temple ranged from being small single pada (cell) structure to large nearby complexes. These stepwells and their temple compounds have been variously dated from late 1st millennium BCE through 11th century CE. Of these, 5980: 7260: 7066:

temples for Vishnu and Brahma, but the most majestic, sophisticated and central temple was dedicated to Shiva. The 732 CE Canggal inscription found in Southern Central Java, written in Indonesian Sanskrit script, eulogizes Shiva, calling him God par-excellence.

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Visitors and worshipers to large Hindu temples may be required to deposit their shoes and other footwear before entering. Where this is expected, the temples provide an area and help staff to store footwear. Dress codes vary. It is customary in temples in

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Degroot, V. M. Y. (2009). Candi, space and landscape: a study on the distribution, orientation and spatial organization of Central Javanese temple remains (Doctoral dissertation, Leiden Institute for Area Studies, SAS Indonesie, Faculty of Arts, Leiden

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important principle found in the layout of Hindu temples is mirroring and repeating fractal-like design structure, each unique yet also repeating the central common principle, one which Susan Lewandowski refers to as "an organism of repeating cells".

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consist of two groups of caves—the first is a large group of five Hindu caves and the second is a smaller group of two Buddhist caves. The Hindu caves contain rock-cut stone sculptures, representing the Shaiva Hindu sect, dedicated to the god Shiva.

7062:", which is designed as an open-air worship place in a walled compound. The compound walls have a series of intricately decorated gates without doors for the devotee to enter. The design, plan and layout of the holy pura follows a square layout. 4630: 6731:

rebuilt the temple complex as is present today. Beyond the ancient textual history, archaeological evidence such as inscriptions refer to this temple, and these stone inscriptions are from late 100 BCE to 100 CE. Hence, making it one of the

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The 8x8 (64) grid Manduka Hindu Temple Floor Plan, according to Vastupurusamandala. The 64 grid is the most sacred and common Hindu temple template. The bright saffron center, where diagonals intersect above, represents the Purusha of Hindu

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The 9x9 (81) grid "Parama Sayika" layout plan (above) found in large ceremonial Hindu Temples. It is one of many grids used to build Hindu temples. In this structure of symmetry, each concentric layer has significance. The outermost layer,

3760:, and other countries with a significant Hindu population. The current state and outer appearance of Hindu temples reflect arts, materials and designs as they evolved over two millennia; they also reflect the effect of conflicts between 5342:

from 4th century BCE describes a city of temples, each enshrining various Vedic and Puranic deities. All three of these sources have common names, describe common rituals, symbolism and significance possibly suggesting that the idea of

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In contemporary times, the process of building a Hindu temple by emigrants and diasporas from South Asia has also served as a process of building a community, a social venue to network, reduce prejudice and seek civil rights together.

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Ancient India produced many Sanskrit manuals for Hindu temple design and construction, covering arrangement of spaces (above) to every aspect of its completion. Yet, the Silpins were given wide latitude to experiment and express their

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A typical, ancient Hindu temple has a profusion of arts—from paintings to sculpture, from symbolic icons to engravings, from thoughtful layout of space to fusion of mathematical principles with Hindu sense of time and cardinality.

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principle. One difference is the scope and cardinality, where Hindu temple structures deploy this principle in every dimension with garbhgriya as the primary locus, and each pada as well as zones serving as additional centers of

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and South Asia, Hindu temples, along with the temples of Buddhists and Jains, intermittently became targets of armies from Persian, Central Asian, and Indian sultanates. Imagined by these foreign zealots to be mere idols, sacred

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space and symbolic arts incorporating the positive and joyful side of life about the good and the gods. This divine space then concentrically diffuses inwards and lifts the guest to the core of the temple, where resides the main

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in Part III of Chapter 93, inside caves and carved stones, on hill tops affording peaceful views, on mountain slopes overlooking beautiful valleys, inside forests and hermitages, next to gardens, or at the head of a town street.

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and the Universal Principle within himself, there is no need for any temple or divine image for worship. However, for those who have yet to reach this height of realization, various symbolic manifestations through images,

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of locally worshipped deities. The pillars, walls and ceilings typically also have highly ornate carvings or images of the four just and necessary pursuits of life—kama, artha, dharma and moksa. This walk around is called

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John Guy and Jorrit Britschgi state Hindu temples served as centers where ancient manuscripts were routinely used for learning and where the texts were copied when they wore out. In South India, temples and associated

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A Hindu temple is a symbolic reconstruction of the universe and the universal principles that enable everything in it to function. The temples reflect Hindu philosophy and its diverse views on the cosmos and on truth.

6173:(seeing and being seen by the auspicious sight of the divine) and offer prayers. Devotees may or may not be able to personally present their offerings at the feet of the deity. In most large Indian temples, only the 5362:

Early Jain and Buddhist literature, along with Kautilya's Arthashastra, describe structures, embellishments and designs of these temples—all with motifs and deities currently prevalent in Hinduism. Bas-reliefs and

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of Agni, Indra, Varuna, Rudra, Mrda, Pusa, Surya, and Soma being worshipped, as well as the worship of arcas of female goddesses such as Indrani, Varunani, Usa, Bhavani, Prthivi and Vrsakapayi. The 2nd century BCE

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and ideas held to be most sacred principles in Hindu tradition. The symbolism in the arts and temples of Hinduism, suggests Edmund Leach, is similar to those in Christianity and other major religions of the world.

3804:) and the cell (pinda) by a unique plan based on astronomical numbers. Subhash Kak sees the temple form and its iconography to be a natural expansion of Vedic ideology related to recursion, change and equivalence. 6167:. It symbolizes the birthplace of the universe, the meeting place of the gods and humankind, and the threshold between the transcendental and the phenomenal worlds. It is in this inner shrine that devotees seek 12021:

Kubo Sumiko, Geomorphology, Archaeo-stratigraphy, and 14C Ages of Sambor Prei Kuk Pre-Angkorean Site, Central Cambodia, BULLETIN of the Graduate School of Education of Waseda University (Japan), No.22, March

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and icons as well as mental modes of worship are offered as one of the spiritual paths in the Hindu way of life. Some ancient Hindu scriptures like the Jabaladarshana Upanishad appear to endorse this idea

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were worshiped by soldiers before going to war, or by people in times of distress or terrors. Raudra deity temples were not set up inside villages or towns, but invariably outside and in remote areas of a

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in West Bengal is renowned for this type of architecture. There is also a popular style of building known as Naba-ratna (nine-towered) or Pancha-ratna (five-towered). An example of Navaratna style is the

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entirely enclosed in another four walls to which only the pujari (priest) enters. The walls are decorated with either mural paintings or rock sculptures which many times are emphasised on Dwarapalakas.

4238:, the king of the demigods, on other. The east and north faces of most temples feature a mix of gods and demigods; while the west and south feature demons and demigods related to the underworld. This 6658:. A koil may have multiple gopurams, typically constructed into multiple walls in tiers around the main shrine. The temple's walls are typically square with the outer most wall having gopuras. The 4462:

suggests that these exceptions mean that the ancient Sanskrit manuals for temple building were guidelines, and Hinduism permitted its artisans flexibility in expression and aesthetic independence.

