Development of the nervous system

847: 812: 395: 1341:) depicts the cerebral connections of n=418 subjects with a frequency-parameter k: For any k=1,2,...,n one can view the graph of the edges that are present in at least k connectomes. If parameter k is decreased one-by-one from k=n through k=1 then more and more edges appear in the graph, since the inclusion condition is relaxed. The surprising observation is that the appearance of the edges is far from random: it resembles a growing, complex structure, like a tree or a shrub (visualized on the animation on the left). 1024:(NGF): Rita Levi Montalcini and Stanley Cohen purified the first trophic factor, Nerve Growth Factor (NGF), for which they received the Nobel Prize. There are three NGF-related trophic factors: BDNF, NT3, and NT4, which regulate survival of various neuronal populations. The Trk proteins act as receptors for NGF and related factors. Trk is a receptor tyrosine kinase. Trk dimerization and phosphorylation leads to activation of various intracellular signaling pathways including the MAP kinase, Akt, and PKC pathways. 1077:

leads to retraction of corresponding presynaptic terminals. Later they used a connectomic approach, i.e., tracing out all the connections between motor neurons and muscle fibers, to characterize developmental synapse elimination on the level of a full circuit. Analysis confirmed the massive rewiring, 10-fold decrease in the number of synapses, that takes place as axons prune their motor units but add more synaptic areas at the NMJs with which they remain in contact.

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colleagues later showed that there was a great deal of motor neuron death during normal development, and the extra limb prevented this cell death. According to the neurotrophic hypothesis, growing axons compete for limiting amounts of target-derived trophic factors and axons that fail to receive sufficient trophic support die by apoptosis. It is now clear that factors produced by a number of sources contribute to neuronal survival.

1260:, early spontaneous activity is required for the formation of increasingly synchronous alternating bursts between ipsilateral and contralateral regions of the spinal cord and for the integration of new cells into the circuit. Motor neurons innervating the same twitch muscle fibers are thought to maintain synchronous activity which allows both neurons to remain in contact with the muscle fiber in adulthood. In the 5241: 205: 4787: 1086:

vitro. CNS synaptogenesis studies have focused mainly on glutamatergic synapses. Imaging experiments show that dendrites are highly dynamic during development and often initiate contact with axons. This is followed by recruitment of postsynaptic proteins to the site of contact. Stephen Smith and colleagues have shown that contact initiated by

638:, and induces Shh expression in the floor plate. Floor plate-derived Shh subsequently signals to other cells in the neural tube, and is essential for proper specification of ventral neuron progenitor domains. Loss of Shh from the notochord and/or floor plate prevents proper specification of these progenitor domains. Shh binds 1312: 1100:

and SynCAM as synaptogenic signals: Sudhof, Serafini, Scheiffele and colleagues have shown that neuroligins and SynCAM can act as factors that induce presynaptic differentiation. Neuroligins are concentrated at the postsynaptic site and act via neurexins concentrated in the presynaptic axons. SynCAM

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In the mature synapse each muscle fiber is innervated by one motor neuron. However, during development, many of the fibers are innervated by multiple axons. Lichtman and colleagues have studied the process of synapses elimination. This is an activity-dependent event. Partial blockage of the receptor

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Much of our understanding of synapse formation comes from studies at the neuromuscular junction. The transmitter at this synapse is acetylcholine. The acetylcholine receptor (AchR) is present at the surface of muscle cells before synapse formation. The arrival of the nerve induces clustering of the

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Experimental techniques such as direct electrophysiological recording, fluorescence imaging using calcium indicators and optogenetic techniques have shed light on the nature and function of these early bursts of activity. They have distinct spatial and temporal patterns during development and their

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Induction of synapse formation by glial factors: Barres and colleagues made the observation that factors in glial conditioned media induce synapse formation in retinal ganglion cell cultures. Synapse formation in the CNS is correlated with astrocyte differentiation suggesting that astrocytes might

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fibres to form the cortical plate. Each wave of migrating cells travel past their predecessors forming layers in an inside-out manner, meaning that the youngest neurons are the closest to the surface. It is estimated that glial guided migration represents 90% of migrating neurons in human and about

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in mediating some aspects of these processes such as the rate of neuronal migration, aspects of neuronal differentiation and axon pathfinding. Activity-dependent mechanisms influence neural circuit development and are crucial for laying out early connectivity maps and the continued refinement of

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Agrin appears not to be a central mediator of CNS synapse formation and there is active interest in identifying signals that mediate CNS synaptogenesis. Neurons in culture develop synapses that are similar to those that form in vivo, suggesting that synaptogenic signals can function properly in

969:, which make a long journey from their birthplace in the nose, through the forebrain, and into the hypothalamus. Many of the mechanisms of this migration have been worked out, starting with the extracellular guidance cues that trigger intracellular signaling. These intracellular signals, such as 1027:

CNTF: Ciliary neurotrophic factor is another protein that acts as a survival factor for motor neurons. CNTF acts via a receptor complex that includes CNTFRα, GP130, and LIFRβ. Activation of the receptor leads to phosphorylation and recruitment of the JAK kinase, which in turn phosphorylates

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is the method by which neurons travel from their origin or birthplace to their final position in the brain. There are several ways they can do this, e.g. by radial migration or tangential migration. Sequences of radial migration (also known as glial guidance) and somal translocation have been

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based on studies of the developing nervous system. Victor Hamburger discovered that implanting an extra limb in the developing chick led to an increase in the number of spinal motor neurons. Initially he thought that the extra limb was inducing proliferation of motor neurons, but he and his

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family protein) that induces ectodermal cultures to differentiate into epidermis. During neural induction, noggin and chordin are produced by the dorsal mesoderm (notochord) and diffuse into the overlying ectoderm to inhibit the activity of BMP4. This inhibition of BMP4 causes the cells to

443:. Neuroectoderm overlying the notochord develops into the neural plate in response to a diffusible signal produced by the notochord. The remainder of the ectoderm gives rise to the epidermis. The ability of the mesoderm to convert the overlying ectoderm into neural tissue is called 1039:

family of proteins, and is a potent trophic factor for striatal neurons. The functional receptor is a heterodimer, composed of type 1 and type 2 receptors. Activation of the type 1 receptor leads to phosphorylation of Smad proteins, which translocate to the nucleus to activate gene

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and cortical slices. Once sensory stimulus becomes available, final fine-tuning of sensory-coding maps and circuit refinement begins to rely more and more on sensory-evoked activity as demonstrated by classic experiments about the effects of sensory deprivation during

912:, whose fibers serve as a scaffolding for migrating cells and a means of radial communication mediated by calcium dynamic activity, act as the main excitatory neuronal stem cell of the cerebral cortex or translocate to the cortical plate and differentiate either into 350:

differs from that formed in later developmental stages, and from adult CSF; it influences the behavior of neural precursors. Because the neural tube gives rise to the brain and spinal cord any mutations at this stage in development can lead to fatal deformities like

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along the dorsal side of the embryo. This is a part of the early patterning of the embryo (including the invertebrate embryo) that also establishes an anterior-posterior axis. The neural plate is the source of the majority of neurons and glial cells of the CNS. The

1210:, the resident immune cell of the brain, establish direct contacts with the cell bodies of developing neurons, and through these connections, regulate neurogenesis, migration, integration and the formation of neuronal networks in an activity-dependent manner. 1237:. In the auditory system, spontaneous activity is thought to be involved in tonotopic map formation by segregating cochlear neuron axons tuned to high and low frequencies. In the motor system, periodic bursts of spontaneous activity are driven by excitatory 1348:: the earliest developing connections (axonal fibers) are common at most of the subjects, and the subsequently developing connections have larger and larger variance, because their variances are accumulated in the process of axonal development. 1317: 1313: 1315: 506:

When embryonic ectodermal cells are cultured at low density in the absence of mesodermal cells they undergo neural differentiation (express neural genes), suggesting that neural differentiation is the default fate of ectodermal cells. In

1004:. They do not resemble the cells migrating by locomotion or somal translocation. Instead these multipolar cells express neuronal markers and extend multiple thin processes in various directions independently of the radial glial fibers. 1366:

has been shown to involve a limited neurotrophic substance that is released, or that neural activity infers advantage to strong post-synaptic connections by giving resistance to a toxin also released upon nerve stimulation.

