Dinoflagellate - Knowledge

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essentially a process whereby zygotes prepare themselves for a dormant period. Because the resting cysts studied until that time came from sexual processes, dormancy was associated with sexuality, a presumption that was maintained for many years. This attribution was coincident with evolutionary theories about the origin of eukaryotic cell fusion and sexuality, which postulated advantages for species with diploid resting stages, in their ability to withstand nutrient stress and mutational UV radiation through recombinational repair, and for those with haploid vegetative stages, as asexual division doubles the number of cells. Nonetheless, certain environmental conditions may limit the advantages of recombination and sexuality, such that in fungi, for example, complex combinations of haploid and diploid cycles have evolved that include asexual and sexual resting stages.

1786:, has lost its mitochondrial genome completely, yet still has functional mitochondria. The genes on the dinoflagellate genomes have undergone a number of reorganisations, including massive genome amplification and recombination which have resulted in multiple copies of each gene and gene fragments linked in numerous combinations. Loss of the standard stop codons, trans-splicing of mRNAs for the mRNA of cox3, and extensive RNA editing recoding of most genes has occurred. The reasons for this transformation are unknown. In a small group of dinoflagellates, called 'dinotoms' (Durinskia and Kryptoperidinium), the endosymbionts (diatoms) still have mitochondria, making them the only organisms with two evolutionarily distinct mitochondria. 617:

posteriorly. The transverse flagellum is a wavy ribbon in which only the outer edge undulates from base to tip, due to the action of the axoneme which runs along it. The axonemal edge has simple hairs that can be of varying lengths. The flagellar movement produces forward propulsion and also a turning force. The longitudinal flagellum is relatively conventional in appearance, with few or no hairs. It beats with only one or two periods to its wave. The flagella lie in surface grooves: the transverse one in the cingulum and the longitudinal one in the sulcus, although its distal portion projects freely behind the cell. In dinoflagellate species with desmokont flagellation (e.g.,

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genera; Citharistes, Histioneis, Parahistioneis, and Ornithocercus, that contain extracellular cyanobionts. Most of the cyanobionts are used for nitrogen fixation, not for photosynthesis, but some don't have the ability to fix nitrogen. The dinoflagellate Ornithocercus magnificus is host for symbionts which resides in an extracellular chamber. While it is not fully known how the dinoflagellate benefit from it, it has been suggested it is farming the cyanobacteria in specialized chambers and regularly digest some of them.

8594: 1586: 949: 132: 2095: 2026: 2112: 1416: 109: 1432: 2064: 2005: 1062: 1803:, ITS sequences can be used to identify species, where a genetic distance of p≥0.04 can be used to delimit species, which has been successfully applied to resolve long-standing taxonomic confusion as in the case of resolving the Alexandrium tamarense complex into five species. A recent study revealed a substantial proportion of dinoflagellate genes encode for unknown functions, and that these genes could be conserved and lineage-specific. 609: 5632: 1464:, a chlorophyll-derived tetrapyrrole ring that acts as the substrate to the light-producing reaction. The luminescence occurs as a brief (0.1 sec) blue flash (max 476 nm) when stimulated, usually by mechanical disturbance. Therefore, when mechanically stimulated—by boat, swimming, or waves, for example—a blue sparkling light can be seen emanating from the sea surface. 1796:. Each circle contains one or two polypeptide genes. The genes for these polypeptides are chloroplast-specific because their homologs from other photosynthetic eukaryotes are exclusively encoded in the chloroplast genome. Within each circle is a distinguishable 'core' region. Genes are always in the same orientation with respect to this core region. 1320:

first may be achieved by having predators reject the dinoflagellate, by, for example, decreasing the amount of food it can eat. This additionally helps prevent a future increase in predation pressure by causing predators that reject it to lack the energy to breed. A species can then inhibit the growth of its competitors, thus achieving dominance.

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controls. Endogenously, a species-specific physiological maturation minimum period (dormancy) is mandatory before germination can occur. Thus, hypnozygotes were also referred to as "resting" or "resistant" cysts, in reference to this physiological trait and their capacity following dormancy to remain

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A transverse groove, the so-called cingulum (or cigulum) runs around the cell, thus dividing it into an anterior (episoma) and posterior (hyposoma). If and only if a theca is present, the parts are called epitheca and hypotheca, respectively. Posteriorly, starting from the transverse groove, there is

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Dinoflagellate evolution has been summarized into five principal organizational types: prorocentroid, dinophysoid, gonyaulacoid, peridinioid, and gymnodinoid. The transitions of marine species into fresh water have been frequent events during the diversification of dinoflagellates and have occurred

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Indeed, during dinoflagellate evolution the need to adapt to fluctuating environments and/or to seasonality is thought to have driven the development of this life cycle stage. Most protists form dormant cysts in order to withstand starvation and UV damage. However, there are enormous differences in

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More than 10% of the approximately 2000 known marine dinoflagellate species produce cysts as part of their life cycle (see diagram on the right). These benthic phases play an important role in the ecology of the species, as part of a planktonic-benthic link in which the cysts remain in the sediment

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The luciferin-luciferase reaction responsible for the bioluminescence is pH sensitive. When the pH drops, luciferase changes its shape, allowing luciferin, more specifically tetrapyrrole, to bind. Dinoflagellates can use bioluminescence as a defense mechanism. They can startle their predators by

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further encourage these red tides, so strong interest exists in learning more about dinoflagellates, from both medical and economic perspectives. Dinoflagellates are known to be particularly capable of scavenging dissolved organic phosphorus for P-nutrient, several HAS species have been found to be

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dinoflagellates, named after their peridinin plastids, appear to be ancestral for the dinoflagellate lineage. Almost half of all known species have chloroplasts, which are either the original peridinin plastids or new plastids acquired from other lineages of unicellular algae through endosymbiosis.

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However, in the general life cycle of cyst-producing dinoflagellates as outlined in the 1960s and 1970s, resting cysts were assumed to be the fate of sexuality, which itself was regarded as a response to stress or unfavorable conditions. Sexuality involves the fusion of haploid gametes from motile

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Jakob Schiller (1931–1937) provided a description of all the species, both marine and freshwater, known at that time. Later, Alain Sournia (1973, 1978, 1982, 1990, 1993) listed the new taxonomic entries published after Schiller (1931–1937). Sournia (1986) gave descriptions and illustrations of the

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Dinoflagellate blooms are generally unpredictable, short, with low species diversity, and with little species succession. The low species diversity can be due to multiple factors. One way a lack of diversity may occur in a bloom is through a reduction in predation and a decreased competition. The

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Many dinoflagellates also have a symbiotic relationship with cyanobacteria, called cyanobionts, which have a reduced genome and has not been found outside their hosts. The Dinophysoid dinoflagellates have two genera, Amphisolenia and Triposolenia, that contain intracellular cyanobionts, and four

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was the first to identify cysts as the fossilized remains of dinoflagellates. Later, cyst formation from gamete fusion was reported, which led to the conclusion that encystment is associated with sexual reproduction. These observations also gave credence to the idea that microalgal encystment is

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periods, has not been proven yet to be attributed to latitude adaptation or to depend on other life cycle traits. Thus, despite recent advances in the understanding of the life histories of many dinoflagellate species, including the role of cyst stages, many gaps remain in knowledge about their

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Dinoflagellate bioluminescence is controlled by a circadian clock and only occurs at night. Luminescent and nonluminescent strains can occur in the same species. The number of scintillons is higher during night than during day, and breaks down during the end of the night, at the time of maximal

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About 1,555 species of free-living marine dinoflagellates are currently described. Another estimate suggests about 2,000 living species, of which more than 1,700 are marine (free-living, as well as benthic) and about 220 are from fresh water. The latest estimates suggest a total of 2,294 living

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Yet, with the discovery that planozygotes were also able to divide it became apparent that the complexity of dinoflagellate life cycles was greater than originally thought. Following corroboration of this behavior in several species, the capacity of dinoflagellate sexual phases to restore the

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One of the most striking features of dinoflagellates is the large amount of cellular DNA that they contain. Most eukaryotic algae contain on average about 0.54 pg DNA/cell, whereas estimates of dinoflagellate DNA content range from 3–250 pg/cell, corresponding to roughly 3000–215 000 Mb (in

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Dinoflagellates are unicellular and possess two dissimilar flagella arising from the ventral cell side (dinokont flagellation). They have a ribbon-like transverse flagellum with multiple waves that beats to the cell's left, and a more conventional one, the longitudinal flagellum, that beats

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however lacks a plastid entirely. Some groups that have lost the photosynthetic properties of their original red algae plastids has obtained new photosynthetic plastids (chloroplasts) through so-called serial endosymbiosis, both secondary and tertiary. Like their original plastids, the new

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or polyteny may account for this large cellular DNA content, but earlier studies of DNA reassociation kinetics and recent genome analyses do not support this hypothesis. Rather, this has been attributed, hypothetically, to the rampant retroposition found in dinoflagellate genomes.

1436: 1055:. The dinoflagellate nucleus was termed 'mesokaryotic' by Dodge (1966), due to its possession of intermediate characteristics between the coiled DNA areas of prokaryotic bacteria and the well-defined eukaryotic nucleus. This group, however, does contain typically eukaryotic 7843:

Kretschmann, J.; Žerdoner Čalasan, A.; Gottschling, M. (2018). "Molecular phylogenetics of dinophytes harboring diatoms as endosymbionts (Kryptoperidiniaceae, Peridiniales), with evolutionary interpretations and a focus on the identity of Durinskia oculata from Prague".

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Bütschli O. (1885) 3. Unterabtheilung (Ordnung) Dinoflagellata. – In: Dr. H.G. Bronn's Klassen und Ordnungen des Thier-Reichs, wissenschaftlich dargestellt in Wort und Bild. Erster Band Protozoa. – C.F. Winter'sche Verlagshandlung, Leipzig und Heidelberg. Pp. 906–1029;

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Ehrenberg C.G. (1832) Beiträge zur Kenntnis der Organisation der Infusorien und ihrer geographischer Verbreitung, besonders in Sibirien. — Abhandlungen der Königlichen Akademie der Wissenschaften zu Berlin. Aus dem Jahre 1830. Physikalische Abhandlungen 1830: 1–88, Pls

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their flashing light or they can ward off potential predators by an indirect effect such as the "burglar alarm". The bioluminescence attracts attention to the dinoflagellate and its attacker, making the predator more vulnerable to predation from higher trophic levels.

1275:, commonly found as a contaminant in algal or ciliate cultures, feeds by attaching to its prey and ingesting prey cytoplasm through an extensible peduncle. Two related species, polykrikos kofoidii and neatodinium, shoots out a harpoon-like organelle to capture prey. 1550:. More complex life cycles occur, more particularly with parasitic dinoflagellates. Sexual reproduction also occurs, though this mode of reproduction is only known in a small percentage of dinoflagellates. This takes place by fusion of two individuals to form a 1622:. Different types of dinoflagellate cysts are mainly defined based on morphological (number and type of layers in the cell wall) and functional (long- or short-term endurance) differences. These characteristics were initially thought to clearly distinguish 642:, as opposed to athecate ("nude") dinoflagellates. These occur in various shapes and arrangements, depending on the species and sometimes on the stage of the dinoflagellate. Conventionally, the term tabulation has been used to refer to this arrangement of 1630:(double-walled) dinoflagellate cysts. The former were considered short-term (temporal) and the latter long-term (resting) cysts. However, during the last two decades further knowledge has highlighted the great intricacy of dinoflagellate life histories. 3600:

Schiller, J., 1931–1937: Dinoflagellatae (Peridinineae) in monographischer Behandlung. In: RABENHORST, L. (ed.), Kryptogamen-Flora von Deutschland, Österreichs und der Schweiz. Akad. Verlag., Leipzig. Vol. 10 (3): Teil 1 (1–3) (1931–1933): Teil 2

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Knaust R, Urbig T, Li L, Taylor W, Hastings JW (February 1998). "The circadian rhythm of bioluminescence in Pyrocystis is not due to differences in the amount of luciferase: a comparative study of three bioluminescent marine dinoflagellates".

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have been included here, but only the last are now considered close relatives. Dinoflagellates have a known ability to transform from noncyst to cyst-forming strategies, which makes recreating their evolutionary history extremely difficult.

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Moldowan JM, Dahl JE, Jacobson SR, Huizinga BJ, Fago FJ, Shetty R, Watt DS, Peters KE (February 1996). "Chemostratigraphic reconstruction of biofacies: molecular evidence linking cyst-forming dinoflagellates with Pre-Triassic ancestors".

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are photosynthetically active, but are also heterotrophic. Facultative mixotrophs, in which autotrophy or heterotrophy is sufficient for nutrition, are classified as amphitrophic. If both forms are required, the organisms are mixotrophic

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At night, water can have an appearance of sparkling light due to the bioluminescence of dinoflagellates. More than 18 genera of dinoflagellates are bioluminescent, and the majority of them emit a blue-green light. These species contain

921:", but now are considered derived rather than primitive traits (i. e. ancestors of dinoflagellates had typical eukaryotic nuclei). In addition to dinokaryotes, DVNPs can be found in a group of basal dinoflagellates (known as Marine 1771:

In addition to their disproportionately large genomes, dinoflagellate nuclei are unique in their morphology, regulation, and composition. Their DNA is so tightly packed that exactly how many chromosomes they have is still uncertain.

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has led some to suggest they were inherited from an ancestor common to the two groups, but none of the more basal lines has them. All the same, the dinoflagellate cell consists of the more common organelles such as rough and smooth

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A red tide occurs because dinoflagellates are able to reproduce rapidly and copiously as a result of the abundant nutrients in the water. Although the resulting red waves are an interesting visual phenomenon, they contain

901:(DVNPs) which are highly basic, bind DNA with similar affinity to histones, and occur in multiple posttranslationally modified forms. Dinoflagellate nuclei remain condensed throughout interphase rather than just during 2768:

Müller, O.F. 1773. Vermium terrestrium et fluviatilium, seu Animalium Infusoriorum, Helmithicorum et Testaceorum, non marinorum, succincta historia, vol. 1. Pars prima. p. 34, 135. Faber, Havniae, et Lipsiae

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Some mixotrophic dinoflagellates are able to produce neurotoxins that have anti-grazing effects on larger copepods and enhance the ability of the dinoflagellate to prey upon larger copepods. Toxic strains of

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Strassert JF, Karnkowska A, Hehenberger E, Del Campo J, Kolisko M, Okamoto N, Burki F, Janouškovec J, Poirier C, Leonard G, Hallam SJ, Richards TA, Worden AZ, Santoro AE, Keeling PJ (January 2018).

1217:. Some free-living dinoflagellates do not have chloroplasts, but host a phototrophic endosymbiont. A few dinoflagellates may use alien chloroplasts (cleptochloroplasts), obtained from food ( 7121: 6820:

Litaker RW, Vandersea MW, Kibler SR, Reece KS, Stokes NA, Lutzoni FM, Yonish BA, West MA, Black MN, Tester PA (April 2007). "Recognizing dinoflagellate species using ITS rDNA sequences".

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Poupin, J., A.-S. Cussatlegras, and P. Geistdoerfer. 1999. Plancton marin bioluminescent. Rapport scientifique du Laboratoire d'Océanographie de l'École Navale LOEN, Brest, France, 83 pp.

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English-language taxonomic monographs covering large numbers of species are published for the Gulf of Mexico, the Indian Ocean, the British Isles, the Mediterranean and the North Sea.

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spp.), draw prey to the sulcal region of the cell (either via water currents set up by the flagella or via pseudopodial extensions) and ingest the prey through the sulcus. In several

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Gabrielsen, T. M.; Minge, M. A.; Espelund, M.; Tooming-Klunderud, A.; Patil, V.; Nederbragt, A. J.; Otis, C.; Turmel, M.; Shalchian-Tabrizi, K.; Lemieux, C.; Jakobsen, K. S. (2011).

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rocks might be the product of ancestral dinoflagellates (protodinoflagellates). Dinoflagellates show a classic radiation of morphologies during the Late Triassic through the Middle

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Talyzina NM, Moldowan JM, Johannisson A, Fago FJ (January 2000). "Affinities of early Cambrian acritarchs studied by using microscopy, fluorescence flow cytometry and biomarkers".

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Debieu, Marilyne; Tang, Chunlao; Stich, Benjamin; Sikosek, Tobias; Effgen, Sigi; Josephs, Emily; Schmitt, Johanna; Nordborg, Magnus; Koornneef, Maarten; De Meaux, Juliette (2013).

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chloroplasts in these groups can be traced back to red algae, except from those in the members of the genus Lepidodinium, which possess plastids derived from green algae, possibly

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Wang, Lu; Zhuang, Yunyun; Zhang, Huan; Lin, Xin; Lin, Senjie (2014). "DNA barcoding species in Alexandrium tamarense complex using ITS and proposing designation of five species".

6450:"The mitochondrial genome and transcriptome of the basal dinoflagellate Hematodinium sp.: character evolution within the highly derived mitochondrial genomes of dinoflagellates" 1180:

retain their plastids while feeding on their zooplanktonic or fish hosts. In most parasitic dinoflagellates, the infective stage resembles a typical motile dinoflagellate cell.

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Fritz L, Morse D, Hastings JW (February 1990). "The circadian bioluminescence rhythm of Gonyaulax is related to daily variations in the number of light-emitting organelles".

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vegetative phase, bypassing cyst formation, became well accepted. Further, in 2006 Kremp and Parrow showed the dormant resting cysts of the Baltic cold water dinoflagellates

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Dinoflagellates are found in all aquatic environments: marine, brackish, and fresh water, including in snow or ice. They are also common in benthic environments and sea ice.

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Anderson, Donald Mark; Wall, David (1978). "Potential Importance of Benthic Cysts of Gonyaulax Tamarensis and G. Excavata in Initiating Toxic Dinoflagellate Blooms1, 2, 3".

1487:. Also, a bioluminescent lagoon is near Montego Bay, Jamaica, and bioluminescent harbors surround Castine, Maine. Within the United States, Central Florida is home to the 8280:

Gu, H.; Kirsch, M.; Zinßmeister, C.; Söhner, S.; Meier, K.J.S.; Liu, T.; Gottschling, M. (2013). "Waking the dead: Morphological and molecular characterization of extant †

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Saldarriaga JF, Taylor FJ, Keeling PJ, Cavalier-Smith T (September 2001). "Dinoflagellate nuclear SSU rRNA phylogeny suggests multiple plastid losses and replacements".

4814:. Contributions from the United States National Herbarium. Vol. 42. Washington, D.C.: Department of Systematic Biology, Botany, National Museum of Natural History. 3611:

Sournia A (1973). "Catalogue des espèces et taxons infraspécifiques de dinoflagellés marins actuels publiés depuis la révision de J. Schiller. I. Dinoflagellés libres".

1456:, individual cytoplasmic bodies (about 0.5 μm in diameter) distributed mainly in the cortical region of the cell, outpockets of the main cell vacuole. They contain 7333:"Phylogenetic placement of environmental sequences using taxonomically reliable databases helps to rigorously assess dinophyte biodiversity in Bavarian lakes (Germany)" 5347: 9192: 450:, as part of their lifecycles; this occurs in 84 of the 350 described freshwater species and a little more than 10% of the known marine species. Dinoflagellates are 1690:

the main phenotypic, physiological and resistance properties of each dinoflagellate species cysts. Unlike in higher plants most of this variability, for example in

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Dinoflagellates sometimes bloom in concentrations of more than a million cells per millilitre. Under such circumstances, they can produce toxins (generally called

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Figueroa, Rosa Isabel; Bravo, Isabel (2005). "Sexual Reproduction and Two Different Encystment Strategies of Lingulodinium Polyedrum (Dinophyceae) in Culture1".

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Sournia A (1993). "Catalogue des espèces et taxons infraspécifiques de dinoflagellésmarins actuels publiés depuis la révision de J. Schiller. VI. (Complément)".

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Sournia A (1982). "Catalogue des espèces et taxons infraspécifiques de dinoflagellésmarins actuels publiés depuis la révision de J. Schiller. IV. (Complément)".

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Mertens KN, Takano Y, Head MJ, Matsuoka K (2014). "Living fossils in the Indo-Pacific warm pool: A refuge for thermophilic dinoflagellates during glaciations".

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Sournia A (1990). "Catalogue des espèces et taxons infraspécifiques de dinoflagellésmarins actuels publiés depuis la révision de J. Schiller. V. (Complément)".

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Kremp, Anke; Parrow, Matthew W. (2006). "Evidence for Asexual Resting Cysts in the Life Cycle of the Marine Peridinoid Dinoflagellate, Scrippsiella Hangoei1".

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Mertens KN, Rengefors K, Moestrup Ø, Ellegaard M (2012). "A review of recent freshwater dinoflagellate cysts: Taxonomy, phylogeny, ecology and palaeocology".

7889:"The dinoflagellates Durinskia baltica and Kryptoperidinium foliaceum retain functionally overlapping mitochondria from two evolutionarily distinct lineages" 3745:

SOURNIA, A., 1986: Atlas du Phytoplancton Marin. Vol. I: Introduction, Cyanophycées,Dictyochophycées, Dinophycées et Raphidophycées. Editions du CNRS, Paris.

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Reinsch, P.F. (1905) "Die palinosphärien, ein mikroskopischer vegetabile organismus in der mukronatenkreide". ..Cent. Miner. Geol. Palaeontol..., 402–407.

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López-García P, Rodríguez-Valera F, Pedrós-Alió C, Moreira D (February 2001). "Unexpected diversity of small eukaryotes in deep-sea Antarctic plankton".

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produce karlotoxin that kills predators who ingest them, thus reducing predatory populations and allowing blooms of both toxic and non-toxic strains of

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Moon-van der Staay SY, De Wachter R, Vaulot D (February 2001). "Oceanic 18S rDNA sequences from picoplankton reveal unsuspected eukaryotic diversity".

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John, Uwe; Lu, Yameng; Wohlrab, Sylke; Groth, Marco; Janouškovec, Jan; Kohli, Gurjeet S.; Mark, Felix C.; Bickmeyer, Ulf; Farhat, Sarah (April 2019).

897:. In place of histones, dinoflagellate nuclei contain a novel, dominant family of nuclear proteins that appear to be of viral origin, thus are called 12709: 12562: 12004: 11988: 11984: 11980: 11536: 10434: 3947:

Fritz L, Triemer R (December 1985). "A rapid simple technique utilizing calcofluor white M2R for the visualization of dinoflagellate thecal plates".

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Gast, R. J.; Moran, D. M.; Dennett, M. R.; Caron, D. A. (2007). "Kleptoplasty in an Antarctic dinoflagellate: Caught in evolutionary transition?".

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viable in the sediments for long periods of time. Exogenously, germination is only possible within a window of favorable environmental conditions.

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Uchida, Takuji; Matsuyama, Yukihiko; Yamaguchi, Mineo; Honjo, Tsuneo (1996). "The life cycle of Gyrodinium instriatum (Dinophyceae) in culture".

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Zhang, C.; Luo, H.; Huang, L.; Lin, S. (2017). "Molecular mechanism of glucose-6-phosphate utilization in the dinoflagellate Karenia mikimotoi".