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Subhash Kak, "Time, space and structure in ancient India." Conference on Sindhu-Sarasvati Valley Civilization: A Reappraisal, Loyola Marymount University, Los Angeles, 21 & 22 February 2009.

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Elements of a Hindu temple in Kalinga style. There are many Hindu temple styles, but they almost universally share common geometric principles, symbolism of ideas, and expression of core beliefs.

8507:

Subhash Kak, "Time, space and structure in ancient India." Conference on Sindhu-Sarasvati Valley Civilization: A Reappraisal, Loyola Marymount University, Los Angeles, 21 & 22 February 2009.

5087:

evolved in Maharashtran temple style in the 1st millennium CE. The temples are carved from a single piece of rock as a complete temple or carved in a cave to look like the interior of a temple.

5902:

In India, the Place of Worship (Special Provisions) Act was enacted in 1991 which prohibited the conversion of any religious site from the religion to which it was dedicated on 15 August 1947.

4553:

principles of human life are part of the sacred texts of the Hindus, such as its Upanishads; the temples express these same principles in a different form, through art and spaces. For example,

6365:(head). Each part is decorated in a different manner. Kalinga architecture is a style which flourished in Kalinga, the name for kingdom that included ancient Odisha. It includes three styles: 5307:(various recent scholars' estimates for the earliest stage of the text range from the 7th to 4th centuries BCE, with later stages extending up to the 3rd century CE) The 5th century BCE text, 6985:, constructed and dominated the landscape of Java. According to local beliefs, Java valley had thousands of Hindu temples which co-existed with Buddhist temples, most of which were buried in 3943:, which is a hospitality ritual, where the deity is honored, and where devotee calls upon, attends to and connects with the deity. In other schools of Hinduism, the person may simply perform 6532:

influences. Goan temples were built using sedimentary rocks, wood, limestone and clay tiles, and copper sheets were used for the roofs. These temples were decorated with mural art called as

9551:. The alignment along cardinal directions, similarly, is an extension of Vedic rituals of three fires. This symbolism is also found among Greek and other ancient civilizations, through the 5563: 6286:-theme, where smaller parts of the temple are themselves images or geometric re-arrangement of the large temple, a concept that later inspired French and Russian architecture such as the 12031:

Taylor, K., & Altenburg, K. (2006). Cultural Landscapes in Asia‐Pacific: Potential for Filling World Heritage Gaps 1. International journal of heritage studies, 12(3), pages 267-282

4663:

is a Sanskrit encyclopedia. Its chapters 57–60 discuss different styles and design of Hindu temples. Above: the text and commentary in Nepalaksara, Devanagari and Tamil Grantha scripts.

4549:—which flowered into individual schools of Hinduism, each of which is considered a valid, alternate path to understanding truth and achieving self-realization in the Hindu way of life. 4650: 4493:

Hinduism has no traditional ecclesiastical order, no centralized religious authorities, no governing body, no prophet nor any binding holy book save the Vedas; Hindus can choose to be

4331:

concentric circles and squares. Scholars suggest that this shape is inspired by the cosmic mountain of Meru or Himalayan Kailasa, the abode of the gods, according to Vedic mythology.

11971: 5478: 6858:

is an important temple in Hinduism. It is built in a pagoda style and is surrounded by hundreds of temples and buildings built by kings. The temples top is made from pure gold.

4855:, poetry, grammar and other subjects were written, multiplied and preserved inside the temples. Archaeological and epigraphical evidence indicates existence of libraries called 6147:. This includes fruits, flowers, sweets and other symbols of the bounty of the natural world. Temples in India are usually surrounded with small shops selling these offerings. 9580:

also describes Vastu and mandala design principles based on a perfect triangle (3), hexagon (6), octagon (8) and hexadecagon (16) sided layouts, according to Stella Kramrisch.

7321: 7168:. Most of the newer Hindu temples are of South Indian origin and were built by Tamil migrant communities. However, Thailand has many historic indigenous Hindu temples such as 4907:

philosophy, martial arts, music and painting. By the 8th century, Hindu temples also served as the social venue for tests, debates, team competition and Vedic recitals called

4603:; but in small temples this layer is dispensed with. When present, this outer region diffuse into the next inner layer that bridges as human space, followed by another inner 6325:

is found. Due to lack of suitable stone in the alluvial soil locally available, the temple makers had to resort to other materials instead of stone. This gave rise to using

6295:. This makes a Nagara Hindu temple architecture symbolically a perennial expression of movement and time, of centrifugal growth fused with the idea of unity in everything. 4242:

plan and symbolism is systematically seen in ancient Hindu temples on the Indian subcontinent as well as those in southeast Asia, with regional creativity and variations.

3575: 10040: 5459: 7039:

world heritage site. It was designed as three concentric squares and has 224 temples. The inner square contains 16 temples dedicated to major Hindu deities, of which

5883:

destroyed hundreds of Hindu temples. All Hindu temples in Portuguese colonies in India were destroyed, according to a 1569 letter in the Portuguese royal archives.

9066:

Susan Lewandowski, The Hindu Temple in South India, in Buildings and Society: Essays on the Social Development of the Built Environment, Anthony D. King (Editor),

5853: 5347:, temples and shrines passed from one generation to next, in ancient India, at least from the 4th century BCE. The oldest temples, suggest scholars, were built of 11724: 8241:

Some lands, including Varanasi, Puri, Kanchipuram, Dwarka, Amarnath, Kedarnath, Somnath, Mathura and Rameswara, are considered holy in Hinduism. They are called

9649:

EAAC 2011: South of East Asia: Re-addressing East Asian Architecture and Urbanism: Proceedings of the East Asian Architectural Culture International Conference

5575: 6271:. There may or may not be many more surrounding corridors, halls, etc. However, there will be space for devotees to go around the temple in clockwise fashion 4203:, a design laying out a Hindu temple in a symmetrical, self-repeating structure derived from central beliefs, myths, cardinality and mathematical principles. 10979: 6812:. One of the southernmost famous temples in South India, the Ramanathaswamy Temple was built in the 17th century on the island of Rameshwaram in Tamil Nadu. 5712:

in the 4th century, Hindu temples flourished in innovation, design, scope, form, use of stone and new materials as well as symbolic synthesis of culture and

5397:

From the 1st century BCE through 3rd century CE, the evidence and details about ancient temples increases. The ancient literature refers to these temples as

8361: 7186: 5281:

which impersonalists, according to their ideals, propose to merge themselves and their individual identities, will benevolently accept worship through an

10110: 9640: 8498:, "The axis and the perimeter of the temple." Kannada Vrinda Seminar Sangama 2005 held at Loyola Marymount University in Los Angeles on 19 November 2005. 5223:: are images that were meant to terrify, induce fear. These typically have wide, circular eyes, carry weapons, have skulls and bones as adornment. These 5864:

of religious toleration. Muslim rulers led campaigns of temple destruction and forbade repairs to damaged temples, following the Muslim traditions. The

5338:

also describes the rituals for Krsna, Visnu and Siva. An image recovered from Mathura in north India has been dated to the 2nd century BCE. Kautilya's

5055:

water, up to seven storeys, and were part of a temple complex. These vav (literally, stepwells) had intricate art reliefs on the walls, with numerous

4123:, a text of South Indian origin, estimated to be in circulation by the 7th century CE, is a guidebook on South Indian temple design and construction. 10401:, John R. Hinnells, and Raymond Brady Williams (Editors) – The South Asian Religious Diaspora in Britain, Canada, and the United States, SUNY Press, 7397:

has control of most ancient temples of archaeological importance in India. In India, day-to-day activities of a temple is managed by a temple board

6637:. They function as gateways through the walls that surround the temple complex. The gopuram's origins can be traced back to early structures of the 5840:

12th through the 18th century. Others temples have served as non-Hindu places of worship, either after conversion or simultaneously with Hindu use.

