234:
125:
246:
258:
280:
identify the fundamental color space, the colors that are seen by the dichromat. This is based on testing both the null-chrominance plane and null-luminance plane which intersect on the missing color. The cones excited to a corresponding color in the color space are visible to the dichromat and those that are not excited are the missing colors.
279:
The three determining elements of a dichromatic opponent-color space are the missing color, the null-luminance plane, and the null-chrominance plane. The description of the phenomena itself does not indicate the color that is impaired to the dichromat, however, it does provide enough information to
159:
gamut. In dichromacy, the unique hues can be evoked by exciting only a single cone at a time, e.g. monochromatic light near the extremes of the visible spectrum. A dichromatic color space can also be defined by non-unique hues, but the color space will not contain the individual's entire gamut. For
327:
Furthermore, dichromats have a significantly higher threshold than trichromats for colored stimuli flickering at low (1 Hz) frequencies. At higher (10 or 16 Hz) frequencies, dichromats perform as well as or better than trichromats. This means such animals would still observe the flicker
172:, but rather a spectrum diverging from white (neutral) in the middle to two unique hues at the extreme, e.g. blue and yellow. Unlike trichromats, white (experienced when both cone cells are equally excited) can be evoked by monochromatic light. This means that dichromats see white in the
233:
225:
is a severe form of blue-yellow color blindness, in which the S-cone is absent. It is much rarer than the other types, occurring in about 1 in 100,000, but is not sex-linked, so affects females and males at similar rates. They tend to confuse greens and blues, and yellow can appear
140:
and the neural framework to compare the excitation of the different cone cells. The resulting color vision is simpler than typical human trichromatic color vision, and much simpler than tetrachromatic color vision, typical of birds and fish.
167:
The color vision of dichromats can be represented in a 2-dimensional plane, where one coordinate represented brightness, and the other coordinate represents hue. However, the perception of hue is not directly analogous to trichromatic
1238:
1223:
312:– can pick up about 100 different gradations of color. If each detector is independent of the others, the total number of colors discernible by an average human is their product (100 × 100 × 100),
520:
Hanggi, Evelyn B.; Ingersoll, Jerry F.; Waggoner, Terrace L. (2007). "Color vision in horses (Equus caballus): Deficiencies identified using a pseudoisochromatic plate test".
316:
about 1 million; Nevertheless, other researchers have put the number at upwards of 2.3 million. The same calculation suggests that a dichromat (such as a human with red-green
219:
is a severe form of red-green color blindness, in which the M-cone is absent. It is sex-linked and affects about 1% of males. Color vision is very similar to protanopia.
1016:
Mollon, J. D.; Bowmaker, J. K.; Jacobs, G. H. (1984). "Variations of colour vision in a New World primate can be explained by polymorphism of retinal photopigments".
116:
Dichromacy in humans is a color vision deficiency in which one of the three cone cells is absent or not functioning and color is thereby reduced to two dimensions.
1133:
Gutierrez, E.A.; Pegoraro, B.M.; MagalhĂŁes-Castro, B.; Pessoa, V.F. (2011). "Behavioural evidence of dichromacy in a species of South
American marsupial".
657:
2467:
1864:
2536:
2462:
491:
3017:
1337:
920:
Jacobs, G. H.; Deegan, J. F.; Neitz; Neitz, J.; Crognale, M. A. (1993). "Photopigments and colour vision in the nocturnal monkey,
870:
798:
1476:
2484:
2479:
2304:
434:
113:. By comparison, every color in a trichromat's gamut can be evoked with a combination of monochromatic light and white light.
399:
2344:
160:
comparison, a trichromatic color space requires three primary colors to be defined. However, even when choosing three pure
2457:
1253:
437:, where trichromatic vision is widespread. Recent genetic and behavioral evidence suggests the South American marsupial
2452:
2339:
1906:
320:) would be able to distinguish about 100 Ă— 100 = 10,000 different colors, but no such calculation has been verified by
2207:
2067:
2172:
422:
are a partial exception: in most species, males are dichromats, and about 60% of females are trichromats, but the
2747:
2265:
2177:
2167:
1896:
173:
2260:
2151:
2017:
380:
164:
as the primaries, the resulting color space will never encompass the entire trichromatic individual's gamut.
2658:
2349:
2334:
1330:
289:
1546:
1504:
1469:
328:
instead of a temporally fused visual perception as is the case in human movie watching at a high enough
2474:
2270:
2244:
2202:
2197:
2062:
1935:
1923:
1879:
1076:
Arrese, C. A.; Oddy, A. Y.; Runham, P. B.; Hart, N. S.; Shand, J.; Hunt, D. M.; Beazley, L. D. (2005).
2653:
2541:
2447:
2294:
2139:
1940:
1886:
17:
2192:
2163:
1787:
1752:
1270:
1078:"Cone topography and spectral sensitivity in two potentially trichromatic marsupials, the quokka (
2663:
2417:
2217:
1737:
1730:
1323:
245:
2932:
2902:
2837:
2832:
2559:
1837:
1702:
1462:
3022:
2875:
2551:
2519:
257:
2648:
2234:
2229:
2187:
2002:
1918:
1376:
1025:
705:
Optics & Photonics News
January 2001 1047-6938/01/01/0026/8- Optical Society of America
384:
274:
137:
129:
28:
1409:
495:
364:
to be dichromats (possessing S- and L-cones), with monochromats viewed as the exceptions.