1779:. Both groups have very reduced mitochondrial genomes (around 6 kilobases (kb) in the Apicomplexa vs ~16kb for human mitochondria). One species, 848: 697: 257: 252: 5324: 1686:

layer during conditions unfavorable for vegetative growth and, from there, reinoculate the water column when favorable conditions are restored.

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Bioluminescent dinoflagellate ecosystem bays are among the rarest and most fragile, with the most famous ones being the Bioluminescent Bay in

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Together with various other structural and genetic details, this organization indicates a close relationship between the dinoflagellates, the

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Fensome, R. A.; MacRae, R. A.; Moldowan, J. M.; Taylor, F. J. R.; Williams, G. L. (1996). "The Early Mesozoic Radiation of Dinoflagellates".

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Figueroa, Rosa Isabel; Bravo, Isabel; Garcés, Esther (2006). "Multiple Routes of Sexuality in Alexandrium Taylori (Dinophyceae) in Culture".

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Cachon PJ, Cachon M. "Le systeme stomatopharyngien de Kofoidinium Pavillard. Comparisons avec celui divers Peridiniens fibres et parasites".

3632:"Catalogue des espèces et taxons infraspécifiques de dinoflagellésmarins actuels publiés depuis la révision de J. Schiller. III (Complément)" 1712: 1554:, which may remain mobile in typical dinoflagellate fashion and is then called a planozygote. This zygote may later form a resting stage or 1002: 984: 685: 588: 6426: 6202:

Parrow, Matthew W.; Burkholder, Joann M. (2004). "The Sexual Life Cycles of Pfiesteria Piscicida and Cryptoperidiniopsoids (Dinophyceae)1".

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All dinoflagellates contain red algal plastids or remnant (nonphotosynthetic) organelles of red algal origin. The parasitic dinoflagellate

1005:(ICZN). About half of living dinoflagellate species are autotrophs possessing chloroplasts and half are nonphotosynthesising heterotrophs. 998: 7408:

Gunderson JH, John SA, Boman WC, Coats DW (2002). "Multiple strains of the parasitic dinoflagellate Amoebophrya exist in Chesapeake Bay".

6379:"Genome size-dependent PCNA gene copy number in dinoflagellates and molecular evidence of retroposition as a major evolutionary mechanism" 2111: 12768: 10892: 4026:

Schnepf E, Elbrächter M (February 1992). "Nutritional strategies in dinoflagellates: A review with emphasis on cell biological aspects".

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Nakayama, Takuro; Nomura, Mami; Takano, Yoshihito; Tanifuji, Goro; Shiba, Kogiku; Inaba, Kazuo; Inagaki, Yuji; Kawata, Masakado (2019).

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In terms of number of species, dinoflagellates are one of the largest groups of marine eukaryotes, although substantially smaller than

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The earliest stages of dinoflagellate evolution appear to be dominated by parasitic lineages, such as perkinsids and syndinians (e.g.

1172:, or that remain attached to their prey for longer periods of time, i.e. ectoparasites). They can parasitize animal or protist hosts. 11671: 654:

a longitudinal furrow called the sulcus. The transverse flagellum strikes in the cingulum, the longitudinal flagellum in the sulcus.

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MacRae RA, Fensome RA, Williams GL (1996). "Fossil dinoflagellate diversity, originations, and extinctions and their significance".

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Chacón, J.; Gottschling, M. (2020). "Dawn of the dinophytes: A first attempt to date origin and diversification of harmful algae".

2078: 8084:"Cyanobiont genetic diversity and host specificity of cyanobiont-bearing dinoflagellate Ornithocercus in temperate coastal waters" 6562:

Lin S, Zhang H, Spencer D, Norman J, Gray M (2002). "Widespread and extensive editing of mitochondrial mRNAs in dinoflagellates".

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Dinoflagellates from the International Indian Ocean Expedition: A Report on Material Collected by the R.V. "Anton Bruun" 1963–1964

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called alveoli (= amphiesmal vesicles) and related structures. In thecate ("armoured") dinoflagellates, these support overlapping

13723: 12850: 8608: 2132: 9132: 8523: 4847:

Lin, S.; Litaker, R.W.; Sunda, W. (2016). "Phosphorus physiological ecology and molecular mechanisms in marine phytoplankton".

8141:"Single-cell genomics unveiled a cryptic cyanobacterial lineage with a worldwide distribution hidden by a dinoflagellate host" 6330:"Comparative genomics reveals two major bouts of gene retroposition coinciding with crucial periods of Symbiodinium evolution" 4809: 8369: 8335: 6610: 6256: 5838: 5639: 5506: 5357: 5063: 5019: 3931: 3904: 3787: 3574: 3534: 3329: 3250: 3136: 3002: 2959: 2921: 2720: 2465: 1744:

sp. were formed by the direct encystment of haploid vegetative cells, i.e., asexually. In addition, for the zygotic cysts of

7663:

Gornik SG, Cassin AM, MacRae JI, Ramaprasad A, Rchiad Z, McConville MJ, Bacic A, McFadden GI, Pain A, Waller RF (May 2015).

3157:

Hackett JD, Anderson DM, Erdner DL, Bhattacharya D (October 2004). "Dinoflagellates: a remarkable evolutionary experiment".

1499:

Dinoflagellates produce characteristic lipids and sterols. One of these sterols is typical of dinoflagellates and is called

1352:. Some dinoflagellate blooms are not dangerous. Bluish flickers visible in ocean water at night often come from blooms of 13897: 8341: 5033: 2371: 13728: 5401:"The characteristics and transparent exopolymer particle (TEP) content of marine snow formed from thecate dinoflagellates" 10535: 9245: 7372:

Gunderson JH, Goss SH, Coats DW (1999). "The phylogenetic position of Amoebophrya sp. infecting Gymnodinium sanguineum".

5466: 4296:

Elbrachter M (1979). "On the taxonomy of unarmored dinophytes (Dinophyta) from the Northwest African upwelling region".

2834:

Leblond PH, Taylor FJ (April 1976). "The propulsive mechanism of the dinoflagellate transverse flagellum reconsidered".

1302:

The feeding mechanisms of the oceanic dinoflagellates remain unknown, although pseudopodial extensions were observed in

544:

examined many water and plankton samples and proposed several dinoflagellate genera that are still used today including

8487: 2046: 898: 469:

A rapid accumulation of certain dinoflagellates can result in a visible coloration of the water, colloquially known as

7001:

Moldowan JM, Talyzina NM (August 1998). "Biogeochemical evidence for dinoflagellate ancestors in the Early Cambrian".

1295:

are more inclined to prey upon copepods by releasing a potent neurotoxin that immobilizes its prey upon contact. When

1227:

Mechanisms of capture and ingestion in dinoflagellates are quite diverse. Several dinoflagellates, both thecate (e.g.

4399:

Jacobson DM, Anderson DM (September 1986). "Thecate heterotrophic dinoflagellates: feeding behavior and mechanisms".

3822: 2357: 1346:, from the color the bloom imparts to the water. Some colorless dinoflagellates may also form toxic blooms, such as 8440: 8423: 5708:

Wagmann, Kristen; Hautekèete, Nina-Coralie; Piquot, Yves; Meunier, Cécile; Schmitt, S. Eric; Van Dijk, Henk (2012).

1819:, whilst geochemical markers suggest a presence to the Early Cambrian. Some evidence indicates dinosteroids in many 1792:

The DNA of the plastid in the peridinin-containing dinoflagellates is contained in a series of small circles called

1074:

marine genera of dinoflagellates, excluding information at the species level. The latest index is written by Gómez.

13854: 13749: 10576: 9279: 8396: 1579: 5759:"Co-Variation between Seed Dormancy, Growth Rate and Flowering Time Changes with Latitude in Arabidopsis thaliana" 3407: 2094: 2025: 1533: 1380:

that not only affect all marine life in the ocean, but the people who consume them as well. A specific carrier is

13887: 10571: 9274: 4590:

Adolf, Jason E; Krupatkina, Danara; Bachvaroff, Tsvetan; Place, Allen R. (2007). "Karlotoxin mediates grazing by

1255:, a large feeding veil—a pseudopod called the pallium—is extruded to capture prey which is subsequently digested 1013:

The remaining species have lost their photosynthetic abilities and have adapted to a heterotrophic, parasitic or

7066: 4565: 343: 6908:"Core genes in diverse dinoflagellate lineages include a wealth of conserved dark genes with unknown functions" 2993:

Cavalier-Smith T (1991). "Cell diversification in heterotrophic flagellates". In Patterson D, Larsen J (eds.).

6718:"Plastid-derived single gene minicircles of the dinoflagellate Ceratium horridum are localized in the nucleus" 3268:"Loss of nucleosomal DNA condensation coincides with appearance of a novel nuclear protein in dinoflagellates" 1444: 13892: 10655: 10645: 10628: 9358: 9348: 9331: 4174:

Bursa AS (1961). "The annual oceanographic cycle at Igloolik in the Canadian Arctic. II. The phytoplankton".

2163: 1952: 1542:

and its relatives. The life cycle usually involves asexual reproduction by means of mitosis, either through

541: 10814: 9197: 6599:"RNA editing in dinoflagellates and its implications for the evolutionary history of the editing machinery" 2085: 1973: 1642: 131: 8454: 2063: 1589:

Dinoflagellata life cycle: 1-mitosis, 2-sexual reproduction, 3-planozygote, 4-hypnozygote, 5-planomeiocyte

13671: 12843: 9122: 8633: 6763:"Evaluating the ribosomal internal transcribed spacer (ITS) as a candidate dinoflagellate barcode marker" 5352: 1209: 9112: 8613: 8578: 4000: 2173: 485:, primarily emitting blue-green light, which may be visible in oceanic areas under certain conditions. 6499:"An aerobic eukaryotic parasite with functional mitochondria that likely lacks a mitochondrial genome" 3897:

Marine phytoplankton: selected microphytoplankton species from the North Sea around Helgoland and Sylt

2660:

Taylor FR, Hoppenrath M, Saldarriaga JF (February 2008). "Dinoflagellate diversity and distribution".

1403:

highly versatile and mechanistically diversified in utilizing different types of DOPs. The ecology of

1299:

are present in large enough quantities, they are able to cull whole populations of its copepods prey.

13833: 13754: 12987: 9167: 8415: 6289:"The genome of Symbiodinium kawagutii illuminates dinoflagellate gene expression and coral symbiosis" 2004: 1457: 13859: 8391: 13882: 13689: 13662: 12407: 8829: 8701: 8688: 5439:"Observations on vegetative reproduction and sexual life cycles of two freshwater dinoflagellates, 938: 522: 505:

means "whirling" and signifies the distinctive way in which dinoflagellates were observed to swim.

3643: 3631: 1698:

Recognition of the capacity of dinoflagellates to encyst dates back to the early 20th century, in

1491:

which is abundant with dinoflagellates in the summer and bioluminescent ctenophore in the winter.

623:), the two flagella are differentiated as in dinokonts, but they are not associated with grooves. 526: 13072: 12647: 12213: 10660: 10528: 9363: 9238: 9107: 9087: 8553: 6418: 4716:(2002). "Adaptive ecology, growth strategies and the global bloom expansion of dinoflagellates". 1994: 1775:

The dinoflagellates share an unusual mitochondrial genome organisation with their relatives, the

1256: 1224:

Food inclusions contain bacteria, bluegreen algae, diatoms, ciliates, and other dinoflagellates.

909:. This sort of nucleus was once considered to be an intermediate between the nucleoid region of 835: 392: 13846: 7331:

Gottschling M, Chacón J, Žerdoner Čalasan A, Neuhaus S, Kretschmann J, Stibor H, John U (2020).

2877:

Gaines G, Taylor FJ (May 1985). "Form and function of the dinoflagellate transverse flagellum".

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Garcia-Cuetos, L.; Moestrup, Ø.; Hansen, P.J.; Daugbjerg, N. (2010). "The toxic dinoflagellate

7292:"Dinoflagellate phylogeny revisited: reconciling morphological and molecular based phylogenies" 4694:. Ergebnisse der Plankton-Expedition der Humboldt-Stiftung. Allgemeiner Theil. pp. 1–170. 4001:"Diversity of symbiotic dinoflagellates and the evolution of microalgal-invertebrate symbioses" 3362:"Single cell genomics of uncultured marine alveolates shows paraphyly of basal dinoflagellates" 1948: 1703: 1618:

The life cycle of many dinoflagellates includes at least one nonflagellated benthic stage as a

1359: 646:. The plate configuration can be denoted with the plate formula or tabulation formula. Fibrous 336: 6598: 6246: 5826: 4633:

Berge, Terje; Poulsen, Louise K.; Moldrup, Morten; Daugbjerg, Niels; Juel Hansen, Per (2012).

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Naustvoll LJ (January 1998). "Growth and grazing by the thecate heterotrophic dinoflagellates

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Investigating the plastid replacement in the green dinoflagellate Lepidodinium chlorophorum

7735: 7676: 7665:"Endosymbiosis undone by stepwise elimination of the plastid in a parasitic dinoflagellate" 7617: 7562: 7511: 7460: 7344: 7303: 7250: 7207: 7148: 7089: 7054: 7010: 6919: 6872: 6829: 6774: 6761:, Vaulot D, Le Gall F, Véron B, Brand JJ, Skelton H, Kasai F, Lilly EL, Keeling PJ (2012). 6639: 6510: 6211: 6168: 6125: 6072: 5961: 5770: 5289: 5211: 5159: 4964: 4910: 4856: 4780: 4646: 4607: 4531: 4492: 4451: 4262: 4218: 3956: 3492: 3373: 3279: 3081: 2843: 2808: 2669: 2552: 2501: 2299: 2206: 2195:"Estimating the timing of early eukaryotic diversification with multigene molecular clocks" 1746: 1484: 1480: 859:

The formation of thecal plates has been studied in detail through ultrastructural studies.

388: 13823: 8237:

emend. (Peridiniales, Dinophyceae) and a new approach for the study of calcareous cysts".

4007:. Vol. 2. Balboa, Panama: Smithsonian Tropical Research Institute. pp. 1275–86. 466:

dinoflagellate species, which includes marine, freshwater, and parasitic dinoflagellates.

430:. Other dinoflagellates are unpigmented predators on other protozoa, and a few forms are 8: 13796: 11881: 11838: 10141: 9925: 9157: 9092: 8859: 8848: 8725: 8708: 8035:"They are young, and they are many: Dating freshwater lineages in unicellular dinophytes" 6758: 5171: 2997:. Systematics Association Publications. Vol. 45. Clarendon Press. pp. 113–131. 1559: 1488: 1404: 1329: 1271:

are the only other dinoflagellate genera known to use this particular feeding mechanism.

840: 764: 742:

give many dinoflagellates their typical golden brown color. However, the dinoflagellates

478: 474: 12828: 8250: 8211: 8156: 8099: 8050: 8003: 7960: 7904: 7857: 7821: 7739: 7680: 7621: 7606:"A common red algal origin of the apicomplexan, dinoflagellate, and heterokont plastids" 7566: 7515: 7464: 7348: 7307: 7211: 7152: 7093: 7058: 7014: 6923: 6876: 6833: 6778: 6643: 6514: 6215: 6172: 6129: 6076: 5965: 5774: 5293: 5280:

Dybas CL (May 2012). "Bright Microbes—Scientists uncover new clues to bioluminescence".

5215: 5163: 4968: 4914: 4860: 4784: 4650: 4611: 4535: 4496: 4455: 4266: 4222: 3960: 3496: 3377: 3283: 3085: 2847: 2812: 2673: 2556: 2505: 2303: 2210: 1120:

are dinoflagellates and most of them are members within Symbiodiniaceae (e.g. the genus

1043:, the dinoflagellate nuclei are not characteristically eukaryotic, as some of them lack 13295: 12977: 11928: 11728: 10947: 10723: 10640: 10618: 10606: 10581: 10521: 10151: 9343: 9321: 9309: 9284: 9231: 8358: 8262: 8175: 8140: 8116: 8083: 7923: 7888: 7758: 7723: 7699: 7664: 7640: 7605: 7586: 7535: 7484: 7433: 7421: 7397: 7385: 7253:; Keeling PJ (2004). "Molecular data and the evolutionary history of dinoflagellates". 7231: 7180: 7172: 6940: 6907: 6845: 6797: 6762: 6698: 6662: 6627: 6603:

RNA and DNA editing: Molecular Mechanisms and Their Integration into Biological Systems

6539: 6498: 6474: 6449: 6354: 6329: 6227: 6184: 6141: 6098: 6045: 6041: 5977: 5973: 5929: 5904: 5880: 5855: 5793: 5758: 5734: 5709: 5690: 5616: 5589: 5550: 5523: 5495: 5489: 5227: 5183: 4990: 4880: 4741: 4713: 4667: 4547: 4543: 4416: 4412: 4332: 4278: 4274: 4126: 3972: 3863: 3456: 3429: 3394: 3218: 3193: 3097: 3093: 3042: 2890: 2712: 2685: 2614: 2587: 2568: 2525: 2436: 2432: 2322: 2229: 2194: 1623: 1476: 281: 126: 13676: 7248: 7101: 6575: 5301: 5223: 4039: 4005:

Proceedings of the eighth International Coral Reef Symposium, Panama, June 24–29, 1996

3759:. Memoirs of the Hourglass Cruises. Vol. 2. Florida: Marine Research Laboratory. 3678: 2913: 2259:"A checklist and classification of living dinoflagellates (Dinoflagellata, Alveolata)" 1342:, which in turn may be passed on to people who eat them. This phenomenon is called a 13736: 13087: 12617: 12054: 11616: 11454: 11315: 11238: 10809: 10650: 10613: 10601: 10591: 10485: 10411: 10392: 10102: 9685: 9353: 9316: 9304: 9294: 9052: 9047: 9042: 8864: 8783: 8628: 8548: 8473: 8365: 8331: 8301: 8258: 8180: 8121: 8064: 8015: 8011: 7972: 7968: 7928: 7869: 7763: 7704: 7645: 7578: 7527: 7476: 7425: 7389: 7235: 7223: 7184: 7164: 7026: 6983: 6945: 6888: 6841: 6802: 6739: 6702: 6667: 6606: 6579: 6544: 6526: 6479: 6400: 6359: 6310: 6252: 6223: 6180: 6137: 6084: 5934: 5885: 5834: 5798: 5739: 5682: 5621: 5555: 5502: 5262: 5175: 5096: 5092: 5059: 5025: 5015: 4982: 4926: 4884: 4872: 4815: 4733: 4695: 4672: 4153: 4043: 4008: 3968: 3927: 3900: 3828: 3818: 3793: 3783: 3760: 3728: 3701: 3647: 3570: 3530: 3461: 3399: 3325: 3297: 3246: 3223: 3174: 3132: 2998: 2955: 2927: 2917: 2859: 2855: 2751: 2716: 2619: 2517: 2513: 2461: 2401: 2363: 2353: 2327: 2290:

Ruggiero; et al. (2015), "Higher Level Classification of All Living Organisms",

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Longitudinal (l.f.) and transverse flagellum (t.f.); sack pusule (s.p.); nucleus (n).

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Hastings JW (1996). "Chemistries and colors of bioluminescent reactions: a review".

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Frey LC, Stoermer EF (1980). "Dinoflagellate phagotrophy in the upper Great Lakes".

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The life cycle of dinoflagellates, including possible described transitions

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Montresor, M.; Janofske, D.; Willems, H. (1997). "The cyst-theca relationship in

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Gaines G, Taylor FJ (1984). "Extracellular digestion in marine dinoflagellates".

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Gornik SG, Ford KL, Mulhern TD, Bacic A, McFadden GI, Waller RF (December 2012).

2820: 2312: 2275: 2258: 1593: 1547: 1353: 906: 781: 482: 262: 7865: 7724:"Integration of plastids with their hosts: Lessons learned from dinoflagellates" 6694: 5997:"Life-Cycle and Its Control of Sargassum muticum (Phaeophyta) in Batch Cultures" 4504: 3921: 3899:. Stuttgart: E. Schweizerbart'sche Verlagsbuchhandlung (Nägele und Obermiller). 3846:

Gómez F (April 2003). "Checklist of Mediterranean free-living dinoflagellates".

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harbors permanent chloroplasts of cryptomonad origin, not kleptochloroplasts".

7728:

Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America

7669:

Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America

7610:

Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America

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Imanian, B.; Pombert, J. F.; Dorrell, R. G.; Burki, F.; Keeling, P. J. (2012).

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Haddock SH, Moline MA, Case JF (1 October 2009). "Bioluminescence in the sea".

3481:"Did the peridinin plastid evolve through tertiary endosymbiosis? A hypothesis" 2799:

Taylor FJR (March 1975). "Non-helical transverse flagella in dinoflagellates".

2199:

Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America

1619: 1221:). Some dinoflagellates may feed on other organisms as predators or parasites. 1201: 1161: 744: 735: 708: 446:). Some dinoflagellates produce resting stages, called dinoflagellate cysts or 400: 357: 169: 156: 7829: 7450: 7316: 7291: 7219: 7160: 6884: 5462: 5417: 5400: 4922: 4729: 4619: 4464: 4435: 4382: 4231: 4202: 4109:

Barker HA (1935). "The culture and physiology of the marine dinoflagellates".

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Fensome RA, Taylor RJ, Norris G, Sarjeant WA, Wharton DI, Williams GL (1993).

2367: 2346:"Protistes Eucaryotes: Origine, Evolution et Biologie des Microbes Eucaryotes" 948: 600: 13876: 13647: 13320: 13305: 13267: 13192: 13128: 13114: 13062: 13057: 12971: 12960: 12955: 12935: 12930: 12905: 12641: 12550: 12390: 12339: 12326: 12309: 12233: 12080: 11968: 11889: 11810: 11765: 11753: 11718: 11510: 11421: 11351: 11263: 11246: 11125: 10966: 10953: 10785: 10462: 10261: 10253: 10083: 10004: 9944: 9855: 9829: 9558: 9182: 9152: 9037: 9032: 8759: 8736: 8673: 8643: 8638: 8450: 7168: 6987: 6530: 5903:

Lee, Soo Chan; Ni, Min; Li, Wenjun; Shertz, Cecelia; Heitman, Joseph (2010).