4348: 8253:). A kṣétra has many temples, including one or more major ones. These temples and its location attracts pilgrimage called tirtha (or tirthayatra). 7202: 6322: 6184:. These timings and nature of special puja vary from temple to temple. Additionally, there may be specially allotted times for devotees to perform 5334:(deity of wealth and finance, Kubera), as well as temples of Rama and Kesava, wherein the worship included dance, music and extensive rituals. The 9226:

Susan Lewandowski (1984), Buildings and Society: Essays on the Social Development of the Built Environment, edited by Anthony D. King, Routledge,

7348: 12182: 4365:

images may be stories from Hindu Epics; in others, they may be Vedic tales about right and wrong or virtues and vice; in yet others, they may be

3807: 11424: 11209:

Michael Meister (Editor), Encyclopedia of Indian Temple Architecture – South India 200 BCE to 1324 CE, University of Pennsylvania Press (1983),

5942:

in 1194 CE. Since then, it has been demolished twice (in the 1400s, and 1669 CE) and rebuilt four times (in the 1200s, twice in the 1500s under

5629: 7852:

matha, vayuna, kirti, kesapaksha, devavasatha, vihara, suravasa, surakula, devatayatana, amaragara, devakula, devagrha, devabhavana, devakulika

7305: 7274: 7251: 12529: 12207: 4759:

water tanks, irrigation canals and new roads. A very detailed early record from 1101 lists over 600 employees (excluding the priests) of the

8992:

Dattatreya: The Immortal Guru, Yogin, and Avatara: A Study of the Transformative and bums Inclusive Character of a Multi-faceted Hindu Deity

6992: 7367: 4169: 5857: 5303:, temples and shrines in Indian subcontinent for thousands of years. For example, the temples of the Koshala kingdom are mentioned in the 13463: 11373: 9213:, pp. 85-92; N Lahiri (1996), Archaeological landscapes and textual images: a study of the sacred geography of late medieval Ballabgarh, 6793: 5844: 4587:). The ancient temples had grand, intricately carved entrances but no doors, and they lacked a boundary wall. In most cultures, suggests 4127:

is another Sanskrit text from the 9th century describing the art of temple building in India in south and central India. In north India,

3640:

The spiritual principles symbolically represented in Hindu temples are detailed in the ancient Sanskrit texts of India (for example, the

13480: 8870: 4961:

and the needy, while others during major community gatherings or festivals. Examples include the major kitchens run by Hindu temples in

4115:

Ancient Sanskrit manuals for temple construction discovered in Rajasthan, in northwestern region of India, include Sutradhara Mandana's

13647: 11979: 5740: 4100:

tradition of temple building found in western states of India, the feminine form, expressions and emotions are depicted in 32 types of

9917:, Editor: VB Kher, Navajivan Publishing, see p. 3; According to Gandhi, "a man may not believe in God and still call himself a Hindu." 4446:

A predominant number of Hindu temples exhibit the perfect-square grid principle. However, there are some exceptions. For example, the

9354:

H. Daniel Smith (1963), Ed. Pāncarātra prasāda prasādhapam, A Pancaratra Text on Temple-Building, Syracuse: University of Rochester,

9205:

Jack Hebner (2010), Architecture of the Vastu Sastra – According to Sacred Science, in Science of the Sacred (Editor: David Osborn),

267: 11493: 8765:

Several books and journal articles have documented the effect on Hindu temples of Islam's arrival in South Asia and Southeast Asia:

6971:, between the 5th to 15th century Dharmic faiths (Hinduism and Buddhism) were the majority in Indonesian archipelago, especially in 6089:. The temple was twice sacked and plundered by the Delhi Sultanate in the early 14th century, and abandoned in the mid 14th century. 5793:, with steps descending to the water; while they were built for secular purposes, some are also decorated as temples, or serve as a 4358:

turning-squares theme (left), and a concentric layering design (right) that flows from one to the other as it rises towards the sky.

9042:

Pyong Gap Min, "Religion and Maintenance of Ethnicity among Immigrants – A Comparison of Indian Hindus and Korean Protestants", in

5732: 6329:

as a medium for temple construction. Terracotta exteriors with rich carvings are a unique feature of Bengali temples. The town of

5873: 4735:

Hindu temples served as nuclei of important social, economic, artistic and intellectual functions in ancient and medieval India.

3765: 8769:

Gaborieau, Marc (1985). "From Al-Beruni to Jinnah: idiom, ritual and ideology of the Hindu-Muslim confrontation in South Asia".

6912:, most of them in ruins. Hundreds of Hindu temples are scattered from Siem Reap to Sambor Prei Kuk in central Cambodian region. 2439: 1030: 10037: 5548: 4112:

compiled by Daniel Smith and Silpa Ratnakara compiled by Narmada Sankara provide a more extensive list of Hindu temple types.

12009: 11797: 11691: 11590: 11542: 11517: 11477: 11169:

Saraswati, Temple Architecture in the Gupta Age, Journal of the Indian Society of Oriental Art, Vol VIII (1940), pp. 146-158.

11145: 10818: 10788: 10761: 10736: 10706: 10679: 10652: 10567: 10406: 10379: 10198: 10024: 9996: 9890: 9825: 9164: 9132: 9112: 9027: 9000: 8576: 8552: 8528: 8480: 8425: 8397: 7235: 7190: 5059:

and images of Hindu deities, water spirits and erotic symbolism. The step wells were named after Hindu deities; for example,

3953:, or introspection in his or her temple. Palace-themed temples often incorporate more elaborate and monumental architecture. 6202:. In Java and Bali (Indonesia), before one enters the most sacred parts of a Hindu temple, shirts are required as well as a 4706: 7297: 4693:, Visvakarma Puja is a ritual festival every year where the craftsmen and artists worship their arts, tools and materials. 4509:. Within this diffuse and open structure, spirituality in Hindu philosophy is an individual experience, and referred to as 2318: 142: 3969:

Hindu temple sites cover a wide range. The most common sites are those near water bodies, embedded in nature, such as the

11279:, pp. 263. Quote - "The stones to construct the mosque were obtained by demolishing twenty seven Hindu and Jain temples." 9590:

Rian; et al. (2007). "Fractal geometry as the synthesis of Hindu cosmology in Kandariya Mahadev temple, Khajuraho".