190:
Dichromacy in humans is a form of color blindness (color vision deficiency). Normal human
8:
2953:
2827:
2627:
2510:
2502:
2290:
2254:
2239:
2094:
1874:
1654:
1366:
1242:
438:
2583:
1029:
213:
and affects about 1% of males. Colors of confusion include blue/purple and green/yellow.
2564:
2314:
2222:
2146:
2099:
1911:
1847:
1832:
1692:
1641:
1172:
Scheibner, H.; Cleveland, S. (1997). "Dichromacy characterized by chrominance planes".
1150:
1110:
1077:
1049:
993:
968:
949:
890:
810:
715:
Sharpe
Lindsay, T.; de Luca, Emanuela; Thorsten, Hansen; Gegenfurtner Karl, R. (2006).
679:
652:
598:
Scheibner, H.; Cleveland, S. (1997). "Dichromacy characterized by chrominance planes".
563:
Scheibner, H.; Cleveland, S. (1998). "Dichromacy characterized by chrominance planes".
82:
1247:
1185:
634:
611:
576:
2907:
2804:
2569:
2429:
2212:
1869:
1775:
1371:
1281:
1189:
1115:
1041:
998:
941:
937:
895:
851:
779:
758:"A tetrachromatic display for the spatiotemporal control of rod and cone stimulation"
738:
684:
615:
580:
545:
537:
419:
387:, as dichromacy may improve an animal's ability to distinguish colors in dim light.
54:
1154:
1053:
635:"Some women who are tetrachromats may see 100,000,000 colors, thanks to their genes"
209:
is a severe form of red-green color blindness, in which the L-cone is absent. It is
2695:
2685:
2531:
2506:
2439:
2405:
2324:
1955:
1945:
1842:
1697:
1584:
1574:
1416:
1181:
1142:
1105:
1097:
1033:
988:
980:
953:
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885:
841:
769:
728:
674:
666:
607:
572:
529:
1346:
1315:
1146:
756:
Bayer
Florian, S.; Vivian Paulun, C.; David, Weiss; Gegenfurtner Karl, R. (2015).
465:
2762:
2726:
2690:
2309:
2134:
2121:
2055:
2012:
1930:
1742:
1674:
1594:
1579:
1399:
1275:
357:
349:
317:
185:
755:
701:"Color Vision: Almost Reason for Having Eyes" by Jay Neitz, Joseph Carroll, and
348:
were monochromats. In the last half-century, however, a focus on behavioral and
2992:
2844:
2789:
2632:
2400:
2329:
2111:
2081:
2027:
1981:
1852:
1725:
1659:
1649:
1286:
969:"Photopigments and colour vision in New World monkeys from the family Atelidae"
533:
471:
376:
161:
110:
93:. Organisms with dichromacy are called dichromats. Dichromats require only two
71:
1232:
714:
136:
Dichromatic color vision is enabled by two types of cone cells with different
3011:
2912:
2767:
2707:
2424:
2372:
2319:
2249:
2158:
2045:
2022:
1950:
1859:
1664:
1569:
1436:
1431:
1404:
1358:
1350:
1304:
1066:
Sternberg, Robert J. (2006) Cognitive
Psychology. 4th Ed. Thomson Wadsworth.
702:
541:
460:
427:
403:
321:
148:
94:
59:
1454:
2777:
2605:
1986:
1901:
1809:
1687:
1682:
1627:
1622:
1426:
1391:
1381:
1119:
1101:
1037:
1002:
984:
899:
783:
742:
688:
670:
549:
415:
394:
The exceptions to this rule of dichromatic vision in placental mammals are
216:
202:. The classification of human dichromacy depends on which cone is missing:
195:
191:
124:
109:
need four. Likewise, every color in a dichromat's gamut can be evoked with
106:
1215:
1193:
1045:
945:
855:
619:
584:
2976:
2927:
2870:
2865:
2822:
2800:
2711:
2702:
2622:
2600:
2412:
2384:
2182:
2050:
1891:
1712:
1589:
1541:
1488:
1441:
846:
833:
388:
152:
198:, so dichromacy is achieved by losing functionality of one of the three
2897:
2860:
2784:
2716:
2677:
2498:
2388:
1747:
1612:
1132:
423:
395:
368:
329:
297:
222:
210:
206:
102:
35:
1300:
2948:
2922:
2796:
2742:
2730:
2615:
2610:
2595:
2591:
2129:
1827:
1804:
1617:
1564:
1559:
1536:
774:
757:
353:
296:), each of the three standard color-detecting cones in the retina of
293:
199:
86:
2987:
2752:
2286:
2089:
1720:
1309:
407:
372:
81:, meaning "color") is the state of having two types of functioning
733:
716:
2814:
2757:
2299:
2106:
2037:
2007:
1997:
1604:
411:
345:
1264:
1261:
1258:
2917:
1819:
1796:
1516:
1301:
Visual comparisons of various types of color vision impairments
1227:
799:"Evolution of colour vision: The story of lost visual pigments"
341:
34:"Dichromat" redirects here. For the chemical ion species, see
2889:
444:
305:
98:
1310:
Colblindor -- Color
Blindness Viewed Through Colorblind Eyes
1969:
1531:
383:
would see the loss of two of these four opsins, due to the
301:
283:
309:
169:
90:
519:
919:
515:
513:
1205:
1075:
1015:
2518:
1345:
1171:
717:"Advantages and disadvantages of human dichromacy"
597:
562:
510:
2463:arteritic anterior (AAION or arteritic AION)
658:Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B
352:of mammals has accumulated extensive evidence of
144:A dichromatic color space can be defined by only
3009:
871:"Ecology and evolution of primate colour vision"
155:, then the color space contains the individuals
340:Until the 1960s, popular belief held that most
443:is dichromatic, with only two classes of cone
379:, possessing 4 distinct opsins classes. Early
1484:
1470:
1331:
288:According to color vision researchers at the
2537:Chronic progressive external ophthalmoplegia
966:
1865:Thygeson's superficial punctate keratopathy
1524:
834:"Evolution of colour vision in vertebrates"
1477:
1463:
1338:
1324:
809:. ECVP Abstract Supplement. Archived from
646:
644:
132:of organisms with dichromatic color vision
1109:
992:
889:
845:
773:
732:
678:
632:
426:are cone monochromats, and both sexes of
391:are therefore – as a rule – dichromatic.