5029: 4953:

reveal non-alkaline phosphatase-based molecular machinery of ATP utilization"

4819: 4737: 4157: 4012: 3832: 3732: 3705: 3651: 2755: 2405: 1941: 1855: 1847: 1815:, which have a long geological record with lowest occurrences during the mid- 1800: 1627: 1613: 1169: 1138:

inhabit a great number of other invertebrates and protists, for example many

1135: 1117: 954: 844: 712: 62: 10513: 8165: 8059: 8034: 7913: 7748: 7689: 7630: 6734: 6717: 6305: 6288: 5438: 4977: 4948: 4699: 4078: 3209: 2747: 2219: 1893:. Lineages with tertiary endosymbiosis are Dinophysis, with plastids from a 1585: 817:

Some athecate species have an internal skeleton consisting of two star-like

563:

order Dinoflagellida. Botanists treated them as a division of algae, named

525:

as "Animalcules which cause the Sparkling Light in Sea Water", and named by

13516: 13511: 13486: 13461: 13451: 13378: 13247: 13121: 13082: 13067: 13042: 13037: 12982: 12915: 12803: 12509: 12497: 12451: 12431: 12380: 12357: 12225: 12208: 12196: 12139: 12127: 12091: 12068: 11962: 11958: 11924: 11866: 11861: 11850: 11834: 11830: 11792: 11647: 11629: 11553: 11363: 11339: 11327: 11169: 11149: 11132: 11113: 11079: 11015: 10899: 10869: 10767: 10495: 10322: 10302: 10242: 10146: 10119: 10066: 10024: 9991: 9766: 9544: 9483: 9223: 9177: 9072: 8999: 8954: 8926: 8823: 8799: 8648: 8573: 8543: 8538: 8528: 8305: 8184: 8125: 8068: 7976: 7932: 7873: 7767: 7708: 7649: 7582: 7531: 7480: 7429: 7393: 7227: 6949: 6906:

Stephens, Timothy G.; Ragan, MA; Bhattacharya, D; Chan, CX (Nov 21, 2018).

6892: 6806: 6743: 6671: 6583: 6548: 6522: 6483: 6404: 6363: 6314: 6013: 5996: 5938: 5889: 5802: 5743: 5686: 5677: 5660: 5625: 5559: 5179: 4986: 4930: 4876: 4676: 4436:"Feeding, growth, and behavior of the thecate heterotrophic dinoflagellate 4047: 3797: 3764: 3465: 3403: 3385: 3301: 3227: 3178: 3170: 2623: 2521: 2331: 2238: 2123: 2118: 1926: 1571: 1543: 1384:. This can introduce both nonfatal and fatal illnesses. One such poison is 1218: 1157: 1139: 1122: 1014: 966: 918: 878: 826: 822: 785: 767:

involving already colored or secondarily colorless forms. The discovery of

619: 423: 365: 267: 8019: 7574: 7030: 5920: 5266: 5100: 4658: 3072:

sp. nov.: Gymnodinioid Dinoflagellate Symbionts of Marine Invertebrates".

2931: 1287:. Further, the production of karlotoxin enhances the predatory ability of 13805: 13790: 13656: 13571: 13546: 13491: 13466: 13388: 13383: 13348: 13338: 13032: 12945: 12691: 12612: 12595: 12485: 12476: 12413: 12401: 12395: 12300: 12146: 12133: 11906: 11871: 11825: 11820: 11591: 11529: 11380: 11308: 11302: 11251: 11217: 11197: 11065: 10959: 10942: 10922: 10881: 10826: 10797: 10772: 10386: 10312: 10164: 10128: 10108: 10056: 10030: 9920: 9868: 9841: 9823: 9796: 9563: 9432: 9421: 9142: 9127: 9077: 8942: 8766: 8563: 8558: 8513: 8437: 8420: 6465: 6345: 5725: 5258: 4249:

Dodge JD, Crawford RM (June 1970). "The morphology and fine structure of

3859: 2863: 2037: 1987: 1894: 1890: 1824: 1781: 1776: 1740: 1716: 1674: 1555: 1516: 1453: 1197: 1147: 1048: 1033: 1029: 926: 874: 772: 760: 731: 723: 716: 704: 673: 658: 580: 412: 408: 381: 272: 37: 7330: 6716:

Laatsch T, Zauner S, Stoebe-Maier B, Kowallik KV, Maier UG (July 2004).

3427: 1866:. Molecular phylogenies are similar to phylogenies based on morphology. 1415: 1085:

The main source for identification of freshwater dinoflagellates is the

481:

if humans eat contaminated shellfish. Some dinoflagellates also exhibit

108: 13604: 13566: 13496: 13476: 13471: 13456: 13426: 13398: 13353: 13343: 13315: 13310: 13252: 13227: 12920: 12895: 12797: 12538: 12443: 12420: 12368: 12362: 12320: 12314: 12263: 12238: 12188: 12115: 12103: 12097: 12073: 11918: 11914: 11894: 11771: 11741: 11571: 11471: 11466: 11409: 11403: 11356: 11344: 11332: 11284: 11157: 11137: 10911: 10874: 10832: 10820: 10731: 10467: 10291: 10282: 10267: 10135: 10072: 9931: 9892: 9887: 9773: 9690: 9585: 9497: 9027: 8964: 8893: 8885: 8683: 8678: 8623: 7790: 7176: 6093: 5014:. Ecological Studies: Analysis and Synthesis. Vol. 189. Springer. 4793: 4760: 4566:"Researchers capture dinoflagellate on video shooting harpoons at prey" 4336: 4122: 3361: 3359: 2168: 2101: 2032: 1910: 1851: 1793: 1764: 1720: 1575: 1500: 1392: 1348: 1205: 1189: 1056: 1040: 1021: 990: 960: 910: 886: 882: 868: 830: 672:

Dinoflagellate tabulations can be grouped into six "tabulation types":

560: 442: 427: 404: 82: 47: 13810: 8032: 7842: 7552: 7357: 7332: 7275: 6395: 6378: 5590:"Towards an Ecological Understanding of Dinoflagellate Cyst Functions" 4868: 4761:"Chemically-mediated rejection of dinoflagellate prey by the copepods 2588:"Towards an Ecological Understanding of Dinoflagellate Cyst Functions" 1831:. More modern-looking forms proliferate during the later Jurassic and 13710: 13684: 13521: 13501: 13393: 13272: 13207: 13197: 13182: 13177: 13158: 12910: 12604: 12515: 12425: 12350: 12332: 12275: 12151: 12085: 11547: 11541: 11523: 11397: 11368: 11292: 11174: 11096: 11035: 10862: 10552: 10544: 10366: 10307: 10015: 9980: 9938: 9915: 9897: 9784: 9720: 9595: 9472: 9415: 9402: 9254: 9097: 9082: 9022: 9004: 8984: 8959: 8920: 8908: 8748: 8219: 7523: 7472: 2158: 2139: 1980: 1854:. The closest relatives to dinokaryotic dinoflagellates appear to be 1820: 1812: 1789:

In most of the species, the plastid genome consist of just 14 genes.

1724: 1566:. After (or before) germination of the cyst, the hatchling undergoes 1538: 1461: 1424: 1399: 1389: 1385: 1381: 1339: 1335: 1193: 1168:(here defined as organisms that eat their prey from the inside, i.e. 1165: 1143: 1009: 997:

Dinoflagellates are protists and have been classified using both the

922: 914: 818: 805: 727: 666: 647: 635: 455: 451: 369: 349: 182: 143: 87: 31: 13618: 7803: 7604:

Janouskovec J, Horák A, Oborník M, Lukes J, Keeling PJ (June 2010).

6979: 4690:

Schütt F (1895). "2. Teil, Studien über die Zellen der Peridineen".

4328: 4187: 3128: 2639:"A list of free-living dinoflagellate species in the world's oceans" 2638: 2564: 13775: 13715: 13641: 13576: 13556: 13551: 13526: 13506: 13481: 13446: 13436: 13431: 13262: 13237: 13217: 12877: 12555: 12468: 12344: 12109: 11604: 11565: 11483: 11427: 11228: 10916: 10778: 10755: 10635: 10373: 10335: 10236: 10213: 9760: 9755: 9747: 9677: 9552: 9427: 9410: 9388: 9338: 9147: 8853: 8812: 8794: 8568: 8505: 8496: 2908:. International Review of Cytology. Vol. 82. pp. 151–80. 2053: 2016: 2011: 1843: 1842:

Molecular phylogenetics show that dinoflagellates are grouped with

1816: 1691: 1609: 1563: 1356:

dinoflagellates, which emit short flashes of light when disturbed.

1343: 1152: 1067: 1044: 972: 510: 470: 447: 436: 431: 396: 384: 247: 117: 98: 77: 72: 57: 52: 42: 7501: 6685:

Das, Biplab (2019). "Marine parasite survives without key genes".

5995:

Uchida, Takuji; Yoshikawa, Koji; Arai, Akemi; Arai, Shogo (1991).

3116: 1460:, the main enzyme involved in dinoflagellate bioluminescence, and 1032:, while dinoflagellates without a dinokaryon are classified under 800:. Some have even been found with a light-sensitive organelle, the 13581: 13561: 13257: 13232: 13222: 13212: 13168: 13105: 11477: 11415: 11162: 11054: 10971: 10802: 10760: 10736: 10714: 10489: 10224: 10061: 9907: 9814: 9803: 9667: 9573: 9529: 9437: 9207: 9137: 9014: 8753: 6715: 5635:

Material was copied from this source, which is available under a

4949:"Transcriptomic and physiological analyses of the dinoflagellate 3156: 3029:

sp. nov., a Zooxanthella: Taxonomy, Life Cycle, and Morphology".

2542: 2492:

Guiry MD (October 2012). "How many species of algae are there?".

1963:

were also described from fossils before later being found alive.

1567: 1052: 1028:, below). Dinoflagellates with a dinokaryon are classified under 902: 894: 797: 768: 763:. This suggests their chloroplasts were incorporated by several 739: 662: 377: 192: 92: 67: 6628:"The endosymbiotic origin, diversification and fate of plastids" 1574:. Dinoflagellates appear to be capable of carrying out several 1095:

can be used to stain thecal plates in armoured dinoflagellates.

13421: 13413: 13282: 10886: 10082: 9879: 9609: 9511: 9453: 8869: 8840: 7079: 5856:"The Evolution of Recombination in a Heterogeneous Environment" 1922: 1551: 793: 584: 459: 426:

of marine animals and play an important part in the biology of

419: 5707: 4947:

Luo, H.; Lin, X.; Li, L.; Zhang, C.; Lin, L.; Lin, S. (2017).

4589: 3430:"Genome Evolution of a Tertiary Dinoflagellate Plastid – PLOS" 1759:

comparison, the haploid human genome is 3180 Mb and hexaploid

759:

have acquired other pigments through endosymbiosis, including

13702: 13330: 13202: 10449: 6027: 5905:"The Evolution of Sex: A Perspective from the Fungal Kingdom" 5631: 1512: 1377: 1131: 789: 608: 8432: 8364:. Botanical monographs. Vol. 21. Blackwell Scientific. 8138: 7662: 7603: 7043: 5710:"Seed dormancy distribution: Explanatory ecological factors" 5501:. Botanical monographs. Vol. 21. Blackwell Scientific. 4900: 4632: 2703:

Carty, Susan; Parrow, Matthew W. (2015). "Dinoflagellates".

521:

In 1753, the first modern dinoflagellates were described by

13368: 12860: 9706: 9187: 8465: 8412:—Guide to the Marine Zooplankton of south eastern Australia 7138: 7067:

10.1130/0091-7613(1996)024<0159:CROBME>2.3.CO;2

6819: 2659: 2457:

Progress in Botany: Genetics Physiology Systematics Ecology

2395: 821:

elements that has an unknown function, and can be found as

6756: 6625: 6419:"Understanding relationship break-ups to protect the reef" 4522:(Pyrrophyta): the peduncle as an organelle of ingestion". 3894: 2453: 1188:

Three nutritional strategies are seen in dinoflagellates:

707:

in most photosynthetic dinoflagellates are bound by three

12858: 8279: 8197: 8033:Žerdoner Čalasan A, Kretschmann J, Gottschling M (2019). 4946: 4846: 3926:. Süßwasserflora von Mitteleuropa. Vol. 6. Fischer. 3121:

Biological and Geological Perspectives of Dinoflagellates

862: 8386: 8232: 7289: 5317:"Castine Kayak Bioluminescent Bay Night Kayak Excursion" 4634: 3782:. Biblioteca Botanica. Vol. 132. E. Schweizerbart. 2419:

Stoecker DK (1999). "Mixotrophy among Dinoflagellates".

1059:, such as Golgi bodies, mitochondria, and chloroplasts. 1051:, and maintain continually condensed chromosomes during 726:

that appears to be unique to dinoflagellates, typically

630:

or cortex, composed of a series of membranes, flattened

493:

The term "dinoflagellate" is a combination of the Greek

7407: 5994: 2454:

Esser K, Lüttge U, Beyschlag W, Murata J (2012-12-06).

905:, which is closed and involves a uniquely extranuclear 626:

Dinoflagellates have a complex cell covering called an

5756: 5637:

Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 International License

5398: 4758: 4144:

Biecheler B (1952). "Recherches sur les Peridiniens".

3265: 2193:

Parfrey LW, Lahr DJ, Knoll AH, Katz LA (August 2011).

829:. This included the first detailed description of the 7946: 6965: 6561: 5654: 5652: 3520: 2398:

A classification of living and fossil dinoflagellates

1955:

for thermophilic dinoflagellates, and others such as

1811:

Dinoflagellates are mainly represented as fossils by

722:

and c2, the carotenoid beta-carotene, and a group of

529:

in 1773. The term derives from the Greek word δῖνος (

8387:

International Society for the Study of Harmful Algae

2995:

The biology of free-living heterotrophic flagellates

2192: 6447: 6115: 5661:"Origins of the machinery of recombination and sex" 5200: 4807: 407:, combining photosynthesis with ingestion of prey ( 8357: 7371: 6862: 6496: 5649: 5494: 5488: 5244: 3754: 3123:, Geological Society of London, pp. 263–274, 2943: 2941: 925:, "MALVs") that branch as sister to dinokaryotes ( 8433:Centre of Excellence for Dinophyte Taxonomy CEDiT 7990:Taylor FJ (1980). "On dinoflagellate evolution". 7197: 5524:"DNA Damage Response Pathways in Dinoflagellates" 5149: 4025: 555:These same dinoflagellates were first defined by 13874: 13145:Archaeal Richmond Mine acidophilic nanoorganisms 7115: 7113: 7111: 7000: 6201: 5824: 5486: 4752: 4635:"Marine microalgae attack and feed on metazoans" 4398: 3919: 3560: 3478: 3016: 3014: 1711:planktonic vegetative stages to produce diploid 1578:processes that can deal with different types of 1066:Dinophytic microalga isolated from sediments of 854: 10402: 8416:Tasmanian Aquaculture & Fisheries Institute 8145:Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 6961: 6959: 5345: 3810: 3479:Bodył, Andrzej; Moszczyński, Krzysztof (2006). 2938: 2903: 825:. Tappan gave a survey of dinoflagellates with 7886: 7290:Fensome RA, Saldarriaga JF, Taylor FJ (1999). 7249:Saldarriaga J; Taylor MFJR; Cavalier-Smith T; 5658: 5348:"Florida by Water: Experience Bioluminescence" 3880:: CS1 maint: DOI inactive as of August 2024 ( 3049: 2992: 2906:Ultrastructure of the dinoflagellate amphiesma 1494: 1483:; and Las Cabezas de San Juan Reserva Natural 12844: 10543: 10529: 9239: 8481: 7108: 6757:Stern RF, Andersen RA, Jameson I, Küpper FC, 6328:Song B, Morse D, Song Y, et al. (2017). 6327: 6062: 5902: 5853: 5587: 5436: 5432: 5430: 5428: 5314: 5007: 4759:Huntley M, Sykes P, Rohan S, Marin V (1986). 4248: 4244: 4242: 4169: 4167: 4104: 4102: 3895:Hoppenrath M, Elbrächter M, Drebes G (2009). 3114: 3056:Trench, Robert K.; Blank, Rudolf J. (1987). " 3011: 2833: 2630: 2585: 1003:International Code of Zoological Nomenclature 804:, or a larger nucleus containing a prominent 9253: 8226: 6956: 6709: 6596: 6441: 6287:Lin S, Cheng S, Song B, et al. (2015). 6286: 5951: 5583: 5581: 5579: 5577: 5575: 5573: 5571: 5569: 5515: 4478: 4368: 4314: 4295: 3946: 2876: 1174:Protoodinium, Crepidoodinium, Piscinoodinium 999:International Code of Botanical Nomenclature 638:plates to create a sort of armor called the 403:, but a large fraction of these are in fact 11078: 11023: 10688: 10118: 8273: 8081: 7721: 6158: 5399:Alldredge AL, Passow U, Haddock SH (1998). 5053: 4518:Spero HJ (September 1982). "Phagotrophy in 4433: 4143: 4063:"The free-living unarmoured dinoflagellata" 4060: 3817:. London: Her Majesty's Stationery Office. 3814:Marine Dinoflagellates of the British Isles 3055: 3020: 2702: 1850:(=Sporozoa) in a well-supported clade, the 575:, fire) after the bioluminescent forms, or 537:, a diminutive term for a whip or scourge. 12851: 12837: 11063: 10536: 10522: 9246: 9232: 8488: 8474: 8082:Kim, M.; Choi, D. H.; Park, M. G. (2021). 6377:Hou Y, Ji N, Zhang H, et al. (2018). 6376: 5909:Microbiology and Molecular Biology Reviews 5854:Lenormand, Thomas; Otto, Sarah P. (2000). 5425: 5145: 5143: 5141: 5139: 4811:Identifying Harmful Marine Dinoflagellates 4706: 4239: 4164: 4099: 3313: 3311: 2988: 2986: 2947: 2798: 2391: 2389: 2387: 2186: 1419:Long exposure image of bioluminescence of 1020:Most (but not all) dinoflagellates have a 107: 9496: 8174: 8164: 8115: 8058: 7922: 7912: 7757: 7747: 7698: 7688: 7639: 7629: 7356: 7315: 7274: 6939: 6796: 6786: 6733: 6661: 6651: 6538: 6473: 6448:Jackson CJ, Gornik SG, Waller RF (2012). 6394: 6353: 6304: 6244: 6092: 6012: 5928: 5879: 5792: 5782: 5733: 5676: 5615: 5605: 5566: 5549: 5539: 5416: 5346:Kennedy Duckett, Maryellen (2015-02-10). 5058:(8th ed.). McGraw Hill. p. 95. 4976: 4792: 4769:: mechanism, occurrence and significance" 4666: 4463: 4394: 4392: 4230: 4200: 4108: 3718: 3691: 3664: 3629: 3610: 3504: 3455: 3445: 3393: 3291: 3217: 2613: 2603: 2321: 2311: 2274: 2252: 2250: 2248: 2228: 2218: 1183: 1134:is widely known. However, endosymbiontic 1098: 12603: 9401: 8449: 7780: 5825:Loeblich, A.R.; Loeblich, L.A. (2012) . 5279: 5078: 4896: 4894: 4517: 4349: 4173: 3519:Dodge (1966). Cited but unreferenced in 2418: 2289: 1702:studies of fossil dinoflagellate cysts. 1632: 1592: 1584: 1430: 1414: 1358: 1061: 947: 607: 599: 399:, and depth. Many dinoflagellates are 320:Dinomastigota Margulis & Sagan, 1985 13903:Extant Early Triassic first appearances 12876: 9386: 8323: 7785:(Master's thesis). University of Oslo. 7119: 6275: 5136: 3845: 3348: 3317: 3308: 2983: 2978: 2384: 2256: 1806: 1719:, whose germination is subject to both 1603: 1323: 13875: 13104: 10504:denotes groups with over 1,000 species 8355: 7989: 7410:The Journal of Eukaryotic Microbiology 7374:The Journal of Eukaryotic Microbiology 5588:Bravo, Isabel; Figueroa, Rosa (2014). 5521: 5386: 5130: 4942: 4940: 4842: 4840: 4712: 4692:Die Peridineen der Plankton-Expedition 4689: 4389: 3998: 3777: 3240: 3191: 3185: 3115:Medlin, L. K.; Fensome, R. A. (2013), 2421:The Journal of Eukaryotic Microbiology 2245: 1839:, albeit with some loss of diversity. 863:The dinoflagellate nucleus: dinokaryon 715:. Most photosynthetic species contain 540:In the 1830s, the German microscopist 509:means "whip" and this refers to their 13623: 13622: 12832: 10517: 9227: 8469: 7846:Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution 5125:Bioluminescence and circadian rhythms 4891: 2735: 2636: 2586:Bravo I, Figueroa RI (January 2014). 2491: 2343: 1913:origin, and the Kryptoperidiniaceae, 13834:4ddf8717-348d-4467-8f9e-807c4c77e75e 8284:(Thoracosphaeraceae, Dinophyceae)". 7887:Imanian, B.; Keeling, P. J. (2007). 7722:Dorrell, R. G.; Howe, C. J. (2015). 6251:. Academic Press. pp. 263–298. 5833:. Academic Press. pp. 444–474. 5172:10.1146/annurev-marine-120308-081028 4003:. In Lessios H, MacIntyre I (eds.). 3811:Dodge, J.D.; Hart-Jones, B. (1982). 3569:. Academic Press. pp. 387–584. 3529:. Academic Press. pp. 387–584. 3324:. Academic Press. pp. 107–147. 3198:The British Journal of Ophthalmology 2707:. Academic Press. pp. 773–807. 1515:can sink rapidly to the seafloor in 6684: 5378: 5122: 4937: 4837: 2954:. Academic Press. pp. 43–106. 1921:, which have plastids derived from 1273:Katodinium (Gymnodinium) fungiforme 1001:(ICBN, now renamed as ICN) and the 899:Dinoflagellate viral nucleoproteins 843:. They are placed within the order 16:Unicellular algae with two flagella 13: 7422:10.1111/j.1550-7408.2002.tb00230.x 7386:10.1111/j.1550-7408.1999.tb04603.x 6042:10.1111/j.1440-1835.1996.tb00040.x 5974:10.1111/j.1529-8817.1978.tb02452.x 4544:10.1111/j.1529-8817.1982.tb03196.x 4483:(Diplopsalidaceae, Dinophyceae)". 4413:10.1111/j.1529-8817.1986.tb00021.x 4275:10.1111/j.1529-8817.1970.tb02372.x 4203:"Possible phagotrophic feeding in 3755:Steidinger KA, Williams J (1970). 3243:The Paleobiology of Plant Protists 3094:10.1111/j.1529-8817.1987.tb02534.x 3043:10.1111/j.1550-7408.1962.tb02579.x 2891:10.1111/j.1550-7408.1985.tb03053.x 2713:10.1016/B978-0-12-385876-4.00017-7 2433:10.1111/j.1550-7408.1999.tb04619.x 1410: 1164:. Many extant dinoflagellates are 665:, collectively referred to as the 317:Arthrodelen Flagellaten Stein 1883 14: 13914: 8392:Classic dinoflagellate monographs 8380: 6905: 5302:10.1038/scientificamerican0512-19 5224:10.1046/j.1529-8817.1998.340167.x 2951:Ch. 3: Dinoflagellate cell cortex 2705:Freshwater Algae of North America 1536:, with the possible exception of 1527: 1291:by immobilizing its larger prey. 1077: 932: 8592: 8259:10.1111/j.0022-3646.1997.00122.x 8191: 8132: 8075: 8026: 7983: 7969:10.1111/j.1462-2920.2006.01109.x 7940: 7880: 7836: 7797: 7774: 7715: 7656: 7597: 7546: 7495: 7444: 7365: 7324: 7283: 7242: 7191: 7132: 7073: 7037: 6994: 6899: 6856: 6842:10.1111/j.1529-8817.2007.00320.x 6813: 6750: 6678: 6619: 6597:Lin S, Zhang H, Gray MW (2008). 6590: 6555: 6490: 6429:from the original on 13 May 2019 6411: 6370: 6321: 6280: 6238: 6224:10.1111/j.1529-8817.2004.03202.x 6195: 6181:10.1111/j.1529-8817.2006.00205.x 6152: 6138:10.1111/j.1529-8817.2006.00262.x 6109: 6085:10.1111/j.1529-8817.2005.04150.x 6056: 6021: 5988: 5945: 5896: 5847: 5630: 4808:Faust M, Gulledge, R.A. 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These carry reduced number of 713:derived from some ingested algae 711:, suggesting they were probably 130: 35: 8344:from the original on 2014-07-07 8316: 7781:Tørresen, Ole Kristian (2010). 7120:Fensome, Robert (8 June 2022). 6722:Molecular Biology and Evolution 6265:from the original on 2014-07-07 6245:Beam CA, Himes M (2012-12-02). 5818: 5809: 5750: 5701: 5480: 5469:from the original on 2019-02-13 5392: 5372: 5339: 5308: 5273: 5238: 5194: 5152:Annual Review of Marine Science 5116: 5107: 5072: 5047: 5036:from the original on 2014-07-07 5001: 4801: 4683: 4626: 4583: 4572:from the original on 2019-12-28 4558: 4511: 4472: 4427: 4362: 4343: 4308: 4289: 4194: 4137: 4088:from the original on 2022-05-15 4054: 4019: 3992: 3983: 3940: 3913: 3888: 3839: 3804: 3771: 3748: 3739: 3712: 3685: 3658: 3623: 3604: 3594: 3583:from the original on 2014-07-07 3554: 3543:from the original on 2014-07-07 3513: 3472: 3421: 3410:from the original on 2018-12-14 3353: 3338:from the original on 2014-07-07 3259: 3234: 3150: 3117:"Dinoflagellate macroevolution" 3108: 2968:from the original on 2014-07-07 2948:Netzel H, Dürr G (2012-12-02). 2897: 2870: 2827: 2792: 2782: 2772: 2762: 2729: 2696: 2653: 2579: 2474:from the original on 2022-01-28 2374:from the original on 2016-05-13 1715:that eventually form cysts, or 1479:, Puerto Rico; Mosquito Bay in 1314: 1025: 533:), meaning whirling, and Latin 314:Pyrrhophycophyta Papenfuss 1946 9983: 9979: 9739: 9735: 8360:The Biology of Dinoflagellates 7555:Journal of Molecular Evolution 7126:AASP-The Palynological Society 6248:Ch. 8: Dinoflagellate genetics 5497:The Biology of dinoflagellates 4773:Marine Ecology Progress Series 3021:Freudenthal, Hugo D. (1962). " 2536: 2485: 2447: 2412: 2337: 2283: 650:are also found in many forms. 391:. Their populations vary with 387:, but they are also common in 292:Claparède & Lachmann, 1868 1: 8524:High lipid content microalgae 7102:10.1016/S0034-6667(99)00032-9 7023:10.1126/science.281.5380.1168 6576:10.1016/S0022-2836(02)00468-0 5607:10.3390/microorganisms2010011 5541:10.3390/microorganisms7070191 5008:Granéli E, Turner JT (2007). 4040:10.1016/S0932-4739(11)80315-9 3679:10.1016/S0003-9365(82)80046-8 3485:European Journal of Phycology 2914:10.1016/s0074-7696(08)60825-6 2739:Employment for the microscope 2605:10.3390/microorganisms2010011 2179: 2164:Paralytic shellfish poisoning 2084:Unknown dinoflagellate under 1522: 943: 855:Theca structure and formation 595: 542:Christian Gottfried Ehrenberg 458:, the ancestral condition of 380:. Dinoflagellates are mostly 364: 'whip, scourge') are a 356: 'whirling' and 8495: 8421:Tree of Life Dinoflagellates 8397:Japanese dinoflagellate site 8298:10.1016/j.protis.2013.06.001 8012:10.1016/0303-2647(80)90006-4 6788:10.1371/journal.pone.0042780 6653:10.1371/journal.pone.0043763 6564:Journal of Molecular Biology 6454:Genome Biology and Evolution 6334:Genome Biology and Evolution 5784:10.1371/journal.pone.0061075 5451:British Phycological Journal 5093:10.1016/0378-1119(95)00676-1 4434:Strom SL, Buskey EJ (1993). 3923:Dinophyceae (Dinoflagellida) 3447:10.1371/journal.pone.0019132 3192:Schwab IR (September 2004). 3058:Symbiodinium microadriaticum 3027:Symbiodinium microadriaticum 2856:10.1016/0303-2647(76)90005-8 2821:10.2216/i0031-8884-14-1-45.1 2313:10.1371/journal.pone.0119248 2276:10.37543/oceanides.v27i1.111 1909:, which possess plastids of 1750:dormancy was not essential. 1506: 814:has the smallest known eye. 488: 7: 13898:Olenekian first appearances 9123:Fish diseases and parasites 8634:Photosynthetic picoplankton 8282:Posoniella tricarinelloides 7866:10.1016/j.ympev.2017.10.011 6695:10.1038/nmiddleeast.2019.63 6605:. Wiley. pp. 280–309. 5659:Cavalier-Smith, T. (2002). 5522:Li C, Wong JT (July 2019). 5487:Pfiester, Anderson (1987). 5353:National Geographic Society 5054:Castro P, Huber ME (2010). 4505:10.2216/i0031-8884-37-1-1.1 4298:Meteor Forschungsergebnisse 4061:Kofoid CA, Swezy O (1921). 3031:The Journal of Protozoology 2152: 1966: 1961:Posoniella tricarinelloides 1753: 1644:Alexandrium pseudogoniaulax 1495:Lipid and sterol production 1210:Mixotrophic dinoflagellates 1126:). The association between 1103: 376:and are usually considered 10: 13919: 9113:Dimethylsulfoniopropionate 8614:Heterotrophic picoplankton 8108:10.1038/s41598-021-89072-z 8039:Environmental Microbiology 7949:Environmental Microbiology 7267:10.1016/j.ejop.2003.11.003 6932:10.1038/s41598-018-35620-z 5872:10.1093/genetics/156.1.423 5829:. In Spector, D.L. (ed.). 5441:Gymnodinium pseudopalustre 4957:Environmental Microbiology 3159:American Journal of Botany 2174:Thin layers (oceanography) 1925:Some species also perform 1695:origin and functionality. 1607: 1327: 939:Wikispecies:Dinoflagellata 936: 877:) have a peculiar form of 866: 516: 342: 13765: 13631: 13594: 13412: 13329: 13281: 13166: 13157: 13100: 12872: 12868: 12863:phyla/divisions by domain 12783: 12754: 12729: 12720: 12671: 12662: 12594: 12526: 12467: 12442: 12299: 12290: 12249: 12224: 12187: 12178: 12174: 12045: 11905: 11880: 11791: 11782: 11727: 11716: 11615: 11590: 11509: 11388: 11379: 11283: 11274: 11237: 11226: 11215: 11185: 11148: 11087: 11074: 11052: 11014: 10988: 10933: 10722: 10713: 10679: 10675: 10559: 10480: 10448: 10425: 10352: 10321: 10281: 10252: 10232: 10223: 10211: 10207: 10052: 10043: 10014: 9999: 9990: 9977: 9973: 9906: 9878: 9863: 9854: 9813: 9792: 9783: 9746: 9733: 9729: 9716: 9703: 9699: 9676: 9656: 9652: 9648: 9594: 9581: 9572: 9539: 9526: 9492: 9481: 9463: 9450: 9397: 9382: 9378: 9262: 9168:Marine primary production 9065: 9013: 8950: 8941: 8884: 8839: 8744: 8735: 8657: 8601: 8590: 8503: 7830:10.1016/j.hal.2009.07.002 7317:10.1080/00173139908559216 7220:10.1016/j.hal.2020.101871 7161:10.1017/S0094837300016316 6885:10.1016/j.hal.2013.10.013 5463:10.1080/00071617300650141 4923:10.1016/j.hal.2017.06.006 4620:10.1016/j.hal.2006.12.003 4465:10.4319/lo.1993.38.5.0965 4232:10.4319/lo.1969.14.3.0448 3506:10.1080/09670260600961080 3293:10.1016/j.cub.2012.10.036 3245:. Geology. W.H. Freeman. 2682:10.1007/s10531-007-9258-3 1947:was found inhabiting the 1649:Protoceratium reticulatum 1626:(thin-walled) cysts from 1458:dinoflagellate luciferase 1309: 1156:, and several species of 579:. At various times, the 287: 280: 234: 229: 127:Scientific classification 125: 115: 106: 23: 9709: 9705: 9088:Algal nutrient solutions 8830:Thalassiosira pseudonana 8702:Flavobacterium columnare 8689:Enteric redmouth disease 8455:"A Tale of Two Flagella" 7893:BMC Evolutionary Biology 5011:Ecology of Harmful Algae 3368:(Submitted manuscript). 3318:Spector D (2012-12-02). 2344:Silar, Philippe (2016), 1945:Dapsilidinium pastielsii 1860:Perkinsus, Parvilucifera 1661:Protoperidinium oblongum 1407:is extensively studied. 1024:, described below (see: 873:'Core dinoflagellates' ( 546:Peridinium, Prorocentrum 372:constituting the phylum 13073:Thermodesulfobacteriota 12214:Vitrella brassicaformis 9108:Diel vertical migration 8624:Microphyte (microalgae) 8609:Eukaryotic picoplankton 8554:Paradox of the plankton 8356:Taylor, F.J.R. (1987). 8235:Calciodinellum operosum 8166:10.1073/pnas.1902538116 8060:10.1111/1462-2920.14766 7914:10.1186/1471-2148-7-172 7749:10.1073/pnas.1421380112 7690:10.1073/pnas.1423400112 7631:10.1073/pnas.1003335107 7082:Rev. Palaeobot. Palynol 6306:10.1126/science.aad0408 6001:Nippon Suisan Gakkaishi 5418:10.1093/plankt/20.3.393 5247:Journal of Cell Science 4978:10.1111/1462-2920.13899 4730:10.1023/A:1015861725470 4718:Journal of Oceanography 4383:10.1093/plankt/6.6.1057 4317:Trans. Am. Microsc. Soc 4176:J. Fish. Res. Board Can 4079:10.5962/bhl.title.24995 3989:Freudenthal et al. 2007 3862:(inactive 2024-08-26). 3210:10.1136/bjo.2004.049510 2748:10.5962/bhl.title.45920 2220:10.1073/pnas.1110633108 1995:Lingulodinium polyedrum 1957:Calciodinellum operosum 1532:Dinoflagellates have a 1235:) and nonthecate (e.g. 1039:Although classified as 913:and the true nuclei of 836:Actiniscus pentasterias 393:sea surface temperature 368:group of single-celled 311:Pyrrophyta Pascher 1914 13888:Dinoflagellate biology 8970:Gelatinous zooplankton 8324:Spector, D.L. (1984). 6523:10.1126/sciadv.aav1110 6014:10.2331/suisan.57.2249 5827:"Dinoflagellate cysts" 5678:10.1038/sj.hdy.6800034 5445:Woloszynskia apiculata 5437:von Stosch HA (1973). 5381:Dinoflagellate sterols 5315:Castine Kayak (2015). 4520:Gymnodinium fungiforme 3386:10.1038/ismej.2017.167 3194:"You are what you eat" 3171:10.3732/ajb.91.10.1523 2643:Acta Botanica Croatica 2126:, a coral endosymbiont 1949:Indo-Pacific Warm Pool 1682: 1681:(h). Scale bar: 10 μm. 1600: 1590: 1448: 1447:, Vieques, Puerto Rico 1445:the Bioluminescent Bay 1428: 1372: 1184:Nutritional strategies 1099:Ecology and physiology 1070: 994: 613: 612:Dinoflagellate anatomy 605: 323:Dinophyta Dillon, 1963 13842:Paleobiology Database 13301:Neocallimastigomycota 10935:Postciliodesmatophora 9163:Marine microorganisms 8933:Velvet (fish disease) 8668:Aeromonas salmonicida 8534:Marine microorganisms 8410:Noctiluca scintillans 7575:10.1007/s002390010210 6735:10.1093/molbev/msh127 6030:Phycological Research 5921:10.1128/MMBR.00005-10 5493:. In Taylor F (ed.). 4659:10.1038/ismej.2012.29 4596:Karlodinium veneficum 4481:Diplopsalis lenticula 4251:Ceratium hirundinella 3565:. In Tomas CR (ed.). 3321:Dinoflagellate nuclei 2350:HAL Archives-ouvertes 2140:Noctiluca scintillans 1763:wheat is 16 000 Mb). 1636: 1596: 1588: 1442: 1423:in the yacht port of 1418: 1362: 1259:(= pallium-feeding). 1229:Ceratium hirundinella 1200:. Phototrophs can be 1065: 951: 937:Further information: 808:. The dinoflagellate 778:endoplasmic reticulum 611: 603: 571:("fire algae"; Greek 527:Otto Friedrich Müller 13893:Endosymbiotic events 12966:Coprothermobacterota 11637:Eleutheroschizonidae 10749:Cariacothrix caudata 8915:Pfiesteria piscicida 8715:Marine bacteriophage 8619:Marine microplankton 8239:Journal of Phycology 7806:Dinophysis acuminata 6601:. In Smith H (ed.). 6383:Journal of Phycology 6204:Journal of Phycology 6161:Journal of Phycology 6118:Journal of Phycology 6065:Journal of Phycology 5954:Journal of Phycology 5259:10.1242/jcs.95.2.321 4849:Journal of Phycology 4146:Bull. Biol. Fr. Belg 3860:10.1515/BOT.2003.021 3642:: 3–40 +erratum 13, 3525:. In Tomas C (ed.). 3074:Journal of Phycology 2494:Journal of Phycology 2102:Pfiesteria shumwayae 2033:Dinophysis acuminata 1951:, which served as a 1807:Evolutionary history 1747:Pfiesteria piscicida 1735:Scrippsiella hangoei 1604:Dinoflagellate cysts 1558:, which is called a 1534:haplontic life cycle 1485:Fajardo, Puerto Rico 1481:Vieques, Puerto Rico 1405:harmful algal blooms 1324:Harmful algal blooms 889:are attached to the 839:, based on scanning 765:endosymbiotic events 422:. Some species are 11882:Blastogregarinorina 11839:Oligochaetocystinae 10381:Gunflint microbiota 10142:Klebsormidiophyceae 9926:Hyphochytriomycetes 9158:Ocean acidification 9093:Artificial seawater 8860:Coscinodiscophyceae 8726:Streptococcus iniae 8709:Pelagibacter ubique 8251:1997JPcgy..33..122M 8212:2014Geo....42..531M 8157:2019PNAS..11615973N 8151:(32): 15973–15978. 8100:2021NatSR..11.9458K 8051:2019EnvMi..21.4125Z 8004:1980BiSys..13...65T 7961:2007EnvMi...9...39G 7905:2007BMCEE...7..172I 7858:2018MolPE.118..392K 7822:2010HAlga...9...25G 7740:2015PNAS..11210247D 7734:(33): 10247–10254. 7681:2015PNAS..112.5767G 7622:2010PNAS..10710949J 7567:2001JMolE..53..204S 7516:2001Natur.409..607M 7465:2001Natur.409..603L 7349:2020FrBio..65..193G 7308:1999Grana..38...66F 7212:2020HAlga..9701871C 7153:1996Pbio...22..329F 7094:2000RPaPa.108...37T 7059:1996Geo....24..159M 7015:1998Sci...281.1168M 6924:2018NatSR...817175S 6877:2014HAlga..31..100W 6834:2007JPcgy..43..344W 6779:2012PLoSO...742780S 6644:2012PLoSO...743763I 6515:2019SciA....5.1110J 6216:2004JPcgy..40..664P 6173:2006JPcgy..42..400K 6130:2006JPcgy..42.1028F 6077:2005JPcgy..41..370F 5966:1978JPcgy..14..224A 5775:2013PLoSO...861075D 5294:2012SciAm.306e..19D 5282:Scientific American 5216:1998JPcgy..34..167K 5164:2010ARMS....2..443H 5087:(1 Spec No): 5–11. 4969:2017EnvMi..19.4506L 4915:2017HAlga..67...74Z 4861:2016JPcgy..52...10L 4785:1986MEPS...28..105H 4714:Smayda, Theodore J. 4651:2012ISMEJ...6.1926B 4612:2007HAlga...6..400A 4536:1982JPcgy..18..356S 4497:1998Phyco..37....1N 4456:1993LimOc..38..965S 4267:1970JPcgy...6..137D 4223:1969LimOc..14..448N 3961:1985JPcgy..21..662F 3613:Beih. Nova Hedwigia 3497:2006EJPhy..41..435B 3378:2018ISMEJ..12..304S 3284:2012CBio...22.2303G 3086:1987JPcgy..23..469T 2848:1976BiSys...8...33L 2813:1975Phyco..14...45T 2742:. London: Dodsley. 2674:2008BiCon..17..407T 2557:2012Phyco..51..612M 2506:2012JPcgy..48.1057G 2304:2015PLoSO..1019248R 2211:2011PNAS..10813624P 2122:sp. (Dinophyceae): 2054:Ceratium macroceros 1560:dinoflagellate cyst 1489:Indian River Lagoon 1330:Harmful algal bloom 1233:Peridinium globulus 841:electron microscopy 479:shellfish poisoning 477:), which can cause 475:harmful algal bloom 389:freshwater habitats 13296:Blastocladiomycota 11977:Amphiplatysporidae 11929:Cephaloidophoridae 11729:Archigregarinorida 10724:Intramacronucleata 10152:Coleochaetophyceae 9532: 9528: 9456: 9452: 8453:(5 January 2010). 8443:2012-10-13 at the 8426:2012-10-13 at the 8402:2013-05-12 at the 8330:. Academic Press. 8088:Scientific Reports 7337:Freshwater Biology 6912:Scientific Reports 6687:Nature Middle East 6466:10.1093/gbe/evr122 6346:10.1093/gbe/evx144 5726:10.1093/aob/mcs194 5642:2011-02-23 at the 5389:, pp. 316–359 5133:, pp. 269–281 4794:10.3354/meps028105 4767:Paracalanus parvus 4201:Norris DR (1969). 4123:10.1007/BF00407285 3630:Sournia A (1978). 2736:Baker, M. (1753). 2662:Biodivers. Conserv 2637:Gómez, F. (2005). 2070:Ceratium furcoides 1862:, syndinians, and 1683: 1601: 1591: 1477:La Parguera, Lajas 1449: 1429: 1373: 1130:and reef-building 1071: 995: 917:, so were termed " 827:internal skeletons 756:Karlodinium micrum 614: 606: 101:or earlier–Present 13870: 13869: 13737:Open Tree of Life 13625:Taxon identifiers 13616: 13615: 13612: 13611: 13590: 13589: 13153: 13152: 13096: 13095: 13088:Verrucomicrobiota 12826: 12825: 12822: 12821: 12818: 12817: 12814: 12813: 12779: 12778: 12658: 12657: 12590: 12589: 12286: 12285: 12170: 12169: 12166: 12165: 12162: 12161: 12055:Schizogregarinina 12041: 12040: 11712: 11711: 11617:Protococcidiorida 11586: 11585: 11582: 11581: 11501:Selenococcidiidae 11491:Elleipsisomatidae 11455:Cryptosporidiidae 11316:Haemogregarinidae 11239:Agamococcidiorida 11211: 11210: 11207: 11206: 11048: 11047: 11044: 11043: 11010: 11009: 10810:Oligohymenophorea 10709: 10708: 10511: 10510: 10476: 10475: 10412:Spironematellidae 10393:Meteora sporadica 10348: 10347: 10344: 10343: 10277: 10276: 10203: 10202: 10199: 10198: 10195: 10194: 10191: 10190: 10187: 10186: 10183: 10182: 10179: 10178: 10175: 10174: 10103:Prasinodermophyta 10039: 10038: 9969: 9968: 9965: 9964: 9961: 9960: 9957: 9956: 9953: 9952: 9850: 9849: 9686:Centroplasthelida 9644: 9643: 9640: 9639: 9636: 9635: 9632: 9631: 9628: 9627: 9624: 9623: 9620: 9619: 9522: 9521: 9446: 9445: 9221: 9220: 9061: 9060: 9048:Siphonostomatoida 9043:Poecilostomatoida 8995:Crustacean larvae 8899:Choanoflagellates 8880: 8879: 8870:Bacillariophyceae 8865:Fragilariophyceae 8784:Emiliania huxleyi 8629:Nanophytoplankton 8549:Milky seas effect 8371:978-0-6320-0915-2 8337:978-0-3231-3813-0 8045:(11): 4125–4135. 7358:10.1111/fwb.13413 7122:"Dinoflagellates" 7009:(5380): 1168–70. 6612:978-0-470-26225-2 6396:10.1111/jpy.12815 6299:(6261): 691–694. 6258:978-0-3231-3813-0 6007:(12): 2249–2253. 5840:978-0-323-13813-0 5508:978-0-6320-0915-2 5065:978-0-0711-1302-1 5021:978-3-5407-4009-4 4951:Karenia mikimotoi 4869:10.1111/jpy.12365 4763:Calanus pacificus 4067:Mere. Univ. Calif 3999:Trench R (1997). 3933:978-3-3340-0247-6 3906:978-3-5106-1392-2 3789:978-3-5104-8003-6 3778:Taylor F (1976). 3667:Arch. Protistenkd 3601:(1–4)(1935–1937). 3576:978-0-0805-3442-8 3563:"Dinoflagellates" 3536:978-0-0805-3442-8 3523:"Dinoflagellates" 3331:978-0-3231-3813-0 3252:978-0-7167-1109-4 3241:Tappan H (1980). 3138:978-1-86239-368-4 3004:978-0-1985-7747-8 2961:978-0-3231-3813-0 2923:978-0-1236-4482-4 2722:978-0-12-385876-4 2467:978-3-6421-8819-0 2263:CICIMAR Oceánides 1637:Resting cysts of 1468:bioluminescence. 1440: 1150:, the giant clam 958:; 2. diagram; 3. 802:eyespot or stigma 796:grains, and food 749:Karenia mikimotoi 690:nannoceratopsioid 329: 328: 308: 299: 293: 225: 13910: 13863: 13862: 13850: 13849: 13837: 13836: 13827: 13826: 13814: 13813: 13801: 13800: 13799: 13786: 13785: 13784: 13758: 13757: 13745: 13744: 13732: 13731: 13719: 13718: 13706: 13705: 13693: 13692: 13680: 13679: 13667: 13666: 13665: 13652: 13651: 13650: 13620: 13619: 13364:Anthocerotophyta 13243:Hemimastigophora 13164: 13163: 13135:Nitrososphaerota 13102: 13101: 13078:Thermomicrobiota 13018:Kiritimatiellota 13013:Ignavibacteriota 12978:Deferribacterota 12941:Campylobacterota 12926:Bdellovibrionota 12874: 12873: 12870: 12869: 12853: 12846: 12839: 12830: 12829: 12727: 12726: 12669: 12668: 12601: 12600: 12493:Duboscquellaceae 12297: 12296: 12185: 12184: 12176: 12175: 12047:Neogregarinorida 12023:Actinocephalidae 12019:Stylocephaloidea 12013:Trichorhynchidae 11857:Schaudinnellidae 11801:Aikinetocystidae 11789: 11788: 11725: 11724: 11654:Eleutheroschizon 11496:Lankesterellidae 11445:Calyptosporiidae 11435:Atoxoplasmatidae 11386: 11385: 11298:Dactylosomatidae 11281: 11280: 11235: 11234: 11224: 11223: 11085: 11084: 11076: 11075: 11072: 11071: 11061: 11060: 11021: 11020: 10840:Parablepharismea 10815:Ichthyophthirius 10720: 10719: 10686: 10685: 10677: 10676: 10588: 10568: 10538: 10531: 10524: 10515: 10514: 10458:Collodictyonidae 10404:Hemimastigophora 10400: 10399: 10359: 10230: 10229: 10221: 10220: 10217: 10209: 10208: 10158:Zygnematophyceae 10116: 10115: 10096: 10080: 10079: 10050: 10049: 9997: 9996: 9988: 9987: 9984: 9975: 9974: 9861: 9860: 9790: 9789: 9744: 9743: 9740: 9731: 9730: 9714: 9713: 9710: 9701: 9700: 9674: 9673: 9661: 9654: 9653: 9650: 9649: 9604:Choanoflagellata 9579: 9578: 9537: 9536: 9533: 9494: 9493: 9490: 9489: 9486: 9461: 9460: 9457: 9399: 9398: 9395: 9394: 9391: 9384: 9383: 9380: 9379: 9291: 9271: 9248: 9241: 9234: 9225: 9224: 8975:Hunting copepods 8948: 8947: 8773:Chaetocerotaceae 8742: 8741: 8659:Bacterioplankton 8596: 8490: 8483: 8476: 8467: 8466: 8462: 8375: 8363: 8352: 8350: 8349: 8310: 8309: 8277: 8271: 8270: 8230: 8224: 8223: 8220:10.1130/G35456.1 8195: 8189: 8188: 8178: 8168: 8136: 8130: 8129: 8119: 8079: 8073: 8072: 8062: 8030: 8024: 8023: 7987: 7981: 7980: 7944: 7938: 7936: 7926: 7916: 7884: 7878: 7877: 7840: 7834: 7833: 7801: 7795: 7794: 7778: 7772: 7771: 7761: 7751: 7719: 7713: 7712: 7702: 7692: 7660: 7654: 7653: 7643: 7633: 7616:(24): 10949–54. 7601: 7595: 7594: 7550: 7544: 7543: 7524:10.1038/35054541 7510:(6820): 607–10. 7499: 7493: 7492: 7473:10.1038/35054537 7448: 7442: 7441: 7405: 7369: 7363: 7362: 7360: 7328: 7322: 7321: 7319: 7287: 7281: 7280: 7278: 7246: 7240: 7239: 7195: 7189: 7188: 7136: 7130: 7129: 7117: 7106: 7105: 7077: 7071: 7070: 7041: 7035: 7034: 6998: 6992: 6991: 6963: 6954: 6953: 6943: 6903: 6897: 6896: 6860: 6854: 6853: 6817: 6811: 6810: 6800: 6790: 6754: 6748: 6747: 6737: 6713: 6707: 6706: 6682: 6676: 6675: 6665: 6655: 6623: 6617: 6616: 6594: 6588: 6587: 6559: 6553: 6552: 6542: 6503:Science Advances 6494: 6488: 6487: 6477: 6445: 6439: 6438: 6436: 6434: 6415: 6409: 6408: 6398: 6374: 6368: 6367: 6357: 6340:(8): 2037–2047. 6325: 6319: 6318: 6308: 6284: 6278: 6273: 6271: 6270: 6242: 6236: 6235: 6199: 6193: 6192: 6156: 6150: 6149: 6124:(5): 1028–1039. 6113: 6107: 6106: 6096: 6060: 6054: 6053: 6025: 6019: 6018: 6016: 5992: 5986: 5985: 5949: 5943: 5942: 5932: 5900: 5894: 5893: 5883: 5851: 5845: 5844: 5822: 5816: 5813: 5807: 5806: 5796: 5786: 5754: 5748: 5747: 5737: 5720:(6): 1205–1219. 5714:Annals of Botany 5705: 5699: 5698: 5680: 5656: 5647: 5634: 5629: 5619: 5609: 5585: 5564: 5563: 5553: 5543: 5519: 5513: 5512: 5500: 5492: 5484: 5478: 5477: 5475: 5474: 5434: 5423: 5422: 5420: 5396: 5390: 5384: 5376: 5370: 5369: 5367: 5365: 5356:. Archived from 5343: 5337: 5336: 5334: 5332: 5323:. Archived from 5312: 5306: 5305: 5277: 5271: 5270: 5242: 5236: 5235: 5198: 5192: 5191: 5147: 5134: 5128: 5120: 5114: 5111: 5105: 5104: 5076: 5070: 5069: 5051: 5045: 5044: 5042: 5041: 5005: 4999: 4998: 4980: 4944: 4935: 4934: 4898: 4889: 4888: 4844: 4835: 4834: 4832: 4831: 4822:. Archived from 4805: 4799: 4798: 4796: 4756: 4750: 4749: 4710: 4704: 4703: 4687: 4681: 4680: 4670: 4630: 4624: 4623: 4587: 4581: 4580: 4578: 4577: 4562: 4556: 4555: 4515: 4509: 4508: 4476: 4470: 4469: 4467: 4444:Limnol. Oceanogr 4431: 4425: 4424: 4396: 4387: 4386: 4366: 4360: 4359: 4347: 4341: 4340: 4312: 4306: 4305: 4293: 4287: 4286: 4253:(Dinophyceae)". 4246: 4237: 4236: 4234: 4211:Limnol. Oceanogr 4198: 4192: 4191: 4171: 4162: 4161: 4152:(Suppl): 1–149. 4141: 4135: 4134: 4117:(1–5): 157–181. 4106: 4097: 4096: 4094: 4093: 4087: 4058: 4052: 4051: 4023: 4017: 4016: 3996: 3990: 3987: 3981: 3980: 3944: 3938: 3937: 3917: 3911: 3910: 3892: 3886: 3885: 3879: 3871: 3843: 3837: 3836: 3808: 3802: 3801: 3775: 3769: 3768: 3752: 3746: 3743: 3737: 3736: 3716: 3710: 3709: 3689: 3683: 3682: 3662: 3656: 3655: 3627: 3621: 3620: 3608: 3602: 3598: 3592: 3591: 3589: 3588: 3558: 3552: 3551: 3549: 3548: 3517: 3511: 3510: 3508: 3476: 3470: 3469: 3459: 3449: 3425: 3419: 3418: 3416: 3415: 3397: 3366:The ISME Journal 3357: 3351: 3346: 3344: 3343: 3315: 3306: 3305: 3295: 3263: 3257: 3256: 3238: 3232: 3231: 3221: 3189: 3183: 3182: 3154: 3148: 3147: 3146: 3145: 3112: 3106: 3105: 3053: 3047: 3046: 3018: 3009: 3008: 2990: 2981: 2976: 2974: 2973: 2945: 2936: 2935: 2901: 2895: 2894: 2874: 2868: 2867: 2831: 2825: 2824: 2796: 2790: 2786: 2780: 2776: 2770: 2766: 2760: 2759: 2733: 2727: 2726: 2700: 2694: 2693: 2657: 2651: 2650: 2634: 2628: 2627: 2617: 2607: 2583: 2577: 2576: 2540: 2534: 2533: 2489: 2483: 2482: 2480: 2479: 2451: 2445: 2444: 2416: 2410: 2409: 2393: 2382: 2381: 2380: 2379: 2341: 2335: 2334: 2325: 2315: 2287: 2281: 2280: 2278: 2257:Gómez F (2012). 2254: 2243: 2242: 2232: 2222: 2190: 2145:Noctiluciphyceae 2135: 2114: 2097: 2081: 2066: 2049: 2028: 2007: 1919:Kryptoperidinium 1887:Trebouxiophyceae 1700:biostratigraphic 1666:Kryptoperidinium 1441: 1398:Human inputs of 1371:spp. in Nagasaki 1304:Podolampas bipes 1093:Calcofluor-white 1087:Süsswasser Flora 891:nuclear membrane 811:Erythropsidinium 353: 346: 303: 297: 291: 290:Cilioflagellata 268:Noctiluciphyceae 216: 135: 134: 111: 97: 34: 27:Temporal range: 21: 20: 13918: 13917: 13913: 13912: 13911: 13909: 13908: 13907: 13883:Dinoflagellates 13873: 13872: 13871: 13866: 13858: 13853: 13845: 13840: 13832: 13830: 13822: 13817: 13809: 13804: 13795: 13794: 13789: 13780: 13779: 13774: 13761: 13753: 13748: 13740: 13735: 13727: 13722: 13714: 13709: 13701: 13696: 13688: 13683: 13675: 13670: 13661: 13660: 13655: 13646: 13645: 13640: 13627: 13617: 13608: 13586: 13537:Gnathostomulida 13442:Xenacoelomorpha 13408: 13404:Flowering plant 13359:Marchantiophyta 13325: 13291:Chytridiomycota 13277: 13149: 13092: 13048:Planctomycetota 13008:Gemmatimonadota 12993:Elusimicrobiota 12886:Acidobacteriota 12864: 12857: 12827: 12810: 12775: 12750: 12716: 12710:Rhizellobiopsis 12654: 12586: 12563:Pronoctilucidae 12522: 12481:Amoebophryaceae 12463: 12438: 12389:Without theca: 12282: 12245: 12220: 12158: 12059:Caulleryellidae 12037: 12027:Stylocephalidae 12005:Sphaerocystidae 11989:Dactylophoridae 11985:Cnemidosporidae 11981:Brustiophoridae 11901: 11876: 11847:Stomatophorinae 11843:Rhynchocystinae 11806:Allantocystidae 11784:Eugregarinorida 11778: 11749:Selenidioididae 11721: 11708: 11611: 11578: 11537:Toxoplasmatinae 11505: 11460:Cryptosporidium 11375: 11270: 11259:Rhytidocystidae 11231: 11220: 11203: 11191:Cardiosporidium 11181: 11144: 11121:Leucocytozoidae 11068: 11057: 11040: 11006: 10984: 10929: 10852:Phyllopharyngea 10845:Parablepharisma 10705: 10671: 10670: 10586: 10564: 10555: 10542: 10512: 10507: 10472: 10444: 10435:Ancyromonadidae 10421: 10398: 10353: 10340: 10331:Malawimonadidae 10317: 10273: 10248: 10212: 10171: 10114: 10087: 10086: 10078: 10035: 10010: 9978: 9949: 9902: 9874: 9846: 9809: 9779: 9734: 9725: 9704: 9695: 9672: 9657: 9616: 9590: 9568: 9527: 9518: 9482: 9477: 9451: 9442: 9387: 9374: 9373: 9289: 9267: 9258: 9252: 9222: 9217: 9148:Marine mucilage 9103:Biological pump 9057: 9009: 8980:Ichthyoplankton 8937: 8904:Dinoflagellates 8876: 8835: 8806:Nannochloropsis 8790:Eustigmatophyte 8778:Coccolithophore 8731: 8653: 8597: 8588: 8519:CLAW hypothesis 8499: 8494: 8445:Wayback Machine 8438:Dinoflagellates 8428:Wayback Machine 8404:Wayback Machine 8383: 8378: 8372: 8347: 8345: 8338: 8327:Dinoflagellates 8319: 8314: 8313: 8278: 8274: 8231: 8227: 8196: 8192: 8137: 8133: 8080: 8076: 8031: 8027: 7998:(1–2): 65–108. 7988: 7984: 7945: 7941: 7885: 7881: 7841: 7837: 7802: 7798: 7779: 7775: 7720: 7716: 7675:(18): 5767–72. 7661: 7657: 7602: 7598: 7551: 7547: 7500: 7496: 7459:(6820): 603–7. 7449: 7445: 7406: 7370: 7366: 7329: 7325: 7288: 7284: 7255:Eur J Protistol 7247: 7243: 7196: 7192: 7137: 7133: 7118: 7109: 7078: 7074: 7042: 7038: 6999: 6995: 6980:10.1139/b96-205 6974:(11): 1687–94. 6964: 6957: 6904: 6900: 6861: 6857: 6818: 6814: 6755: 6751: 6714: 6710: 6683: 6679: 6624: 6620: 6613: 6595: 6591: 6560: 6556: 6509:(4): eaav1110. 6495: 6491: 6446: 6442: 6432: 6430: 6417: 6416: 6412: 6375: 6371: 6326: 6322: 6285: 6281: 6268: 6266: 6259: 6243: 6239: 6200: 6196: 6157: 6153: 6114: 6110: 6061: 6057: 6026: 6022: 5993: 5989: 5950: 5946: 5901: 5897: 5852: 5848: 5841: 5831:Dinoflagellates 5823: 5819: 5814: 5810: 5755: 5751: 5706: 5702: 5657: 5650: 5644:Wayback Machine 5586: 5567: 5520: 5516: 5509: 5485: 5481: 5472: 5470: 5435: 5426: 5405:J. Plankton Res 5397: 5393: 5377: 5373: 5363: 5361: 5344: 5340: 5330: 5328: 5313: 5309: 5278: 5274: 5253:(Pt 2): 321–8. 5243: 5239: 5199: 5195: 5148: 5137: 5121: 5117: 5112: 5108: 5077: 5073: 5066: 5052: 5048: 5039: 5037: 5022: 5006: 5002: 4963:(11): 4506–18. 4945: 4938: 4899: 4892: 4845: 4838: 4829: 4827: 4806: 4802: 4757: 4753: 4711: 4707: 4688: 4684: 4645:(10): 1926–36. 4631: 4627: 4592:Oxyrrhis marina 4588: 4584: 4575: 4573: 4564: 4563: 4559: 4516: 4512: 4477: 4473: 4432: 4428: 4397: 4390: 4371:J. Plankton Res 4367: 4363: 4348: 4344: 4329:10.2307/3225654 4313: 4309: 4294: 4290: 4247: 4240: 4205:Ceratium lunula 4199: 4195: 4188:10.1139/f61-046 4172: 4165: 4142: 4138: 4111:Arch. Mikrobiol 4107: 4100: 4091: 4089: 4085: 4059: 4055: 4024: 4020: 3997: 3993: 3988: 3984: 3945: 3941: 3934: 3918: 3914: 3907: 3893: 3889: 3873: 3872: 3848:Botanica Marina 3844: 3840: 3825: 3809: 3805: 3790: 3776: 3772: 3757:Dinoflagellates 3753: 3749: 3744: 3740: 3717: 3713: 3690: 3686: 3663: 3659: 3628: 3624: 3609: 3605: 3599: 3595: 3586: 3584: 3577: 3559: 3555: 3546: 3544: 3537: 3518: 3514: 3477: 3473: 3426: 3422: 3413: 3411: 3358: 3354: 3341: 3339: 3332: 3316: 3309: 3278:(24): 2303–12. 