8330: 3970: 12074:. (2011) Space and order in Prambanan. In M. Gupta (ed.) From Beyond the Eastern Horizon: Essays in honour of Professor 12418: 12404: 12361: 12323: 12122: 12106: 11711: 11662: 11642: 11298: 11276: 11261: 10904: 10623: 10599: 10543: 10522: 10501: 10484: 10463: 10446: 10279: 10258: 9905: 9846: 9535: 9490: 9251: 9231: 9210: 9071: 9051: 8972: 8905: 8851: 8836: 8753: 8732: 8711: 8690: 8669: 8632: 8611: 7043:

temple is the largest. The temple has extensive wall reliefs and carvings illustrating the stories from the Hindu epic

6925: 4075:

meaning system or knowledge in Sanskrit. There exist many Vastu-Sastras on the art of building temples, such as one by

3562: 12498: 11160:

Banerji, New Light on the Gupta Temples at Deogarh, Journal of the Asiatic Society of Bengal, Vol V (1963), pp. 37-49.

3195: 12522: 12464: 12279: 12168: 11847: 11822: 11566: 11214: 11087:

Michael Meister (1988), Encyclopedia of Indian Temple Architecture, Oxford University Press, 0-691-04053-2, Chapter 1

11059: 10845: 10422:

Chandra Jayawardena, "Religious Belief and Social Change: Aspects of the Development of Hinduism in British Guiana",

9973: 9958: 9702: 9625: 9267: 9194: 8963:

Samuel Parker (2010), "Ritual as a Mode of Production: Ethnoarchaeology and Creative Practice in Hindu Temple Arts",

8951: 6820: 6785: 6704: 6566: 3792:, beliefs, values and the way of life cherished under Hinduism. It is a link between man, deities, and the Universal 162: 12101:

Brigitta Hauser-Schaublin (1993), Keraton and Temples in Bali, in Urban Symbolism (Editor: P. Nas), Brill Academic,

9528:

The Hindu Temple in South India, in Buildings and Society: Essays on the Social Development of the Built Environment

11226: 8266: 8259: 11750: 6901:

was built as a Hindu temple by King Suryavarman II in the early 12th century in Yasodharapura (Khmer, present-day

6736:. Later, the temple constructions reached its peak during rule of is construction reached its peak during rule of 4482: 5946:, and in the 1800s). Shown is the current 1800s temple, with the white domes and minaret of the co-located 1600s 4863: 4339: 4245:

Beneath the mandala's central square(s) is the space for the all-pervasive, all-connecting Universal Spirit, the

2348: 1184: 13675: 10253:

George Michell (1988), The Hindu Temple: An Introduction to Its Meaning and Forms, University of Chicago Press,

8967:, 26(1), pp. 31-57; Michael Rabe, "Secret Yantras and Erotic Display for Hindu Temples", (Editor: David White), 5918:

in Gujarat was repeatedly destroyed and rebuilt. Here it is shown in 1869, after having been ruined by order of

5895:. Cave-style Hindu temples that were carved inside a rock, hidden and rediscovered centuries later, such as the 13839: 13640: 12486: 10890:

Gary Tarr, Chronology and Development of the Chāḷukya Cave Temples, Ars Orientalis, Vol. 8 (1970), pp. 155-184.

8325: 8315: 7394: 6789: 5136:

and images in a number of ways. For example, one method of classification is the dimensionality of completion:

4760: 4013:

The gods always play where groves are near, rivers, mountains and springs, and in towns with pleasure gardens.

304: 9637: 7416: 6559: 4985:

Hindu temples are found in diverse locations each incorporating different methods of construction and styles:

4031:

While major Hindu temples are recommended at sangams (confluence of rivers), river banks, lakes and seashore,

8340: 8335: 7278: 7135: 7131: 5852:

were broken, spires and pillars were torn down, and temples were looted of their treasury. Some temples were

5774: 4722: 4595:). The outermost regions may incorporate the negative and suffering side of life with the symbolism of evil, 1777: 10300:(4). Cambridge University Press: 791–826, see Table 1 on p. 805 for an illustrative tabulated distribution. 12515: 11763: 11305: 6102: 5748: 5084: 3878:(release, self-knowledge). At the centre of the temple, typically below and sometimes above or next to the 2328: 2268: 253: 876: 11328: 11293:

Peter Jackson (2003), The Delhi Sultanate: A Political and Military History, Cambridge University Press,

7819: 7169: 7165: 6815: 6773: 5716:

principles with artistic expression. It is this period that is credited with the ideas of garbhagrha for

5523:

1880 sketch of the 9-square floorplan of the same temple (not to scale or complete). For better drawings:

5504: 4416:) built using concentric circles and the rotating-squares principle. The left one is from Vijayanagar in 3498: 3389: 1999: 31: 13609: 13344: 12562: 12208:"World's largest Hindu temple outside India in modern era to be inaugurated on October 8 in New Jersey" 10438: 9279:

LD Barnett, Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies, Vol 4, Issue 2, June 1926, pp. 391.

6617:, a monumental tower, usually ornate, at the entrance of the temple. This forms a prominent feature of 6450: 6169: 5970:

based the reconstruction on the foundations of the Gyanvapi Mosque. Many Hindu temples were rebuilt as

5821: 5747:

basin, South India, this period is credited with some of the earliest stone temples of the region: the

5266:

A yogin perceives god (Siva) within himself; images are for those who have not reached this knowledge.

5060: 5002: 4474: 4135:

is the widely cited ancient Sanskrit manual from 6th century describing the design and construction of

3773: 3517: 3188: 3092: 2039: 1713: 1398: 710: 9935:क्षैत्रज्ञ n. ( fr. g. , spirituality, nature of the soul Lit. W.; the knowledge of the soul Lit. W. 9246:

Sherri Silverman (2007), Vastu: Transcendental Home Design in Harmony with Nature, Gibbs Smith, Utah,

4394: 2034: 13987: 13633: 13318: 10230:

Joshi (2013). "Boon of astronomy: Rituals and religious festivals in Odisha for a peaceful society".

9782:

Meister, Michael W. (April–June 1979). "Maṇḍala and Practice in Nāgara Architecture in North India".

8345: 7145: 6622: 5294: 5285:

an authorized form constructed not according to imagination but in pursuit of scriptural directives.

3965: 3903: 3648:), while their structural rules are described in various ancient Sanskrit treatises on architecture ( 3580: 3494: 3140: 2258: 1994: 287: 272: 115: 17: 12294:'temple' will clearly generate a predominance of Sanskrit vocabulary in Urdu as well as Hindi usage. 11348:

From Al-Beruni to Jinnah: idiom, ritual and ideology of the Hindu-Muslim confrontation in South Asia

4222:

and is of great importance in creative expressions of Hindu temples in South India, particularly in

940: 13538: 12232: 11406: 7373: 7270: 7069: 6335: 6307: 6123: 6042: 4882:

Inscriptions from the 4th century CE suggest the existence of schools around Hindu temples, called

4570: 3820:

layer signifies aspects of Devas and good. In between the good and evil is the concentric layer of

3769: 3050: 3043: 3022: 2731: 2621: 2593: 2323: 1218: 1005: 178: 10437:

John Guy and Jorrit Britschgi (2011), Wonder of the Age: Master Painters of India, 1100–1900, The

7308:, in a semi-rural setting, serves as the flagship for the Hindu Temple and Cultural Society of USA 980: 896: 12572: 11442: 11187:

Ananda K. Coomaraswamy, History of Indian and Indonesian Art (New York, 1965 reprint), pp. 78-80.