151:. When these primary colors are also the
868:
831:
796:
626:
123:
653:"Evolution of colour vision in mammals"
641:
484:
284:Color detecting abilities of dichromats
14:
3010:
650:
356:color vision in a number of mammalian
97:to be able to represent their visible
2974:
2370:
1773:
1502:
1458:
1319:
967:Jacobs, G. H.; Deegan, J. F. (2001).
878:Clinical & Experimental Optometry
2345:Familial exudative vitreoretinopathy
435:retained or re-evolved in marsupials
2468:non-arteritic anterior (NAION)
2305:Leber's hereditary optic neuropathy
447:having been found within the genus
24:
2340:Persistent tunica vasculosa lentis
1090:Proceedings of the Royal Society B
1018:Proceedings of the Royal Society B
973:Proceedings of the Royal Society B
891:10.1111/j.1444-0938.2004.tb05053.x
25:
3034:
3018:Visual disturbances and blindness
2068:Polypoidal choroidal vasculopathy
1201:
522:Journal of Comparative Psychology
2173:Central retinal artery occlusion
275:Color blindness § Diagnosis
256:
244:
232:
2178:Branch retinal artery occlusion
1907:Terrien's marginal degeneration
1126:
1069:
1060:
1009:
960:
913:
862:
825:
790:
633:Mark Roth (13 September 2006).
105:need three primary colors, and
2975:
2208:Bietti's crystalline dystrophy
2168:Central retinal vein occlusion
1897:Pellucid marginal degeneration
749:
708:
695:
591:
556:
492:"Guidelines: Colour Blindness"
13:
1:
2261:Vitelliform macular dystrophy
2152:Posterior vitreous detachment
2018:Persistent pupillary membrane
1186:10.1016/s0042-6989(97)00373-8
1147:10.1016/j.anbehav.2011.02.012
612:10.1016/s0042-6989(97)00373-8
577:10.1016/s0042-6989(97)00373-8
477:
119:
2748:Leber's congenital amaurosis
2659:Internuclear ophthalmoplegia
2371:
2350:Vogt-Koyanagi-Harada disease
2335:Persistent fetal vasculature
2266:Leber's congenital amaurosis
938:10.1016/0042-6989(93)90168-V
371:ancestor, extant during the
290:Medical College of Wisconsin
268:
7:
1547:Meibomian gland dysfunction
454:
10:
3039:
2271:Birdshot chorioretinopathy
2245:Central serous retinopathy
2063:Focal choroidal excavation
1936:Corneal neovascularization
1753:Subconjunctival hemorrhage
1503:
1165:
840:. 12 ( Pt 3b) (3): 541–7.
637:. Pittsburgh Post-Gazette.
534:10.1037/0735-7036.121.1.65
396:old world monkeys and apes
360:. Mammals are now usually
335:
272:
183:
33:
26:
2983:
2970:
2941:
2888:
2853:
2813:
2738:
2725:
2676:
2654:Convergence insufficiency
2641:
2582:
2550:
2527:
2497:
2438:
2396:
2383:
2379:
2366:
2295:Primary juvenile glaucoma
2279:
2140:Cytomegalovirus retinitis
2120:
2080:
2036:
1977:
1968:
1818:
1795:
1786:
1782:
1774:
1769:
1711:
1673:
1640:
1603:
1555:
1515:
1511:
1498:
1489:Diseases of the human eye
1390:
1357:
1209:
869:Vorobyev, M (July 2004).
179:
53:
48:
2164:Ocular ischemic syndrome
27:Not to be confused with
2664:One and a half syndrome
2418:Foster Kennedy syndrome
2903:Argyll Robertson pupil
1703:Periorbital cellulitis
1102:10.1098/rspb.2004.3009
1038:10.1098/rspb.1984.0071
985:10.1098/rspb.2000.1421
671:10.1098/rstb.2009.0039
651:Jacobs, G. H. (2009).
400:re-evolved trichromacy
138:spectral sensitivities
133:
2876:Scintillating scotoma
2542:Kearns–Sayre syndrome
2485:Toxic and nutritional
2458:posterior (PION)
1941:Kayser–Fleischer ring
832:Bowmaker, JK (1998).