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synapses which occurs during development. There are two distinct types of neural activity we observe in developing circuits -early spontaneous activity and sensory-evoked activity. Spontaneous activity occurs early during

1371:, it is suggested that muscle fibres select the strongest neuron through a retrograde signal or that activity-dependent synapse elimination mechanisms determine the identity of the "winning" axon at a motor endplate. 1316: 610:

Ectoderm follows a default pathway to become neural tissue. Evidence for this comes from single, cultured cells of ectoderm, which go on to form neural tissue. This is postulated to be because of a lack of

1032:β. LIFRβ acts as a docking site for the STAT transcription factors. JAK kinase phosphorylates STAT proteins, which dissociate from the receptor and translocate to the nucleus to regulate gene expression. 936:

Most interneurons migrate tangentially through multiple modes of migration to reach their appropriate location in the cortex. An example of tangential migration is the movement of interneurons from the

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A transplanted blastopore lip can convert ectoderm into neural tissue and is said to have an inductive effect. Neural inducers are molecules that can induce the expression of neural genes in ectoderm

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site. The Consensus Connectome Dynamics (CCD) is a remarkable phenomenon that was discovered by continuously decreasing the minimum confidence-parameter at the graphical interface of the

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Meirovitch Y, Kang K, Draft RW, Pavarino EC, Henao Echeverri MF, Yang F, et al. (September 2021). "Neuromuscular connectomes across development reveal synaptic ordering rules".

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are generally believed to be activity-independent mechanisms and rely on hard-wired genetic programs in the neurons themselves. Research findings however have implicated a role for

254:. When the tube is closed at both ends it is filled with embryonic cerebrospinal fluid. As the embryo develops, the anterior part of the neural tube expands and forms three 1314: 726:(5 prime end) Hox genes are not induced by retinoic acid and are expressed more posteriorly in the spinal cord. Hoxb-1 is expressed in rhombomere 4 and gives rise to the 1069:. Agrin induces clustering of AchRs on the muscle surface and synapse formation is disrupted in agrin knockout mice. Agrin transduces the signal via MuSK receptor to 5279: 375:

to different parts of the developing brain to self-organize into different brain structures. Once the neurons have reached their regional positions, they extend

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neurons. These cells do so by somal translocation. Neurons migrating with this mode of locomotion are bipolar and attach the leading edge of the process to the

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Nadarajah B, Alifragis P, Wong RO, Parnavelas JG (June 2003). "Neuronal migration in the developing cerebral cortex: observations based on real-time imaging".

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Noctor SC, Flint AC, Weissman TA, Dammerman RS, Kriegstein AR (February 2001). "Neurons derived from radial glial cells establish radial units in neocortex".

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Nadarajah B, Brunstrom JE, Grutzendler J, Wong RO, Pearlman AL (February 2001). "Two modes of radial migration in early development of the cerebral cortex".

1073:. Fischbach and colleagues showed that receptor subunits are selectively transcribed from nuclei next to the synaptic site. This is mediated by neuregulins. 2790:"Suppression of β1-integrin in gonadotropin-releasing hormone cells disrupts migration and axonal extension resulting in severe reproductive alterations" 104: 2369:

Tamamaki N, Nakamura K, Okamoto K, Kaneko T (September 2001). "Radial glia is a progenitor of neocortical neurons in the developing cerebral cortex".

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The survival of neurons is regulated by survival factors, called trophic factors. The neurotrophic hypothesis was formulated by Victor Hamburger and

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Meister M, Wong RO, Baylor DA, Shatz CJ (May 1991). "Synchronous bursts of action potentials in ganglion cells of the developing mammalian retina".

2739:"Capture of microtubule plus-ends at the actin cortex promotes axophilic neuronal migration by enhancing microtubule tension in the leading process" 1465: 684:

The dorsal neural tube is patterned by BMPs from the epidermal ectoderm flanking the neural plate. These induce sensory interneurons by activating

2929:"Reversing the outcome of synapse elimination at developing neuromuscular junctions in vivo: evidence for synaptic competition and its mechanism" 895: 520:

differentiate into neural cells. Inhibition of TGF-β and BMP (bone morphogenetic protein) signaling can efficiently induce neural tissue from

431:. At the onset of gastrulation presumptive mesodermal cells move through the dorsal blastopore lip and form a layer of mesoderm in between the 21:

This article is about neural development in all types of animals, including humans. For information specific to the human nervous system, see

4361:"How to Direct the Edges of the Connectomes: Dynamics of the Consensus Connectomes and the Development of the Connections in the Human Brain" 5149: 1445: 5272: 213: 22: 4428: 3628: 1382:

can show how an animal's brain changes throughout its lifetime. As of 2021, scientists mapped and compared the whole brains of eight

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worms across their development on the neuronal level and the complete wiring of a single mammalian muscle from birth to adulthood.

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development, and at highest concentrations it induces floor plate differentiation. Failure of Shh-modulated differentiation causes

2641:"Hepatocyte growth factor acts as a motogen and guidance signal for gonadotropin hormone-releasing hormone-1 neuronal migration" 5265: 4621: 427:

which gives rise to the nervous system. The conversion of undifferentiated ectoderm to neuroectoderm requires signals from the

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and there are good markers to distinguish between neural and non-neural tissue. Examples of neural inducers are the molecules

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ablation during development has been known to result in deficits in network refinement in the visual system. In the immature

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O'Donovan MJ (February 1999). "The origin of spontaneous activity in developing networks of the vertebrate nervous system".

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and are critical for cell fate determination in the developing and adult mammalian brain. Epigenetic modifications include

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to the cerebral cortex. One example of ongoing tangential migration in a mature organism, observed in some animals, is the

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to describe and provide insight into the cellular and molecular mechanisms by which complex nervous systems develop, from

5564: 67: 52: 4302:"Parameterizable consensus connectomes from the Human Connectome Project: the Budapest Reference Connectome Server v3.0" 363:, which drive brain growth as they divide many times. Gradually some of the cells stop dividing and differentiate into 3699:

Torborg CL, Feller MB (July 2005). "Spontaneous patterned retinal activity and the refinement of retinal projections".

720: 713: 511:(which allow direct cell-cell interactions) the same cells differentiate into epidermis. This is due to the action of 90: 62: 712:, which are expressed in overlapping domains along the anteroposterior axis under the control of retinoic acid. The 532:

In a later stage of development the superior part of the neural tube flexes at the level of the future midbrain—the

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O'Donovan MJ, Chub N, Wenner P (October 1998). "Mechanisms of spontaneous activity in developing spinal networks".