7301: 7266: 6529: 6180:

Temple management staff typically announce the hours of operation, including timings for special

5935: 5800:

During the 5th to 11th century, Hindu temples flourished outside Indian subcontinent, such as in

4747: 4187:. The name is a composite Sanskrit word with three of the most important components of the plan. 4108:. Silpa Prakasa provides a brief introduction to 12 types of Hindu temples. Other texts, such as 3265: 2478: 2383: 2308: 1494: 1416: 309: 277: 84: 11789: 11683: 11452: 11014: 10211:

Misra, R. N. (2011). "Silpis in Ancient India: Beyond their Ascribed Locus in Ancient Society".

9768:

S. Bafna, "On the Idea of the Mandala as a Governing Device in Indian Architectural Tradition,"

5582: 5536: 3962:

explanation that such are the places where gods play, and thus the best site for Hindu temples.

1456: 14062: 13569: 13548: 13391: 11330:

The Portuguese in Goa, in Acompanhando a Lusofonia em Goa: Preocupações e experiências pessoais

7327: 7059: 6769: 6684: 6626: 6427: 6127: 6030: 5896: 5508: 4902:, and these provided free boarding and lodging to students and scholars. The temples linked to 4562:

In the embrace of the beloved, one forgets the whole world, everything both within and without;

3555: 3464: 3394: 3230: 2859: 2628: 2288: 1194: 871: 146: 11099:, Early Indian Architecture and Art, Migration & Diffusion, Vol.6/Nr.23, pages 6-27, 2005. 11049: 10835: 10808: 10726: 6986: 5833: 4919:

According to Kenneth G. Zysk—a professor specializing in Indology and ancient medicine, Hindu

4894:

were studied. In south India, 9th century Vedic schools attached to Hindu temples were called

104: 12942: 12454: 11467: 11026: 10696: 10412: 10369: 9298:

Meister, Michael (1983). "Geometry and Measure in Indian Temple Plans: Rectangular Temples".

8566: 8415: 8320: 6996: 6805: 6765: 6196:, for men to remove shirts and to cover pants and shorts with a traditional cloth known as a 6058: 4211:(not to be confused with brahmin, the scholarly and priestly class in India), and are called 3504: 3482: 3372: 3237: 2810: 2418: 2298: 1706: 1692: 860: 11706:

Pika Ghosh (2005), Temple to Love: Architecture and Devotion in Seventeenth-century Bengal,

10080:

Mary Beth Heston, "Iconographic Themes of the Gopura of the Kailāsanātha Temple at Ellora",

9681:, or Sang Hyang Widhi Wasa, in Balinese Hindu temples; elsewhere it has been referred to as 6668:. The inner sanctum has restricted access with only priests allowed beyond a certain point. 4859:, dated possibly to early 12th-century and employing librarians, attached to Hindu temples. 855: 13528: 12376: 9503: 8866: 7377: 7355: 6866: 6847: 6797: 6525: 6439: 6350: 5825: 5121: 4381:—one of which, on the east side, serves as the waiting room for pilgrims and devotees. The 3490: 3486: 3478: 3367: 3029: 2607: 2577: 2408: 2313: 2209: 1944: 1838: 170: 13664: 10038:"Sexual Imagery on the 'Phantasmagorical Castles' at Khajuraho – The Artha of Temple Kama" 8933:

Kak, S. Early Indian architecture and art. Migration and Diffusion. vol.6, pp. 6-27 (2005)

7011:

rediscovered and reconstructed between 19th to 20th century, and treated as the important

8: 13992: 12538: 10132:

Samuel Parker (1987), "Artistic practice and education in India: A historical overview",

8201: 7973: 6757: 6086: 5540: 5117: 4728:

Example of a Hindu temple constructed in the same manner as the one depicted in the coin.

4677:), derived from "Silpa". One of the earliest mentions of the Sanskrit word "Silpa" is in 3908: 3780:

metropolitan areas, was inaugurated in 2014 as one of the world's largest Hindu temples.

3737: 3522: 3415: 3251: 2782: 2644: 2388: 2278: 2263: 2169: 2109: 2074: 1559: 1471: 1090: 749: 360: 262: 233: 95: 12380: 5108: 4866:

in dedicated stone libraries have been discovered by archaeologists at Hindu temples in

1660: 850: 13997: 13579: 13323: 13214: 12957: 12848: 12843: 12811: 12367:

Meister, Michael W. (1985). "Measurement and Proportion in Hindu Temple Architecture".

12318:

Knut A. Jacobsen (2012), Pilgrimage in the Hindu Tradition: Salvific Space, Routledge,

12134: 11863: 11782: 11676: 11446: 10926: 10873: 10317: 10309: 10163: 9912: 9799: 9735: 9315: 8918: 8824: 8786: 8540: 8184: 7904: 7239: 7206: 7016: 6981: 6968: 6959: 6921: 6745: 6688: 6651: 6472: 6330: 6261:

North Indian temples are referred to as Nagara style of temple architecture. They have

5991: 5987: 5869: 5829: 5817: 4459: 3846: 3797: 3761: 3444: 3430: 3149: 2674: 2570: 2398: 2378: 2373: 2368: 1974: 1740: 1611: 1223: 1109: 10496:

Wayne A. Wiegand and Donald Davis (1994), Encyclopedia of Library History, Routledge,

9453:, The Journal of American Folklore, Vol. 71, No. 281, (Jul. - Sep., 1958), pp. 224-230 8392:. Motilal Banarsidass. pp. 135, context: 40–43, 110–114, 129–139 with footnotes. 6418: 4973:(Andhra Pradesh). The tradition of sharing food in smaller temple is typically called 3840:(Purusa Space), signifying the Universal Principle present in everything and everyone. 13860: 13742: 13711: 13583: 13285: 13250: 12796: 12460: 12414: 12400: 12357: 12319: 12275: 12164: 12118: 12102: 12005: 11843: 11818: 11793: 11707: 11687: 11658: 11638: 11586: 11562: 11538: 11513: 11473: 11381: 11294: 11272: 11257: 11210: 11141: 11055: 10900: 10841: 10814: 10784: 10757: 10732: 10702: 10675: 10648: 10619: 10595: 10563: 10539: 10518: 10497: 10480: 10459: 10442: 10402: 10375: 10321: 10275: 10254: 10194: 10020: 9992: 9969: 9954: 9901: 9886: 9842: 9821: 9698: 9621: 9531: 9486: 9463: 9371: 9355: 9263: 9247: 9227: 9206: 9190: 9160: 9128: 9108: 9067: 9047: 9023: 8996: 8968: 8947: 8901: 8847: 8832: 8749: 8728: 8707: 8686: 8665: 8628: 8607: 8572: 8548: 8524: 8476: 8421: 8393: 8350: 8246: 8193: 8159: 8147: 8013: 7948: 7843: 7825: 7055: 6659: 6592: 6486: 6482: 6407: 6248: 5939: 5605: 4670: 4541:

is the name of six methods or alternate viewpoints of understanding truth. These are