797:Vorobyev, M. (2006).
440:Didelphis albiventris
433:Trichromacy has been
127:
2649:Conjugate gaze palsy
2520:Paralytic strabismus
2453:anterior (AION)
2235:Retinitis pigmentosa
2230:Macular degeneration
2003:Intermediate uveitis
1919:Keratoconjunctivitis
1377:Intraocular pressure
847:10.1038/eye.1998.143
385:nocturnal bottleneck
130:spectral sensitivity
77:, meaning "two" and
29:Heterochromia iridum
2954:Childhood blindness
2933:Parinaud's syndrome
2503:Extraocular muscles
2291:Ocular hypertension
2255:Epiretinal membrane
2240:Retinal haemorrhage
2095:Congenital cataract
1030:1984RSPSB.222..373M
381:mammalian evolution
111:monochromatic light
2480:Leber's hereditary
2147:Retinal detachment
2100:Childhood cataract
1912:Post-LASIK ectasia
1693:Orbital cellulitis
1642:Lacrimal apparatus
1080:Setonix brachyurus
251:Deuteranopia sight
134:
128:Typical cone cell
3005:
3004:
3001:
3000:
2966:
2965:
2962:
2961:
2908:Marcus Gunn pupil
2884:
2883:
2805:Visual impairment
2672:
2671:
2578:
2577:
2565:Fourth-nerve (IV)
2493:
2492:
2430:Optic disc drusen
2362:
2361:
2358:
2357:
2076:
2075:
1964:
1963:
1870:Corneal dystrophy
1765:
1764:
1761:
1760:
1636:
1635:
1452:
1451:
1296:
1295:
1096:(1565): 791–796.
1024:(1228): 373–399.
979:(1468): 695–702.
932:(13): 1773–1783.
813:on 6 October 2014
762:Journal of Vision
721:Journal of Vision
665:(1531): 2957–67.
571:(21): 3403–3407.
430:are trichromats.
420:New World Monkeys
414:) which are cone
389:Placental mammals
101:. By comparison,
65:
64:
43:Medical condition
16:(Redirected from
3030:
2972:
2971:
2736:
2735:
2727:Vision disorders
2686:Refractive error
2628:Brown's syndrome
2584:Other strabismus
2570:Sixth-nerve (VI)
2560:Oculomotor (III)
2532:Ophthalmoparesis
2525:
2524:
2516:
2515:
2507:Binocular vision
2440:Optic neuropathy
2406:optic papillitis
2394:
2393:
2381:
2380:
2368:
2367:
2257:(Macular pucker)
1975:
1974:
1956:Band keratopathy
1793:
1792:
1784:
1783:
1771:
1770:
1698:Orbital lymphoma
1585:Blepharophimosis
1575:Blepharochalasis
1522:
1521:
1513:
1512:
1500:
1499:
1479:
1472:
1465:
1456:
1455:
1417:Opponent process
1340:
1333:
1326:
1317:
1316:
1207:
1206:
1197:
1180:(1): 3403–3407.
1159:
1158:
1141:(5): 1049–1054.
1135:Animal Behaviour
1130:
1124:
1123:
1113:
1084:Isoodon obesulus
1073:
1067:
1064:
1058:
1057:
1013:
1007:
1006:
996:
964:
958:
957:
917:
911:
910:
908:
906:
893:
875:
866:
860:
859:
849:
829:
823:
822:
820:
818:
794:
788:
787:
777:
775:10.1167/15.11.15
753:
747:
746:
736:
712:
706:
699:
693:
692:
682:
648:
639:
638:
630:
624:
623:
606:(1): 3403–3407.