1196: 2263:"Bidirectional radial Ca(2+) activity regulates neurogenesis and migration during early cortical column formation" 1288:

data: the vertices of the graph correspond to anatomically labelled gray matter areas, and two such vertices, say

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map and eye-specific segregation. Retinotopic map refinement occurs in downstream visual targets in the brain-the

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Galli L, Maffei L (October 1988). "Spontaneous impulse activity of rat retinal ganglion cells in prenatal life".

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Several motorneurons compete for each neuromuscular junction, but only one survives until adulthood. Competition

685: 3652:"Spatial-temporal patterns of retinal waves underlying activity-dependent refinement of retinofugal projections" 3110:"Spontaneous rhythmic activity in early chick spinal cord influences distinct motor axon pathfinding decisions" 1345: 4554: 5245: 4970: 1598: 1334: 1128: 1110: 1065:. They also showed that the synaptogenic signal is produced by the nerve, and they identified the factor as 5382: 5124: 4945: 878:

cells must leave the stem cell niche and migrate outward to form the preplate, which is destined to become

753:. Neurons are 'post-mitotic', meaning that they will never divide again for the lifetime of the organism. 571:(which eventually become the optic nerve, retina and iris) forms at the basal plate of the prosencephalon. 5164: 2453:

Nadarajah B, Parnavelas JG (June 2002). "Modes of neuronal migration in the developing cerebral cortex".

1435: 669:- it induces cell differentiation dependent on its concentration. At low concentrations it forms ventral 72: 4830: 4247:

Szalkai B, Kerepesi C, Varga B, Grolmusz V (May 2015). "The Budapest Reference Connectome Server v2.0".

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tracts to migrate along; this is called axophilic migration. An example of this mode of migration is in

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receptors at the synapse. McMahan and Sanes showed that the synaptogenic signal is concentrated at the

1001: 612: 5441: 5159: 5134: 5003: 3478:"Traveling waves in developing cerebellar cortex mediated by asymmetrical Purkinje cell connectivity" 2842:"Multipolar migration: the third mode of radial neuronal migration in the developing cerebral cortex" 1136:

development even when sensory input is absent and is observed in many systems such as the developing

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Cserép C, Schwarcz AD, Pósfai B, László ZI, Kellermayer A, Környei Z, et al. (September 2022).

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Giacobini P, Messina A, Wray S, Giampietro C, Crepaldi T, Carmeliet P, et al. (January 2007).

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and sweep across the retinal surface in the first few postnatal weeks. These waves are mediated by

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occurs due to specific environmental conditions - different concentrations of signaling molecules

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Rakic P (May 1972). "Mode of cell migration to the superficial layers of fetal monkey neocortex".

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Rakic P (May 1972). "Mode of cell migration to the superficial layers of fetal monkey neocortex".

719:(3 prime end) genes in the Hox cluster are induced by retinoic acid in the hindbrain, whereas the 634:(Shh) from the notochord, which acts as the inducing tissue. Notochord-derived Shh signals to the 4935: 4646: 4641: 1300:

phase of the data processing finds an axonal fiber that connects the two areas, corresponding to

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dynamics, which produce cellular forces that interact with the extracellular environment through

796: 193: 150: 5493: 4930: 4920: 4711: 4666: 4594: 4589: 4054:"Calcium action potentials in hair cells pattern auditory neuron activity before hearing onset" 2539:

Letinic K, Zoncu R, Rakic P (June 2002). "Origin of GABAergic neurons in the human neocortex".

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Witvliet D, Mulcahy B, Mitchell JK, Meirovitch Y, Berger DR, Wu Y, et al. (August 2021).

3437:"A parturition-associated nonsynaptic coherent activity pattern in the developing hippocampus" 246:

forms along the long axis of the neural plate, and the neural plate folds to give rise to the

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Tritsch NX, Rodríguez-Contreras A, Crins TT, Wang HC, Borst JG, Bergles DE (September 2010).

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Warp E, Agarwal G, Wyart C, Friedmann D, Oldfield CS, Conner A, et al. (January 2012).

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Gato A, Alonso MI, Martín C, Carnicero E, Moro JA, De la Mano A, et al. (August 2014).

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Parkash J, Cimino I, Ferraris N, Casoni F, Wray S, Cappy H, et al. (November 2012).

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provide a synaptogenic factor. The identity of the astrocytic factors is not yet known.

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and the ectoderm. Mesodermal cells migrate along the dorsal midline to give rise to the

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Chambers SM, Fasano CA, Papapetrou EP, Tomishima M, Sadelain M, Studer L (March 2009).

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Schoenwolf GC, Smith JL (2000). "Mechanisms of Neurulation". In Tuan RS, Lo CW (eds.).

1397: 1116: 1000:. This is seen in multipolar cells, which in the human, are abundantly present in the 835: 372: 343: 3592: 3575: 3405: 3206:

Huberman AD (February 2007). "Mechanisms of eye-specific visual circuit development".

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is a cell adhesion molecule that is present in both pre- and post-synaptic membranes.

811: 5407: 5103: 5038: 5013: 4865: 4825: 4519: 4507: 4410: 4341: 4274: 4229: 4219: 4191: 4134: 4083: 4034: 3986: 3974: 3925: 3888:"Retinal waves coordinate patterned activity throughout the developing visual system" 3868: 3816: 3767: 3716: 3681: 3632: 3597: 3556: 3507: 3458: 3409: 3374: 3325: 3274: 3223: 3188: 3139: 3090: 3039: 3002: 2960: 2906: 2871: 2819: 2770: 2719: 2670: 2621: 2607: 2564: 2513: 2470: 2435: 2386: 2343: 2300: 2235: 2192: 2149: 2111: 2062: 2010: 1959: 1932: 1881: 1844: 1818: 1767: 1744: 1692: 1682: 1649: 1614: 1604: 1579: 1528: 970: 909: 871: 776: 764: 746: 678: 360: 331: 161: 77: 5257: 3728: 3712: 3421: 3235: 2525: 2482: 2247: 2204: 233:

of the embryo. A part of the dorsal ectoderm becomes specified to neural ectoderm –

5498: 5426: 5421: 5144: 5028: 4955: 4870: 4751: 4701: 4497: 4489: 4400: 4390: 4331: 4323: 4286: 4266: 4181: 4173: 4124: 4114: 4073: 4065: 4024: 4016: 3964: 3956: 3915: 3907: 3858: 3850: 3806: 3798: 3759: 3708: 3671: 3663: 3624: 3587: 3546: 3538: 3497: 3489: 3448: 3401: 3364: 3356: 3315: 3305: 3266: 3215: 3178: 3170: 3129: 3121: 3080: 3070: 3029: 2990: 2950: 2940: 2898: 2861: 2853: 2809: 2805: 2801: 2760: 2750: 2709: 2705: 2701: 2660: 2656: 2652: 2611: 2603: 2576: 2556: 2505: 2462: 2425: 2398: 2378: 2355: 2335: 2290: 2282: 2227: 2184: 2161: 2141: 2101: 2093: 2052: 2044: 2000: 1992: 1949: 1922: 1914: 1808: 1800: 1734: 1726: 1674: 1569: 1561: 1430: 1357: 1270: 1261: 1234: 1222: 1173: 863: 792: 772: 750: 731: 620: 537: 496: 440: 3527:"Spontaneous, synchronous electrical activity in neonatal mouse cortical neurones" 2080:

Noack F, Pataskar A, Schneider M, Buchholz F, Tiwari VK, Calegari F (April 2019).