4514: 4403: 3548: 3454: 3423: 3379: 3036: 2987: 2922: 2681: 2667: 2413: 2338: 2159: 2119: 2114: 2104: 1949: 1645: 1579: 1174: 911: 202: 12079: 9638:"Early Connections: Reflections on the canonical lineage of Southeast Asian temples" 4082: 2019: 1431: 718: 14067: 13656: 13574: 13164: 13093: 13078: 12952: 12801: 12781: 12384: 11612:, ed. Willard G. Oxtoby and Alan F. Segal. New York: Oxford University Press, 2007. 11108: 10864:

Meister, Michael W. (1981). "Forest and Cave: Temples at Candrabhāgā and Kansuān".

10722: 10347:

Burton Stein (4 February 1961), The state, the temple and agriculture development,

10301: 10155: 10012: 9878: 9791: 9727: 9718:

Meister, Michael W. (March 2006). "Mountain Temples and Temple-Mountains: Masrur".

9651:, Department of Architecture, National University of Singapore, Singapore, pp. 1-17 9603: 9599: 9423: 9396: 9307: 9124: 9104: 8811: 8778: 8516: 8173: 8155: 8151: 7964: 7952: 7923:

The following are the other names by which a Hindu temple is referred to in India:

7243: 7194: 7157: 6809: 6781: 6749: 6292: 6272: 6230: 6034: 6015: 5751:

temples are dated to the 5th century by some scholars, and the 6th by some others.

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celebrate the four important and necessary principles of human life—the pursuit of

3330: 3292: 3272: 3223: 3172: 3071: 2866: 2852: 2803: 2746: 2293: 1954: 1873: 1624: 1544: 1169: 595: 449: 346: 64: 11945: 10458:

Saraju Rath (2012), Aspects of Manuscript Culture in South India, Brill Academic,

9427: 6057:

Artistic rendition of the Kirtistambh, a surviving portion of the 10–11th century

2708: 13872: 13768: 13543: 13442: 13245: 12899: 12806: 12634: 12425: 11906: 11889: 11580: 11507: 11135: 11124:, Memoirs of the Archaeological Survey of India, Vol. LXX, pages 49-51 Plates 1-3 11121: 10778: 10669: 10642: 10557: 10117: 10044: 9644: 9337: 9151: 9017: 8990: 8475:. Motilal Banarsidass. pp. 19–43, 135–137, context: 129–144 with footnotes. 8470: 8387: 8302: 8288: 8208: 8143: 8085: 7910: 6929: 6664: 6543: 6494: 6287: 6181: 6144: 6110: 6106: 6066: 6062: 6007: 5947: 5880: 5865: 5763: 5555: 5356: 5202:

images express joy, knowledge and harmony, such as the Saraswati image at right.

5096: 5092: 4903: 3940: 3777: 3536: 3459: 3407: 3216: 3120: 3064: 3001: 2817: 2718: 2614: 2363: 2343: 2214: 2089: 2069: 1989: 1685: 1671: 1569: 1549: 1512: 1104: 1099: 826: 705: 669: 614: 609: 436: 11448:

The Sacred City of the Hindus: An Account of Benares in Ancient and Modern Times

10899:

Jutta Neubauer (1981), The Stepwells of Gujarat: in art-historical perspective,

9462:

Ganapati Sastri (1920), Īśānaśivagurudeva paddhati, Trivandrum Sanskrit Series,

8604:

Buildings and Society: Essays on the Social Development of the Built Environment

6934: 6018:

and looted it of its valuables; it was rebuilt and expanded in the 16th century.

4132: 4019: 3844:

In ancient Indian texts, a temple is a place of pilgrimage, known in India as a

3649: 1233: 985: 686: 13957: 13564: 13366: 13058: 12937: 12075: 10618:, in Education in Ancient India: Handbook of Oriental Studies, Brill Academic, 10594:, in Education in Ancient India: Handbook of Oriental Studies, Brill Academic, 10538:, in Education in Ancient India: Handbook of Oriental Studies, Brill Academic, 10517:, in Education in Ancient India: Handbook of Oriental Studies, Brill Academic, 10274:, in Education in Ancient India: Handbook of Oriental Studies, Brill Academic, 8197: 8100: 7120: 7083: 7082:, the largest Hindu temple in Indonesia and the second largest Hindu temple in 6069:, in 1296 CE, with part converted into a mosque and further parts destroyed by 5915: 5899:, have also preferentially survived. Many are now UNESCO world heritage sites. 5609: 5489: 5194:

images express destruction, fear and violence, such as the Kali image at left.

5012: 4990: 4713: 4447: 4326: 4076: 4071:

means "you"); these contain Vastu-Vidya (literally, knowledge of dwelling) and

3912: 3745: 3449: 3258: 3106: 2757: 2651: 2600: 2403: 2229: 2149: 2099: 2084: 2049: 2004: 1906: 1678: 1539: 1421: 1370: 1355: 1335: 1299: 1228: 1010: 965: 916: 674: 299: 186: 154: 55: 12388: 10095:"The Gatekeepers of Heaven: Anthropological Aspects of Grandiose Architecture" 10065:"The Gatekeepers of Heaven: Anthropological Aspects of Grandiose Architecture" 9860:"The Gatekeepers of Heaven: Anthropological Aspects of Grandiose Architecture" 9400: 6780:

were prolific temple builders right from the times of the first medieval king

5887:

Religious conflict and desecrations of places of worship continued during the

1056: 836: 767: 282: 14056: 13949: 13911: 12869: 12740: 12687: 12577: 12567: 11725:"Model art: Ancient temples of Odisha come alive in crafted stone miniatures" 11385: 11178:

Joanna Williams, The Art of Gupta India, Empire and Province, Princeton, 1982

11140:. Princeton University Press (Motilal Banarsidass, Reprint). pp. 17–21. 10559:

Early Temples of Tamilnadu: Their Role in Socio-Economic Life (c. 550-925 CE)

10398: 9414:

Tillotson, G. H. R. (1997). "Svastika Mansion: A Silpa-Sastra in the 1930s".

8043: 7829:

and general tourism in India. Orange markers are UNESCO world heritage sites.

7161: 7153: 6777: 6680: 6038: 5967: 5709: 4564:

in the same way, one who embraces the Self knows neither within nor without.