595:
589:
588:
560:
554:
553:
517:
508:
507:
505:
503:
494:. Archived from
488:
468:(dodecachromats)
263:Tritanopia sight
260:
248:
236:
46:
45:
21:
3038:
3037:
3033:
3032:
3031:
3029:
3028:
3027:
3008:
3007:
3006:
2997:
2979:
2958:
2937:
2880:
2849:
2809:
2763:Color blindness
2729:
2721:
2668:
2642:Other binocular
2637:
2574:
2546:
2509:
2505:
2501:
2489:
2434:
2387:
2375:
2354:
2310:Ocular hypotony
2275:
2135:Chorioretinitis
2116:
2072:
2056:Chorioretinitis
2032:
2013:Rubeosis iridis
1991:
1960:
1931:Corneal opacity
1887:Corneal ectasia
1814:
1778:
1757:
1743:Pseudopterygium
1707:
1669:
1632:
1599:
1595:Ankyloblepharon
1551:
1507:
1494:
1493:
1483:
1453:
1448:
1400:Color blindness
1386:
1353:
1344:
1312:by Daniel FlĂĽck
1297:
1292:
1291:
1218:
1204:
1174:Vision Research
1168:
1163:
1162:
1131:
1127:
1074:
1070:
1065:
1061:
1014:
1010:
965:
961:
926:Vision Research
918:
914:
904:
902:
873:
867:
863:
830:
826:
816:
814:
795:
791:
754:
750:
713:
709:
700:
696:
649:
642:
631:
627:
600:Vision Research
596:
592:
565:Vision Research
561:
557:
518:
511:
501:
499:
490:
489:
485:
480:
457:
350:genetic testing
338:
318:color blindness
286:
277:
271:
264:
261:
252:
249:
240:
237:
188:
186:Color blindness
182:
162:spectral colors
122:
44:
39:
32:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
3036:
3026:
3025:
3020:
3003:
3002:
2999:
2998:
2996:
2995:
2993:Onchocerciasis
2990:
2984:
2981:
2980:
2968:
2967:
2964:
2963:
2960:
2959:
2957:
2956:
2951:
2945:
2943:
2939:
2938:
2936:
2935:
2930:
2925:
2920:
2915:
2910:
2905:
2900:
2894:
2892:
2886:
2885:
2882:
2881:
2879:
2878:
2873:
2868:
2863:
2857:
2855:
2851:
2850:
2848:
2847:
2845:Quadrantanopia
2842:
2841:
2840:
2835:
2830:
2819:
2817:
2811:
2810:
2808:
2807:
2794:
2793:
2792:
2790:Oguchi disease
2782:
2781:
2780:
2775:
2770:
2760:
2755:
2750:
2745:
2739:
2733:
2723:
2722:
2720:
2719:
2714:
2705:
2700:
2699:
2698:
2693:
2682:
2680:
2674:
2673:
2670:
2669:
2667:
2666:
2661:
2656:
2651:
2645:
2643:
2639:
2638:
2636:
2635:
2633:Duane syndrome
2630:
2625:
2620:
2619:
2618:
2613:
2603:
2598:
2588:
2586:
2580:
2579:
2576:
2575:
2573:
2572:
2567:
2562:
2556:
2554:
2548:
2547:
2545:
2544:
2539:
2534:
2528:
2522:
2513:
2495:
2494:
2491:
2490:
2488:
2487:
2482:
2477:
2472:
2471:
2470:
2465:
2460:
2455:
2444:
2442:
2436:
2435:
2433:
2432:
2427:
2422:
2421:
2420:
2410:
2409:
2408:
2401:Optic neuritis
2397:
2391:
2377:
2376:
2364:
2363:
2360:
2359:
2356:
2355:
2353:
2352:
2347:
2342:
2337:
2332:
2330:Phthisis bulbi
2327:
2322:
2317:
2312:
2307:
2302:
2297:
2283:
2281:
2277:
2276:
2274:
2273:
2268:
2263:
2258:
2252:
2247:
2242:
2237:
2232:
2227:
2226:
2225:
2220:
2215:
2213:Coats' disease
2210:
2205:
2203:of prematurity
2200:
2195:
2190:
2180:
2175:
2170:
2161:
2156:
2155:
2154:
2144:
2143:
2142:
2137:
2126:
2124:
2118:
2117:
2115:
2114:
2112:Ectopia lentis
2109:
2104:
2103:
2102:
2097:
2086:
2084:
2078:
2077:
2074:
2073:
2071:
2070:
2065:
2060:
2059:
2058:
2048:
2042:
2040:
2034:
2033:
2031:
2030:
2025:
2020:
2015:
2010:
2005:
2000:
1994:
1992:
1990:
1989:
1984:
1978:
1972:
1970:Vascular tunic
1966:
1965:
1962:
1961:
1959:
1958:
1953:
1948:
1943:
1938:
1933:
1928:
1927:
1926:
1916:
1915:
1914:
1909:
1904:
1899:
1894:
1884:
1883:
1882:
1877:
1867:
1862:
1857:
1856:
1855:
1853:Photokeratitis
1850:
1845:
1840:
1835:
1824:
1822:
1816:
1815:
1813:
1812:
1807:
1801:
1799:
1790:
1780:
1779:
1767:
1766:
1763:
1762:
1759:
1758:
1756:
1755:
1750:
1745:
1740:
1735:
1734:
1733:
1726:Conjunctivitis
1723:
1717:
1715:
1709:
1708:
1706:
1705:
1700:
1695:
1690:
1685:
1679:
1677:
1671:
1670:
1668:
1667:
1662:
1660:Dacryocystitis
1657:
1652:
1650:Dacryoadenitis
1646:
1644:
1638:
1637:
1634:
1633:
1631:
1630:
1625:
1620:
1615:
1609:
1607:
1601:
1600:
1598:
1597:
1592:
1587:
1582:
1577:
1572:
1567:
1562:
1556:
1553:
1552:
1550:
1549:
1544:
1539:
1534:
1528:
1526:
1519:
1509:
1508:
1496:
1495:
1492:
1491:
1485:
1482:
1481:
1474:
1467:
1459:
1450:
1449:
1447:
1446:
1445:
1444:
1439:
1434:
1429:
1424:
1414:
1413:
1412:
1410:Köllner's rule
1407:
1396:
1394:
1388:
1387:
1385:
1384:
1379:
1374:
1369:
1363:
1361:
1355:
1354:
1343:
1342:
1335:
1328:
1320:
1314:
1313:
1307:
1294:
1293:
1290:
1289:
1278:
1267:
1250:
1235:
1219:
1214:
1213:
1211:
1210:Classification
1203:
1202:External links
1200:
1199:
1198:
1167:
1164:
1161:
1160:
1125:
1082:) and quenda (
1068:
1059:
1008:
959:
912:
884:(4–5): 230–8.
861:
824:
789:
748:
707:
694:
640:
625:
590:
555:
509:
482:
481:
479:
476:
475:
474:
472:RG color space
469:
463:
456:
453:
428:howler monkeys
404:marine mammals
377:tetrachromatic
337:
334:
322:psychophysical
285:
282:
273:Main article:
270:
267:
266:
265:
262:
255:
253:
250:
243:
241:
238:
231:
228:
227:
220:
214:
184:Main article:
181:
178:
149:primary colors
121:
118:
95:primary colors
83:photoreceptors
63:
62:
57:
51:
50:
42:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
3035:
3024:
3021:
3019:
3016:
3015:
3013:
2994:
2991:
2989:
2986:
2985:
2982:
2978:
2973:
2969:
2955:
2952:
2950:
2947:
2946:
2944:
2940:
2934:
2931:
2929:
2926:
2924:
2921:
2919:
2916:
2914:
2913:Adie syndrome
2911:
2909:
2906:
2904:
2901:
2899:
2896:
2895:
2893:
2891:
2887:
2877:
2874:
2872:
2869:
2867:
2864:
2862:
2859:
2858:
2856:
2852:
2846:
2843:
2839:
2836:
2834:
2831:
2829:
2826:
2825:
2824:
2821:
2820:
2818:
2816:
2812:
2806:
2802:
2798:
2795:
2791:
2788:
2787:
2786:
2783:
2779:
2776:
2774:
2771:
2769:
2768:Achromatopsia
2766:
2765:
2764:
2761:
2759:
2756:
2754:
2751:
2749:
2746:
2744:
2741:
2740:
2737:
2734:
2732:
2728:
2724:
2718:
2715:
2713:
2709:
2708:Anisometropia
2706:
2704:
2701:
2697:
2694:
2692:
2689:
2688:
2687:
2684:
2683:
2681:
2679:
2675:
2665:
2662:
2660:
2657:
2655:
2652:
2650:
2647:
2646:
2644:
2640:
2634:
2631:
2629:
2626:
2624:
2621:
2617:
2614:
2612:
2609:
2608:
2607:
2604:
2602:
2599:
2597:
2593:
2590:
2589:
2587:
2585:
2581:
2571:
2568:
2566:
2563:
2561:
2558:
2557:
2555:
2553:
2549:
2543:
2540:
2538:
2535:
2533:
2530:
2529:
2526:
2523:
2521:
2517:
2514:
2512:
2511:Accommodation
2508:
2504:
2500:
2496:
2486:
2483:
2481:
2478:
2476:
2473:
2469:
2466:
2464:
2461:
2459:
2456:
2454:
2451:
2450:
2449:
2446:
2445:
2443:
2441:
2437:
2431:
2428:
2426:
2425:Optic atrophy
2423:
2419:
2416:
2415:
2414:
2411:
2407:
2404:
2403:
2402:
2399:
2398:
2395:
2392:
2390:
2386:
2382:
2378:
2374:
2369:
2365:
2351:
2348:
2346:
2343:
2341:
2338:
2336:
2333:
2331:
2328:
2326:
2325:Keratomycosis
2323:
2321:
2320:Globe rupture
2318:
2316:
2313:
2311:
2308:
2306:
2303:
2301:
2298:
2296:
2292:
2288:
2285:
2284:
2282:
2278:
2272:
2269:
2267:
2264:
2262:
2259:
2256:
2253:
2251:
2250:Macular edema
2248:
2246:
2243:
2241:
2238:
2236:
2233:
2231:
2228:
2224:
2221:
2219:
2216:
2214:
2211:
2209:
2206:
2204:
2201:
2199:
2196:
2194:
2191:
2189:
2186:
2185:
2184:
2181:
2179:
2176:
2174:
2171:
2169:
2165:
2162:
2160:
2159:Retinoschisis
2157:
2153:
2150:
2149:
2148:
2145:
2141:
2138:
2136:
2133:
2132:
2131:
2128:
2127:
2125:
2123:
2119:
2113:
2110:
2108:
2105:
2101:
2098:
2096:
2093:
2092:
2091:
2088:
2087:
2085:
2083:
2079:
2069:
2066:
2064:
2061:
2057:
2054:
2053:
2052:
2049:
2047:
2046:Choroideremia
2044:
2043:
2041:
2039:
2035:
2029:
2026:
2024:
2023:Iridodialysis
2021:
2019:
2016:
2014:
2011:
2009:
2006:
2004:
2001:
1999:
1996:
1995:
1993:
1988:
1985:
1983:
1980:
1979:
1976:
1973:
1971:
1967:
1957:
1954:
1952:
1951:Arcus senilis
1949:
1947:
1946:Haab's striae
1944:
1942:
1939:
1937:
1934:
1932:
1929:
1925:
1922:
1921:
1920:
1917:
1913:
1910:
1908:
1905:
1903:
1900:
1898:
1895:
1893:
1890:
1889:
1888:
1885:
1881:
1878:
1876:
1873:
1872:
1871:
1868:
1866:
1863:
1861:
1860:Corneal ulcer
1858:
1854:
1851:
1849:
1846:
1844:
1841:
1839:
1838:acanthamoebic
1836:
1834:
1831:
1830:
1829:
1826:
1825:
1823:
1821:
1817:
1811:
1808:
1806:
1803:
1802:
1800:
1798:
1794:
1791:
1789:
1788:Fibrous tunic
1785:
1781:
1777:
1772:
1768:
1754:
1751:
1749:
1746:
1744:
1741:
1739:
1736:
1732:
1729:
1728:
1727:
1724:
1722:
1719:
1718:
1716:
1714:
1710:
1704:
1701:
1699:
1696:
1694:
1691:
1689:
1686:
1684:
1681:
1680:
1678:
1676:
1672:
1666:
1665:Xerophthalmia
1663:
1661:
1658:
1656:
1653:
1651:
1648:
1647:
1645:
1643:
1639:
1629:
1626:
1624:
1621:
1619:
1616:
1614:
1611:
1610:
1608:
1606:
1602:
1596:
1593:
1591:
1588:
1586:
1583:
1581:
1578:
1576:
1573:
1571:
1570:Lagophthalmos
1568:
1566:
1563:
1561:
1558:
1557:
1554:
1548:
1545:
1543:
1540:
1538:
1535:
1533:
1530:
1529:
1527:
1523:
1520:
1518:
1514:
1510:
1506:
1501:
1497:
1490:
1487:
1486:
1480:
1475:
1473:
1468:
1466:
1461:
1460:
1457:
1443:
1440:
1438:
1437:Tetrachromacy
1435:
1433:
1432:Pentachromacy
1430:
1428:
1425:
1423:
1420:
1419:
1418:
1415:
1411:
1408:
1406:
1405:Achromatopsia
1403:
1402:
1401:
1398:
1397:
1395:
1393:
1389:
1383:
1380:
1378:
1375:
1373:
1370:
1368:
1367:Accommodation
1365:
1364:
1362:
1360:
1356:
1352:
1351:visual system
1348:
1341:
1336:
1334:
1329:
1327:
1322:
1321:
1318:
1311:
1308:
1306:
1305:Cal Henderson
1302:
1299:
1298:
1288:
1284:
1283:
1279:
1277:
1273:
1272:
1268:
1266:
1263:
1260:
1256:
1255:
1251:
1249:
1245:
1244:
1240:
1236:
1234:
1230:
1229:
1225:
1221:
1220:
1217:
1212:
1208:
1195:
1191:
1187:
1183:
1179:
1175:
1170:
1169:
1156:
1152:
1148:
1144:
1140:
1136:
1129:
1121:
1117:
1112:
1107:
1103:
1099:
1095:
1091:
1087:
1085:
1081:
1072:
1063:
1055:
1051:
1047:
1043:
1039:
1035:
1031:
1027:
1023:
1019:
1012:
1004:
1000:
995:
990:
986:
982:
978:
974:
970:
963:
955:
951:
947:
943:
939:
935:
931:
927:
923:
916:
901:
897:
892:
887:
883:
879:
872:
865:
857:
853:
848:
843:
839:
835:
828:
812:
808:
804:
800:
793:
785:
781:
776:
771:
767:
763:
759:
752:
744:
740:
735:
734:10.1167/6.3.3
730:
727:(3): 213–23.
726:
722:
718:
711:
704:
703:Maureen Neitz
698:
690:
686:
681:
676:
672:
668:
664:
660:
659:
654:
647:
645:
636:
629:
621:
617:
613:
609:
605:
601:
594:
586:
582:
578:
574:
570:
566:
559:
551:
547:
543:
539:
535:
531:
527:
523:
516:
514:
498:on 3 May 2003
497:
493:
487:
483:
473:
470:
467:
466:Mantis shrimp
464:
462:
461:Pentachromacy
459:
458:
452:
450:
446:
442:
441:
436:
431:
429:
425:
421:
417:
413:
409:
405:
401:
397:
392:
390:
386:
382:
378:
374:
370:
365:
363:
359:
355:
351:
347:
343:
333:
331:
325:
323:
319:
315:
311:
307:
303:
299:
295:
291:
281:
276:
259:
254:
247:
242:
235:
230:
229:
224:
221:
218:
215:
212:
208:
205:
204:
203:
201:
197:
193:
187:
177:
175:
171:
165:
163:
158:
154:
150:
147:
142:
139:
131:
126:
117:
114:
112:
108:
107:tetrachromats
104:
100:
96:
92:
88:
84:
80:
76:
73:
69:
61:
60:Ophthalmology
58:
56:
52:
47:
41:
37:
30:
19:
3023:Color vision
2803: /
2799: /
2778:Monochromacy
2772:
2710: /
2606:Heterophoria
2594: /
2293: /
2289: /
2193:hypertensive
2166: /
1987:Ciliary body
1902:Keratoglobus
1810:Episcleritis
1688:Enophthalmos
1683:Exophthalmos
1628:Trichomegaly
1623:Distichiasis
1525:Inflammation
1427:Monochromacy
1421:
1392:Color vision
1382:Visual field
1280:
1269:
1252:
1237:
1222:
1177:
1173:
1138:
1134:
1128:
1093:
1089:
1083:
1079:
1071:
1062:
1021:
1017:
1011:
976:
972:
962:
929:
925:
921:
915:
903:. Retrieved
881:
877:
864:
837:
827:
815:. Retrieved
811:the original
806:
802:
792:
765:
761:
751:
724:
720:
710:
697:
662:
656:
628:
603:
599:
593:
568:
564:
558:
528:(1): 65–72.
525:
521:
502:29 September
500:. Retrieved
496:the original
486:
448:
439:
432:
416:monochromats
393:
366:
361:
339:
326:
313:
287:
278:
239:Normal sight
217:Deuteranopia
196:trichromatic
192:color vision
189:
166:
156:
145:
143:
135:
115:
78:
74:
67:
66:
40:
2928:Cycloplegia
2871:Photophobia
2866:Hemeralopia
2823:Hemianopsia
2801:Vision loss
2712:Aniseikonia
2703:Astigmatism
2623:Cyclotropia
2601:Hypertropia
2413:Papilledema
2385:Optic nerve
2218:Sickle cell
2198:Purtscher's
2183:Retinopathy
2051:Choroiditis
1892:Keratoconus
1713:Conjunctiva
1590:Xanthelasma
1542:Blepharitis
1442:Trichromacy
424:owl monkeys
367:The common
354:dichromatic
344:outside of
298:trichromats
292:(including
153:unique hues
103:trichromats
3012:Categories
2977:Infections
2898:Anisocoria
2861:Asthenopia
2854:subjective
2838:homonymous
2833:bitemporal
2785:Nyctalopia
2773:Dichromacy
2717:Presbyopia
2678:Refraction
2499:Strabismus
2389:Optic disc
1748:Pinguecula
1613:Trichiasis
1422:Dichromacy
1347:Physiology
1282:DiseasesDB
817:1 February
803:Perception
768:(11): 15.
478:References
369:vertebrate
330:frame rate
223:Tritanopia
211:sex-linked
207:Protanopia
200:cone cells
120:Perception
87:cone cells
68:Dichromacy
49:Dichromacy
36:Dichromate
2949:Nystagmus
2923:Mydriasis
2797:Blindness
2743:Amblyopia
2731:Blindness
2691:Hyperopia
2616:Exophoria
2611:Esophoria
2596:Exotropia
2592:Esotropia
2130:Retinitis
1828:Keratitis
1805:Scleritis
1738:Pterygium
1618:Madarosis
1565:Ectropion
1560:Entropion
1537:Chalazion
905:7 January
542:1939-2087
449:Didelphis
412:cetaceans
408:pinnipeds
324:testing.
294:Jay Neitz
269:Diagnosis
89:, in the
85:, called
55:Specialty
18:Dichromat
2988:Trachoma
2753:Diplopia
2448:Ischemic
2373:Pathways
2287:Glaucoma
2188:diabetic
2090:Cataract
2028:Synechia
1880:Meesmann
1848:Exposure
1833:herpetic
1731:allergic
1721:Chemosis
1655:Epiphora
1155:53176187
1120:15888411
1054:24416536
1003:11321057
900:15312027
784:26305863
743:16643091
689:19720656
550:17324076
455:See also
398:, which
373:Cambrian
346:primates
2828:binasal
2815:Anopsia
2758:Scotoma
2552:palsies
2315:Red eye
2300:Floater
2107:Aphakia
2038:Choroid
2008:Hyphema
1998:Uveitis
1605:Eyelash
1349:of the
1276:D003117
1194:9893856
1166:Sources
1111:1599861
1046:6149558
1026:Bibcode
994:1088658
954:3745725
946:8266633
856:9775215
680:2781854
620:9893856
585:9893856
362:assumed
342:mammals
336:Mammals
174:rainbow
2918:Miosis
2696:Myopia
2475:Kjer's
2223:photic
2122:Retina
1875:Fuchs'
1843:fungal
1820:Cornea
1797:Sclera
1580:Ptosis
1517:Eyelid
1505:Adnexa
1359:Vision
1265:190900
1262:303800
1259:303900
1192:
1153:
1118:
1108:
1052:
1044:
1001:
991:
952:
944:
898:
854:
782:
741:
687:
677:
618:
583:
548:
540:
445:opsins
406:(both
402:, and
375:, was
358:orders
180:Humans
157:entire
79:chromo
70:(from
2942:Other
2890:Pupil
2280:Other
1924:sicca
1776:Globe
1675:Orbit
1287:30021
1248:368.5
1233:H53.5
1151:S2CID
1050:S2CID
950:S2CID
922:Aotus
874:(PDF)
306:green
226:pink.
99:gamut
72:Greek
2082:Lens
1982:Iris
1532:Stye
1372:Gaze
1271:MeSH
1254:OMIM
1243:9-CM
1190:PMID
1116:PMID
1042:PMID
999:PMID
942:PMID
907:2013
896:PMID
852:PMID
819:2013
780:PMID
739:PMID
685:PMID
616:PMID
581:PMID
546:PMID
538:ISSN
504:2006
410:and
314:i.e.
308:and
302:blue
91:eyes
1303:by
1239:ICD
1224:ICD
1182:doi
1143:doi
1106:PMC
1098:doi
1094:272
1034:doi
1022:222
989:PMC
981:doi
977:268
934:doi
924:".
886:doi
842:doi
838:Eye
770:doi
729:doi
675:PMC
667:doi
663:364
608:doi
573:doi
530:doi
526:121
310:red
194:is
170:hue
146:two
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1228:10
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