3272:Current Biology 3264: 3260: 3253: 3239: 3235: 3190: 3186: 3165:(10): 1523–34. 3155: 3151: 3143: 3141: 3139: 3129:10.1144/tms5.25 3113: 3109: 3054: 3050: 3019: 3012: 3005: 2991: 2984: 2971: 2969: 2962: 2946: 2939: 2924: 2902: 2898: 2875: 2871: 2832: 2828: 2797: 2793: 2787: 2783: 2777: 2773: 2767: 2763: 2734: 2730: 2723: 2701: 2697: 2658: 2654: 2635: 2631: 2584: 2580: 2565:10.2216/11-89.1 2541: 2537: 2490: 2486: 2477: 2475: 2468: 2452: 2448: 2417: 2413: 2394: 2385: 2377: 2375: 2360: 2342: 2338: 2298:(4): e0119248, 2288: 2284: 2255: 2246: 2205:(33): 13624–9. 2191: 2187: 2182: 2155: 2148: 2136: 2127: 2115: 2106: 2098: 2089: 2082: 2073: 2067: 2058: 2050: 2041: 2029: 2020: 2012:Oxyrrhis marina 2008: 1969: 1809: 1756: 1616: 1606: 1599: 1570:to produce new 1548:eleuteroschisis 1530: 1525: 1511:Dinoflagellate 1509: 1497: 1431: 1413: 1411:Bioluminescence 1332: 1326: 1317: 1312: 1257:extracellularly 1249:Protoperidinium 1237:Oxyrrhis marina 1202:photoautotrophs 1186: 1114: 1106: 1101: 1080: 946: 941: 935: 907:mitotic spindle 885:, in which the 871: 865: 857: 782:Golgi apparatus 640:theca or lorica 598: 559:in 1885 as the 519: 491: 483:bioluminescence 454:possessing two 333:dinoflagellates 263:Syndiniophyceae 215: 129: 102: 96: 95: 90: 85: 80: 75: 70: 65: 60: 55: 50: 45: 40: 29: 28: 25: 17: 12: 11: 5: 13916: 13906: 13905: 13900: 13895: 13890: 13885: 13868: 13867: 13865: 13864: 13851: 13838: 13828: 13815: 13802: 13787: 13771: 13769: 13763: 13762: 13760: 13759: 13746: 13733: 13720: 13707: 13694: 13681: 13677:Dinoflagellata 13668: 13663:Dinoflagellata 13653: 13637: 13635: 13633:Dinoflagellata 13629: 13628: 13614: 13613: 13610: 13609: 13602: 13600: 13597:Incertae sedis 13592: 13591: 13588: 13587: 13585: 13584: 13579: 13574: 13569: 13564: 13559: 13554: 13549: 13544: 13542:Micrognathozoa 13539: 13534: 13532:Acanthocephala 13529: 13524: 13519: 13514: 13509: 13504: 13499: 13494: 13489: 13484: 13479: 13474: 13469: 13464: 13459: 13454: 13449: 13444: 13439: 13434: 13429: 13424: 13418: 13416: 13410: 13409: 13407: 13406: 13401: 13396: 13391: 13386: 13381: 13376: 13374:Lycopodiophyta 13371: 13366: 13361: 13356: 13351: 13346: 13341: 13335: 13333: 13327: 13326: 13324: 13323: 13318: 13313: 13308: 13303: 13298: 13293: 13287: 13285: 13279: 13278: 13276: 13275: 13270: 13265: 13260: 13255: 13250: 13245: 13240: 13235: 13230: 13225: 13220: 13215: 13210: 13205: 13200: 13195: 13190: 13188:Ancyromonadida 13185: 13180: 13174: 13172: 13161: 13155: 13154: 13151: 13150: 13148: 13147: 13142: 13140:Thermoproteota 13137: 13132: 13125: 13118: 13110: 13108: 13098: 13097: 13094: 13093: 13091: 13090: 13085: 13080: 13075: 13070: 13065: 13060: 13055: 13053:Pseudomonadota 13050: 13045: 13040: 13035: 13030: 13028:Mycoplasmatota 13025: 13023:Lentisphaerota 13020: 13015: 13010: 13005: 13003:Fusobacteriota 13000: 12998:Fibrobacterota 12995: 12990: 12985: 12980: 12975: 12968: 12963: 12958: 12953: 12948: 12943: 12938: 12933: 12928: 12923: 12918: 12913: 12908: 12903: 12901:Armatimonadota 12898: 12893: 12891:Actinomycetota 12888: 12882: 12880: 12866: 12865: 12856: 12855: 12848: 12841: 12833: 12824: 12823: 12820: 12819: 12816: 12815: 12812: 12811: 12809: 12808: 12789: 12787: 12781: 12780: 12777: 12776: 12774: 12773: 12760: 12758: 12752: 12751: 12749: 12748: 12735: 12733: 12724: 12718: 12717: 12715: 12714: 12698:Parallobiopsis 12686:Elliobiocystis 12677: 12675: 12666: 12660: 12659: 12656: 12655: 12653: 12652: 12637:Rastromonadida 12634: 12622: 12609: 12607: 12598: 12592: 12591: 12588: 12587: 12585: 12584: 12572: 12560: 12548: 12543: 12530: 12528: 12524: 12523: 12521: 12520: 12502: 12490: 12473: 12471: 12465: 12464: 12462: 12461: 12448: 12446: 12440: 12439: 12437: 12436: 12418: 12386: 12385: 12376:Prorocentrales 12373: 12355: 12337: 12308:With a theca: 12305: 12303: 12294: 12292:Dinoflagellata 12288: 12287: 12284: 12283: 12281: 12280: 12268: 12259:Alphamonadidae 12255: 12253: 12247: 12246: 12244: 12243: 12230: 12228: 12222: 12221: 12219: 12218: 12206: 12202:Chromera velia 12193: 12191: 12182: 12172: 12171: 12168: 12167: 12164: 12163: 12160: 12159: 12157: 12156: 12144: 12123:Schizocystidae 12120: 12078: 12066: 12063:Ophryocystidae 12051: 12049: 12043: 12042: 12039: 12038: 12036: 12035: 12033:Blabericolidae 12030: 12016: 11966: 11956: 11953:Uradiophoridae 11937:Didymophoridae 11933:Cephalolobidae 11922: 11911: 11909: 11903: 11902: 11900: 11899: 11886: 11884: 11878: 11877: 11875: 11874: 11869: 11864: 11859: 11854: 11828: 11823: 11818: 11816:Enterocystidae 11813: 11808: 11803: 11797: 11795: 11786: 11780: 11779: 11777: 11776: 11760:Meroselenidium 11746: 11737:Exoschizonidae 11733: 11731: 11722: 11717: 11714: 11713: 11710: 11709: 11707: 11706: 11688: 11679:Mackinnoniidae 11676: 11658: 11634: 11625:Angeiocystidae 11621: 11619: 11613: 11612: 11610: 11609: 11596: 11594: 11588: 11587: 11584: 11583: 11580: 11579: 11577: 11576: 11560:Nephroisospora 11534: 11515: 11513: 11507: 11506: 11504: 11503: 11498: 11493: 11488: 11464: 11452: 11450:Caryotrophidae 11447: 11442: 11437: 11432: 11389: 11383: 11377: 11376: 11374: 11373: 11361: 11349: 11337: 11325: 11321:Haemogregarina 11313: 11295: 11289: 11287: 11278: 11276:Eucoccidiorida 11272: 11271: 11269: 11268: 11256: 11243: 11241: 11232: 11227: 11221: 11216: 11213: 11212: 11209: 11208: 11205: 11204: 11202: 11201: 11194: 11186: 11183: 11182: 11180: 11179: 11167: 11154: 11152: 11146: 11145: 11143: 11142: 11130: 11118: 11109:Haemoproteidae 11106: 11093: 11091: 11089:Haemospororida 11082: 11069: 11064: 11058: 11053: 11050: 11049: 11046: 11045: 11042: 11041: 11029: 11027: 11018: 11012: 11011: 11008: 11007: 10989: 10986: 10985: 10983: 10982: 10978:Tracheloraphis 10964: 10939: 10937: 10931: 10930: 10928: 10927: 10909: 10897: 10879: 10867: 10849: 10837: 10807: 10795: 10783: 10765: 10753: 10744:Cariacotrichea 10741: 10728: 10726: 10717: 10711: 10710: 10707: 10706: 10694: 10692: 10683: 10673: 10672: 10669: 10668: 10667: 10666: 10665: 10664: 10661:Mesomycetozoea 10658: 10653: 10643: 10633: 10632: 10631: 10626: 10621: 10616: 10611: 10610: 10609: 10597:Diaphoretickes 10594: 10589: 10584: 10579: 10574: 10569: 10561: 10560: 10557: 10556: 10541: 10540: 10533: 10526: 10518: 10509: 10508: 10506: 10505: 10499: 10492: 10488:excluded from 10481: 10478: 10477: 10474: 10473: 10471: 10470: 10465: 10460: 10454: 10452: 10446: 10445: 10443: 10442: 10440:Planomonadidae 10437: 10431: 10429: 10427:Ancyromonadida 10423: 10422: 10420: 10419: 10417:Paramastigidae 10414: 10408: 10406: 10397: 10396: 10389: 10383: 10377: 10369: 10362: 10360: 10356:Incertae sedis 10350: 10349: 10346: 10345: 10342: 10341: 10339: 10338: 10333: 10327: 10325: 10319: 10318: 10316: 10315: 10310: 10305: 10300: 10295: 10287: 10285: 10279: 10278: 10275: 10274: 10272: 10271: 10264: 10258: 10256: 10250: 10249: 10247: 10246: 10239: 10233: 10227: 10218: 10205: 10204: 10201: 10200: 10197: 10196: 10193: 10192: 10189: 10188: 10185: 10184: 10181: 10180: 10177: 10176: 10173: 10172: 10170: 10169: 10161: 10154: 10149: 10144: 10139: 10132: 10124: 10122: 10113: 10112: 10105: 10099: 10097: 10077: 10076: 10069: 10064: 10059: 10053: 10047: 10045:Archaeplastida 10041: 10040: 10037: 10036: 10034: 10033: 10028: 10020: 10018: 10012: 10011: 10009: 10008: 10000: 9994: 9985: 9971: 9970: 9967: 9966: 9963: 9962: 9959: 9958: 9955: 9954: 9951: 9950: 9948: 9947: 9942: 9935: 9928: 9923: 9918: 9912: 9910: 9904: 9903: 9901: 9900: 9895: 9890: 9884: 9882: 9876: 9875: 9873: 9872: 9864: 9858: 9852: 9851: 9848: 9847: 9845: 9844: 9839: 9836:Dinoflagellata 9832: 9830:Chrompodellida 9827: 9819: 9817: 9811: 9810: 9808: 9807: 9800: 9793: 9787: 9781: 9780: 9778: 9777: 9770: 9763: 9758: 9752: 9750: 9741: 9727: 9726: 9724: 9723: 9717: 9711: 9697: 9696: 9694: 9693: 9688: 9682: 9680: 9671: 9670: 9664: 9662: 9659:Diaphoretickes 9646: 9645: 9642: 9641: 9638: 9637: 9634: 9633: 9630: 9629: 9626: 9625: 9622: 9621: 9618: 9617: 9615: 9614: 9606: 9600: 9598: 9592: 9591: 9589: 9588: 9582: 9576: 9570: 9569: 9567: 9566: 9561: 9556: 9548: 9540: 9534: 9524: 9523: 9520: 9519: 9517: 9516: 9508: 9502: 9500: 9487: 9479: 9478: 9476: 9475: 9470: 9464: 9458: 9448: 9447: 9444: 9443: 9441: 9440: 9435: 9430: 9425: 9418: 9413: 9407: 9405: 9392: 9376: 9375: 9372: 9371: 9370: 9369: 9368: 9367: 9364:Mesomycetozoea 9361: 9356: 9346: 9336: 9335: 9334: 9329: 9324: 9319: 9314: 9313: 9312: 9300:Diaphoretickes 9297: 9292: 9287: 9282: 9277: 9272: 9264: 9263: 9260: 9259: 9257:classification 9251: 9250: 9243: 9236: 9228: 9219: 9218: 9216: 9215: 9210: 9205: 9200: 9195: 9190: 9185: 9180: 9175: 9173:Pseudoplankton 9170: 9165: 9160: 9155: 9150: 9145: 9140: 9135: 9130: 9125: 9120: 9115: 9110: 9105: 9100: 9095: 9090: 9085: 9080: 9075: 9069: 9067: 9066:Related topics 9063: 9062: 9059: 9058: 9056: 9055: 9050: 9045: 9040: 9035: 9030: 9025: 9019: 9017: 9015:Copepod orders 9011: 9010: 9008: 9007: 9002: 8997: 8992: 8987: 8982: 8977: 8972: 8967: 8962: 8957: 8951: 8945: 8939: 8938: 8936: 8935: 8930: 8923: 8918: 8911: 8906: 8901: 8896: 8890: 8888: 8882: 8881: 8878: 8877: 8875: 8874: 8873: 8872: 8867: 8862: 8851: 8845: 8843: 8837: 8836: 8834: 8833: 8826: 8821: 8819:Prasinophyceae 8816: 8809: 8802: 8797: 8792: 8787: 8780: 8775: 8770: 8763: 8756: 8751: 8745: 8739: 8733: 8732: 8730: 8729: 8722: 8717: 8712: 8705: 8698: 8695:Flavobacterium 8691: 8686: 8681: 8676: 8671: 8663: 8661: 8655: 8654: 8652: 8651: 8646: 8641: 8636: 8631: 8626: 8621: 8616: 8611: 8605: 8603: 8599: 8598: 8591: 8589: 8587: 8586: 8581: 8576: 8571: 8566: 8561: 8556: 8551: 8546: 8541: 8536: 8531: 8526: 8521: 8516: 8510: 8508: 8501: 8500: 8493: 8492: 8485: 8478: 8470: 8464: 8463: 8459:New York Times 8447: 8435: 8430: 8418: 8406: 8394: 8389: 8382: 8381:External links 8379: 8377: 8376: 8370: 8353: 8336: 8320: 8318: 8315: 8312: 8311: 8292:(5): 583–597. 8272: 8245:(1): 122–131. 8225: 8206:(6): 531–534. 8190: 8131: 8074: 8025: 7982: 7939: 7879: 7835: 7796: 7773: 7714: 7655: 7596: 7545: 7494: 7443: 7364: 7343:(2): 193–208. 7323: 7302:(2–3): 66–80. 7282: 7251:Menden-Deuer S 7241: 7190: 7147:(3): 329–338. 7131: 7107: 7088:(1–2): 37–53. 7072: 7053:(2): 159–162. 7036: 6993: 6955: 6898: 6855: 6828:(2): 344–355. 6812: 6749: 6728:(7): 1318–22. 6708: 6677: 6618: 6611: 6589: 6570:(4): 727–739. 6554: 6489: 6440: 6410: 6369: 6320: 6279: 6257: 6237: 6210:(4): 664–673. 6194: 6167:(2): 400–409. 6151: 6108: 6071:(2): 370–379. 6055: 6036:(3): 119–123. 6020: 5987: 5960:(2): 224–234. 5944: 5915:(2): 298–340. 5895: 5846: 5839: 5817: 5808: 5749: 5700: 5671:(2): 125–141. 5648: 5594:Microorganisms 5565: 5528:Microorganisms 5514: 5507: 5479: 5424: 5411:(3): 393–406. 5391: 5371: 5338: 5327:on 2 July 2015 5321:visitmaine.com 5307: 5272: 5237: 5210:(1): 167–172. 5193: 5135: 5115: 5106: 5071: 5064: 5056:Marine Biology 5046: 5020: 5000: 4936: 4890: 4836: 4800: 4751: 4724:(2): 281–294. 4705: 4682: 4625: 4606:(3): 400–412. 4594:on strains of 4582: 4557: 4530:(3): 356–360. 4510: 4471: 4450:(5): 965–977. 4426: 4407:(3): 249–258. 4388: 4377:(6): 1057–61. 4361: 4352:Protistologica 4342: 4323:(4): 439–444. 4307: 4288: 4261:(2): 137–149. 4238: 4193: 4182:(4): 563–615. 4163: 4136: 4098: 4053: 4018: 3991: 3982: 3939: 3932: 3912: 3905: 3887: 3854:(3): 215–242. 3838: 3823: 3803: 3788: 3770: 3747: 3738: 3721:Cryptog. Algol 3711: 3694:Acta Protozool 3684: 3673:(2): 151–168. 3657: 3622: 3603: 3593: 3575: 3553: 3535: 3512: 3491:(4): 435–448. 3471: 3420: 3372:(1): 304–308. 3352: 3330: 3307: 3258: 3251: 3233: 3184: 3149: 3137: 3107: 3048: 3025:gen. Nov. And 3010: 3003: 2982: 2960: 2937: 2922: 2896: 2869: 2826: 2791: 2781: 2771: 2761: 2728: 2721: 2695: 2668:(2): 407–418. 2652: 2629: 2592:Microorganisms 2578: 2551:(6): 612–619. 2535: 2500:(5): 1057–63. 2484: 2466: 2446: 2427:(4): 397–401. 2411: 2383: 2358: 2336: 2282: 2244: 2184: 2183: 2181: 2178: 2177: 2176: 2171: 2166: 2161: 2154: 2151: 2150: 2149: 2137: 2130: 2128: 2116: 2109: 2107: 2099: 2092: 2090: 2083: 2076: 2074: 2068: 2061: 2059: 2051: 2044: 2042: 2030: 2023: 2021: 2009: 2002: 1999: 1998: 1991: 1984: 1977: 1968: 1965: 1940:Recently, the 1808: 1805: 1755: 1752: 1605: 1602: 1597: 1529: 1526: 1524: 1521: 1508: 1505: 1496: 1493: 1421:N. scintillans 1412: 1409: 1354:bioluminescent 1328:Main article: 1325: 1322: 1316: 1313: 1311: 1308: 1265:Zygabikodinium 1185: 1182: 1162:foraminiferans 1113: 1110: 1105: 1102: 1100: 1097: 1079: 1078:Identification 1076: 945: 942: 934: 933:Classification 931: 867:Main article: 864: 861: 856: 853: 745:Karenia brevis 736:diadinoxanthin 597: 594: 518: 515: 497:and the Latin 490: 487: 434:(for example, 401:photosynthetic 374:Dinoflagellata 327: 326: 325: 324: 321: 318: 315: 312: 309: 300: 294: 285: 284: 278: 277: 276: 275: 270: 265: 260: 255: 250: 245: 240: 238:Ellobiophyceae 232: 231: 227: 226: 213:Dinoflagellata 210: 206: 205: 200: 196: 195: 190: 186: 185: 180: 173: 172: 167: 160: 159: 157:Diaphoretickes 154: 147: 146: 141: 137: 136: 123: 122: 113: 112: 104: 103: 91: 86: 81: 76: 71: 66: 61: 56: 51: 46: 41: 36: 26: 24:Dinoflagellate 15: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 13915: 13904: 13901: 13899: 13896: 13894: 13891: 13889: 13886: 13884: 13881: 13880: 13878: 13861: 13856: 13852: 13848: 13843: 13839: 13835: 13829: 13825: 13820: 13816: 13812: 13807: 13803: 13798: 13792: 13788: 13783: 13777: 13773: 13772: 13770: 13768: 13764: 13756: 13751: 13747: 13743: 13738: 13734: 13730: 13725: 13721: 13717: 13712: 13708: 13704: 13699: 13695: 13691: 13686: 13682: 13678: 13673: 13669: 13664: 13658: 13654: 13649: 13643: 13639: 13638: 13636: 13634: 13630: 13626: 13621: 13607: 13606: 13601: 13599: 13598: 13593: 13583: 13580: 13578: 13575: 13573: 13570: 13568: 13565: 13563: 13560: 13558: 13555: 13553: 13550: 13548: 13545: 13543: 13540: 13538: 13535: 13533: 13530: 13528: 13525: 13523: 13520: 13518: 13515: 13513: 13510: 13508: 13505: 13503: 13500: 13498: 13495: 13493: 13490: 13488: 13485: 13483: 13480: 13478: 13475: 13473: 13470: 13468: 13465: 13463: 13460: 13458: 13455: 13453: 13450: 13448: 13445: 13443: 13440: 13438: 13435: 13433: 13430: 13428: 13425: 13423: 13420: 13419: 13417: 13415: 13411: 13405: 13402: 13400: 13397: 13395: 13392: 13390: 13387: 13385: 13382: 13380: 13377: 13375: 13372: 13370: 13367: 13365: 13362: 13360: 13357: 13355: 13352: 13350: 13347: 13345: 13342: 13340: 13337: 13336: 13334: 13332: 13328: 13322: 13321:Basidiomycota 13319: 13317: 13314: 13312: 13309: 13307: 13306:Glomeromycota 13304: 13302: 13299: 13297: 13294: 13292: 13289: 13288: 13286: 13284: 13280: 13274: 13271: 13269: 13268:Stramenopiles 13266: 13264: 13261: 13259: 13256: 13254: 13251: 13249: 13246: 13244: 13241: 13239: 13236: 13234: 13231: 13229: 13226: 13224: 13221: 13219: 13216: 13214: 13211: 13209: 13206: 13204: 13201: 13199: 13196: 13194: 13193:Apusomonadida 13191: 13189: 13186: 13184: 13181: 13179: 13176: 13175: 13173: 13170: 13165: 13162: 13160: 13156: 13146: 13143: 13141: 13138: 13136: 13133: 13130: 13129:Nanoarchaeota 13126: 13123: 13119: 13116: 13115:Euryarchaeota 13112: 13111: 13109: 13107: 13103: 13099: 13089: 13086: 13084: 13081: 13079: 13076: 13074: 13071: 13069: 13066: 13064: 13063:Spirochaetota 13061: 13059: 13058:Rhodothermota 13056: 13054: 13051: 13049: 13046: 13044: 13041: 13039: 13036: 13034: 13031: 13029: 13026: 13024: 13021: 13019: 13016: 13014: 13011: 13009: 13006: 13004: 13001: 12999: 12996: 12994: 12991: 12989: 12988:Dictyoglomota 12986: 12984: 12981: 12979: 12976: 12973: 12972:Cyanobacteria 12969: 12967: 12964: 12962: 12961:Chrysiogenota 12959: 12957: 12956:Chloroflexota 12954: 12952: 12949: 12947: 12944: 12942: 12939: 12937: 12936:Calditrichota 12934: 12932: 12931:Caldisericota 12929: 12927: 12924: 12922: 12919: 12917: 12914: 12912: 12909: 12907: 12906:Atribacterota 12904: 12902: 12899: 12897: 12894: 12892: 12889: 12887: 12884: 12883: 12881: 12879: 12875: 12871: 12867: 12862: 12854: 12849: 12847: 12842: 12840: 12835: 12834: 12831: 12806: 12805: 12800: 12799: 12794: 12791: 12790: 12788: 12786: 12782: 12771: 12770: 12765: 12762: 12761: 12759: 12757: 12753: 12746: 12745: 12740: 12737: 12736: 12734: 12732: 12728: 12725: 12723: 12719: 12712: 12711: 12706: 12705: 12704:Thalassomyces 12700: 12699: 12694: 12693: 12688: 12687: 12682: 12681:Ellobiopsidae 12679: 12678: 12676: 12674: 12670: 12667: 12665: 12664:Protalveolata 12661: 12650: 12649: 12644: 12643: 12642:Parvilucifera 12638: 12635: 12632: 12631: 12626: 12623: 12620: 12619: 12614: 12611: 12610: 12608: 12606: 12602: 12599: 12597: 12593: 12582: 12581: 12576: 12573: 12570: 12569: 12564: 12561: 12558: 12557: 12552: 12551:Oxyrrhinaceae 12549: 12547: 12546:Ichthyodinium 12544: 12541: 12540: 12535: 12532: 12531: 12529: 12525: 12518: 12517: 12512: 12511: 12506: 12503: 12500: 12499: 12494: 12491: 12488: 12487: 12482: 12478: 12475: 12474: 12472: 12470: 12466: 12459: 12458: 12453: 12450: 12449: 12447: 12445: 12441: 12434: 12433: 12428: 12427: 12422: 12419: 12416: 12415: 12410: 12409: 12404: 12403: 12398: 12397: 12392: 12391:Gymnodiniales 12388: 12387: 12383: 12382: 12377: 12374: 12371: 12370: 12365: 12364: 12359: 12356: 12353: 12352: 12347: 12346: 12341: 12340:Gonyaulacales 12338: 12335: 12334: 12329: 12328: 12327:Ornithocercus 12323: 12322: 12317: 12316: 12311: 12310:Dinophysiales 12307: 12306: 12304: 12302: 12298: 12295: 12293: 12289: 12278: 12277: 12272: 12271:Voromonadidae 12269: 12266: 12265: 12260: 12257: 12256: 12254: 12252: 12248: 12241: 12240: 12235: 12234:Colpodellidae 12232: 12231: 12229: 12227: 12223: 12216: 12215: 12210: 12207: 12204: 12203: 12198: 12195: 12194: 12192: 12190: 12186: 12183: 12181: 12177: 12173: 12154: 12153: 12148: 12145: 12142: 12141: 12136: 12135: 12130: 12129: 12124: 12121: 12118: 12117: 12112: 12111: 12106: 12105: 12100: 12099: 12094: 12093: 12088: 12087: 12082: 12081:Lipotrophidae 12079: 12076: 12075: 12070: 12067: 12064: 12060: 12056: 12053: 12052: 12050: 12048: 12044: 12034: 12031: 12028: 12024: 12020: 12017: 12014: 12010: 12009:Stenophoridae 12006: 12002: 11998: 11994: 11990: 11986: 11982: 11978: 11974: 11970: 11969:Stenophoricae 11967: 11964: 11960: 11957: 11954: 11950: 11946: 11945:Hirmocystidae 11942: 11938: 11934: 11930: 11926: 11923: 11920: 11916: 11913: 11912: 11910: 11908: 11904: 11897: 11896: 11891: 11890:Siedleckiidae 11888: 11887: 11885: 11883: 11879: 11873: 11870: 11868: 11865: 11863: 11860: 11858: 11855: 11852: 11848: 11844: 11840: 11836: 11832: 11829: 11827: 11824: 11822: 11819: 11817: 11814: 11812: 11811:Diplocystidae 11809: 11807: 11804: 11802: 11799: 11798: 11796: 11794: 11790: 11787: 11785: 11781: 11774: 11773: 11768: 11767: 11766:Selenidioides 11762: 11761: 11756: 11755: 11754:Merogregarina 11750: 11747: 11744: 11743: 11738: 11735: 11734: 11732: 11730: 11726: 11723: 11720: 11719:Gregarinasina 11715: 11704: 11703: 11698: 11697: 11696:Myriosporides 11692: 11691:Myriosporidae 11689: 11686: 11685: 11680: 11677: 11674: 11673: 11668: 11667: 11662: 11659: 11656: 11655: 11650: 11649: 11644: 11643: 11638: 11635: 11632: 11631: 11626: 11623: 11622: 11620: 11618: 11614: 11607: 11606: 11601: 11598: 11597: 11595: 11593: 11589: 11574: 11573: 11568: 11567: 11562: 11561: 11556: 11555: 11550: 11549: 11544: 11543: 11538: 11535: 11532: 11531: 11526: 11525: 11520: 11519:Sarcocystinae 11517: 11516: 11514: 11512: 11511:Sarcocystidae 11508: 11502: 11499: 11497: 11494: 11492: 11489: 11486: 11485: 11480: 11479: 11474: 11473: 11468: 11465: 11462: 11461: 11456: 11453: 11451: 11448: 11446: 11443: 11441: 11438: 11436: 11433: 11430: 11429: 11424: 11423: 11422:Pseudoklossia 11418: 11417: 11412: 11411: 11406: 11405: 11400: 11399: 11394: 11391: 11390: 11387: 11384: 11382: 11378: 11371: 11370: 11365: 11362: 11359: 11358: 11353: 11352:Klossiellidae 11350: 11347: 11346: 11341: 11338: 11335: 11334: 11329: 11326: 11323: 11322: 11317: 11314: 11311: 11310: 11305: 11304: 11299: 11296: 11294: 11291: 11290: 11288: 11286: 11282: 11279: 11277: 11273: 11266: 11265: 11264:Rhytidocystis 11260: 11257: 11254: 11253: 11248: 11247:Gemmocystidae 11245: 11244: 11242: 11240: 11236: 11233: 11230: 11225: 11222: 11219: 11214: 11200: 11199: 11195: 11193: 11192: 11188: 11187: 11184: 11177: 11176: 11171: 11168: 11165: 11164: 11159: 11156: 11155: 11153: 11151: 11147: 11140: 11139: 11134: 11131: 11128: 11127: 11126:Leucocytozoon 11122: 11119: 11116: 11115: 11110: 11107: 11104: 11103: 11098: 11095: 11094: 11092: 11090: 11086: 11083: 11081: 11077: 11073: 11070: 11067: 11062: 11059: 11056: 11051: 11038: 11037: 11032: 11031:Colponemadida 11028: 11026: 11022: 11019: 11017: 11013: 11004: 11003: 10998: 10997: 10992: 10987: 10980: 10979: 10974: 10973: 10968: 10967:Karyorelictea 10965: 10962: 10961: 10956: 10955: 10954:Climacostomum 10950: 10949: 10944: 10943:Heterotrichea 10941: 10940: 10938: 10936: 10932: 10925: 10924: 10919: 10918: 10913: 10910: 10907: 10906: 10901: 10898: 10895: 10894: 10889: 10888: 10883: 10880: 10877: 10876: 10871: 10868: 10865: 10864: 10859: 10858: 10853: 10850: 10847: 10846: 10841: 10838: 10835: 10834: 10829: 10828: 10823: 10822: 10817: 10816: 10811: 10808: 10805: 10804: 10799: 10796: 10793: 10792: 10787: 10786:Muranotrichea 10784: 10781: 10780: 10775: 10774: 10769: 10766: 10763: 10762: 10757: 10754: 10751: 10750: 10745: 10742: 10739: 10738: 10733: 10730: 10729: 10727: 10725: 10721: 10718: 10716: 10712: 10703: 10702: 10697: 10696:Acavomonadida 10693: 10691: 10687: 10684: 10682: 10678: 10674: 10662: 10659: 10657: 10654: 10652: 10649: 10648: 10647: 10644: 10642: 10639: 10638: 10637: 10634: 10630: 10627: 10625: 10624:Stramenopiles 10622: 10620: 10617: 10615: 10612: 10608: 10605: 10604: 10603: 10600: 10599: 10598: 10595: 10593: 10590: 10587:(major groups 10585: 10583: 10580: 10578: 10575: 10573: 10570: 10567: 10563: 10562: 10558: 10554: 10550: 10546: 10539: 10534: 10532: 10527: 10525: 10520: 10519: 10516: 10503: 10500: 10497: 10493: 10491: 10487: 10484:¹traditional 10483: 10482: 10479: 10469: 10466: 10464: 10463:Mantamonadida 10461: 10459: 10456: 10455: 10453: 10451: 10447: 10441: 10438: 10436: 10433: 10432: 10430: 10428: 10424: 10418: 10415: 10413: 10410: 10409: 10407: 10405: 10401: 10395: 10394: 10390: 10388: 10384: 10382: 10378: 10376: 10375: 10370: 10368: 10364: 10363: 10361: 10358: 10357: 10351: 10337: 10334: 10332: 10329: 10328: 10326: 10324: 10320: 10314: 10311: 10309: 10306: 10304: 10301: 10299: 10296: 10294: 10293: 10289: 10288: 10286: 10284: 10280: 10270: 10269: 10265: 10263: 10262:Heterolobosea 10260: 10259: 10257: 10255: 10254:Discicristata 10251: 10245: 10244: 10240: 10238: 10235: 10234: 10231: 10228: 10226: 10222: 10219: 10215: 10210: 10206: 10167: 10166: 10162: 10160: 10159: 10155: 10153: 10150: 10148: 10145: 10143: 10140: 10138: 10137: 10133: 10131: 10130: 10126: 10125: 10123: 10121: 10117: 10111: 10110: 10106: 10104: 10101: 10100: 10098: 10094: 10093: 10085: 10084:Viridiplantae 10081: 10075: 10074: 10070: 10068: 10065: 10063: 10060: 10058: 10055: 10054: 10051: 10048: 10046: 10042: 10032: 10029: 10027: 10026: 10022: 10021: 10019: 10017: 10013: 10007: 10006: 10005:Microheliella 10002: 10001: 9998: 9995: 9993: 9989: 9986: 9982: 9976: 9972: 9946: 9945:Actinophryida 9943: 9941: 9940: 9936: 9934: 9933: 9929: 9927: 9924: 9922: 9919: 9917: 9914: 9913: 9911: 9909: 9905: 9899: 9896: 9894: 9891: 9889: 9886: 9885: 9883: 9881: 9877: 9871: 9870: 9866: 9865: 9862: 9859: 9857: 9856:Stramenopiles 9853: 9843: 9840: 9838: 9837: 9833: 9831: 9828: 9826: 9825: 9821: 9820: 9818: 9816: 9812: 9806: 9805: 9801: 9798: 9795: 9794: 9791: 9788: 9786: 9782: 9776: 9775: 9771: 9769: 9768: 9764: 9762: 9759: 9757: 9754: 9753: 9751: 9749: 9745: 9742: 9738: 9732: 9728: 9722: 9719: 9718: 9715: 9712: 9708: 9702: 9698: 9692: 9689: 9687: 9684: 9683: 9681: 9679: 9675: 9669: 9666: 9665: 9663: 9660: 9655: 9651: 9647: 9612: 9611: 9607: 9605: 9602: 9601: 9599: 9597: 9593: 9587: 9584: 9583: 9580: 9577: 9575: 9571: 9565: 9562: 9560: 9559:Ichthyosporea 9557: 9555: 9554: 9549: 9547: 9546: 9542: 9541: 9538: 9535: 9531: 9525: 9514: 9513: 9509: 9507: 9506:Rotosphaerida 9504: 9503: 9501: 9499: 9495: 9491: 9488: 9485: 9480: 9474: 9471: 9469: 9468:Apusomonadida 9466: 9465: 9462: 9459: 9455: 9449: 9439: 9436: 9434: 9431: 9429: 9426: 9424: 9423: 9419: 9417: 9414: 9412: 9409: 9408: 9406: 9404: 9400: 9396: 9393: 9390: 9385: 9381: 9377: 9365: 9362: 9360: 9357: 9355: 9352: 9351: 9350: 9347: 9345: 9342: 9341: 9340: 9337: 9333: 9330: 9328: 9327:Stramenopiles 9325: 9323: 9320: 9318: 9315: 9311: 9308: 9307: 9306: 9303: 9302: 9301: 9298: 9296: 9293: 9290:(major groups 9288: 9286: 9283: 9281: 9278: 9276: 9273: 9270: 9266: 9265: 9261: 9256: 9249: 9244: 9242: 9237: 9235: 9230: 9229: 9226: 9214: 9211: 9209: 9206: 9204: 9201: 9199: 9196: 9194: 9191: 9189: 9186: 9184: 9183:Tychoplankton 9181: 9179: 9176: 9174: 9171: 9169: 9166: 9164: 9161: 9159: 9156: 9154: 9153:Microbial mat 9151: 9149: 9146: 9144: 9141: 9139: 9136: 9134: 9131: 9129: 9126: 9124: 9121: 9119: 9116: 9114: 9111: 9109: 9106: 9104: 9101: 9099: 9096: 9094: 9091: 9089: 9086: 9084: 9081: 9079: 9076: 9074: 9071: 9070: 9068: 9064: 9054: 9051: 9049: 9046: 9044: 9041: 9039: 9038:Monstrilloida 9036: 9034: 9033:Harpacticoida 9031: 9029: 9026: 9024: 9021: 9020: 9018: 9016: 9012: 9006: 9003: 9001: 8998: 8996: 8993: 8991: 8990:Marine larvae 8988: 8986: 8983: 8981: 8978: 8976: 8973: 8971: 8968: 8966: 8963: 8961: 8958: 8956: 8953: 8952: 8949: 8946: 8944: 8940: 8934: 8931: 8929: 8928: 8924: 8922: 8919: 8917: 8916: 8912: 8910: 8907: 8905: 8902: 8900: 8897: 8895: 8892: 8891: 8889: 8887: 8883: 8871: 8868: 8866: 8863: 8861: 8857: 8856: 8855: 8852: 8850: 8847: 8846: 8844: 8842: 8841:Diatom orders 8838: 8832: 8831: 8827: 8825: 8822: 8820: 8817: 8815: 8814: 8810: 8808: 8807: 8803: 8801: 8798: 8796: 8793: 8791: 8788: 8786: 8785: 8781: 8779: 8776: 8774: 8771: 8769: 8768: 8764: 8762: 8761: 8760:Bacteriastrum 8757: 8755: 8752: 8750: 8747: 8746: 8743: 8740: 8738: 8737:Phytoplankton 8734: 8728: 8727: 8723: 8721: 8718: 8716: 8713: 8711: 8710: 8706: 8704: 8703: 8699: 8697: 8696: 8692: 8690: 8687: 8685: 8682: 8680: 8677: 8675: 8674:Cyanobacteria 8672: 8670: 8669: 8665: 8664: 8662: 8660: 8656: 8650: 8647: 8645: 8644:Picoeukaryote 8642: 8640: 8639:Picobiliphyte 8637: 8635: 8632: 8630: 8627: 8625: 8622: 8620: 8617: 8615: 8612: 8610: 8607: 8606: 8604: 8600: 8595: 8585: 8582: 8580: 8577: 8575: 8572: 8570: 8567: 8565: 8562: 8560: 8557: 8555: 8552: 8550: 8547: 8545: 8542: 8540: 8537: 8535: 8532: 8530: 8527: 8525: 8522: 8520: 8517: 8515: 8512: 8511: 8509: 8507: 8502: 8498: 8491: 8486: 8484: 8479: 8477: 8472: 8471: 8468: 8460: 8456: 8452: 8448: 8446: 8442: 8439: 8436: 8434: 8431: 8429: 8425: 8422: 8419: 8417: 8413: 8411: 8407: 8405: 8401: 8398: 8395: 8393: 8390: 8388: 8385: 8384: 8373: 8367: 8362: 8361: 8354: 8343: 8339: 8333: 8329: 8328: 8322: 8321: 8307: 8303: 8299: 8295: 8291: 8287: 8283: 8276: 8268: 8264: 8260: 8256: 8252: 8248: 8244: 8240: 8236: 8229: 8221: 8217: 8213: 8209: 8205: 8201: 8194: 8186: 8182: 8177: 8172: 8167: 8162: 8158: 8154: 8150: 8146: 8142: 8135: 8127: 8123: 8118: 8113: 8109: 8105: 8101: 8097: 8093: 8089: 8085: 8078: 8070: 8066: 8061: 8056: 8052: 8048: 8044: 8040: 8036: 8029: 8021: 8017: 8013: 8009: 8005: 8001: 7997: 7993: 7986: 7978: 7974: 7970: 7966: 7962: 7958: 7954: 7950: 7943: 7934: 7930: 7925: 7920: 7915: 7910: 7906: 7902: 7898: 7894: 7890: 7883: 7875: 7871: 7867: 7863: 7859: 7855: 7851: 7847: 7839: 7831: 7827: 7823: 7819: 7815: 7811: 7810:Harmful Algae 7807: 7800: 7792: 7788: 7784: 7777: 7769: 7765: 7760: 7755: 7750: 7745: 7741: 7737: 7733: 7729: 7725: 7718: 7710: 7706: 7701: 7696: 7691: 7686: 7682: 7678: 7674: 7670: 7666: 7659: 7651: 7647: 7642: 7637: 7632: 7627: 7623: 7619: 7615: 7611: 7607: 7600: 7592: 7588: 7584: 7580: 7576: 7572: 7568: 7564: 7561:(3): 204–13. 7560: 7556: 7549: 7541: 7537: 7533: 7529: 7525: 7521: 7517: 7513: 7509: 7505: 7498: 7490: 7486: 7482: 7478: 7474: 7470: 7466: 7462: 7458: 7454: 7447: 7439: 7435: 7431: 7427: 7423: 7419: 7416:(6): 469–74. 7415: 7411: 7403: 7399: 7395: 7391: 7387: 7383: 7379: 7375: 7368: 7359: 7354: 7350: 7346: 7342: 7338: 7334: 7327: 7318: 7313: 7309: 7305: 7301: 7297: 7293: 7286: 7277: 7272: 7268: 7264: 7261:(1): 85–111. 7260: 7256: 7252: 7245: 7237: 7233: 7229: 7225: 7221: 7217: 7213: 7209: 7205: 7201: 7200:Harmful Algae 7194: 7186: 7182: 7178: 7174: 7170: 7166: 7162: 7158: 7154: 7150: 7146: 7142: 7135: 7127: 7123: 7116: 7114: 7112: 7103: 7099: 7095: 7091: 7087: 7083: 7076: 7068: 7064: 7060: 7056: 7052: 7048: 7040: 7032: 7028: 7024: 7020: 7016: 7012: 7008: 7004: 6997: 6989: 6985: 6981: 6977: 6973: 6969: 6962: 6960: 6951: 6947: 6942: 6937: 6933: 6929: 6925: 6921: 6917: 6913: 6909: 6902: 6894: 6890: 6886: 6882: 6878: 6874: 6870: 6866: 6865:Harmful Algae 6859: 6851: 6847: 6843: 6839: 6835: 6831: 6827: 6823: 6816: 6808: 6804: 6799: 6794: 6789: 6784: 6780: 6776: 6773:(8): e42780. 6772: 6768: 6764: 6760: 6753: 6745: 6741: 6736: 6731: 6727: 6723: 6719: 6712: 6704: 6700: 6696: 6692: 6688: 6681: 6673: 6669: 6664: 6659: 6654: 6649: 6645: 6641: 6638:(8): e43763. 6637: 6633: 6629: 6622: 6614: 6608: 6604: 6600: 6593: 6585: 6581: 6577: 6573: 6569: 6565: 6558: 6550: 6546: 6541: 6536: 6532: 6528: 6524: 6520: 6516: 6512: 6508: 6504: 6500: 6493: 6485: 6481: 6476: 6471: 6467: 6463: 6459: 6455: 6451: 6444: 6428: 6424: 6420: 6414: 6406: 6402: 6397: 6392: 6388: 6384: 6380: 6373: 6365: 6361: 6356: 6351: 6347: 6343: 6339: 6335: 6331: 6324: 6316: 6312: 6307: 6302: 6298: 6294: 6290: 6283: 6277: 6264: 6260: 6254: 6250: 6249: 6241: 6233: 6229: 6225: 6221: 6217: 6213: 6209: 6205: 6198: 6190: 6186: 6182: 6178: 6174: 6170: 6166: 6162: 6155: 6147: 6143: 6139: 6135: 6131: 6127: 6123: 6119: 6112: 6104: 6100: 6095: 6090: 6086: 6082: 6078: 6074: 6070: 6066: 6059: 6051: 6047: 6043: 6039: 6035: 6031: 6024: 6015: 6010: 6006: 6002: 5998: 5991: 5983: 5979: 5975: 5971: 5967: 5963: 5959: 5955: 5948: 5940: 5936: 5931: 5926: 5922: 5918: 5914: 5910: 5906: 5899: 5891: 5887: 5882: 5877: 5873: 5869: 5865: 5861: 5857: 5850: 5842: 5836: 5832: 5828: 5821: 5812: 5804: 5800: 5795: 5790: 5785: 5780: 5776: 5772: 5769:(5): e61075. 5768: 5764: 5760: 5753: 5745: 5741: 5736: 5731: 5727: 5723: 5719: 5715: 5711: 5704: 5696: 5692: 5688: 5684: 5679: 5674: 5670: 5666: 5662: 5655: 5653: 5645: 5641: 5638: 5633: 5627: 5623: 5618: 5613: 5608: 5603: 5599: 5595: 5591: 5584: 5582: 5580: 5578: 5576: 5574: 5572: 5570: 5561: 5557: 5552: 5547: 5542: 5537: 5533: 5529: 5525: 5518: 5510: 5504: 5499: 5498: 5491: 5483: 5468: 5464: 5460: 5457:(2): 105–34. 5456: 5452: 5448: 5446: 5443:Schiller and 5442: 5433: 5431: 5429: 5419: 5414: 5410: 5406: 5402: 5395: 5388: 5382: 5375: 5360:on 2018-07-31 5359: 5355: 5354: 5349: 5342: 5326: 5322: 5318: 5311: 5303: 5299: 5295: 5291: 5287: 5283: 5276: 5268: 5264: 5260: 5256: 5252: 5248: 5241: 5233: 5229: 5225: 5221: 5217: 5213: 5209: 5205: 5197: 5189: 5185: 5181: 5177: 5173: 5169: 5165: 5161: 5157: 5153: 5146: 5144: 5142: 5140: 5132: 5126: 5119: 5110: 5102: 5098: 5094: 5090: 5086: 5082: 5075: 5067: 5061: 5057: 5050: 5035: 5031: 5027: 5023: 5017: 5013: 5012: 5004: 4996: 4992: 4988: 4984: 4979: 4974: 4970: 4966: 4962: 4958: 4954: 4952: 4943: 4941: 4932: 4928: 4924: 4920: 4916: 4912: 4908: 4904: 4903:Harmful Algae 4897: 4895: 4886: 4882: 4878: 4874: 4870: 4866: 4862: 4858: 4854: 4850: 4843: 4841: 4826:on 2007-04-30 4825: 4821: 4817: 4813: 4812: 4804: 4795: 4790: 4786: 4782: 4778: 4774: 4770: 4768: 4764: 4755: 4747: 4743: 4739: 4735: 4731: 4727: 4723: 4719: 4715: 4709: 4701: 4697: 4693: 4686: 4678: 4674: 4669: 4664: 4660: 4656: 4652: 4648: 4644: 4640: 4636: 4629: 4621: 4617: 4613: 4609: 4605: 4601: 4600:Harmful Algae 4597: 4593: 4586: 4571: 4567: 4561: 4553: 4549: 4545: 4541: 4537: 4533: 4529: 4525: 4521: 4514: 4506: 4502: 4498: 4494: 4490: 4486: 4482: 4475: 4466: 4461: 4457: 4453: 4449: 4445: 4441: 4439: 4438:Oblea rotunda 4430: 4422: 4418: 4414: 4410: 4406: 4402: 4395: 4393: 4384: 4380: 4376: 4372: 4365: 4357: 4353: 4346: 4338: 4334: 4330: 4326: 4322: 4318: 4311: 4303: 4299: 4292: 4284: 4280: 4276: 4272: 4268: 4264: 4260: 4256: 4252: 4245: 4243: 4233: 4228: 4224: 4220: 4216: 4212: 4208: 4206: 4197: 4189: 4185: 4181: 4177: 4170: 4168: 4159: 4155: 4151: 4147: 4140: 4132: 4128: 4124: 4120: 4116: 4112: 4105: 4103: 4084: 4080: 4076: 4072: 4068: 4064: 4057: 4049: 4045: 4041: 4037: 4033: 4029: 4022: 4014: 4010: 4006: 4002: 3995: 3986: 3978: 3974: 3970: 3966: 3962: 3958: 3954: 3950: 3943: 3935: 3929: 3925: 3924: 3916: 3908: 3902: 3898: 3891: 3883: 3877: 3869: 3865: 3861: 3857: 3853: 3849: 3842: 3834: 3830: 3826: 3824:9780112411963 3820: 3816: 3815: 3807: 3799: 3795: 3791: 3785: 3781: 3774: 3766: 3762: 3758: 3751: 3742: 3734: 3730: 3726: 3722: 3715: 3707: 3703: 3699: 3695: 3688: 3680: 3676: 3672: 3668: 3661: 3653: 3649: 3645: 3641: 3637: 3633: 3626: 3618: 3614: 3607: 3597: 3582: 3578: 3572: 3568: 3564: 3557: 3542: 3538: 3532: 3528: 3524: 3516: 3507: 3502: 3498: 3494: 3490: 3486: 3482: 3475: 3467: 3463: 3458: 3453: 3448: 3443: 3440:(4): e19132. 3439: 3435: 3431: 3424: 3409: 3405: 3401: 3396: 3391: 3387: 3383: 3379: 3375: 3371: 3367: 3363: 3356: 3350: 3337: 3333: 3327: 3323: 3322: 3314: 3312: 3303: 3299: 3294: 3289: 3285: 3281: 3277: 3273: 3269: 3262: 3254: 3248: 3244: 3237: 3229: 3225: 3220: 3215: 3211: 3207: 3203: 3199: 3195: 3188: 3180: 3176: 3172: 3168: 3164: 3160: 3153: 3140: 3134: 3130: 3126: 3122: 3118: 3111: 3103: 3099: 3095: 3091: 3087: 3083: 3080:(3): 469–81. 3079: 3075: 3071: 3068:sp. nov. And 3067: 3063: 3060:Freudenthal, 3059: 3052: 3044: 3040: 3036: 3032: 3028: 3024: 3017: 3015: 3006: 3000: 2996: 2989: 2987: 2980: 2967: 2963: 2957: 2953: 2952: 2944: 2942: 2933: 2929: 2925: 2919: 2915: 2911: 2907: 2900: 2892: 2888: 2884: 2880: 2873: 2865: 2861: 2857: 2853: 2849: 2845: 2841: 2837: 2830: 2822: 2818: 2814: 2810: 2806: 2802: 2795: 2785: 2775: 2765: 2757: 2753: 2749: 2745: 2741: 2740: 2732: 2724: 2718: 2714: 2710: 2706: 2699: 2691: 2687: 2683: 2679: 2675: 2671: 2667: 2663: 2656: 2649:(1): 129–212. 2648: 2644: 2640: 2633: 2625: 2621: 2616: 2611: 2606: 2601: 2597: 2593: 2589: 2582: 2574: 2570: 2566: 2562: 2558: 2554: 2550: 2546: 2539: 2531: 2527: 2523: 2519: 2515: 2511: 2507: 2503: 2499: 2495: 2488: 2473: 2469: 2463: 2459: 2458: 2450: 2442: 2438: 2434: 2430: 2426: 2422: 2415: 2407: 2403: 2399: 2392: 2390: 2388: 2373: 2369: 2365: 2361: 2359:9782955584101 2355: 2351: 2347: 2340: 2333: 2329: 2324: 2319: 2314: 2309: 2305: 2301: 2297: 2293: 2286: 2277: 2272: 2269:(1): 65–140. 2268: 2264: 2260: 2253: 2251: 2249: 2240: 2236: 2231: 2226: 2221: 2216: 2212: 2208: 2204: 2200: 2196: 2189: 2185: 2175: 2172: 2170: 2167: 2165: 2162: 2160: 2157: 2156: 2146: 2142: 2141: 2134: 2129: 2125: 2121: 2120: 2113: 2108: 2105:(Dinophyceae) 2104: 2103: 2096: 2091: 2088:(Dinophyceae) 2087: 2080: 2075: 2072:(Dinophyceae) 2071: 2065: 2060: 2057:(Dinophyceae) 2056: 2055: 2048: 2043: 2039: 2035: 2034: 2027: 2022: 2018: 2014: 2013: 2006: 2001: 2000: 1997: 1996: 1992: 1990: 1989: 1985: 1983: 1982: 1978: 1976: 1975: 1971: 1970: 1964: 1962: 1958: 1954: 1950: 1946: 1943: 1942:living fossil 1938: 1934: 1930: 1928: 1924: 1920: 1916: 1912: 1908: 1904: 1900: 1896: 1892: 1888: 1883: 1878: 1876: 1872: 1867: 1865: 1861: 1857: 1856:apicomplexans 1853: 1849: 1848:apicomplexans 1845: 1840: 1838: 1834: 1830: 1826: 1822: 1818: 1814: 1804: 1802: 1801:DNA barcoding 1797: 1795: 1790: 1787: 1785: 1783: 1778: 1773: 1769: 1766: 1762: 1751: 1749: 1748: 1743: 1742: 1737: 1736: 1729: 1726: 1722: 1718: 1714: 1708: 1705: 1701: 1696: 1693: 1687: 1680: 1677: 1676: 1671: 1668: 1667: 1662: 1658: 1654: 1650: 1646: 1645: 1640: 1635: 1631: 1629: 1625: 1621: 1615: 1614:Resting spore 1611: 1595: 1587: 1583: 1581: 1577: 1573: 1572:haploid cells 1569: 1565: 1561: 1557: 1553: 1549: 1545: 1541: 1540: 1535: 1520: 1518: 1514: 1504: 1502: 1492: 1490: 1486: 1482: 1478: 1473: 1469: 1465: 1463: 1459: 1455: 1446: 1426: 1422: 1417: 1408: 1406: 1401: 1396: 1394: 1391: 1388:, a powerful 1387: 1383: 1379: 1370: 1366: 1363:Algal bloom ( 1361: 1357: 1355: 1351: 1350: 1345: 1341: 1337: 1331: 1321: 1307: 1305: 1300: 1298: 1294: 1290: 1286: 1282: 1276: 1274: 1270: 1266: 1262: 1258: 1254: 1250: 1246: 1242: 1238: 1234: 1230: 1225: 1222: 1220: 1216: 1215:sensu stricto 1211: 1207: 1203: 1199: 1195: 1191: 1181: 1179: 1175: 1171: 1170:endoparasites 1167: 1163: 1159: 1155: 1154: 1149: 1145: 1141: 1137: 1136:Zooxanthellae 1133: 1129: 1125: 1124: 1119: 1118:Zooxanthellae 1112:Endosymbionts 1109: 1096: 1094: 1090: 1088: 1083: 1075: 1069: 1064: 1060: 1058: 1054: 1050: 1046: 1042: 1037: 1035: 1031: 1027: 1023: 1018: 1016: 1015:kleptoplastic 1011: 1006: 1004: 1000: 993: 992: 987: 986: 981: 980: 975: 974: 969: 968: 963: 962: 957: 956: 955:Ornithocercus 950: 940: 930: 928: 924: 920: 916: 912: 908: 904: 900: 896: 892: 888: 884: 880: 876: 870: 860: 852: 850: 849:Actiniscineae 846: 845:Gymnodiniales 842: 838: 837: 832: 828: 824: 820: 815: 813: 812: 807: 803: 799: 795: 791: 787: 783: 779: 774: 770: 766: 762: 758: 757: 752: 750: 746: 741: 737: 733: 729: 725: 721: 718: 714: 710: 706: 701: 699: 698:prorocentroid 695: 691: 687: 683: 679: 675: 670: 668: 664: 660: 655: 651: 649: 645: 644:thecal plates 641: 637: 633: 629: 624: 622: 621: 610: 602: 593: 590: 586: 582: 578: 574: 570: 566: 562: 558: 557:Otto Bütschli 553: 551: 547: 543: 538: 536: 532: 528: 524: 514: 512: 508: 504: 500: 496: 486: 484: 480: 476: 472: 467: 463: 461: 457: 453: 449: 445: 444: 439: 438: 433: 429: 425: 424:endosymbionts 421: 416: 414: 410: 406: 402: 398: 394: 390: 386: 383: 379: 375: 371: 367: 363: 359: 355: 352: 345: 341: 338: 337:Ancient Greek 334: 322: 319: 316: 313: 310: 307:Pascher, 1914 306: 301: 295: 289: 288: 286: 283: 279: 274: 271: 269: 266: 264: 261: 259: 258:Duboscquellea 256: 254: 253:Pronoctilucea 251: 249: 246: 244: 241: 239: 236: 235: 233: 228: 223: 219: 214: 211: 208: 207: 204: 201: 198: 197: 194: 191: 188: 187: 184: 181: 178: 175: 174: 171: 168: 165: 162: 161: 158: 155: 152: 149: 148: 145: 142: 139: 138: 133: 128: 124: 120: 119: 114: 110: 105: 100: 94: 89: 84: 79: 74: 69: 64: 59: 54: 49: 44: 39: 33: 22: 19: 13766: 13632: 13603: 13595: 13517:Orthonectida 13512:Gastrotricha 13487:Nematomorpha 13462:Chaetognatha 13452:Hemichordate 13379:Pteridophyta 13248:Malawimonada 13122:Korarchaeota 13083:Thermotogota 13068:Synergistota 13043:Nitrospirota 13038:Nitrospinota 12983:Deinococcota 12916:Bacteroidota 12804:Platyproteum 12802: 12796: 12767: 12764:Chilovoridae 12742: 12708: 12702: 12696: 12690: 12684: 12646: 12640: 12628: 12616: 12578: 12568:Pronoctiluca 12566: 12554: 12537: 12534:Acrocoelidae 12514: 12510:Hematodinium 12508: 12505:Syndiniaceae 12498:Duboscquella 12496: 12484: 12455: 12452:Noctilucales 12432:Symbiodinium 12430: 12424: 12412: 12406: 12400: 12394: 12381:Prorocentrum 12379: 12367: 12361: 12358:Peridiniales 12349: 12343: 12331: 12325: 12319: 12313: 12291: 12274: 12262: 12251:Voromonadida 12237: 12226:Colpodellida 12212: 12209:Vitrellaceae 12200: 12197:Chromeraceae 12180:Apicomonadea 12150: 12140:Schizocystis 12138: 12132: 12128:Lymphotropha 12126: 12114: 12108: 12102: 12096: 12092:Farinocystis 12090: 12084: 12072: 12069:Gigaductidae 11997:Monoductidae 11963:Porosporidae 11959:Porosporicae 11941:Gregarinidae 11925:Gregarinicae 11893: 11867:Thiriotiidae 11862:Selenidiidae 11851:Zygocystinae 11835:Monocystinae 11831:Monocystidae 11793:Aseptatorina 11770: 11764: 11758: 11752: 11740: 11700: 11694: 11682: 11670: 11664: 11652: 11648:Defretinella 11646: 11640: 11630:Angeiocystis 11628: 11603: 11570: 11564: 11558: 11554:Hyaloklossia 11552: 11546: 11540: 11528: 11522: 11482: 11476: 11470: 11458: 11440:Barrouxiidae 11426: 11420: 11414: 11408: 11402: 11396: 11393:Aggregatidae 11367: 11364:Legerellidae 11355: 11343: 11340:Karyolysidae 11331: 11328:Hepatozoidae 11319: 11307: 11301: 11262: 11250: 11196: 11189: 11173: 11170:Theileriidae 11161: 11150:Piroplasmida 11136: 11133:Plasmodiidae 11124: 11114:Haemoproteus 11112: 11100: 11080:Aconoidasida 11034: 11025:Colponemadea 11016:Colponemidia 11000: 10994: 10976: 10970: 10958: 10952: 10946: 10921: 10915: 10912:Spirotrichea 10903: 10900:Protocruziea 10891: 10885: 10873: 10861: 10857:Chilodonella 10855: 10843: 10831: 10825: 10819: 10813: 10801: 10789: 10777: 10771: 10768:Litostomatea 10759: 10747: 10735: 10699: 10690:Acavomonadea 10681:Acavomonidia 10646:Opisthokonta 10501: 10496:paraphyletic 10391: 10372: 10354: 10323:Malawimonada 10303:Anaeromonada 10298:Anaeramoebae 10290: 10266: 10243:Tsukubamonas 10241: 10163: 10156: 10147:Charophyceae 10134: 10127: 10120:Streptophyta 10107: 10091: 10071: 10067:Rhodelphidia 10025:Palpitomonas 10023: 10003: 9992:Pancryptista 9937: 9930: 9867: 9835: 9834: 9822: 9802: 9772: 9767:Foraminifera 9765: 9608: 9551: 9545:Tunicaraptor 9543: 9510: 9484:Opisthokonta 9420: 9349:Opisthokonta 9178:Stromatolite 9073:Aeroplankton 9000:Salmon louse 8955:Chaetognatha 8927:Symbiodinium 8925: 8913: 8903: 8828: 8824:Raphidophyte 8811: 8804: 8800:Stramenopile 8782: 8765: 8758: 8724: 8707: 8700: 8693: 8666: 8649:Picoplankton 8574:Spring bloom 8544:Mycoplankton 8539:Meroplankton 8529:Holoplankton 8458: 8409: 8359: 8346:. Retrieved 8326: 8317:Bibliography 8289: 8285: 8281: 8275: 8242: 8238: 8234: 8228: 8203: 8199: 8193: 8148: 8144: 8134: 8091: 8087: 8077: 8042: 8038: 8028: 7995: 7991: 7985: 7955:(1): 39–45. 7952: 7948: 7942: 7896: 7892: 7882: 7849: 7845: 7838: 7816:(1): 25–38. 7813: 7809: 7805: 7799: 7782: 7776: 7731: 7727: 7717: 7672: 7668: 7658: 7613: 7609: 7599: 7558: 7554: 7548: 7507: 7503: 7497: 7456: 7452: 7446: 7413: 7409: 7380:(2): 194–7. 7377: 7373: 7367: 7340: 7336: 7326: 7299: 7295: 7285: 7258: 7254: 7244: 7203: 7199: 7193: 7144: 7141:Paleobiology 7140: 7134: 7125: 7085: 7081: 7075: 7050: 7046: 7039: 7006: 7002: 6996: 6971: 6967: 6918:(1): 17175. 6915: 6911: 6901: 6868: 6864: 6858: 6825: 6821: 6815: 6770: 6766: 6752: 6725: 6721: 6711: 6686: 6680: 6635: 6631: 6621: 6602: 6592: 6567: 6563: 6557: 6506: 6502: 6492: 6460:(1): 59–72. 6457: 6453: 6443: 6431:. Retrieved 6423:ScienceDaily 6422: 6413: 6389:(1): 37–46. 6386: 6382: 6372: 6337: 6333: 6323: 6296: 6292: 6282: 6276:Spector 1984 6267:. 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Retrieved 4560: 4527: 4523: 4519: 4513: 4488: 4484: 4480: 4474: 4447: 4443: 4437: 4429: 4404: 4400: 4374: 4370: 4364: 4355: 4351: 4345: 4320: 4316: 4310: 4301: 4297: 4291: 4258: 4254: 4250: 4217:(3): 448–9. 4214: 4210: 4204: 4196: 4179: 4175: 4149: 4145: 4139: 4114: 4110: 4090:. Retrieved 4070: 4066: 4056: 4031: 4027: 4021: 4004: 3994: 3985: 3955:(4): 662–4. 3952: 3948: 3942: 3922: 3915: 3896: 3890: 3876:cite journal 3851: 3847: 3841: 3813: 3806: 3779: 3773: 3756: 3750: 3741: 3724: 3720: 3714: 3697: 3693: 3687: 3670: 3666: 3660: 3639: 3635: 3625: 3616: 3612: 3606: 3596: 3585:. Retrieved 3566: 3556: 3545:. Retrieved 3526: 3515: 3488: 3484: 3474: 3437: 3433: 3423: 3412:. Retrieved 3369: 3365: 3355: 3349:Spector 1984 3340:. Retrieved 3320: 3275: 3271: 3261: 3242: 3236: 3201: 3197: 3187: 3162: 3158: 3152: 3142:, retrieved 3120: 3110: 3077: 3073: 3069: 3066:S. kawagutii 3065: 3061: 3057: 3051: 3037:(1): 45–52. 3034: 3030: 3026: 3023:Symbiodinium 3022: 2994: 2979:Spector 1984 2970:. Retrieved 2950: 2905: 2899: 2885:(2): 290–6. 2882: 2879:J. Protozool 2878: 2872: 2839: 2835: 2829: 2804: 2800: 2794: 2784: 2774: 2764: 2738: 2731: 2704: 2698: 2665: 2661: 2655: 2646: 2642: 2632: 2598:(1): 11–32. 2595: 2591: 2581: 2548: 2544: 2538: 2497: 2493: 2487: 2476:. Retrieved 2460:. Springer. 2456: 2449: 2424: 2420: 2414: 2397: 2376:, retrieved 2349: 2339: 2295: 2291: 2285: 2266: 2262: 2202: 2198: 2188: 2138: 2124:zooxanthella 2119:Symbiodinium 2117: 2100: 2069: 2052: 2031: 2010: 1993: 1986: 1979: 1972: 1960: 1956: 1944: 1939: 1935: 1931: 1927:kleptoplasty 1918: 1914: 1906: 1902: 1898: 1882:Hematodinium 1881: 1879: 1875:Hematodinium 1874: 1870: 1868: 1863: 1859: 1841: 1836: 1832: 1828: 1810: 1799:In terms of 1798: 1791: 1788: 1780: 1774: 1770: 1760: 1757: 1745: 1739: 1733: 1730: 1717:hypnozygotes 1713:planozygotes 1709: 1704:Paul Reinsch 1697: 1688: 1684: 1678: 1673: 1669: 1664: 1660: 1657:A. tamarense 1656: 1652: 1648: 1643: 1638: 1617: 1544:desmoschisis 1537: 1531: 1528:Introduction 1510: 1498: 1474: 1470: 1466: 1450: 1443:Kayaking in 1420: 1397: 1374: 1368: 1364: 1347: 1333: 1318: 1315:Introduction 1303: 1301: 1296: 1292: 1289:K. veneficum 1288: 1285:K. veneficum 1284: 1281:K. veneficum 1280: 1277: 1272: 1268: 1264: 1260: 1252: 1248: 1244: 1240: 1236: 1232: 1228: 1226: 1223: 1219:kleptoplasty 1214: 1198:heterotrophy 1187: 1178:Blastodinium 1177: 1173: 1158:radiolarians 1151: 1140:sea anemones 1128:Symbiodinium 1127: 1123:Symbiodinium 1121: 1115: 1107: 1091: 1086: 1084: 1081: 1072: 1038: 1019: 1007: 996: 989: 983: 977: 971: 967:Prorocentrum 965: 959: 953: 919:mesokaryotic 875:dinokaryotes 872: 858: 834: 823:microfossils 816: 809: 786:mitochondria 754: 743: 724:xanthophylls 719: 717:chlorophylls 705:chloroplasts 702: 694:dinophysioid 682:gonyaulacoid 671: 656: 652: 643: 639: 627: 625: 620:Prorocentrum 618: 615: 589:ellobiopsids 581:cryptomonads 576: 572: 568: 564: 554: 549: 545: 539: 534: 530: 520: 506: 502: 498: 494: 492: 468: 464: 441: 435: 417: 373: 366:monophyletic 361: 350: 347: 340: 332: 330: 304: 302:Dinophyceae 298:Dillon, 1963 221: 212: 209:Superclass: 176: 163: 150: 116: 18: 13806:iNaturalist 13791:Wikispecies 13657:Wikispecies 13572:Brachiopoda 13547:Cycliophora 13492:Onychophora 13467:Kinorhyncha 13389:Ginkgophyta 13384:Cycadophyta 13349:Chlorophyta 13339:Glaucophyta 13033:Myxococcota 12951:Chlorobiota 12946:Chlamydiota 12756:Chilovorida 12739:Algovoridae 12722:Myzomonadea 12692:Ellobiopsis 12673:Ellobiopsea 12648:Rastrimonas 12630:Phagodinium 12625:Phagodinida 12613:Perkinsidae 12596:Perkinsozoa 12575:Psammosidae 12486:Amoebophyra 12477:Syndiniales 12414:Karlodinium 12402:Gymnodinium 12396:Amphidinium 12301:Dinokaryota 12147:Syncystidae 12134:Machadoella 11993:Leidyanidae 11949:Metameridae 11907:Septatorina 11872:Urosporidae 11826:Lecudinidae 11821:Ganymedidae 11684:Mackinnonia 11666:Coelotropha 11642:Coelotropha 11592:Ixorheorida 11530:Sarcocystis 11381:Eimeriorina 11309:Dactylosoma 11303:Babesiosoma 11252:Gemmocystis 11218:Conoidasida 11198:Nephromyces 11066:Apicomplexa 10960:Blepharisma 10923:Stylonychia 10905:Protocruzia 10882:Prostomatea 10870:Plagiopylea 10827:Tetrahymena 10798:Nassophorea 10791:Muranothrix 10773:Balantidium 10387:Chitinozoan 10313:Parabasalia 10165:Embryophyta 10129:Chlorokybus 10109:Chlorophyta 10057:Glaucophyta 10031:Cryptophyta 9921:Pirsoniales 9888:Bicosoecida 9869:Platysulcus 9842:Perkinsozoa 9824:Apicomplexa 9797:Colponemida 9564:Pluriformea 9433:Archamoebea 9422:Eumycetozoa 9143:Manta trawl 9128:Heterotroph 9078:Algaculture 8943:Zooplankton 8886:Flagellates 8767:Chaetoceros 8720:SAR11 clade 8579:Thin layers 8564:Planktology 8559:Planktivore 8514:Algal bloom 8094:(1): 9458. 7992:Bio Systems 7852:: 392–402. 7791:10852/11559 6968:Can. J. Bot 6871:: 100–113. 6759:Coffroth MA 6094:10508/11133 5866:: 423–438. 5387:Taylor 1987 5131:Taylor 1987 4779:: 105–120. 4034:(1): 3–24. 3727:: 133–144. 3700:: 321–346. 3204:(9): 1113. 3062:S. goreauii 2842:(1): 33–9. 2836:Bio Systems 2807:(1): 45–7. 2038:Dinophyceae 1988:Gymnodinium 1974:Alexandrium 1903:Karlodinium 1895:cryptomonad 1891:Ulvophyceae 1871:Amoebophrya 1825:Precambrian 1794:minicircles 1782:Amoebophrya 1777:Apicomplexa 1741:Gymnodinium 1675:Gymnodinium 1639:Scripsiella 1556:hypnozygote 1517:marine snow 1454:scintillons 1297:K. arminger 1293:K. arminger 1269:Diplopsalis 1251:spp., e.g. 1245:Kofoidinium 1241:Gymnodinium 1190:phototrophy 1148:nudibranchs 1049:nucleosomes 1034:Syndiniales 1030:Dinokaryota 1017:lifestyle. 985:Citharistes 927:Syndiniales 911:prokaryotes 887:chromosomes 881:, called a 847:, suborder 773:Apicomplexa 761:fucoxanthin 732:dinoxanthin 686:peridinioid 674:gymnodinoid 659:Apicomplexa 569:Pyrrhophyta 523:Henry Baker 428:coral reefs 413:myzocytosis 409:phagotrophy 405:mixotrophic 273:Dinophyceae 199:Subphylum: 30:240–0 13877:Categories 13605:Parakaryon 13567:Entoprocta 13502:Arthropoda 13497:Tardigrada 13477:Priapulida 13472:Loricifera 13457:Echinoderm 13427:Ctenophora 13399:Gnetophyta 13354:Charophyta 13344:Rhodophyta 13316:Ascomycota 13311:Zygomycota 13253:Metamonada 13228:Euglenozoa 13213:Ciliophora 12921:Balneolota 12896:Aquificota 12798:Filipodium 12793:Squirmidae 12785:Squirmidea 12731:Algovorida 12539:Acrocoelus 12444:Noctilucea 12421:Suessiales 12369:Peridinium 12363:Pfiesteria 12321:Histioneis 12315:Dinophysis 12264:Alphamonas 12239:Colpodella 12189:Chromerida 12116:Menzbieria 12104:Lipocystis 12098:Lipotropha 12074:Gigaductus 12001:Monoicidae 11919:Fusionidae 11915:Fusionicae 11895:Siedleckia 11772:Veloxidium 11742:Exoschizon 11702:Myriospora 11661:Grelliidae 11600:Ixorheidae 11572:Toxoplasma 11472:Cyclospora 11467:Eimeriidae 11410:Merocystis 11404:Grasseella 11357:Klossiella 11345:Karyolysus 11333:Hepatozoon 11285:Adeleorina 11158:Babesiidae 11138:Plasmodium 11002:Myrionecta 10996:Mesodinium 10991:Mesodiniea 10875:Plagiopyla 10833:Vorticella 10821:Paramecium 10732:Armophorea 10715:Ciliophora 10701:Acavomonas 10468:Rigifilida 10367:Acritarchs 10292:Barthelona 10283:Metamonada 10268:Euglenozoa 10136:Mesostigma 10092:sensu lato 10073:Rhodophyta 9932:Ochrophyta 9893:Placidozoa 9804:Ciliophora 9774:Radiolaria 9691:Haptophyta 9586:Filasterea 9498:Holomycota 9138:Macroalgae 9098:Autotrophs 9028:Cyclopoida 8965:Ctenophora 8894:Brevetoxin 8684:Cyanotoxin 8679:Cyanobiont 8348:2016-03-05 7899:(1): 172. 7276:2429/16056 7206:: 101871. 6269:2016-03-05 5534:(7): 191. 5473:2014-05-13 5158:: 443–93. 5040:2016-03-05 4830:2007-05-18 4576:2019-05-19 4491:(1): 1–9. 4485:Phycologia 4358:: 217–222. 4092:2019-09-24 3636:Rev. Algol 3587:2016-03-05 3547:2016-03-05 3414:2018-10-23 3342:2016-03-05 3144:2023-08-20 3070:S. pilosum 3064:sp. nov., 2972:2016-03-05 2801:Phycologia 2545:Phycologia 2478:2020-10-22 2378:2016-09-04 2368:1019558675 2180:References 2169:Yessotoxin 1933:recently. 1911:haptophyte 1852:alveolates 1833:Cretaceous 1765:Polyploidy 1721:endogenous 1670:triquetrum 1653:A. taylori 1608:See also: 1580:DNA damage 1576:DNA repair 1523:Life cycle 1501:dinosterol 1393:neurotoxin 1349:Pfiesteria 1336:dinotoxins 1253:P. conicum 1206:auxotrophs 1194:mixotrophy 1057:organelles 1041:eukaryotes 1026:Life cycle 1022:dinokaryon 991:Polykrikos 961:Exuviaella 944:Generality 923:Alveolates 915:eukaryotes 883:dinokaryon 869:Dinokaryon 831:pentasters 667:alveolates 648:extrusomes 596:Morphology 565:Pyrrophyta 561:flagellate 550:Dinophysis 452:alveolates 443:Pfiesteria 370:eukaryotes 335:(from 296:Dinophyta 224:Gomez 2012 13797:Dinophyta 13782:Q21447509 13767:Dinophyta 13685:AlgaeBase 13522:Dicyemida 13394:Pinophyta 13273:Telonemia 13208:Cryptista 13198:Breviatea 13183:Amoebozoa 13178:Alveolata 13159:Eukaryote 12911:Bacillota 12769:Chilovora 12618:Perkinsus 12605:Perkinsea 12516:Syndinium 12457:Noctiluca 12426:Polarella 12351:Gonyaulax 12333:Oxyphysis 12276:Voromonas 12152:Syncystis 12086:Apicystis 11548:Hammondia 11542:Besnoitia 11524:Frenkelia 11398:Aggregata 11369:Legerella 11293:Adeleidae 11175:Theileria 11097:Garniidae 11036:Colponema 10893:Holophrya 10863:Tokophrya 10641:Amoebozoa 10619:Alveolata 10607:Cryptista 10582:Eukaryota 10553:Alveolata 10545:Eukaryota 10308:Fornicata 10214:Excavates 10016:Cryptista 9939:Oomycetes 9916:Developea 9898:Sagenista 9785:Alveolata 9721:Telonemia 9596:Choanozoa 9473:Breviatea 9416:Tubulinea 9403:Amoebozoa 9344:Amoebozoa 9322:Alveolata 9310:Cryptista 9285:Eukaryota 9255:Eukaryote 9083:Algal mat 9023:Calanoida 9005:Sea louse 8985:Jellyfish 8960:Ciguatera 8921:Saxitoxin 8909:Flagellum 8858:Classes: 8849:Centrales 8749:Auxospore 7236:220891202 7185:133043109 7169:0094-8373 6988:0008-4026 6822:J. Phycol 6703:149458671 6531:2375-2548 5288:(5): 19. 5204:J. Phycol 5030:0070-8356 4909:: 74–84. 4885:206147416 4820:0097-1618 4738:0916-8370 4524:J. Phycol 4401:J. Phycol 4255:J. Phycol 4207:Schimper" 4158:0994-575X 4073:: 1–538. 4013:833272061 3949:J. Phycol 3833:681855348 3733:0181-1568 3706:0065-1583 3652:0035-0702 2756:722119426 2406:263894965 2352:: 1–462, 2159:Ciguatera 1981:Gonyaulax 1915:Durinskia 1821:Paleozoic 1813:dinocysts 1725:exogenous 1679:catenatum 1672:(g), and 1641:sp. 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