4055: 3749: 3653: 3613: 3113: 3078: 3015: 2961: 2954: 2915: 2908: 2845: 2838: 2831: 2824: 2796: 2740: 2358: 2303: 2283: 2273: 2253: 2224: 2134: 1929: 1924: 1914: 1863: 1785: 1699: 1532: 1481: 1380: 1315: 1154: 921: 375: 42: 12766: 11657:

Adam Hardy (2007), The Temple Architecture of India, John Wiley & Sons,

7116: 7100: 6265:

where the deity is present, open on one side from where the devotee obtains

6206:

around one's waist. At many other locations, this formality is unnecessary.

5034: 4743: 4470: 3932: 2094: 1858: 1066: 1061: 14007: 13890: 13853: 13731: 13614: 13533: 13518: 13209: 12879: 12735: 12652: 12430: 11894: 10644:

Asceticism and Healing in Ancient India: Medicine in the Buddhist Monastery

9682: 9342: 9156: 8816: 8799: 7381: 7024: 6891: 6753: 6741: 6728: 6724: 6638: 6461: 6070: 5951: 5728: 5339: 4996: 4871: 4736: 4588: 3725: 3085: 2994: 2901: 2894: 2887: 2873: 2531: 2353: 2189: 2184: 2144: 2054: 2044: 2014: 1984: 1919: 1823: 1745: 1476: 1441: 1365: 1340: 1269: 970: 762: 757: 656: 643: 638: 13876: 11196:

Gary Tartakov, "The Beginning of Dravidian Temple Architecture in Stone",

10671:

The Archaeology of Hindu Ritual: Temples and the Establishment of the Gods

5164: 4053:

Ancient builders of Hindu temples created manuals of architecture, called

1294: 13968: 13885: 13789: 13604: 13513: 13376: 13189: 13083: 13018: 12988: 12745: 12677: 12657: 12071: 11133: 11096: 9467: 9375: 9359: 8777:(3). Royal Anthropological Institute of Great Britain and Ireland: 7–14. 8647:

Burton Stein, "The Economic Function of a Medieval South Indian Temple",

8495: 7335: 7012: 6835: 6832: 6600: 6570: 6521: 6498: 6318: 6234: 6185: 6163: 6011: 5922:

in 1665. These ruins were demolished and the temple rebuilt in the 1950s.

5888: 5794: 5790: 5778: 5667: 5597: 5064: 4678: 4302: 3757: 3721: 3156: 2880: 2773: 2703: 2516: 2470: 2431: 2333: 2174: 2164: 2029: 1898: 1888: 1757: 1752: 1655: 1554: 1446: 1436: 1406: 1375: 1284: 1051: 865: 788: 780: 582: 351: 182: 75: 38: 11469:

Resurrecting Banaras: Urban Space, Architecture and Religious Boundaries

11246: 10947: 10930: 10917:

Meister, Michael W. (1975–1976). "A Field Report on Temples at Kusuma".

10877: 9739: 9084: 6861: 6542:. The interiors have murals and wood carvings depicting scenes from the 6511: 5950:

in the background. The tonne of gold for the temple roof was donated by

4817: 4261:

or the main worshippable deity, who varies with each temple. Often this

3997:

and animals rest nearby in the shade of Nicula trees on the river banks.

3989:

where the sun's rays are warded off by umbrellas of lotus leaf clusters,

14029: 14002: 13313: 13293: 13199: 13144: 13038: 12973: 12859: 12786: 12771: 12725: 12710: 12700: 11972:"Major Hindu Temples In Nepal | Himalaya Parvat | Pashupatinath Temple" 11347: 11313:

The Oxford History of India: From the Earliest Times to the End of 1911

10313: 10094: 10064: 9946:

See the following two in Ewert Cousins's series on World Spirituality:

9859: 9661: 9319: 8790: 7359: 7173: 7149: 7079: 7032: 6898: 6808:

reconstructed some of the well-known temples in Tamil Nadu such as the

6712: 6662:

and its towering roof (the central deity's shrine) are also called the

6655: 6578: 6326: 5892: 5849: 5832:

developed regional forms. In what is modern south and central Vietnam,

5754:

Over 6th and 7th centuries, temple designs were further refined during

5653: 5639: 5323: 5309: 5212:

Another way of classification is by the expressive state of the image:

5155:: images that are two-dimensional, such as paintings on walls and cloth 4956:), water tanks and kitchens. Many major pilgrimage sites have featured 4870:

Indonesia and in 10th century Cambodian temples such as Angkor Wat and

4803: 4764: 4494: 3800:) of the Vedic vision by mapping the relationships between the cosmos ( 3669: 3202: 3163: 3127: 3008: 2947: 2554: 2546: 2457: 2234: 2009: 1964: 1818: 1808: 1574: 1522: 1451: 1360: 1289: 1279: 1274: 1046: 821: 798: 793: 522: 322: 166: 134: 13801: 12978: 12667: 12507: 12306: 10167: 9929: 9803: 9450: 7027:

style. The largest of these is the 9th century Javanese Hindu temple,

6267: 6242: 5437:

in these ancient texts notes Meister, the temple hall is described as

4234:

is flanked by the padas of Satya, the deity of Truth, on one side and

4157: 3828:, which signifies creative energy and the site for a temple's primary 14012: 13900: 13849: 13808: 13328: 13265: 13194: 13123: 13048: 13023: 12983: 12914: 12904: 12730: 12705: 12662: 12642: 12089: 11359: 10963: 9964:

John Arapura, "Spirit and Spiritual Knowledge in the Upanishads", in

9731: 9387:

Sinha, Amita (1998). "Design of Settlements in the Vaastu Shastras".

9370:

Mahanti and Mahanty (1995 Reprint), Śilpa Ratnākara, Orissa Akademi,

8189: 8130: 7398: 7210: 7075: 7028: 7004: 6954: 6947: 6870: 6851: 6824: 6604: 6574: 6534: 6423: 6135: 5919: 5813: 5786: 5782: 5677: 5673: 5470: 5327: 4498: 4421: 4417: 3978: 3920: 3882:, is mere hollow space with no decoration, symbolically representing 3801: 3753: 3717: 3693: 3677: 3645: 3312: 3244: 3181: 3099: 2931: 2502: 2462: 2393: 2239: 2204: 2154: 2124: 2059: 1979: 1883: 1853: 1833: 1517: 1461: 1426: 1411: 1330: 1325: 1307: 633: 547: 478: 417: 13696: 13625: 12816: 10305: 9547:

The square is symbolic and has Vedic origins from the fire altar to

9311: 8782: 8543:, "The Divine Presence in Space and Time – Murti, Tirtha, Kala"; in 1114: 13930: 13868: 13750: 13683: 13437: 13422: 13333: 13219: 13139: 13098: 13068: 13053: 13003: 12874: 12826: 12776: 12761: 12715: 12456:

Some Epigraphical Records of the Medieval Period from Eastern India

10292:

Heitzman, James (1987). "Temple Urbanism in Medieval South India".

10159: 9795: 9755:

Trivedi, K. (1989). "Hindu temples: models of a fractal universe."