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Many neurons migrating along the anterior-posterior axis of the body use existing

615:, which are blocked by the organiser. The organiser may produce molecules such as 387:. Synaptic communication between neurons leads to the establishment of functional 5470: 5456: 5431: 5204: 5199: 5194: 5189: 5083: 5023: 4960: 4875: 4835: 4820: 4771: 4761: 4716: 4395: 4270: 3960: 3854: 3667: 3542: 3453: 3436: 3174: 2945: 1952: 1226: 1214: 1195:(LGN). Pharmacological disruption and mouse models lacking the β2 subunit of the 1141: 780: 768: 760: 568: 549: 508: 482: 371:, which are the main cellular components of the CNS. The newly generated neurons 287: 279: 4484: 1678: 485:

without inducing mesodermal genes as well. Neural induction is often studied in

394: 5289: 5169: 5139: 5068: 5043: 5033: 4880: 4860: 4850: 4736: 4656: 4493: 3839:"A role for correlated spontaneous activity in the assembly of neural circuits" 3219: 3159:"A role for correlated spontaneous activity in the assembly of neural circuits" 2592:"From nose to brain: development of gonadotrophin-releasing hormone-1 neurones" 1996: 1804: 1715:"Embryonic cerebrospinal fluid in brain development: neural progenitor control" 1565: 1425: 1280:

techniques may also uncover the macroscopic process of axonal development. The

1133: 950: 891: 815: 689: 631: 545: 388: 334:). The CSF-filled central chamber is continuous from the telencephalon to the 327: 263: 130: 4327: 4177: 4103:"Large-scale synchronized activity in the embryonic brainstem and spinal cord" 3802: 3435:

Crépel V, Aronov D, Jorquera I, Represa A, Ben-Ari Y, Cossart R (April 2007).

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of the vertebrate, the dorsal ectoderm becomes specified to give rise to the

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Processes which grow and shape an organism's nervous tissue over its lifetime

3763: 3270: 3059:"Spontaneous neuronal calcium spikes and waves during early differentiation" 1730: 787:. Methylcytosine demethylation is catalyzed in several sequential steps by 5531: 5521: 5503: 5369: 5354: 5337: 5297: 5179: 5174: 5058: 4890: 4815: 4766: 4756: 4731: 4726: 4696: 4630: 4511: 4414: 4345: 4278: 4195: 4138: 4087: 4038: 3978: 3929: 3872: 3820: 3720: 3685: 3601: 3560: 3511: 3462: 3413: 3378: 3227: 3192: 3143: 2964: 2910: 2875: 2823: 2774: 2723: 2674: 2625: 2568: 2474: 2439: 2390: 2347: 2304: 2286: 2196: 2153: 2115: 2097: 2066: 2014: 1936: 1822: 1748: 1696: 1583: 1402: 1297: 1199:

has shown that the lack of spontaneous activity leads to marked defects in

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and the nervous system; a part of the dorsal ectoderm becomes specified to

356: 303: 295: 238: 138: 37: 3771: 3636: 3329: 3278: 3094: 3043: 2517: 2509: 2239: 2231: 902:"cage" around the nucleus elongates and contracts in association with the 478:, and the open ends of the neural tube, called the neuropores, close off. 5488: 5478: 5399: 5342: 5317: 5048: 4895: 4154:"Emergence of patterned activity in the developing zebrafish spinal cord" 3629:

10.1002/(sici)1097-4695(199810)37:1<131::aid-neu10>3.0.co;2-h

3476:

Watt AJ, Cuntz H, Mori M, Nusser Z, Sjöström PJ, Häusser M (April 2009).

3018:"Intracellular Ca2+ fluctuations modulate the rate of neuronal migration" 1257: 1184: 1149: 978: 966: 924: 819: 788: 756: 670: 616: 463: 459: 399: 368: 352: 339: 251: 247: 4429:"Why a tiny worm's brain development could shed light on human thinking" 3911: 2560: 2188: 5451: 5436: 5416: 5209: 4910: 3294:"Rhythmic spontaneous activity in the developing avian auditory system" 2048: 1281: 1265: 1200: 1153: 1097: 903: 643: 471: 323: 230: 219: 4460:"Connectomes across development reveal principles of brain maturation" 1183:. They are thought to instruct the formation of two sensory maps- the 603:, which acts as the 'organiser'. The dorsal half is controlled by the 5446: 5412: 5327: 5154: 4845: 2339: 1918: 1254: 1250: 1242: 1207: 1180: 1157: 913: 887: 867: 709: 666: 600: 580: 492: 436: 416: 380: 282:). These simple, early vesicles enlarge and further divide into the 275: 259: 173: 4565: 4069: 4020: 4005:"Tonotopic reorganization of developing auditory brainstem circuits" 3493: 1344:

It is hypothesized in that the growing structure copies the axonal

5526: 5063: 4377: 4318: 4051: 3345:"Primordial rhythmic bursting in embryonic cochlear ganglion cells" 2466: 2414:"Asymmetric inheritance of radial glial fibers by cortical neurons" 883: 604: 516: 432: 428: 384: 299: 267: 226: 146: 4573: 4261: 2175:

Samuels BA, Tsai LH (November 2004). "Nucleokinesis illuminated".

2145: 1981:"Retinoic acid synthesis and signaling during early organogenesis" 923:

Subsequent waves of neurons split the preplate by migrating along

583:, dorsal ectoderm forms all neural tissue and the nervous system. 391:

that mediate sensory and motor processing, and underlie behavior.

5322: 4457: 2131: 1900: 1338: 1218: 875: 639: 624: 500: 487: 450:

In the early embryo, the neural plate folds outwards to form the

364: 177: 169: 154: 129:), refers to the processes that generate, shape, and reshape the 2888: 920:. Somal translocation can occur at any time during development. 700:

Signals that control anteroposterior neural development include

462:. The formation of the neural tube from the ectoderm is called 160:

Defects in neural development can lead to malformations such as

4599: 3576:"Spontaneous correlated activity in developing neural circuits" 1834: 1832: 1165: 1070: 917: 827: 2638: 2079: 2368: 1066: 974: 376: 181: 137:

to adulthood. The field of neural development draws on both

4574:

Translating Neurodevelopmental Time Across Mammalian Species

4358: 4300:

Szalkai B, Kerepesi C, Varga B, Grolmusz V (February 2017).

4299: 4246: 2317: 1829: 1233:

release from supporting cells triggers action potentials in

204: 4359:

Kerepesi C, Szalkai B, Varga B, Grolmusz V (30 June 2016).

3787:"Assembly and disassembly of a retinal cholinergic network" 3650:

Stafford BK, Sher A, Litke AM, Feldheim DA (October 2009).

3434: 2984: 2787: 1875: 1238: 1036: 1035:

GDNF: Glial derived neurotrophic factor is a member of the

1029: 962: 659: 655: 651: 512: 319: 4786: 3942: 2412:

Miyata T, Kawaguchi A, Okano H, Ogawa M (September 2001).

359:. During this time, the walls of the neural tube contain 4151: 3649: 2411: 1712: 1625: 1277: 730:. Without this Hoxb-1 expression, a nerve similar to the 555:

The alar plate of the prosencephalon expands to form the

383:, which allow them to communicate with other neurons via 1523:(8th ed.). Sinauer Associates Publishers. pp. 1330: 1168:, waves of spontaneous action potentials arise from the 3837:

Kirkby LA, Sack GS, Firl A, Feller MB (December 2013).

3614: 3157:

Kirkby LA, Sack GS, Firl A, Feller MB (December 2013).

1646:

Anatomy & Physiology The Unity of Form and Function

1229:

neurons which relay auditory information to the brain.

3248: 3107: 1857: 695: 5287: 1221:

generate bursts of activity which spreads across the

607:

plate, which flanks either side of the neural plate.

3885: 3836: 3156: 3108:

Hanson MG, Milner LD, Landmesser LT (January 2008).

1264:, early waves of activity have been observed in the 996:

There is also a method of neuronal migration called

466:. The ventral part of the neural tube is called the 3475: 2452: 745:is the process by which neurons are generated from 3886:Ackman JB, Burbridge TJ, Crair MC (October 2012). 2687: 1951: 1405:also occurs in specific parts of the adult brain. 1337:Server. The Budapest Reference Connectome Server ( 3342: 2980: 2978: 2976: 2974: 2538: 1843:(5th ed.). Appleton and Lange: McGraw Hill. 5546: 4002: 3524: 818:: younger neurons migrate past older ones using 4100: 3343:Jones TA, Jones SM, Paggett KC (October 2001). 2922: 2920: 2260: 1668: 906:to guide the nucleus to its final destination. 199: 4211: 3056: 2971: 2926: 2839: 1104: 870:, where the principal neural stem cell is the 5273: 4615: 3998: 3996: 3832: 3830: 3698: 3525:Corlew R, Bosma MM, Moody WJ (October 2004). 3391: 2261:Rash BG, Ackman JB, Rakic P (February 2016). 2030: 1894: 646:, leading to activation of the Gli family of 98: 5150:Intraoperative neurophysiological monitoring 4352: 3057:Gu X, Olson EC, Spitzer NC (November 1994). 2917: 2736: 2532: 2405: 2362: 1786: 1547: 1446:Role of cell adhesions in neural development 862:Neuronal precursor cells proliferate in the 454:. Beginning in the future neck region, the 4218:(Third ed.). Burlington MA: Elsevier. 4207: 4205: 3741: 3015: 2835: 2833: 2688:Hutchins BI, Klenke U, Wray S (July 2013). 2632: 2174: 2026: 2024: 1603:(Fifth ed.). Oxford University Press. 894:is then transported to the pial surface by 642:, relieving Patched-mediated inhibition of 214:Development of the nervous system in humans 23:Development of the nervous system in humans 5280: 5266: 4622: 4608: 4240: 3993: 3827: 3784: 2730: 2681: 2033:"DNA methylation dynamics in neurogenesis" 2031:Wang Z, Tang B, He Y, Jin P (March 2016). 1766:(Tenth ed.). Sinauer Associates Inc. 1671:Developmental Biology Protocols: Volume II 850:Tangential migration of interneurons from 105: 91: 4501: 4483: 4404: 4394: 4376: 4335: 4317: 4260: 4185: 4128: 4118: 4077: 4028: 3968: 3919: 3862: 3810: 3675: 3591: 3550: 3501: 3452: 3368: 3319: 3309: 3182: 3133: 3084: 3074: 3033: 2954: 2944: 2865: 2813: 2781: 2764: 2754: 2713: 2664: 2615: 2429: 2294: 2127: 2125: 2105: 2056: 2004: 1926: 1812: 1738: 1573: 1510: 1508: 1049: 791:that carry out oxidative reactions (e.g. 548:(future forebrain) and beneath it is the 4202: 4003:Kandler K, Clause A, Noh J (June 2009). 3205: 2830: 2021: 1787:Zhou Y, Song H, Ming GL (January 2024). 1548:Zhou Y, Song H, Ming GL (January 2024). 1325:Numerous braingraphs, computed from the 1310: 845: 810: 630:The ventral neural tube is patterned by 393: 208:Diagram of the vertebrate nervous system 203: 133:of animals, from the earliest stages of 4293: 2927:Turney SG, Lichtman JW (26 June 2012). 1978: 1972: 1958:(4th ed.). New York: McGraw-Hill. 1863: 1761: 1643: 1631: 1596: 1590: 1514: 1007: 31:This article is part of a series on the 5547: 3573: 2840:Tabata H, Nakajima K (November 2003). 2583: 2122: 1878:Clinical Neuroanatomy and Neuroscience 1876:Estomih Mtui, Gregory Gruener (2006). 1838: 1708: 1706: 1648:. New York: McGraw Hill. p. 514. 1505: 1351: 988:to cause the movement of these cells. 673:, at higher concentrations it induces 563:, whilst its basal plate becomes the 5261: 4603: 3291: 2495: 2217: 1880:. Philadelphia: Saunders. p. 1. 1789:"Genetics of human brain development" 1550:"Genetics of human brain development" 1391: 1179:in the initial phase and later on by 806: 474:. The hollow interior is called the 5240: 4569:(peer-reviewed open access journal). 2589: 2498:The Journal of Comparative Neurology 2220:The Journal of Comparative Neurology 1044: 590: 176:, balance and vision disorders, and 3785:Ford KJ, Feller MB (January 2012). 1703: 1466:"Neurological Signs & Diseases" 1253:at later stages. In the developing 696:Rostrocaudal (Anteroposterior) axis 458:of this groove close to create the 13: 4590:How poverty might change the brain 4107:Frontiers in Cellular Neuroscience 3361:10.1523/JNEUROSCI.21-20-08129.2001 3311:10.1523/JNEUROSCI.14-03-01486.1994 3076:10.1523/JNEUROSCI.14-11-06325.1994 2858:10.1523/JNEUROSCI.23-31-09996.2003 2743:Frontiers in Cellular Neuroscience 1458: 1296:, are connected by an edge if the 536:, at the mesencephalic flexure or 527: 14: 5576: 5130:Development of the nervous system 4541:Development of the nervous system 4529: 4215:Development of the Nervous System 4212:Sanes D, Reh T, Harris W (2012). 3126:10.1016/j.brainresrev.2007.06.021 3016:Komuro H, Rakic P (August 1996). 1468:. 2 November 2016. Archived from 491:embryos since they have a simple 342:, and constitutes the developing 119:development of the nervous system 5239: 5228: 5227: 4785: 4629: 2608:10.1111/j.1365-2826.2010.02034.x 1276:Contemporary diffusion-weighted 1197:nicotinic acetylcholine receptor 470:; the dorsal part is called the 4451: 4421: 4145: 4094: 4045: 3936: 3879: 3778: 3735: 3713:10.1016/j.pneurobio.2005.09.002 3692: 3643: 3608: 3567: 3518: 3469: 3428: 3394:Current Opinion in Neurobiology 3385: 3336: 3285: 3242: 3208:Current Opinion in Neurobiology 3199: 3150: 3101: 3050: 3009: 2882: 2489: 2446: 2311: 2254: 2211: 2168: 2073: 1943: 1869: 1780: 1755: 1245:during the early stages and by 1080: 737: 4101:Momose-Sato Y, Sato K (2013). 2806:10.1523/JNEUROSCI.3057-12.2012 2706:10.1523/JNEUROSCI.3758-12.2013 2657:10.1523/JNEUROSCI.4979-06.2007 1662: 1637: 1541: 1484: 1346:development of the human brain 1339:http://connectome.pitgroup.org 1203:and eye-specific segregation. 785:DNA methyltransferases (DNMTs) 777:5-methylcytosine demethylation 759:play a key role in regulating 665:In this context Shh acts as a 355:or lifelong disabilities like 1: 4971:Social cognitive neuroscience 3593:10.1016/s0896-6273(00)80724-2 3406:10.1016/s0959-4388(99)80012-9 3035:10.1016/s0896-6273(00)80159-2 2596:Journal of Neuroendocrinology 2431:10.1016/S0896-6273(01)00420-2 2383:10.1016/S0168-0102(01)00259-0 1452: 1335:Budapest Reference Connectome 1321:Consensus Connectome Dynamics 1129:activity-dependent mechanisms 1111:Activity-dependent plasticity 991: 931: 692:transcription factor levels. 574: 5560:Embryology of nervous system 5555:Animal developmental biology 5383:Cardiac neural crest complex 4946:Molecular cellular cognition 4580:The Child's Developing Brain 4555:Resources in other libraries 4396:10.1371/journal.pone.0158680 4271:10.1016/j.neulet.2015.03.071 3961:10.1016/j.celrep.2022.111369 3855:10.1016/j.neuron.2013.10.030 3668:10.1016/j.neuron.2009.09.021 3543:10.1113/jphysiol.2004.071621 3454:10.1016/j.neuron.2007.03.007 3175:10.1016/j.neuron.2013.10.030 2946:10.1371/journal.pbio.1001352 2737:Hutchins BI, Wray S (2014). 2455:Nature Reviews. Neuroscience 1979:Duester G (September 2008). 1954:Principles of neural science 1841:Principles of neural science 1206:Recent studies confirm that 956: 406: 200:Vertebrate brain development 7: 5165:Neurodevelopmental disorder 5140:Neural network (biological) 5135:Neural network (artificial) 4485:10.1101/2020.04.30.066209v3 3349:The Journal of Neuroscience 3298:The Journal of Neuroscience 3063:The Journal of Neuroscience 2846:The Journal of Neuroscience 2794:The Journal of Neuroscience 2694:The Journal of Neuroscience 2645:The Journal of Neuroscience 1436:Brain development timelines 1408: 1329:can be downloaded from the 1105:Assembly of neural circuits 1090:can develop into synapses. 250:. This process is known as 10: 5581: 5565:Developmental neuroscience 4692:Computational neuroscience 4494:10.1038/s41586-021-03778-8 3220:10.1016/j.conb.2007.01.005 1997:10.1016/j.cell.2008.09.002 1805:10.1038/s41576-023-00626-5 1566:10.1038/s41576-023-00626-5 1395: 1374: 1355: 1193:lateral geniculate nucleus 1108: 1053: 1002:cortical intermediate zone 225:(CNS) is derived from the 211: 20: 5514: 5469: 5398: 5368: 5305: 5296: 5223: 5160:Neurodegenerative disease 5117: 5004:Evolutionary neuroscience 4979: 4919: 4794: 4783: 4655: 4637: 4550:Resources in your library 4328:10.1007/s11571-016-9407-z 4178:10.1016/j.cub.2011.12.002 3803:10.1017/S0952523811000216 3531:The Journal of Physiology 2995:10.1101/2021.09.20.460480 1679:10.1385/1-59259-065-9:125 1600:Principles of development 857: 799:) and enzymes of the DNA 5125:Brain–computer interface 5074:Neuromorphic engineering 4999:Educational neuroscience 4906:Nutritional neuroscience 4811:Clinical neurophysiology 4707:Integrative neuroscience 4120:10.3389/fncel.2013.00036 3701:Progress in Neurobiology 3574:Feller MB (April 1999). 2756:10.3389/fncel.2014.00400 1793:Nature Reviews. Genetics 1719:Croatian Medical Journal 1554:Nature Reviews. Genetics 1327:Human Connectome Project 1284:can be constructed from 943:rostral migratory stream 781:DNA cytosine methylation 769:DNA cytosine methylation 757:Epigenetic modifications 595:The ventral half of the 559:which gives rise to the 184:other disorders such as 164:, and a wide variety of 4936:Behavioral neuroscience 4306:Cognitive Neurodynamics 3764:10.1126/science.3175637 3617:Journal of Neurobiology 3292:Lippe WR (March 1994). 3271:10.1126/science.2035024 2903:10.1093/cercor/13.6.607 1731:10.3325/cmj.2014.55.299 967:GnRH-expressing neurons 898:, a process by which a 797:5-hydroxymethylcytosine 439:that develops into the 194:intellectual disability 4931:Affective neuroscience 4712:Molecular neuroscience 4667:Behavioral epigenetics 3114:Brain Research Reviews 3069:(11 Pt 1): 6325–6335. 2287:10.1126/sciadv.1501733 2098:10.26508/lsa.201900331 1441:Malleable intelligence 1322: 1170:retinal ganglion cells 1056:Neuromuscular junction 1050:Neuromuscular junction 986:cell adhesion proteins 854: 831: 522:pluripotent stem cells 403: 346:of the CNS. Embryonic 256:primary brain vesicles 223:central nervous system 209: 166:neurological disorders 4994:Cultural neuroscience 4989:Consumer neuroscience 4831:Neurogastroenterology 4687:Cellular neuroscience 3304:(3 Pt 2): 1486–1495. 2510:10.1002/cne.901450105 2371:Neuroscience Research 2232:10.1002/cne.901450105 2086:Life Science Alliance 1764:Developmental Biology 1519:Developmental biology 1492:"Neural Tube Defects" 1331:http://braingraph.org 1320: 1109:Further information: 849: 841:time-lapse microscopy 814: 648:transcription factors 599:is controlled by the 413:embryonic development 397: 212:Further information: 207: 143:developmental biology 135:embryonic development 5390:Truncal neural crest 5378:Cranial neural crest 4966:Sensory neuroscience 4806:Behavioral neurology 4777:Systems neuroscience 4249:Neuroscience Letters 2590:Wray S (July 2010). 1907:Nature Biotechnology 1014:Rita Levi Montalcini 1008:Neurotrophic factors 998:multipolar migration 801:base excision repair 561:cerebral 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348:cerebrospinal fluid 258:, which become the 58:Reproductive system 5360:Adult neurogenesis 5313:Neural development 5185:Neuroimmune system 5079:Neurophenomenology 5019:Neural engineering 4742:Neuroendocrinology 4722:Neural engineering 4566:Neural Development 2852:(31): 9996–10001. 2049:10.2217/epi.15.119 1839:Kandel ER (2006). 1762:Gilbert S (2013). 1644:Saladin K (2011). 1597:Wolpert L (2015). 1515:Gilbert S (2006). 1398:Adult neurogenesis 1392:Adult neurogenesis 1323: 1213:In the developing 1117:neuronal migration 910:Radial glial cells 866:of the developing 855: 832: 822:as a scaffolding. 807:Neuronal migration 404: 344:ventricular system 210: 123:neural development 78:Circulatory system 5542: 5541: 5465: 5464: 5408:Rostral neuropore 5255: 5254: 5104:Paleoneurobiology 5039:Neuroepistemology 5014:Neuroanthropology 4980:Interdisciplinary 4866:Neuropharmacology 4826:Neuroepidemiology 4595:The Teenage Brain 4585:Brain Development 4536:Library resources 4470:(7871): 257–261. 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445:neural induction 441:vertebral column 127:neurodevelopment 107: 100: 93: 68:Endocrine system 53:Digestive system 28: 27: 5580: 5579: 5575: 5574: 5573: 5571: 5570: 5569: 5545: 5544: 5543: 5538: 5510: 5461: 5457:Germinal matrix 5432:Pontine flexure 5394: 5364: 5292: 5286: 5256: 5251: 5219: 5205:Neurotechnology 5200:Neuroplasticity 5195:Neuromodulation 5190:Neuromanagement 5113: 5084:Neurophilosophy 4981: 4975: 4961:Neuropsychology 4922: 4915: 4876:Neuropsychiatry 4836:Neuroimmunology 4821:Neurocardiology 4797: 4790: 4781: 4772:Neurophysiology 4762:Neuromorphology 4717:Neural decoding 4658: 4651: 4633: 4628: 4561: 4560: 4559: 4544: 4543: 4539: 4532: 4527: 4456: 4452: 4442: 4440: 4439:on 20 June 2022 4427: 4426: 4422: 4371:(6): e0158680. 4357: 4353: 4298: 4294: 4245: 4241: 4226: 4210: 4203: 4158:Current Biology 4150: 4146: 4099: 4095: 4070:10.1038/nn.2604 4050: 4046: 4021:10.1038/nn.2332 4001: 3994: 3941: 3937: 3884: 3880: 3835: 3828: 3783: 3779: 3750:(4875): 90–91. 3740: 3736: 3697: 3693: 3648: 3644: 3613: 3609: 3572: 3568: 3523: 3519: 3494:10.1038/nn.2285 3474: 3470: 3433: 3429: 3390: 3386: 3341: 3337: 3290: 3286: 3247: 3243: 3204: 3200: 3155: 3151: 3106: 3102: 3055: 3051: 3014: 3010: 2983: 2972: 2939:(6): e1001352. 2925: 2918: 2891:Cerebral Cortex 2887: 2883: 2838: 2831: 2786: 2782: 2735: 2731: 2686: 2682: 2637: 2633: 2588: 2584: 2537: 2533: 2494: 2490: 2451: 2447: 2410: 2406: 2367: 2363: 2316: 2312: 2273:(2): e1501733. 2259: 2255: 2216: 2212: 2173: 2169: 2130: 2123: 2078: 2074: 2029: 2022: 1977: 1973: 1966: 1948: 1944: 1899: 1895: 1888: 1874: 1870: 1866:, pp. 163. 1862: 1858: 1851: 1837: 1830: 1785: 1781: 1774: 1760: 1756: 1711: 1704: 1689: 1667: 1663: 1656: 1642: 1638: 1630: 1626: 1611: 1595: 1591: 1546: 1542: 1535: 1513: 1506: 1496: 1494: 1490: 1489: 1485: 1475: 1473: 1464: 1463: 1459: 1455: 1450: 1411: 1400: 1394: 1377: 1360: 1354: 1311: 1227:spiral ganglion 1215:auditory system 1142:auditory system 1121:differentiation 1113: 1107: 1083: 1058: 1052: 1047: 1010: 994: 959: 934: 860: 809: 803:(BER) pathway. 761:gene expression 740: 722: 715: 698: 593: 577: 569:optical vesicle 550:rhombencephalon 530: 528:Regionalization 421:neural ectoderm 409: 389:neural circuits 288:cerebral cortex 280:rhombencephalon 237:that forms the 229:—the outermost 216: 202: 111: 82: 36:Development of 26: 17: 12: 11: 5: 5578: 5568: 5567: 5562: 5557: 5540: 5539: 5537: 5536: 5535: 5534: 5529: 5518: 5516: 5512: 5511: 5509: 5508: 5507: 5506: 5496: 5491: 5486: 5481: 5475: 5473: 5467: 5466: 5463: 5462: 5460: 5459: 5454: 5449: 5444: 5439: 5434: 5429: 5424: 5419: 5410: 5404: 5402: 5396: 5395: 5393: 5392: 5387: 5386: 5385: 5374: 5372: 5366: 5365: 5363: 5362: 5357: 5352: 5351: 5350: 5345: 5335: 5330: 5325: 5320: 5315: 5309: 5307: 5300: 5294: 5293: 5290:nervous system 5285: 5284: 5277: 5270: 5262: 5253: 5252: 5250: 5249: 5237: 5224: 5221: 5220: 5218: 5217: 5215:Self-awareness 5212: 5207: 5202: 5197: 5192: 5187: 5182: 5177: 5172: 5170:Neurodiversity 5167: 5162: 5157: 5152: 5147: 5142: 5137: 5132: 5127: 5121: 5119: 5115: 5114: 5112: 5111: 5106: 5101: 5096: 5091: 5086: 5081: 5076: 5071: 5069:Neuromarketing 5066: 5061: 5056: 5051: 5046: 5044:Neuroesthetics 5041: 5036: 5034:Neuroeconomics 5031: 5026: 5021: 5016: 5011: 5006: 5001: 4996: 4991: 4985: 4983: 4977: 4976: 4974: 4973: 4968: 4963: 4958: 4953: 4948: 4943: 4938: 4933: 4927: 4925: 4917: 4916: 4914: 4913: 4908: 4903: 4898: 4893: 4888: 4883: 4881:Neuroradiology 4878: 4873: 4868: 4863: 4861:Neuropathology 4858: 4853: 4851:Neuro-oncology 4848: 4843: 4838: 4833: 4828: 4823: 4818: 4813: 4808: 4802: 4800: 4792: 4791: 4784: 4782: 4780: 4779: 4774: 4769: 4764: 4759: 4754: 4749: 4744: 4739: 4737:Neurochemistry 4734: 4729: 4724: 4719: 4714: 4709: 4704: 4699: 4694: 4689: 4684: 4679: 4674: 4669: 4663: 4661: 4653: 4652: 4650: 4649: 4644: 4638: 4635: 4634: 4627: 4626: 4619: 4612: 4604: 4598: 4597: 4592: 4587: 4582: 4577: 4570: 4558: 4557: 4552: 4546: 4545: 4534: 4533: 4531: 4530:External links 4528: 4526: 4525: 4450: 4420: 4351: 4312:(1): 113–116. 4292: 4239: 4224: 4201: 4144: 4093: 4044: 4015:(6): 711–717. 3992: 3955:(12): 111369. 3935: 3878: 3826: 3777: 3734: 3707:(4): 213–235. 3691: 3662:(2): 200–212. 3642: 3623:(1): 131–145. 3607: 3586:(4): 653–656. 3566: 3517: 3488:(4): 463–473. 3468: 3447:(1): 105–120. 3427: 3384: 3335: 3284: 3241: 3198: 3149: 3100: 3049: 3028:(2): 275–285. 3008: 2970: 2916: 2897:(6): 607–611. 2881: 2829: 2780: 2729: 2680: 2651:(2): 431–445. 2631: 2602:(7): 743–753. 2582: 2531: 2488: 2467:10.1038/nrn845 2461:(6): 423–432. 2445: 2424:(5): 727–741. 2404: 2361: 2310: 2253: 2210: 2167: 2140:(2): 143–150. 2121: 2072: 2043:(3): 401–414. 2020: 1991:(6): 921–931. 1971: 1964: 1942: 1913:(3): 275–280. 1893: 1886: 1868: 1856: 1849: 1828: 1779: 1772: 1754: 1725:(4): 299–305. 1702: 1687: 1661: 1654: 1636: 1624: 1609: 1589: 1540: 1533: 1504: 1483: 1456: 1454: 1451: 1449: 1448: 1443: 1438: 1433: 1428: 1426:Pioneer neuron 1423: 1418: 1412: 1410: 1407: 1396:Main article: 1393: 1390: 1376: 1373: 1356:Main article: 1353: 1350: 1134:neural circuit 1106: 1103: 1082: 1079: 1054:Main article: 1051: 1048: 1046: 1043: 1042: 1041: 1033: 1025: 1009: 1006: 993: 990: 958: 955: 951:olfactory bulb 933: 930: 859: 856: 826:(red) release 816:Corticogenesis 808: 805: 739: 736: 697: 694: 686:Sr/Thr kinases 632:sonic hedgehog 592: 589: 576: 573: 546:prosencephalon 529: 526: 408: 405: 328:myelencephalon 264:prosencephalon 201: 198: 131:nervous system 113: 112: 110: 109: 102: 95: 87: 84: 83: 81: 80: 75: 70: 65: 63:Urinary system 60: 55: 50: 48:Nervous system 44: 41: 40: 33: 32: 15: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 5577: 5566: 5563: 5561: 5558: 5556: 5553: 5552: 5550: 5533: 5530: 5528: 5525: 5524: 5523: 5520: 5519: 5517: 5513: 5505: 5502: 5501: 5500: 5497: 5495: 5492: 5490: 5487: 5485: 5484:Optic vesicle 5482: 5480: 5477: 5476: 5474: 5472: 5468: 5458: 5455: 5453: 5450: 5448: 5445: 5443: 5440: 5438: 5435: 5433: 5430: 5428: 5425: 5423: 5420: 5418: 5414: 5411: 5409: 5406: 5405: 5403: 5401: 5397: 5391: 5388: 5384: 5381: 5380: 5379: 5376: 5375: 5373: 5371: 5367: 5361: 5358: 5356: 5353: 5349: 5348:Neural groove 5346: 5344: 5341: 5340: 5339: 5336: 5334: 5333:Neuroectoderm 5331: 5329: 5326: 5324: 5321: 5319: 5316: 5314: 5311: 5310: 5308: 5304: 5301: 5299: 5295: 5291: 5283: 5278: 5276: 5271: 5269: 5264: 5263: 5260: 5248: 5247: 5238: 5236: 5235: 5226: 5225: 5222: 5216: 5213: 5211: 5208: 5206: 5203: 5201: 5198: 5196: 5193: 5191: 5188: 5186: 5183: 5181: 5178: 5176: 5173: 5171: 5168: 5166: 5163: 5161: 5158: 5156: 5153: 5151: 5148: 5146: 5143: 5141: 5138: 5136: 5133: 5131: 5128: 5126: 5123: 5122: 5120: 5116: 5110: 5107: 5105: 5102: 5100: 5099:Neurotheology 5097: 5095: 5094:Neurorobotics 5092: 5090: 5089:Neuropolitics 5087: 5085: 5082: 5080: 5077: 5075: 5072: 5070: 5067: 5065: 5062: 5060: 5057: 5055: 5054:Neuroethology 5052: 5050: 5047: 5045: 5042: 5040: 5037: 5035: 5032: 5030: 5027: 5025: 5022: 5020: 5017: 5015: 5012: 5010: 5007: 5005: 5002: 5000: 4997: 4995: 4992: 4990: 4987: 4986: 4984: 4978: 4972: 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2178: 2171: 2163: 2159: 2155: 2151: 2147: 2146:10.1038/83967 2143: 2139: 2135: 2128: 2126: 2117: 2113: 2108: 2103: 2099: 2095: 2091: 2087: 2083: 2076: 2068: 2064: 2059: 2054: 2050: 2046: 2042: 2038: 2034: 2027: 2025: 2016: 2012: 2007: 2002: 1998: 1994: 1990: 1986: 1982: 1975: 1967: 1961: 1956: 1955: 1946: 1938: 1934: 1929: 1924: 1920: 1916: 1912: 1908: 1904: 1897: 1889: 1883: 1879: 1872: 1865: 1860: 1852: 1846: 1842: 1835: 1833: 1824: 1820: 1815: 1810: 1806: 1802: 1798: 1794: 1790: 1783: 1775: 1769: 1765: 1758: 1750: 1746: 1741: 1736: 1732: 1728: 1724: 1720: 1716: 1709: 1707: 1698: 1694: 1690: 1684: 1680: 1676: 1672: 1665: 1657: 1651: 1647: 1640: 1633: 1628: 1620: 1616: 1612: 1606: 1602: 1601: 1593: 1585: 1581: 1576: 1571: 1567: 1563: 1559: 1555: 1551: 1544: 1536: 1530: 1526: 1521: 1520: 1511: 1509: 1493: 1487: 1472:on 2016-11-02 1471: 1467: 1461: 1457: 1447: 1444: 1442: 1439: 1437: 1434: 1432: 1429: 1427: 1424: 1422: 1419: 1417: 1416:Axon guidance 1414: 1413: 1406: 1404: 1399: 1389: 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The first 873: 869: 865: 853: 848: 844: 842: 837: 829: 825: 821: 817: 813: 804: 802: 798: 794: 790: 786: 782: 778: 774: 770: 766: 762: 758: 754: 752: 748: 744: 735: 733: 729: 725: 718: 711: 707: 706:retinoic acid 703: 693: 691: 688:and altering 687: 682: 680: 676: 672: 668: 663: 661: 657: 653: 649: 645: 641: 637: 633: 628: 626: 622: 618: 614: 608: 606: 602: 598: 588: 586: 582: 572: 570: 566: 562: 558: 557:telencephalon 553: 551: 547: 543: 542:mesencephalon 539: 535: 534:mesencephalon 525: 523: 518: 514: 510: 504: 502: 498: 494: 490: 489: 484: 479: 477: 473: 469: 465: 461: 457: 453: 452:neural groove 448: 446: 442: 438: 434: 430: 426: 422: 418: 414: 411:During early 401: 398:Flowchart of 396: 392: 390: 386: 382: 378: 374: 370: 366: 362: 358: 354: 349: 345: 341: 337: 336:central canal 333: 329: 325: 321: 317: 316:metencephalon 313: 309: 308:mesencephalon 305: 301: 297: 293: 292:basal ganglia 289: 285: 284:telencephalon 281: 277: 273: 272:mesencephalon 269: 265: 261: 257: 253: 249: 245: 244:neural groove 240: 236: 235:neuroectoderm 232: 228: 224: 221: 215: 206: 197: 195: 191: 190:Down syndrome 187: 186:Rett syndrome 183: 179: 175: 171: 167: 163: 158: 156: 152: 148: 144: 140: 136: 132: 128: 124: 120: 108: 103: 101: 96: 94: 89: 88: 86: 85: 79: 76: 74: 71: 69: 66: 64: 61: 59: 56: 54: 51: 49: 46: 45: 43: 42: 39: 38:organ systems 35: 34: 30: 29: 24: 19: 5532:Otic vesicle 5522:Otic placode 5504:Lens placode 5370:Neural crest 5355:Neuropoiesis 5338:Neural plate 5298:Neurogenesis 5244: 5232: 5180:Neuroimaging 5175:Neurogenesis 5129: 5059:Neurohistory 5024:Neurobiotics 4923:neuroscience 4891:Neurosurgery 4816:Epileptology 4798:neuroscience 4767:Neurophysics 4757:Neurometrics 4732:Neurobiology 4727:Neuroanatomy 4697:Connectomics 4631:Neuroscience 4572: 4564: 4540: 4467: 4463: 4453: 4443:21 September 4441:. 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Development of the nervous system

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