9338:

Silpa Prakasa Medieval Orissan Sanskrit Text on Temple Architecture

8282: 8229: 8225: 7835: 7339: 7331: 7141: 7044: 6909: 6737: 6642: 6596: 6390: 6224: 5809: 5801: 5691: 5657: 5601: 4970: 4320: 4307: 4278: 3733: 3729: 3689: 3681: 3673: 3384: 2940: 2766: 2723: 2690: 2541: 2536: 2509: 2219: 2199: 2129: 2079: 1959: 1848: 1764: 1735: 1730: 1599: 1589: 1486: 1466: 1390: 1385: 1350: 1020: 1000: 960: 926: 906: 886: 772: 648: 383: 341: 336: 210: 138: 13820: 13735: 12051: 10980:"Would you like to Know These Amazing facts about Elephanta Caves" 10397:

Diana L. Eck (2000), "Negotiating Hindu Identities in the US", in

8922: 8030:

are specially use of Krishna temple and Shiva temple respectively.

7172:. Although most indigenous Hindu temples are ruins, a few such as 5612:. The stepwell remains well-preserved, but is partly silted over. 4829: 4791: 4669:

Indian texts call the craftsmen and builders of temples "Silpin" (

2447: 124: 30:"Devasthana" and "Devasthanam" redirect here. For other uses, see 13919: 13797: 13778: 13701: 13447: 13260: 13224: 13204: 13184: 13174: 13169: 13149: 13118: 13108: 13103: 13043: 13028: 12998: 12821: 12672: 12493: 11884: 9678: 8310: 7931: 7402: 7115:, with some on UNESCO world heritage site list. Examples include 7112: 6976: 6939: 6761: 6614: 6311: 6283: 6275:. In North Indian temples, the tallest towers are built over the 6151: 5971: 5805: 5736: 5695: 5569:

The Elephanta main cave is thought to follow this mandala design.

5113: 5023: 4851:

served custodial functions, and a large number of manuscripts on

4751: 4583:

the temple's central core, a symbolic space marked by its spire (

4506: 4451: 4298: 4290: 4286: 4270: 4246: 4208: 3890: 3685: 3317: 3307: 3057: 2978: 2970: 2787: 2713: 2698: 2495: 2194: 2139: 1878: 1828: 1798: 1793: 1665: 1640: 1527: 1159: 1038: 1015: 990: 901: 891: 700: 664: 552: 537: 532: 468: 463: 427: 422: 409: 190: 13490: 10837:

Belief, Bounty, And Beauty: Rituals Around Sacred Trees in India

8683:

Principles of Composition in Hindu Sculpture: Cave Temple Period

4040:

of the temple or the deity. Temples may also be built, suggests

3353: 1204: 1199: 1025: 14024: 14017: 13938: 13834: 13829: 13754: 13706: 13687: 13523: 13417: 13412: 13361: 13298: 13240: 13113: 13088: 13073: 13033: 12993: 12929: 12909: 12889: 12864: 12791: 12607: 12602: 12592: 12587: 12557: 12481: 11425:"1991 central law precludes Ayodhya judgment setting precedent" 9552: 8356: 7247: 7214: 7198: 7108: 7036: 6902: 6801: 6692: 6646: 6634: 6586: 6435: 6378: 6346: 6303: 6203: 6193: 6174: 6158: 5861: 5759: 5755: 5713: 5466: 5390: 5088: 5072: 5068: 4690: 4523: 4502: 4478: 4455: 4266: 4200: 4010:

raised sand banks as breasts and plumage of swans their mantle.

3974: 3936: 3874: 3868: 3789: 3741: 3709: 3705: 3697: 3630: 3618: 3609: 3322: 3136: 2452: 2179: 2064: 1969: 1939: 1934: 1868: 1843: 1632: 1502: 1345: 1320: 1259: 1144: 1139: 1129: 1071: 995: 955: 950: 881: 806: 741: 726: 628: 572: 557: 503: 483: 396: 391: 228: 150: 6886: 6214: 5990:

after being destroyed on the orders of the Sultan of Kashmir,

13982: 13969:

Fire temple or Agiary or Atashkadeh or Atashgah or Dar-e Mehr

13816: 13716: 13668: 13485: 13452: 13432: 13427: 13381: 13303: 13275: 13270: 13154: 13063: 13013: 13008: 12720: 12695: 12617: 12612: 12597: 12581: 12552: 11264:, Chapters and Sections: "1200 CE – Delhi through Qutb Minar" 9662:

Some Evidence on the Wooden Origins of the Vāstupuruṣamaṇḍala

9062: 9060: 8995:. State University of New York Press. pp. 223–224, 243. 8139: 8091: 8034: 7888: 7850:). Ancient Sanskrit texts use many words for temple, such as 7213:

feeds 4,000 people a week, with as many as 10,000 during the

7040: 6874: 6855: 6394: 6386: 6382: 6252: 6198: 6154: 5943: 5685: 5647: 5348: 4962: 4949: 4891: 4294: 4282: 4235: 4227: 4199:

means the dwelling structure. The Vastu-purusha-mandala is a

4002:

the sound of curleys and the voice of swans for their speech,

3928: 3879: 3856: 3796:

in a sacred space. It represents the triple-knowledge (trayi-

3713: 3665: 3661: 3634: 3622: 3339: 3209: 2974: 2486: 2024: 1893: 1803: 1650: 1604: 1584: 1264: 1249: 1189: 1179: 1164: 1149: 1124: 975: 945: 831: 731: 562: 527: 498: 493: 488: 473: 401: 174: 13961: 11537:. Chichester, West Sussex: Wiley Blackwell. pp. 87–99. 11505: 11249:, Kunst des Orients, Vol. 12, H. 1/2 (1978/1979), pp. 79-94. 9189:

Stella Kramrisch (1976), The Hindu Temple Volume 1 & 2,

7019:, but not as the house of worship. Hindu temples of ancient 6282:

The north India Nagara style of temple designs often deploy

5994:, in the early 15th century, with demolition lasting a year. 5173: 4914: 13457: 13407: 13371: 13338: 13255: 13179: 13159: 12919: 12884: 12647: 12235:

Cologne Digital Sanskrit Lexicon, Koeln University, Germany

12174: 11946:"A Journey Through the Most Beautiful South Indian Temples" 11111:, The Hindu Temple. University of Calcutta, Calcutta, 1946. 10146:

Coomaraswamy, Ananda (1928). "Indian Architectural Terms".

9548: 8213: 8163: 7958: 7898: 7282: 7051: 7020: 7000: 6972: 6943: 6618: 6490: 6431: 6415:

style includes space for outer dancing and offering halls.

6131: 5485: 5352: 5299:

A number of ancient Indian texts suggest the prevalence of

4966: 4867: 4521:)). It defines spiritual practice as one's journey towards 4274: 4195:

is universal essence at the core of Hindu tradition, while

3950: 3945: 3916: 3862: 3788:

A Hindu temple reflects a synthesis of arts, the ideals of

3701: 3641: 3626: 3604: 1813: 1594: 1564: 1507: 1254: 1241: 1134: 736: 577: 567: 542: 508: 458: 440: 158: 13782: 12448:. New Delhi: Allied Publishers Pvt. Ltd. pp. 181–182. 12411: