Diocletianic Persecution

942:

should return to good sense. Indeed, for some reason or other, such self-indulgence assailed and idiocy possessed those Christians, that they did not follow the practices of the ancients, which their own ancestors had, perhaps, instituted, but according to their own will and as it pleased them, they made laws for themselves that they observed, and gathered various peoples in diverse areas. Then when our order was issued stating that they should return themselves to the practices of the ancients, many were subjected to peril, and many were even killed. Many more persevered in their way of life, and we saw that they neither offered proper worship and cult to the gods, or to the god of the Christians. Considering the observation of our own mild clemency and eternal custom, by which we are accustomed to grant clemency to all people, we have decided to extend our most speedy indulgence to these people as well, so that Christians may once more establish their own meeting places, so long as they do not act in a disorderly way. We are about to send another letter to our officials detailing the conditions they ought to observe. Consequently, in accord with our indulgence, they ought to pray to their god for our health and the safety of the state, so that the state may be kept safe on all sides, and they may be able to live safely and securely in their own homes.

739:

and unexpected monstrosities among the race of the Persians—a nation still hostile to us—and have made their way into our empire, where they are committing many outrages, disturbing the tranquility of our people and even inflicting grave damage to the civic communities. We have cause to fear that with the passage of time they will endeavour, as usually happens, to infect the modest and tranquil of an innocent nature with the damnable customs and perverse laws of the Persians as with the poison of a malignant (serpent) … We order that the authors and leaders of these sects be subjected to severe punishment, and, together with their abominable writings, burnt in the flames. We direct their followers, if they continue recalcitrant, shall suffer capital punishment, and their goods be forfeited to the imperial treasury. And if those who have gone over to that hitherto unheard-of, scandalous and wholly infamous creed, or to that of the Persians, are persons who hold public office, or are of any rank or of superior social status, you will see to it that their estates are confiscated and the offenders sent to the (quarry) at Phaeno or the mines at Proconnesus. And in order that this plague of iniquity shall be completely extirpated from this our most happy age, let your devotion hasten to carry out our orders and commands.

804:, the god of boundaries. It was the day they would terminate Christianity. The next day, Diocletian's first "Edict against the Christians" was published. The key targets of this piece of legislation were senior Christian clerics and Christians' property, just as they had been during Valerian's persecution. The edict prohibited Christians from assembling for worship and ordered the destruction of their scriptures, liturgical books, and places of worship across the empire. But Christians tried to retain the scriptures as far as possible, though, according to de Ste Croix, "it appears that giving them up...was not regarded as a sin" in the East; sufficient numbers of them must have been successfully saved, as is evident from the representative findings of "early biblical papyri" in the stream of the transmission of the text during this period. Christians might have given up apocryphal or pseudepigraphal works, or even refused to surrender their scriptures at the cost of their own lives, and there were some cases where the scriptures were not in the end destroyed. Christians were also deprived of the right to petition the courts, making them potential subjects for judicial torture; Christians could not respond to actions brought against them in court; Christian 1670:, however, suggests that the initiative was Maximinus's alone, and not that of Constantine or Licinius. It is also the only passage in the ancient sources providing Maximinus's rationale for his actions, without the hostility of Lactantius and Eusebius. Maximinus states that he supported Diocletian and Galerius's early legislation but, upon being made Caesar, came to realize the drain such policies would have on his labor force, and began to employ persuasion without coercion. He goes on to assert that he resisted petitions from Nicomedians to forbid Christians from their city (an event Eusebius does not otherwise record), and that when he accepted the demands of deputations from other cities he was only following imperial custom. Maximinus concludes his letter by referencing the letter he wrote after Galerius's edict, asking that his subordinates be lenient. He does not refer to his early letters, which encouraged avid persecution. 1687: 487:, a return to the "Golden Age of Rome". As such, he reinforced the long-standing Roman preference for ancient customs and Imperial opposition to independent societies. The Diocletianic regime's activist stance, however, and Diocletian's belief in the power of central government to effect major change in morals and society made him unusual. Most earlier emperors tended to be quite cautious in their administrative policies, preferring to work within existing structures rather than overhauling them. Diocletian, by contrast, was willing to reform every aspect of public life to satisfy his goals. Under his rule, coinage, taxation, architecture, law and history were all radically reconstructed to reflect his authoritarian and traditionalist ideology. The reformation of the empire's "moral fabric"—and the elimination of religious minorities—was simply one step in that process. 405: 904:(junior emperors). According to Lactantius, Galerius had forced Diocletian's hand in the matter and secured the appointment of loyal friends to the imperial office. In this "Second Tetrarchy", it seems that only the Eastern emperors, Galerius and Maximinus, continued with the persecution. As they left office, Diocletian and Maximian probably imagined Christianity to be in its last throes. Churches had been destroyed, the Church leadership and hierarchy had been snapped, and the army and civil service had been purged. Eusebius declares that apostates from the faith were "countless" (μυρίοι) in number. At first, the new Tetrarchy seemed even more vigorous than the first. Maximinus in particular was eager to persecute. In 306 and 309, he published his own edicts demanding universal sacrifice. Eusebius accuses Galerius of pressing on with the persecution as well. 618: 911:, son of Maximian, had been overlooked in the Diocletianic succession, offending the parents and angering the sons. Constantine, against Galerius's will, succeeded his father on July 25, 306. He immediately ended any ongoing persecutions and offered Christians full restitution of what they had lost under the persecution. This declaration gave Constantine the opportunity to portray himself as a possible liberator of oppressed Christians everywhere. Maxentius, meanwhile, had seized power in Rome on October 28, 306, and soon brought toleration to all Christians within his realm. Galerius made two attempts to unseat Maxentius but failed both times. During the first campaign against Maxentius, Severus was captured, imprisoned, and executed. 1715:; and the "Church of the Martyrs" under Meletius. When the two groups found themselves imprisoned together in Alexandria during the persecution, Peter of Alexandria drew up a curtain in the middle of their cell. He then said: "There are some who are of my view, let them come over on my side, and those of Melitius's view, stay with Melitius." Thus divided, the two sects went on with their affairs, purposely ignoring each other's existence. The schism continued to grow throughout the persecution, even with its leaders in jail, and would persist long after the deaths of both Peter and Meletius. Fifty-one bishoprics are attested for Egypt in 325; fifteen are only known otherwise as seats of the schismatic Church. 1271:, was not consecrated until either November or December 308; it was likely not possible to elect a new bishop during the persecution. In the meantime, two factions diverged in the Roman Church, separating the lapsed (Christians who had complied with the edicts to ensure their own safety) and the rigorists (those who would not compromise with secular authority). These two groups clashed in street fights and riots, eventually leading to murders. It is said that Marcellus, a rigorist, purged all mention of Marcellinus from church records and removed his name from the official list of bishops. Marcellus was banished from the city and died in exile on January 16, 309. 937:, Bulgaria) Galerius, officially ending the Diocletianic persecution of Christianity in the East. Galerius issued this proclamation to end hostilities while on his deathbed, which gave Christians the rights to exist freely under the law and to peaceable assembly. Persecution was everywhere at an end. Lactantius preserves the Latin text of this pronouncement, describing it as an edict. Eusebius provides a Greek translation of the pronouncement. His version includes imperial titles and an address to provincials, suggesting that the proclamation is, in fact, an imperial letter. The document seems to have been promulgated only in Galerius's provinces. 1674:

support. For the first time, Maximinus issued a law which offered comprehensive toleration and the means to effectively secure it. As in his earlier letter, Maximinus is apologetic but one-sided. Maximinus absolves himself for all the failings of his policy, locating fault with local judges and enforcers instead. He frames the new universal toleration as a means of removing all ambiguity and extortion. Maximinus then declares full freedom of religious practice, encourages Christians to rebuild their churches, and pledges to restore Christian property lost in the persecution. The edict changed little: Licinius defeated Maximinus at the

1524:

Levant. He issued his own persecutory edict in the spring of 306, ordering general sacrifice. The edict of 304 had been difficult to enforce, since the imperial government had no record of city-dwelling subjects who held no agricultural land. Galerius solved this problem in 306 by running another census. This contained the names of all urban heads of household and the number of their dependents (past censuses had only listed persons paying tax on land, such as landowners and tenants). Using lists drawn up by the civil service, Maximinus ordered his heralds to call all men, women, and children down to the temples. There, after

709:, and loathed the Christians for avoiding her festivals. Newly prestigious and influential after his victories in the Persian war, Galerius might have wished to compensate for a previous humiliation at Antioch, when Diocletian had forced him to walk at the front of the imperial caravan, rather than inside it. His resentment fed his discontent with official policies of tolerance; from 302 on, he probably urged Diocletian to enact a general law against the Christians. Since Diocletian was already surrounded by an anti-Christian clique of counsellors, these suggestions must have carried great force. 685:, a contemporary ecclesiastical historian, tells a similar story: commanders were told to give their troops the choice of sacrifice or loss of rank. These terms were strong—a soldier would lose his career in the military, his state pension and his personal savings—but not fatal. According to Eusebius, the purge was broadly successful, but Eusebius is confused about the technicalities of the event, and his characterization of the overall size of the apostasy is ambiguous. Eusebius also attributes the initiative for the purge to Galerius, rather than Diocletian. 824:

powers. Galerius's recommendation—burning alive—became a common method of executing Christians in the East. After the edict was posted in Nicomedia, a man named Eutius tore it down and ripped it up, shouting "Here are your Gothic and Sarmatian triumphs!" He was arrested for treason, tortured, and burned alive soon after, becoming the edict's first martyr. The provisions of the edict were known and enforced in Palestine by March or April (just before Easter), and it was in use by local officials in North Africa by May or June. The earliest martyr at

845:, Turkey) and Syria, a second edict was published, ordering the arrest and imprisonment of all bishops and priests. In the judgment of historian Roger Rees, there was no logical necessity for this second edict; that Diocletian issued one indicates that he was either unaware the first edict was being carried out, or that he felt it was not working as quickly as he wanted it to. Following the publication of the second edict, prisons began to fill—the underdeveloped prison system of the time could not handle the deacons, lectors, priests, bishops, and 22: 1628:, Israel), were burned alive. On February 16, Pamphilus and his six companions were executed. In the aftermath, four more members of Pamphilus's household were martyred for their displays of sympathy for the condemned. The last martyrs before Galerius's edict of toleration were executed on March 5 and 7. Then the executions stopped. Eusebius does not explain this sudden halt, but it coincides with the replacement of Firmilianus with Valentinianus, a man appointed at some time before Galerius's death. The replacement is only attested to via 1699:, Egypt is covered only in passing. When Eusebius remarks on the region, however, he writes of tens, twenties, even hundreds of Christians put to death on a single day, which would seem to make Egypt the region that suffered the most during the persecutions. According to one report that Barnes calls "plausible, if unverifiable", 660 Christians were killed in Alexandria alone between 303 and 311. In Egypt, Peter of Alexandria fled his namesake city early on in the persecution, leaving the Church leaderless. 1482:, for the duration of the persecution, although he also traveled to Phoenicia and Egypt, and perhaps Arabia as well. Eusebius's account is imperfect. It focuses on martyrs that were his personal friends before the persecutions began and includes martyrdoms that took place outside of Palestine. His coverage is uneven. He provides only bare generalities at the bloody end of the persecutions, for example. Eusebius recognizes some of his faults. At the outset of his account of the general persecution in the 1742:

fortitude of the martyrs in the face of death had earned the faith respectability in the past, though it may have won few converts. The thought of martyrdom, however, sustained Christians under trial and in prison, hardening their faith. Packaged with the promise of eternal life, martyrdom proved attractive for the growing segment of the pagan population which was, to quote Dodds, "in love with death". To use Tertullian's famous phrase, the blood of the martyrs was the seed of the Church.

1838:

alleged of holy martyrs, whose wounds had been instantly healed, whose strength had been renewed, and whose lost members had miraculously been restored, were extremely convenient for the purpose of removing every difficulty, and of silencing every objection. The most extravagant legends, as they conduced to the honour of the church, were applauded by the credulous multitude, countenanced by the power of the clergy, and attested by the suspicious evidence of ecclesiastical history.

384:, Decius's friend, took up the imperial mantle in 253. Though he was at first thought of as "exceptionally friendly" towards the Christians, his actions soon showed otherwise. In July 257, he issued a persecutory edict. As punishment for following the Christian faith, Christians were to face exile or condemnation to the mines. In August 258, he issued a second edict, making the punishment death. This persecution stalled in June 260, when Valerian was captured in battle. His son 1641:

with its provisions only reluctantly. Maximinus told his praetorian prefect Sabinus to write to provincial governors, requesting that they and their subordinates ignore "that letter" (Galerius's edict). Christians were to be free from molestation, and their mere Christianity would not leave them open to criminal charges. Unlike Galerius's edict, however, Maximinus's letter made no provisions for Christian assembly, nor did he suggest that Christians build more churches.

705:

consistently the main advocate of such persecution. He was also eager to exploit this position to his own political advantage. As the lowest-ranking emperor, Galerius was always listed last in imperial documents. Until the end of the Persian war in 299, he had not even had a major palace. Lactantius states that Galerius hungered for a higher position in the imperial hierarchy. Galerius's mother, Romula, was bitterly anti-Christian, for she had been a pagan priestess in

689:

that would have been purged—Diocletian had left his in Egypt to quell continuing unrest—Antiochenes would understandably have believed Galerius to be its instigator. The historian David Woods argues instead that Eusebius and Lactantius are referring to different events. Eusebius, according to Woods, describes the beginnings of the army purge in Palestine, while Lactantius describes events at court. Woods asserts that the relevant passage in Eusebius's

223:, Christianity was an illegal religion in the eyes of the Roman state. For the first two centuries of its existence, Christianity and its practitioners were unpopular with the people at large. Christians were always suspect, members of a "secret society" who communicated with a private code and who shied away from the public sphere. It was popular hostility—the anger of the crowd—which drove the earliest persecutions, not official action. Around 112, 1132:. The second, third and fourth edicts seem not to have been enforced in the West at all. It is possible that Constantius's relatively tolerant policies were the result of Tetrarchic jealousies; the persecution, after all, had been the project of the Eastern emperors, not the Western ones. After Constantine succeeded his father in 306, he urged the recovery of Church property lost in the persecution and legislated full freedom for all Christians in his domain. 9628: 9648: 1393:, were decapitated. The persecution intensified; presbyters and other clergymen could be arrested without having even been accused of a crime and condemned to death. A second fire appeared sixteen days after the first. Galerius left the city, declaring it unsafe, and Diocletian soon followed. Lactantius blames Galerius's allies for setting the fire; Constantine, in a later reminiscence, attributes the fire to "lightning from heaven". 380:(renunciation of the faith). At Smyrna, the bishop Euctemon sacrificed and encouraged others to do the same. Because the Church was largely urban, it should have been easy to identify, isolate and destroy the Church hierarchy. This did not happen. In June 251, Decius died in battle, leaving his persecution incomplete. His persecutions were not followed up for another six years, allowing some Church functions to resume. 526:

many individuals willing to be martyrs and many provincials willing to ignore any persecutory edicts from the emperors as well. Even Constantius was known to have disapproved of persecutory policies. The lower classes demonstrated little of the enthusiasm they had shown for earlier persecutions. They no longer believed the slanderous accusations that were popular in the 1st and 2nd centuries. Perhaps, as the historian

1075: 853:

this legislation. He may also have sought to fracture the Christian community by publicizing the fact that its clergy had apostatized. The demand to sacrifice was unacceptable to many of the imprisoned, but wardens often managed to obtain at least nominal compliance. Some of the clergy sacrificed willingly; others did so on pain of torture. Wardens were eager to be rid of the clergy in their midst. Eusebius, in his

9638: 1796:", was held to begin with Diocletian's accession to the emperorship in 284, rather than 303, when persecutions actually began; Barnes argues that they fabricated a large number of martyrs' tales (indeed, most surviving martyrs' tales are forgeries), exaggerated the facts in others, and embroidered true accounts with miraculous details. According to Curran, of the surviving martyrs' acts, only those of 1606:, who kept the records, saw to it that there were no evasions. Maximinus introduced some innovations to the process, making him the only known persecuting emperor to have done so. This edict now required food sold in the marketplaces to be covered in libation. Maximinus sent sentries to stand guard at bathhouses and city gates to ensure that all customers sacrificed. He issued copies of the fictitious 307:, it was a purely local affair; it did not spread beyond the city limits of Rome. These early persecutions were certainly violent, but they were sporadic, brief and limited in extent. They were of limited threat to Christianity as a whole. The very capriciousness of official action, however, made the threat of state coercion loom large in the Christian imagination. 590:. Like Hierocles, he unfavorably compared Jesus to Apollonius of Tyana. Porphyry held that Christians blasphemed by worshiping a human being rather than the Supreme God and behaved treasonably in forsaking the traditional Roman cult. "To what sort of penalties might we not justly subject people," Porphyry asked, "who are fugitives from their fathers' customs?" 779:. Porphyry may also have been present at this meeting. Upon returning, the messenger told the court that "the just on earth" hindered Apollo's ability to speak. These "just", Diocletian was informed by members of the court, could only refer to the Christians of the empire. At the behest of his court, Diocletian acceded to demands for a universal persecution. 120:'s accession in 260, these laws went into abeyance. Diocletian's assumption of power in 284 did not mark an immediate reversal of imperial inattention to Christianity, but it did herald a gradual shift in official attitudes toward religious minorities. In the first fifteen years of his rule, Diocletian purged the army of Christians, condemned 1161:

should compel Christians to sacrifice to the gods. Governor Valerius Florus enforced the same policy in Numidia during the summer or autumn of 303, when he called for "days of incense burning"; Christians would sacrifice or they would lose their lives. In addition to those already listed, African martyrs also include Saturninus and the

1758:. 378–95), Christianity became the state religion. By the 5th century, Christianity was the empire's predominant faith, and filled the same role paganism had at the end of the 3rd century. Because of the persecution, however, a number of Christian communities were riven between those who had complied with imperial authorities ( 965:

Gaul, Spain, and Britain, moreover, Christians already had far more than Galerius was offering to Eastern Christians. Other late 20th-century historians, like Graeme Clark and David S. Potter, assert that for all its hedging, Galerius's issuance of the edict was a landmark event in the histories of Christianity and the Roman empire.

1083:

Spain, and Africa), it was firmly enforced; and in the East, under Diocletian (Asia Minor, Syria, Palestine and Egypt) and Galerius (Greece and the Balkans), its provisions were pursued with more fervor than anywhere else. For the Eastern provinces, Peter Davies tabulated the total number of martyrdoms for an article in the

1582:, the highest authority in judicial proceedings after the emperor, demanding that Christians conform to pagan customs. His new legislation called for another general sacrifice, coupled with a general offering of libations. It was even more systematic than the first, allowing no exceptions for infants or servants. 1867:

Although the number of verifiably true martyrs' tales has decreased, and estimates of the total casualty rate have been reduced, the majority of modern writers are less skeptical than Gibbon of the severity of the persecution. As the author Stephen Williams wrote in 1985, "even allowing a margin for

1531:

At some point after the publication of Maximinus's first edict, perhaps in 307, Maximinus changed the penalty for transgressions. Instead of receiving the death penalty, Christians would now be mutilated and condemned to labor in state-owned mines. Since Egyptian mines were overstaffed, mostly due to

862:

In 304, the fourth edict ordered all persons, men, women, and children, to gather in a public space and offer a collective sacrifice. If they refused, they were to be executed. The precise date of the edict is unknown, but it was probably issued in either January or February 304 and was being applied

852:

In anticipation of the upcoming twentieth anniversary of his reign on November 20, 303, Diocletian declared a general amnesty in a third edict. Any imprisoned clergyman could be freed so long as he agreed to make a sacrifice to the gods. Diocletian may have been searching for some good publicity with

502:

forbidding incestuous marriages and affirming the supremacy of Roman law over local law. Its preamble insists that it is every emperor's duty to enforce the sacred precepts of Roman law, for "the immortal gods themselves will favour and be at peace with the Roman name...if we have seen to it that all

136:

Persecutory policies varied in intensity across the empire. Whereas Galerius and Diocletian were avid persecutors, Constantius was unenthusiastic. Later persecutory edicts, including the calls for universal sacrifice, were not applied in his domain. His son, Constantine, on taking the imperial office

1523:

The bulk of Eusebius's account deals with Maximinus, who took up the office of emperor in Nicomedia on May 1, 305, and immediately thereafter left the city for Caesarea, hurrying, Lactantius alleges, so as to oppress and trample the diocese of Oriens. Initially, Maximinus governed only Egypt and the

1283:

of the emperor. Maxentius did not permit religious freedom for Christians in the realm or the restitution of confiscated property. The Great Persecution continued until 311 when Constantine arrived at Rome's gates and defeated Maxentius with an army only half as big. Maxentius was such a tyrant that

1274:

The persecution was firmly enforced until Maximian's abdication in 305 but started to wane when Constantius (who seemed not to have been enthusiast about it) succeeded as august. After Constantius's death, Maxentius took advantage of Galerius's unpopularity in Italy (Galerius had introduced taxation

859:, records the case of one man who after being brought to an altar, had his hands seized and made to complete a sacrificial offering. The clergyman was told that his act of sacrifice had been recognized and was summarily dismissed. Others were told they had sacrificed even when they had done nothing. 738:

We have heard that the Manichaens have set up new and hitherto unheard-of sects in opposition to the older creeds so that they might cast out the doctrines vouchsafed to us in the past by the divine favour for the benefit of their own depraved doctrine. They have sprung forth very recently like new

183:

in Egypt, persisted long after the persecutions. The Donatists would not be reconciled to the Church until after 411. Some historians consider that, in the centuries that followed the persecutory era, Christians created a "cult of the martyrs" and exaggerated the barbarity of the persecutions. Other

124:

to death, and surrounded himself with public opponents of Christianity. Diocletian's preference for activist government, combined with his self-image as a restorer of past Roman glory, foreboded the most pervasive persecution in Roman history. In the winter of 302, Galerius urged Diocletian to begin

1745:

By 324, Constantine, the Christian convert, ruled the entire empire alone. Christianity became the greatest beneficiary of imperial largesse. The persecutors had been routed. As the historian J. Liebeschuetz has written: "The final result of the Great Persecution provided a testimonial to the truth

1727:

has put it, it was simply "too little and too late". Christians were never purged systematically in any part of the empire, and Christian evasion continually undermined the edicts' enforcement. Some bribed their way to freedom. The Christian Copres escaped on a technicality: To avoid sacrificing in

1653:

was executed in Nicomedia on January 7, 312. According to Eusebius, many Egyptian bishops suffered the same fate. According to Lactantius, Maximinus ordered confessors to have "their eyes gouged out, their hands cut off, their feet amputated, their noses or ears severed". Antioch asked Maximinus if

1644:

Maximinus issued orders in Autumn 311 forbidding Christians to congregate in cemeteries. After issuing these orders, he was approached by embassies from cities within his domain, demanding he begin a general persecution. Lactantius and Eusebius state that these petitions were not voluntary, but had

1640:

After Galerius's death, Maximinus seized Asia Minor. Even after Galerius's edict of toleration in 311, Maximinus continued to persecute. His name is absent from the list of emperors publishing Galerius's edict of toleration, perhaps through later suppression. Eusebius states that Maximinus complied

1396:

Lactantius, still living in Nicomedia, saw the beginnings of the apocalypse in Diocletian's persecution. Lactantius's writings during the persecution exhibit both bitterness and Christian triumphalism. His eschatology runs directly counter to Tetrarchic claims to "renewal". Diocletian asserted that

1105:

The sources are inconsistent regarding the extent of the persecution in Constantius's domain, though all portray it as quite limited. Lactantius states that the destruction of church buildings was the worst thing that came to pass. Eusebius explicitly denies that any churches were destroyed in both

968:

Galerius's law was not effective for long in Maximinus's district. Within seven months of Galerius's proclamation, Maximinus resumed persecution, which continued until 313, shortly before his death. At a meeting between Licinius and Constantine in Milan in February 313, the two emperors drafted the

964:

called the edict "insignificant"; likewise, the late 20th-century historian Timothy Barnes cautions that the "novelty or importance of measure should not be overestimated". Barnes notes that Galerius's legislation only brought to the East rights Christians already possessed in Italy and Africa. In

941:

Among all the other arrangements that we are always making for the benefit and utility of the state, we have heretofore wished to repair all things in accordance with the laws and public discipline of the Romans, and to ensure that even the Christians, who abandoned the practice of their ancestors,

525:

It is unknown how much support there was for persecution within the aristocracy. After Gallienus's peace, Christians reached high ranks in Roman government. Diocletian even appointed several Christians to those positions, and his wife and daughter may have been sympathetic to the Church. There were

310:

In the 3rd century, the pattern changed. Emperors became more active, and government officials began to actively pursue Christians rather than merely to respond to the will of the crowd. Christianity also changed. No longer were its practitioners merely "the lower orders fomenting discontent"; some

1673:

In the early spring of 313, as Licinius advanced against Maximinus, the latter resorted to savagery in his dealings with his own citizens, and his Christians in particular. In May 313, Maximinus issued one more edict of toleration, hoping to persuade Licinius to stop advancing, and win more public

1574:

records no Palestinian martyrs between July 25, 308 and November 13, 309. The political climate probably impinged on persecutory policy here: This was the period of the conference of Carnuntum, which met in November 308. Maximinus probably spent the next few months in discussion with Galerius over

1160:

refused his army bonus and took off his uniform in public. Once persecutions began, public authorities were eager to assert their authority. Anullinus, proconsul of Africa, expanded on the edict, deciding that in addition to the destruction of the Christians' scriptures and churches the government

1140:

While the persecution under Constantius was relatively light, there is no doubt about the force of the persecution in Maximian's domain. Its effects are recorded at Rome, Sicily, Spain, and in Africa—indeed, Maximian encouraged particularly strict enforcement of the edict in Africa. Africa's

1082:

The enforcement of the persecutory edicts was inconsistent. Since the Tetrarchs were more or less sovereign in their own realms, they had a good deal of control over persecutory policy. In Constantius's realm (Britain and Gaul) the persecution was only lightly enforced; in Maximian's realm (Italy,

766:

of the emperors was reaching a fevered pitch; at the behest of an oracle, it was to hit its peak. According to Lactantius, Diocletian and Galerius entered into an argument over what imperial policy towards Christians should be while at Nicomedia in 302. Diocletian argued that forbidding Christians

688:

Modern scholar Peter Davies surmises that Eusebius is referring to the same event as Lactantius, but that he heard of the event through public rumors and knew nothing of the privileged discussion at the emperor's private religion ceremony that Lactantius had access to. Since it was Galerius's army

431:

to Maximian declared: "You have heaped the gods with altars and statues, temples and offerings, which you dedicated with your own name and your own image, whose sanctity is increased by the example you set, of veneration for the gods. Surely, men will now understand what power resides in the gods,

168:

The persecution failed to check the rise of the Church. By 324, Constantine was sole ruler of the empire, and Christianity had become his favored religion. Although the persecution resulted in death, torture, imprisonment, or dislocation for many Christians, most of the empire's Christians avoided

832:

from May 19. In Gaul and Britain Constantius did not enforce this edict, but in the East progressively harsher legislation was devised; the edict was firmly enforced in Maximian's domain until his abdication in 305, but persecutions later began to wane when Constantius succeeded Maximian and were

823:

Diocletian requested that the edict be pursued "without bloodshed", against Galerius's demands that all those refusing to sacrifice be burned alive. In spite of Diocletian's request, local judges often enforced executions during the persecution, as capital punishment was among their discretionary

602:

The augurs, the dream interpreters, the soothsayers, the prophets, and the priestlings, ever vain...fearing that their own arts be brought to nought, and that they may extort but scanty contributions from the devotees, now few and infrequent, cry aloud, 'The gods are neglected, and in the temples

1291:

won. Eusebius was a moderate, however, in a still-divided Church. Heraclius, head of the rigorist faction, opposed readmission of the lapsed. Rioting followed, and Maxentius exiled the combative pair from the city, leaving Eusebius to die in Sicily on October 21. The office was vacant for almost

521:

even sat on a hill overlooking the imperial palace. These new churches probably represented not only absolute growth in Christian population, but also the increasing affluence of the Christian community. In some areas where Christians were influential, such as North Africa and Egypt, traditional

1858:

put it in 1954, "The so-called Great Persecution has been exaggerated in the Christian tradition to an extent which even Gibbon did not fully appreciate." In 1972, the ecclesiastical Protestant historian Hermann Dörries was embarrassed to admit to his colleagues that his sympathies lay with the

1837:

After the church had triumphed over all her enemies, the interest as well as vanity of the captives prompted them to magnify the merit of their respective sufferings. A convenient distance of time or place gave an ample scope to the progress of fiction; and the frequent instances which might be

516:

has given crude and tentative estimates for the Christian population in the 3rd century. Hopkins estimates that the Christian community grew from a population of 1.1 million in 250 to a population of 6 million by 300, about 10% of the empire's total population. Christians even expanded into the

704:

each allege that Galerius was the prime impetus for the military purge, and its prime beneficiary. Diocletian, for all his religious conservatism, still had tendencies towards religious tolerance. Galerius, by contrast, was a devoted and passionate pagan. According to Christian sources, he was

490:

The unique position of the Christians and Jews of the empire became increasingly apparent. The Jews had earned imperial toleration on account of the great antiquity of their faith. They had been exempted from Decius's persecution and continued to enjoy freedom from persecution under Tetrarchic

1741:

The pagan crowd was more sympathetic to the Christians' sufferings than they had been in the past. Lactantius, Eusebius and Constantine write of revulsion at the excesses of the persecutors—Constantine of executioners "wearied out, and disgusted at the cruelties" they had committed. The

758:

visited a court while preliminary sacrifices were taking place and interrupted the ceremonies, denouncing the act in a loud voice. He was arrested and sentenced to be set aflame, but Diocletian overruled the decision and decided that Romanus should have his tongue removed instead. Romanus was

75:

rescinding Christians' legal rights and demanding that they comply with traditional religious practices. Later edicts targeted the clergy and demanded universal sacrifice, ordering all inhabitants to sacrifice to the gods. The persecution varied in intensity across the empire—weakest in

1612:

to encourage popular hatred of Christ. Prostitutes confessed, under judicial torture, to having engaged in debaucheries with Christians. Bishops were reassigned to work as stable boys for the Imperial horse guard or keepers of the Imperial camels. Maximinus also worked for a revival of pagan

977:

We thought it fit to commend these things most fully to your care that you may know that we have given to those Christians free and unrestricted opportunity of religious worship. When you see that this has been granted to them by us, your Worship will know that we have also conceded to other

676:

divination. Diocletian, enraged by this turn of events, declared that all members of the court must make a sacrifice. Diocletian and Galerius also sent letters to the military command, demanding that the entire army perform the sacrifices or else face discharge. Since there are no reports of

1182:

bishops (those who had handed scriptures over to secular authorities). One of the key moments in the break with the mainline Church occurred in Carthage in 304. The Christians from Abitinae had been brought to the city and imprisoned. Friends and relatives of the prisoners came to visit but

1654:

it could forbid Christians from living in the city. In response, Maximinus issued a rescript encouraging every city to expel its Christians. This rescript was published in Sardis on April 6, 312, and in Tyre by May or June. There are three surviving copies of Maximinus's rescript, in Tyre,

1918:

Early pagan opponents of the Christians would see their God as a political criminal, executed under a governor of Judea for proclaiming himself "King of the Jews", and note that their holy texts included an allegorical attack on the Roman state that prophesied its imminent destruction

1555:(Ṣūr, Lebanon) thrown to the sea for conversing with Christians attending trial and refusing sacrifice; the Christians in court, meanwhile, he sent to Phaeno. On a single day, November 2, 307, Urbanus sentenced a man named Domninus to be burned alive, three youths to fight as 946:

Galerius's words reinforce the Tetrarchy's theological basis for the persecution; the acts did nothing more than attempt to enforce traditional civic and religious practices, even if the edicts were thoroughly nontraditional. Galerius does nothing to violate the spirit of the

593:

Pagan priests, too, were interested in suppressing any threat to traditional religion. They believed their ceremonies were hindered by the presence of Christians, who were thought to cloud the sight of oracles and stall the gods' recognition of their sacrifices. The Christian

947:

persecution—Christians are still admonished for their nonconformity and foolish practices—Galerius never admits that he did anything wrong. Certain early 20th-century historians have declared that Galerius's edict definitively nullified the old "legal formula"

1361:. It had become, officially at least, a Christian army. Constantine's apparent conversion was visible elsewhere, too. Bishops dined at Constantine's table, and many Christian building projects began soon after his victory. On November 9, 312, the old headquarters of the 459:

in Italy. He did, however, favor gods who provided for the safety of the whole empire instead of the local deities of the provinces. In Africa, Diocletian's revival focused on Jupiter, Hercules, Mercury, Apollo and the imperial cult. The cult of Saturn, the Romanized

2044:

Helgeland places the event in 301. Barnes argued for a date of 302 or "not long before" in 1976, but accepted a date of 299 in 1981. Woods argues for a date of 297, on the grounds that Diocletian and Galerius were both in the area at this time, and because Eusebius's

2179:, Israel). Barnes contests this identification, arguing that since Eusebius specifically identifies the city as wholly Jewish, it is unlikely to have been Lydda, which had a Christian bishop by 325. Diocaesarea, however, was noted for its Jewishness long thereafter. 1141:

political elite were insistent that the persecution be fulfilled, and Africa's Christians, especially in Numidia, were equally insistent on resisting them. For the Numidians, to hand over scriptures was an act of terrible apostasy. Africa had long been home to the

978:

religions the right of open and free observance of their worship for the sake of the peace of our times, that each one may have the free opportunity to worship as he pleases; this regulation is made that we may not seem to detract from any dignity or any religion.

282:

Nonetheless, for the first two centuries of the Christian era, no emperor issued general laws against the faith or its Church. These persecutions were carried out under the authority of local government officials. At Bithynia–Pontus in 111, it was Pliny; at

1868:

invention, what remains is terrible enough. Unlike Gibbon, we live in an age which has experienced similar things, and knows how unsound is that civilised smile of incredulity at such reports. Things can be, have been, every bit as bad as our worst imaginings."

1707:), took up the job in his place. Meletius performed ordinations without Peter's permission, which caused some bishops to complain to Peter. Meletius soon refused to treat Peter as any kind of authority, and expanded his operations into Alexandria. According to 1658:(Aykiriçay, Turkey), and Colbasa. They are all essentially identical. To address a complaint from Lycia and Pamphylia about the "detestable pursuits of the atheists ", Maximinus promised the provincials whatever they wanted—perhaps an exemption from the 353:. 249–251), demanding a show of support for the faith, proclaimed that all inhabitants of the empire must sacrifice to the gods, eat sacrificial meat, and testify to these acts. Christians were obstinate in their non-compliance. Church leaders, like 517:

countryside, where they had never been numerous before. Churches in the later 3rd century were no longer as inconspicuous as they had been in the first and second. Large churches were prominent in certain major cities throughout the empire. The church in

1690:

Wall painting of martyred saints, Ananias, Azarias, and Misael from the town of Samalut with Saints Damian and Cosmas; martyred during the persecutions of Diocletian in the late 3rd century AD. Stucco. 6th century AD. From Wadi Sarga, Egypt. British

1863:

estimated that 3,000–3,500 Christians were killed in the persecution, although this number is disputed. The historian Min Seok Shin estimates that over 23,500 Christians suffered martyrdom under Diocletian, of whom the names of 850 are known.

586:. In the work, Porphyry expressed his shock at the rapid expansion of Christianity. He also revised his earlier opinions of Jesus, questioning Jesus' exclusion of the rich from the Kingdom of Heaven, and his permissiveness in regards to the demons 491:

government. Because their faith was new and unfamiliar and not typically identified with Judaism by this time, Christians had no such excuse. Moreover, Christians had been distancing themselves from their Jewish heritage for their entire history.

1215:

Maximian probably seized the Christian property in Rome quite easily—Roman cemeteries were noticeable, and Christian meeting places could have been easily found out. Senior churchmen would have been similarly prominent. The bishop of Rome

867:

in April 304 and in Palestine soon after. This last edict was not enforced at all in the domains of Constantius and was applied in the domains of Maximian until his abdication in 305. In the East, it remained applicable until the issue of the

3219: 1773:, "the embodiment of irrational ferocity". To medieval Christians, Diocletian was the most loathsome of all Roman emperors. From the 4th century on, Christians would describe the great persecution of Diocletian's reign as a bloodbath. The 1734:, wrote that "once more the fields and woods received the worshippers of God". To contemporary theologians, there was no sin in this behavior. Lactantius held that Christ himself had encouraged it, and Bishop Peter of Alexandria quoted 511:

Christian communities grew quickly in many parts of the empire (and especially in the East) after 260, when Gallienus brought peace to the Church. The data to calculate the figures are nearly non-existent, but historian and sociologist

1686: 319:, writing at about 248, tells of "the multitude of people coming in to the faith, even rich men and persons in positions of honour and ladies of high refinement and birth." Official reaction grew firmer. In 202, according to the 1145:—in Africa, martyrs held more religious authority than the clergy—and harbored a particularly intransigent, fanatical, and legalistic variety of Christianity. It was Africa that gave the West most of its martyrdoms. 549:, the works of these men demonstrated "the alliance of pagan intellectuals with the Establishment". Hierocles thought Christian beliefs absurd. If Christians applied their principles consistently, he argued, they would pray to 1613:

religion. He appointed high priests for each province, men who were to wear white robes and supervise daily worship of the gods. Maximinus demanded that vigorous restoration work be done on decaying temples within his domain.

1544:. Firmilianus cut the tendons on their left feet, blinded their right eyes, and sent them to the mines of Palestine. On another occasion, 130 others received the same punishment. Some were sent to Phaeno, and some to Cilicia. 717:

Affairs quieted after the initial persecution. Diocletian remained in Antioch for the following three years. He visited Egypt once, over the winter of 301–302, where he began the grain dole in Alexandria. In Egypt, some

553:

instead of Jesus. Hierocles considered that Apollonius's miracles had been far more impressive and Apollonius never had the temerity to call himself "God". He thought the scriptures were full of "lies and contradictions" and

2144:

The document is not actually an edict, but a letter. The two can be distinguished by the presence of a specific addressee on a letter, and the absence of one on an edict. The version of the document preserved by Lactantius

2075:

Barnes argues that Diocletian was prepared to tolerate Christianity—he did, after all, live within sight of Nicomedia's Christian church, and his wife and daughter were, if not Christians themselves (as per Eusebius,

1665:

When Maximinus received notice that Constantine had succeeded in his campaign against Maxentius, he issued a new letter restoring Christians their former liberties. The text of this letter, which is preserved in Eusebius's

1563:, a priest, scholar, and defender of the theologian Origen. Soon after, and for unknown reasons, Urbanus was stripped of his rank, imprisoned, tried, and executed, all in one day of expedited proceedings. His replacement, 503:

subject to our rule entirely lead a pious, religious, peaceable and chaste life in every respect". These principles, if given their full extension, would logically require Roman emperors to enforce conformity in religion.

262:

tells of children disinherited for becoming Christians. Traditional Roman religion was inextricably interwoven into the fabric of Roman society and state, but Christians refused to observe its practices. In the words of

1842:

Throughout his history, Gibbon implies that the early Church undermined traditional Roman virtues, and thereby impaired the health of civil society. When Gibbon sought to reduce the numbers of the martyrs in his

103:

Christians had been subject to intermittent local discrimination in the empire, but emperors prior to Diocletian were reluctant to issue general laws against the religious group. In the 250s, under the reigns of

7204:, Vol. 3. Edited by Alexander Roberts, James Donaldson, and A. Cleveland Coxe. (Buffalo, NY: Christian Literature Publishing Co., 1885.) Revised and edited for New Advent by Kevin Knight. Accessed June 16, 2009. 1620:, Israel) on their way to visit the confessors in Cilicia. Three were beheaded; the rest lost their left feet and right eyes. On January 10, 310, Peter and the bishop Asclepius from the dualist Christian sect 7114:, Vol. 7. Edited by Alexander Roberts, James Donaldson, and A. Cleveland Coxe. Buffalo, NY: Christian Literature Publishing Co., 1886. Revised and edited for New Advent by Kevin Knight. Accessed June 9, 2009. 7082:, Vol. 7. Edited by Alexander Roberts, James Donaldson, and A. Cleveland Coxe. Buffalo, NY: Christian Literature Publishing Co., 1886. Revised and edited for New Advent by Kevin Knight. Accessed June 9, 2009. 7052:, Vol. 7. Edited by Alexander Roberts, James Donaldson, and A. Cleveland Coxe. Buffalo, NY: Christian Literature Publishing Co., 1886. Revised and edited for New Advent by Kevin Knight. Accessed June 9, 2009. 6901:, Vol. 6. Edited by Alexander Roberts, James Donaldson, and A. Cleveland Coxe. Buffalo, NY: Christian Literature Publishing Co., 1886. Revised and edited for New Advent by Kevin Knight. Accessed June 9, 2009. 1984:

gives a smaller estimate of the Christian population in 300—4% or 5% of the empire's total population—but allows that Christian numbers grew as a result of the hardship of the years from 250 to

580:. He had few complaints about Jesus, whom he praised as a saintly individual, a "humble" man. Christ's followers, however, he damned as "arrogant". Around 290, Porphyry wrote a fifteen-volume work entitled 767:

from the bureaucracy and military would be sufficient to appease the gods, while Galerius pushed for their extermination. The two men sought to resolve their dispute by sending a messenger to consult the

1791:

argues that hagiographers portrayed a persecution far more extensive than the real one had been, and the Christians responsible for this cult were loose with the facts. Their "heroic age" of martyrs, or

9233: 1489:

Since no one below the status of governor held the legal power to enforce capital punishment, most recalcitrant Christians would have been sent to Caesarea to await punishment. The first martyr,

1486:, Eusebius laments the incompleteness of his reportage: "how could one number the multitude of martyrs in each province, and especially those in Africa and Mauretania, and in Thebaid and Egypt?" 1377:

Before the end of February 303, a fire destroyed part of the imperial palace at Nicomedia. Galerius convinced Diocletian that the culprits were Christian conspirators who had plotted with palace

1183:

encountered resistance from a local mob. The group was harassed, beaten, and whipped; the food they had brought for their imprisoned friends was scattered on the ground. The mob had been sent by

7019:, Second Series, Vol. 1. Edited by Philip Schaff and Henry Wace. Buffalo, NY: Christian Literature Publishing Co., 1890. Revised and edited for New Advent by Kevin Knight. Accessed June 9, 2009. 6980:, Second Series, Vol. 1. Edited by Philip Schaff and Henry Wace. Buffalo, NY: Christian Literature Publishing Co., 1890. Revised and edited for New Advent by Kevin Knight. Accessed June 9, 2009. 2084:

15.1), at least sympathetic to the faith—but was successively brought closer and closer to intolerance under Galerius's influence. Davies takes a more skeptical view of the same evidence.

1570:

Eusebius notes that this event marked the beginning of a temporary respite from persecution. Although the precise dating of this respite is not specifically noted by Eusebius, the text of the

464:, was neglected. In imperial iconography Jupiter and Hercules were pervasive. The same pattern of favoritism affected Egypt as well. Native Egyptian deities saw no revival, nor was the sacred 603:

there is now a very thin attendance. Former ceremonies are exposed to derision, and the time-honoured rites of institutions once sacred have sunk before the superstitions of new religions.'

1779:, a collection of biographies of the popes, alleges 17,000 martyrs within a single thirty-day period. In the 4th century, Christians created a "cult of martyrs" in homage to the fallen. 165:

in 313, which offered a more comprehensive acceptance of Christianity than Galerius's edict had provided. Licinius ousted Maximinus in 313, bringing an end to persecution in the East.

2539:(Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1971), 151, calls this supposed rescript an "invention" of the author, reflecting his own religious prejudices instead of imperial policy under the Severans. 5700:

7.1–4; Keresztes, 388. On Christian condemnation to the mines in general, see J.G. Davies, "Condemnation to the Mines: A Neglected Chapter in the History of the Persecutions,"

665:

eventually declared that this failure was the result of interruptions in the process caused by profane men. Certain Christians in the imperial household had been observed making the

2392:

Clarke, 616; Frend, "Genesis and Legacy", 510. See also: Barnes, "Legislation"; de Sainte-Croix, "Persecuted?"; Musurillo, lviii–lxii; and Sherwin-White, "Early Persecutions."

1224:

that Marcellinus was "brought away by the persecution", an obscure phrase that may refer to his martyrdom or to the fact that he fled the city. Others assert that Marcellinus was a

1766:

Caecilian to the bishopric of Carthage, continued to resist the authority of the central Church until after 411. The Melitians in Egypt left the Egyptian Church similarly divided.

1516:, published the fourth edict. Eusebius probably does not list a complete account of all those executed under the fourth edict—he alludes in passing to others imprisoned with 1559:, and a priest to be exposed to a beast. On the same day, he ordered some young men to be castrated, sent three virgins to brothels, and imprisoned a number of others, including 562:

had peddled falsehoods. In the early 4th century, an unidentified philosopher published a pamphlet attacking the Christians. This philosopher, who might have been a pupil of the

1300:, the head of the city, responsible for publishing imperial edicts within the city, to ensure compliance. African Christians were still recovering lost property as late as 312. 1203:

would give the dissident movement its name. By the time Constantine took over the province, the African Church was deeply divided. The Donatists would not be reconciled to the

759:

executed on November 18, 303. The boldness of this Christian displeased Diocletian, and he left the city and made for Nicomedia to spend the winter, accompanied by Galerius.

969:

terms of a universal peace. The terms of this peace were posted by the victorious Licinius at Nicomedia on June 13, 313. Later ages have taken to calling the document the "

1847:, he was perceived as intending to diminish the Church and deny sacred history. He was attacked for his suspected irreligion in print. The contemporary classical scholar 8284:

Schott, Jeremy M. (2005). "Porphyry on Christians and Others: "Barbarian Wisdom," Identity Politics, and Anti-Christian Polemics on the Eve of the Great Persecution".

1889: 1513: 5704:

6 (1958), 99–107. The same punishment was later used on Christian heretics, on which see Mark Gustafson, "Condemnation to the Mines in the Later Roman Empire,"

533:

Within the highest ranks of the imperial administration, however, there were men who were ideologically opposed to the toleration of Christians, like the philosopher

9295: 8690: 6369:

Keresztes, 389. On the Egyptian response to the persecutions, see also: Annemarie Luijendijk, "Papyri from the Great Persecution: Roman and Christian Perspectives,"

2149:

48.2–12) is a letter to the governor of Bithynia, and was presumably posted in Nicomedia after Licinius had taken the city from Maximinus. Eusebius's version (

1242:

had been listed—a "glaring" absence, in the opinion of historian John Curran. Within forty years, Donatists began spreading rumors that Marcellinus had been a

7168: 1958:

The Palestinian Talmud records that when Diocletian paid a visit to the region, he decreed that "sacrifices should be offered by all the people except the Jews".

1829: 907:

In the West, however, what remained after the Diocletianic settlement had weakened the Tetrarchy as a system of government. Constantine, son of Constantius, and

1678:

on April 30, 313; the now-powerless Maximinus committed suicide at Tarsus in the summer of 313. On June 13, Licinius published the Edict of Milan in Nicomedia.

8879: 2162:

These figures count only the total number of martyrdoms, not the number of individuals martyred. Davies takes his figures from martyrs' acts collected by the

1275:

for the city and countryside of Rome for the first time in the history of the empire) to declare himself emperor. On October 28, 306, Maxentius convinced the

1097:, in a passage on the origins of the early persecution edicts, criticizes Davies' over-reliance on these "dubious martyr acts" and dismisses his conclusions. 9208: 8839: 8834: 84:, where only the first edict was applied, and strongest in the Eastern provinces. Persecutory laws were nullified by different emperors (Galerius with the 440:. This connection between god and emperor helped to legitimize the emperors' claims to power and tied imperial government closer to the traditional cult. 8556: 239:

in 177, it was only the intervention of civil authorities that stopped a pagan mob from dragging Christians from their houses and beating them to death.

1949:

Although some members of the laity were persecuted, the primary targets of official action were always the clergy and the more prominent lay Christians.

137:

in 306, restored Christians to full legal equality and returned property that had been confiscated during the persecution. In Italy in 306, the usurper

8914: 8712: 184:

historians using texts and archeological evidence from the period assert that this position is in error. Christian accounts were criticized during the

8745: 2756:

Bowman, "Diocletian", 70–71; Corcoran, "Before Constantine", 40; Liebeschuetz, 235–52, 240–43; Odahl, 43–44; Williams, 58–59.

1230: 443:

Diocletian did not insist on exclusive worship of Jupiter and Hercules, which would have been a drastic change in the pagan tradition. For example,

8949: 9613: 9608: 9370: 9223: 8667: 8601: 1296:

was elected on July 2, 311, as Maxentius prepared to face Constantine in battle. Miltiades sent two deacons with letters from Maxentius to the

7454:

Beatrice, Pier Franco (1993). "Antistes Philosophiae. Ein Christenfeindlicher Propagandist am Hofe Diokletians nach dem Zeugnis des Laktanz".

1616:

The next few months saw the worst extremes of the persecution. On December 13, 309, Firmilianus condemned some Egyptians arrested at Ascalon (

1547:

Eusebius characterizes Urbanus as a man who enjoyed some variety in his punishments. One day, shortly after Easter 307, he ordered the virgin

661:, diviners of omens from sacrificed animals, were unable to read the sacrificed animals and failed to do so after repeated trials. The master 133:

for guidance. The oracle's reply was read as an endorsement of Galerius's position, and a general persecution was called on February 23, 303.

9390: 8874: 8611: 1303:

Outside Rome, there are fewer sure details of the progress and effects of the persecution in Italy, and the number of deaths is unclear. The

214: 1385:

were eliminated. One individual named Peter was stripped, raised high, and scourged. Salt and vinegar were poured in his wounds, and he was

1381:. An investigation into the act was commissioned, but no responsible party was found. Executions followed. The palace eunuchs Dorotheus and 9203: 9198: 8919: 200:, have attempted to determine whether Christian sources exaggerated the scope of the Diocletianic persecution, but disagreements continue. 693:

was corrupted in the translation to Latin and that Eusebius's text originally located the beginnings of the army persecution at a fort in

9465: 2358: 404: 8760: 8682: 2093:

The edict might not actually have been an "edict" in the technical sense; Eusebius does not refer to it as such, and the passage in the

1735: 392:. 260–268), ended the persecution and inaugurated nearly 40 years of freedom from official sanctions, praised by Eusebius as the " 116:

or face imprisonment and execution, but there is no evidence that these edicts were specifically intended to attack Christianity. After

9641: 9448: 3585:

Iain Gardner and Samuel N. C. Lieu, eds., Manichaean Texts from the Roman Empire (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2004), 117–18.

849:

forced upon it. Eusebius writes that the edict netted so many priests that ordinary criminals were crowded out and had to be released.

8954: 1093:

that are incomplete and only partially reliable, point to a heavier persecution under Diocletian than under Galerius. The historian

9712: 9365: 9260: 169:

punishment. The persecution did, however, cause many churches to split between those who had complied with imperial authority (the

9345: 8549: 1267:, if it ever actually happened, is unclear. There appears to have been a break in the episcopal succession since his successor, 1191:, his deacon, for reasons that remain obscure. In 311, Caecilian was elected bishop of Carthage. His opponents charged that his 961: 415:

Diocletian, acclaimed emperor on November 20, 284, was a religious conservative, faithful to the traditional Roman cult. Unlike

9315: 8722: 1747: 8523: 9375: 9350: 9270: 8400: 8362: 8322: 8098:

Nicholson, Oliver (1989). "Flight from Persecution as Imitation of Christ: Lactantius' Divine Institutes IV. 18, 1–2".

7973: 7914: 7780: 7742: 7694: 7301: 3885: 2221: 1315:

around, refusing to surrender them. Euplus was arrested on April 29, 304, tried, and martyred on August 12. According to the

1260:. The latter work states that the bishop had indeed apostatized but redeemed himself through martyrdom a few days afterward. 631:, Georgia. Christian tradition places the martyrdom of St. George, formerly a Roman army officer, in the reign of Diocletian. 617: 3697:, 21; Elliott, 35–36; Keresztes, 381; Lane Fox, 595; Liebeschuetz, 235–52, 246–48; Odahl, 67; Potter, 338. 1532:

the influx of Christian prisoners, Egyptian penitents were increasingly sent to the copper mines at Phaeno in Palestine and

9385: 9360: 9340: 9310: 9265: 8934: 1284:

the Romans would not open the gates for his defeated, retreating army, but opened them only for the conqueror Constantine.

1994:

Clarke argues against reading a large advancement in either the numbers or the social status of Christians into this data.

1470:

Palestine is the only region for which an extended local perspective of the persecution exists, in the form of Eusebius's

9410: 9380: 2106: 1334: 271:). Among the more credulous, Christians were thought to use black magic in pursuit of revolutionary aims and to practise 1349:

river and drowned. Constantine entered the city the next day but declined to take part in the traditional ascent up the

9631: 9538: 9420: 9400: 9395: 9290: 8735: 8672: 8644: 8542: 1509:: "the lordship of many is not a good thing; let there be one ruler, one king". The governor beheaded the man at once. 1366: 1085: 889: 1851:

mocked Gibbon, writing that his humanity never slept, "unless when women are ravished, or the Christians persecuted".

1389:

over an open flame. The executions continued until at least April 24, 303, when six individuals, including the bishop

682: 9692: 9677: 9672: 9325: 9320: 8944: 8457: 8438: 8419: 8381: 8253: 8168: 8147: 8128: 8051: 8032: 7992: 7954: 7799: 7761: 7672: 7649: 7630: 7602: 7551: 7532: 7513: 7494: 7320: 6952: 2801:

617, 641, 618; Frend, "Prelude", 3; Lane Fox, 593. See also Millar, 182, on Tetrarchic triumphalism in the Near East.

2459:, ed. Alan K. Bowman, Edward Champlin, and Andrew Linott (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1996), 869–70. 1501:

and an exorcist. He was brought before the governor on June 7, 303, and asked to sacrifice to the gods and to pour a

1354: 1199:. Many others in Africa, including the Abitinians, also supported Majorinus against Caecilian. Majorinus's successor 587: 1540:, Israel) in the spring of 308, 97 Christian confessors were received by Firmilianus from the porphyry mines in the 9553: 1940:

3.15) undermines Eusebius's picture of Maximin's policy, and vouches for a comparatively light persecution instead.

7640:

Edwards, Mark (2005). "Christianity, A.D. 70–192". In Bowman, Alan; Cameron, Averil; Garnsey, Peter (eds.).

7614:

Pagan and Christian in an Age of Anxiety: Some Aspects of Religious Experience from Marcus Aurelius to Constantine

9280: 8730: 920: 7733:

Frend, W. H. C. (2006). "Persecutions: Genesis and Legacy". In Mitchell, Margaret M.; Young, Frances M. (eds.).

4503:

34.1–5, qtd. and tr. in Potter, 355–56. See Clarke, 656–57, for a translation from J.L. Creed.

145:, promising full religious toleration. Galerius ended the persecution in the East in 311, but it was resumed in 9702: 9697: 9275: 8964: 8924: 8770: 6614:

Iole Fargnoli, "Many Faiths and One Emperor: Remarks about the Religious Legislation of Theodosius the Great,"

2797: 1769:

In future generations, both Christians and pagans would look back on Diocletian as, in the words of theologian

1712: 726:, were denounced in the presence of the proconsul of Africa. On March 31, 302, in an official edict called the 373:

of Smyrna. Origen was tortured during the persecution and died about a year after from the resulting injuries.

7485:

Clarke, Graeme (2005). "Third-Century Christianity". In Bowman, Alan; Cameron, Averil; Garnsey, Peter (eds.).

817: 8792: 1078:

Map of the Roman Empire under the Tetrarchy, showing the dioceses and the four Tetrarchs' zones of influence.

1728:

court, he gave his brother power of attorney, and had him do it instead. Many simply fled. Eusebius, in his

1512:

Further martyrdoms followed in the months thereafter, increasing in the next spring, when the new governor,

1246:

and that he had even sacrificed to the pagan gods. The tale was embroidered in the 5th-century forgery the "

479:

before him, styled himself a "restorer". He urged the public to see his reign and his governing system, the

7964:

Leadbetter, William (2004). "From Constantine to Theodosius (and Beyond)". In Esler, Philip Francis (ed.).

7664: 6986:

History of the Martyrs in Palestine by Eusebius of Caesarea, Discovered in a Very Antient Syriac Manuscript

1833:(1776), Gibbon claims that Christians had greatly exaggerated the scale of the persecutions they suffered: 1342: 409: 396:". The peace was undisturbed, save for occasional, isolated persecutions, until Diocletian became emperor. 312: 1812:

are even remotely historical. These traditional accounts were first questioned in the Enlightenment, when

9687: 1878: 1860: 1770: 1317: 1287:

On April 18, 308, Maxentius allowed the Christians to hold another election for the city's bishop, which

1220:

died in 304, during the persecution, but how he died is disputed among historians: Eusebius wrote in his

1128:, the first British Christian martyr, was once dated to this era, but most now assign it to the reign of 527: 484: 2003:

Clarke cautions, however, that this shift in attitudes may simply be an artifact of the source material.

1711:, the Church split into two sections: the "Catholic Church", under Peter, and, after Peter's execution, 1397:

he had instituted a new era of security and peace; Lactantius saw the beginning of a cosmic revolution.

677:

bloodshed in Lactantius's narrative, Christians in the imperial household must have survived the event.

447:

had tried fostering his own god and no others and had failed dramatically. Diocletian built temples for

432:

when you worship them so fervently." Diocletian associated himself with the head of the Roman pantheon,

242:

To the followers of the traditional cults, Christians were odd creatures: not quite Roman but not quite

9568: 9528: 9355: 8652: 6740:

The Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire, (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1988), 128, 128 n.109.

1646: 1578:

In the autumn of 309, Maximinus resumed persecution by issuing letters to provincial governors and his

1564: 1362: 1247: 805: 393: 8528: 598:, writing during Diocletian's reign, attributes financial concerns to provisioners of pagan services: 494:

Persecution was not the only outlet of the Tetrarchy's moral fervor. In 295, either Diocletian or his

254:, avoided public office, and publicly criticized ancient traditions. Conversions tore families apart: 9508: 9498: 8889: 8740: 8568: 7590: 1108: 792:

On February 23, 303, Diocletian ordered that the newly built Christian church at Nicomedia be razed,

45: 8534: 7794:. The Cambridge History of the Bible. Vol. 3 (Paperback ed.). Cambridge University Press. 7149: 1899: 1895: 1632:

remains, like stone inscriptions; Eusebius does not mention Valentinianus anywhere in his writings.

751:

Diocletian was in Antioch in the autumn of 302, when the next instance of persecution occurred. The

296: 9533: 9458: 9438: 9405: 8849: 8573: 7089: 1884: 1645:

been made at Maximinus's behest. Maximinus began persecuting Church leaders before the end of 311.

1490: 9178: 9173: 7687:

Martyrdom and persecution in the early church: a study of a conflict from the Maccabees to Donatus

1608: 1148:

Africa had produced martyrs even in the years immediately prior to the Great Persecution. In 298,

925:

In the East, the persecution was officially discontinued on April 30, 311, although martyrdoms in

28:

flogged in the presence of Emperor Diocletian. Byzantine artwork, from the crypt of the church of

9470: 9415: 8939: 8002:

Löhr, Winrich (2002). "Some Observations on Karl-Heinz Schwarte's 'Diokletians Christengesetz'".

7263:

Barnes, Timothy D. (1976). "Sossianus Hierocles and the Antecedents of the "Great Persecution"".

3678:

it was impossible for (the oracle) to speak the truth because of the righteous men upon the Earth

1923:). These arguments were less effective as time went on, since Christians were visibly apolitical. 1762:) and those who had refused. In Africa, the Donatists, who protested the election of the alleged 569:, dined repeatedly at the imperial court. Diocletian was surrounded by an anti-Christian clique. 29: 572:

Porphyry was somewhat restrained in his criticism of Christianity, at least in his early works,

8909: 8864: 8391:

Tilley, Maureen A. (2006). "North Africa". In Mitchell, Margaret M.; Young, Frances M. (eds.).

8061:

Mitchell, Stephen (1988). "Maximinus and the Christians in A.D. 312: A New Latin Inscription".

7157: 2293: 1855: 1788: 1156:, had been tried for refusing to follow military discipline; in Mauretania in 298, the soldier 636: 582: 534: 197: 8518: 9285: 9091: 9060: 8959: 8929: 8904: 7754:

There Is No Crime for Those Who Have Christ: Religious Violence in the Christian Roman Empire

5315: 2153:

10.5.2–14) is probably a copy sent to the governor of Palestine and posted in Caesarea.

1809: 1708: 1700: 1560: 1390: 1149: 701: 220: 113: 89: 8657: 6805:

Gibbon and the 'Watchmen of the Holy City': The Historian and his Reputation 1776–1815

1575:

his role in the imperial government, and did not have the time to deal with the Christians.

530:

has suggested, the long-established Church had become another accepted part of their lives.

423:. 270–275), Diocletian did not foster any new cult of his own. He preferred the older 9475: 9335: 9238: 9168: 8894: 6913: 1330: 1157: 855: 465: 370: 366: 185: 8695: 369:, were arrested, tried and executed, as were certain members of the Christian laity, like 231:, was sent long lists of denunciations of Christians by anonymous citizens, which Emperor 8: 9707: 9651: 9593: 9588: 9583: 9213: 8624: 8490: 6985: 3839:, 22; Clarke, 650; Liebeschuetz, 249–50; Potter, 337; de Ste Croix, "Aspects", 75. 1738:("when they persecute you in this city, flee ye into another") in support of the tactic. 1730: 1675: 1162: 901: 755: 550: 538: 433: 251: 228: 68: 4010:, 179; Williams, 176. The quotation is from Lactantius, and the translation by Williams. 3681: 9603: 9578: 9518: 9482: 9117: 9034: 8829: 8765: 8662: 8629: 8619: 8593: 8301: 8232: 8203: 8195: 8086: 8078: 7863: 7834: 7826: 7721: 7578: 7442: 7413: 7384: 7351: 7347: 7280: 7251: 7243: 1920: 1805: 1775: 1579: 1517: 1369:. Under Constantine's rule, Christianity became the prime focus of official patronage. 1308: 1256: 381: 362: 304: 150: 109: 21: 8812: 6786:(Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2010), ix–xi, 34; Patricia B. Craddock, 3684:

by Arthur James Mason M.A.; Deighton Bell and Co publishers, Cambridge, 1876; page 63.

1165:, another group martyred on February 12, 304 in Carthage, and the martyrs of Milevis ( 9647: 9019: 8797: 8705: 8488:

Woods, David (2001). "'Veturius' and the Beginning of the Diocletianic Persecution".

8453: 8434: 8415: 8396: 8377: 8358: 8318: 8305: 8249: 8236: 8207: 8164: 8143: 8124: 8090: 8047: 8028: 7988: 7969: 7950: 7910: 7867: 7838: 7795: 7776: 7757: 7738: 7725: 7690: 7668: 7645: 7626: 7598: 7547: 7528: 7509: 7490: 7446: 7316: 7297: 7255: 6948: 3881: 3318: 2405:, 87–93; Edwards, 579; Frend, "Genesis and Legacy", 506–8, citing Pliny, 2217: 2135:

Gaddis writes that the quotation may be a slur on Galerius's trans-Danubian ancestry.

1650: 1548: 1475: 1338: 1322: 1129: 825: 666: 651:

records that at Antioch some time in 299, the emperors were engaged in sacrifice and

326: 276: 224: 9142: 7506:

The Empire of the Tetrarchs, Imperial Pronouncements and Government AD 284–324

9598: 9563: 9548: 9492: 9443: 8899: 8869: 8755: 8750: 8700: 8499: 8476: 8341: 8293: 8272: 8224: 8187: 8107: 8070: 8011: 7933: 7893: 7855: 7818: 7713: 7570: 7434: 7405: 7376: 7343: 7272: 7235: 3329:, 18–19; Davies, 78–79; Helgeland, 159; Liebeschuetz, 246–8; Odahl, 65. 1498: 1479: 1386: 1326: 1276: 1268: 1217: 930: 559: 424: 376:

The Decian persecution was a grave blow to the Church. At Carthage, there was mass

321: 193: 85: 1967:

The edict illegalized sibling marriage, which had long been customary in the East.

427:. Nonetheless, Diocletian did wish to inspire a general religious revival. As the 9523: 9228: 9122: 9024: 8859: 8854: 8844: 8824: 8782: 8777: 8158: 2035:(written in the 10th century) that Porphyry only "survived until of Diocletian". 1801: 1746:

of Christianity which it could have won in no other way." After Constantine, the

1350: 1341:

narrowly escaped martyrdom. Constantine confronted and defeated Maxentius at the

1297: 1204: 1116:, but lists Gaul as an area suffering from the effects of the persecution in his 957:, "on a par with Judaism", and secured Christians' property, among other things. 483:(rule by four emperors), as a renewal of traditional Roman values and, after the 338: 7704:

Frend, W. H. C. (1987). "Prelude to the Great Persecution: The Propaganda War".

6631:(Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1997), 122. See also: MacMullen, vii, and 2053:. (For, although Eusebius dates the defeat to 302, it actually occurred in 297.) 888:

Diocletian and Maximian resigned on May 1, 305. Constantius and Galerius became

9573: 9543: 9453: 9147: 9127: 8884: 8807: 8787: 8263:

de Sainte-Croix, G. E. M. (1963). "Why Were the Early Christians Persecuted?".

7884:

Keresztes, Paul (1983). "From the Great Persecution To the Peace of Galerius".

1981: 1848: 1793: 1724: 1494: 1293: 1200: 1094: 970: 953: 897: 869: 801: 723: 495: 358: 162: 158: 97: 8503: 8228: 8015: 7717: 7438: 3300:, 1.24, qtd. in Davies, 79–80, from a translation by Bryce and Campbell. 2468:

Clarke, 616; Frend, "Genesis and Legacy", 510; de Ste-Croix, "Persecuted?", 7.

816:, veterans, and soldiers were deprived of their ranks; and Christian imperial 9666: 9513: 9137: 9086: 8993: 7877:

The Later Roman Empire, 284–602: A Social, Economic and Administrative Survey

7561:

Davies, P. S. (1989). "The Origin and Purpose of the Persecution of AD 303".

7152:, Transcribed at tertullian.org by Roger Pearse, 2006. Accessed June 9, 2009. 7126: 6384:

Athanasius and Constantius: Theology and Politics in the Constantinian Empire

5310: 3042:

8.6.2–4, 8.9.7, 8.11.2, cited in Keresztes, 379; Potter, 337, 661 n.16.

1821: 1813: 1797: 1552: 1288: 1280: 1176:, a schismatic movement that forbade any compromise with Roman government or 960:

Not all have been so enthusiastic. The 17th-century ecclesiastical historian

933:, also called Edict of Toleration by Galerius, was issued in 311 in Serdica ( 873: 513: 255: 189: 81: 53: 8345: 8178:

Rives, J. B. (1999). "The Decree of Decius and the Religion of the Empire".

7897: 7809:

Helgeland, John (1974). "Christians and the Roman Army A.D. 173–337".

7196: 7106: 7074: 7044: 7011: 6972: 6893: 5279: 883: 9682: 9305: 9193: 9163: 8819: 8480: 8332:

Sherwin-White, A. N. (1952). "The Early Persecutions and Roman Law Again".

8297: 7937: 7859: 3750: 3740:, 22; Clarke, 650; Potter, 337; de Ste Croix, "Aspects", 75; Williams, 176. 2251:

Frend, "Genesis and Legacy", 511; de Ste-Croix, "Persecuted?", 15–16.

1751: 1659: 1195:

made him unworthy of the office and declared itself for another candidate,

864: 793: 743:

The Christians of the empire were vulnerable to the same line of thinking.

639:

in 299, co-emperors Diocletian and Galerius traveled from Persia to Syrian

622: 563: 456: 125:

a general persecution of the Christians. Diocletian was wary and asked the

49: 8276: 8111: 7924:

Knipfing, J. R. (1922). "The Edict of Galerius (311 A.D.) re-considered".

7574: 2592:

E. Leigh Gibson, "Jewish Antagonism or Christian Polemic: The Case of the

9300: 9188: 9183: 9132: 9096: 8519:

A Chronological Chart of the Persecution with primary sources hyperlinked

4570:

Mémoires pour servir à l'histoire ecclésiastique des six premiers siècles

2062:

Davies disputes Barnes' identification of Constantine's unnamed emperor (

1625: 1239: 1188: 1166: 1125: 763: 719: 555: 546: 461: 354: 175:), and those who had remained "pure". Certain schisms, like those of the 146: 121: 25: 7582: 7355: 3916:

Clarke, 650–51; Potter, 337; de Ste Croix, "Aspects", 75–76.

3222:, qtd. and tr. Frend, "Prelude", 10 n.64. See also: Barnes, "Porphyry's 1854:

Some later historians, however, took Gibbon's emphases even further. As

914: 9558: 9330: 9050: 8393:

The Cambridge History of Christianity, Volume I: Origins to Constantine

7830: 7735:

The Cambridge History of Christianity, Volume I: Origins to Constantine

7417: 7388: 7180: 7024: 5735:

Annuaire de l'Institut de Philologie et d'Histoire Orientales et Slaves

4931:

13.1 (= Musurillo, 106–31), cited in Tilley, "North Africa", 391.

4542:

Knipfing, 705; K. Bihlmeyer, "Das Toleranzedikt des Galerius von 311",

3663:

2.50. Davies (80 n.75) believes that this should be re-written as "the

2163: 1621: 893: 652: 648: 566: 468:

used. Unity in worship was central to Diocletian's religious policies.

444: 259: 142: 56: 8215:

de Sainte-Croix, G. E. M. (1954). "Aspects of the Great Persecution".

8199: 8082: 7284: 7247: 7150:

Quick links to the separate books and parts of ‘Against the Donatists’

3642:

Schott, "Porphyry on Christians", 278; Beatrice, 1–47; Digeser,

2111:

exiit edictum a Caesare Augusto ut profiteretur universus orbis terrae

1153: 9070: 9065: 8564: 7756:. Berkeley, Los Angeles, and London: University of California Press. 7523:

Corcoran, Simon (2006). "Before Constantine". In Lenski, Noel (ed.).

7211:

Donatist Martyr Stories: The Church in Conflict in Roman North Africa

6678:, ed. Paul Fouracre (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2005), 21. 4202:, 181–82; de Ste Croix, "Aspects", 76–77; Keresztes, 383. 2213: 1629: 1592: 1556: 1537: 1382: 1196: 1184: 1178: 1142: 1089:. Davies argues that the figures, although reliant on collections of 926: 908: 694: 518: 480: 428: 385: 292: 243: 180: 171: 138: 117: 112:, Roman subjects including Christians were compelled to sacrifice to 8412:

Early Christian Historiography: Narratives of redistributive justice

7822: 7409: 7380: 6989:. London: Williams & Norgate, 1861. Accessed September 28, 2009. 6790:(Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1989), 60–61, 122. 841:

In the summer of 303, following a series of rebellions in Melitene (

250:. Christians rejected public festivals, refused to take part in the 9055: 9014: 8191: 8074: 7276: 7239: 6873: 6829:, trans. R.H. Bainton (New York: Harper & Row, 1972), 13 n. 11. 2570:

Clarke, 625–27; Frend, "Genesis and Legacy", 513; Rives, 135.

1817: 1655: 1617: 1598: 1567:, was a veteran soldier and one of Maximinus's trusted confidants. 1502: 1238:, or calendar of feasts, where all Marcellinus's predecessors from 1173: 877: 846: 813: 678: 657: 595: 542: 499: 472: 437: 416: 377: 334: 288: 176: 154: 93: 64: 60: 8315:

Christianity, Empire, and the Making of Religion in Late Antiquity

3391:

8.4.2–3; Barnes, "Sossianus Hierocles", 246; Helgeland, 159.

2126:

This apparently included any house in which scriptures were found.

2029:

Later dates are possible, but discouraged by the statement in the

9218: 7330:

Barnes, Timothy D. (1994). "Scholarship or Propaganda? Poprphyry

7226:

Barnes, Timothy D. (1968). "Legislation Against the Christians".

3754: 3477:, 20; Corcoran, "Before Constantine", 51; Odahl, 54–56, 62. 1541: 1533: 1525: 1358: 1074: 842: 809: 644: 640: 452: 264: 7846:

Hopkins, Keith (1998). "Christian Number and Its Implications".

7478:

The Church in Ancient Society: From Galilee to Gregory the Great

7425:

Baynes, Norman H. (1924). "Two Notes on the Great Persecution".

9029: 7642:

The Cambridge Ancient History, Volume XII: The Crisis of Empire

7487:

The Cambridge Ancient History, Volume XII: The Crisis of Empire

2103:

exiit edictum imperatorum et Caesarum super omnem faciem terrae

2050: 1378: 1312: 884:

Abdications, instability, and renewed toleration, 305–311

776: 772: 768: 752: 476: 346: 316: 284: 272: 258:

tells of a pagan husband who denounced his Christian wife, and

246:

either. Their practices were deeply threatening to traditional

232: 130: 126: 105: 4940:

Edwards, 585; Tilley, "North Africa", 387, 395; Williams, 179.

4219:, 24; Liebeschuetz, 249–50; de Ste Croix, "Aspects", 77. 3818:, 22; De Ste Croix, "Aspects", 75; Liebeschuetz, 249–50. 2383:

Dodds, 111–12, 112 n.1; de Ste-Croix, "Persecuted?", 20.

9101: 8802: 5420:, 24; Lane Fox, 596; Williams, 178. See also: Keresztes, 382. 2535:, 17.1; Frend, "Genesis and Legacy", 511. Timothy Barnes, at 2012:

Aurelius Victor describes the circle around Diocletian as an

1859:

Christians rather than their persecutors. Anglican historian

1723:

The Diocletianic persecution was ultimately unsuccessful. As

1704: 1506: 1346: 934: 829: 796:, and its treasures seized. February 23 was the feast of the 706: 669:

during the ceremonies and were alleged to have disrupted the

628: 247: 196:

and secular tenor of that period. Modern historians, such as

72: 7544:

Pagan City and Christian Capital: Rome in the Fourth Century

1345:

outside Rome on October 28, 312; Maxentius retreated to the

734:

and addressed to the proconsul of Africa, Diocletian wrote:

161:. Constantine and Licinius, Severus's successor, signed the 100:

in 313 has traditionally marked the end of the persecution.

9009: 8467:

Woods, David (1992). "Two Notes on the Great Persecution".

5943:

Patrology, volume I: The Beginnings of Patristic Literature

2966:

The Rise of Christianity: A Sociologist Reconsiders History

2583:

6.39.4; Clarke, 632, 634; Frend, "Genesis and Legacy", 514.

2451:

G. W. Clarke, "The origins and spread of Christianity," in

2031: 1409: 448: 300: 236: 77: 8395:. New York: Cambridge University Press. pp. 381–396. 7737:. New York: Cambridge University Press. pp. 503–523. 7644:. New York: Cambridge University Press. pp. 573–588. 7489:. New York: Cambridge University Press. pp. 589–671. 4754:

Corcoran, "Before Constantine", 45–46; Williams, 67.

4296:, 26–27; Odahl, 72–74; Southern, 152–53. 1890:

List of Christians martyred during the reign of Diocletian

1824:

questioned traditional accounts of the Christian martyrs.

2679:

7.10.3, qtd. and tr. in Frend, "Genesis and Legacy", 515.

2442:

5.1 (= Musurillo, 62–85); Edwards, 587; Frend, 508.

2429:(= Musurillo, 86–89), cited in Frend, 510 (Scilli). 2176: 2117:. The text of the edict itself does not actually survive. 1292:

three years, until Maxentius permitted another election.

337:

forbidding conversion to either Judaism or Christianity.

303:

executed Christians for their alleged involvement in the

7909:. Washington: The Catholic University of America Press. 7623:

Constantine and the Bishops: The Politics of Intolerance

7527:. New York: Cambridge University Press. pp. 35–58. 7365:

Constantine and the Bishops: The Politics of Intolerance

6807:(New York: Oxford University Press, 2002), 184–185 n.39. 5280:"Santi Canzio, Canziano e Canzianilla su santiebeati.it" 2361:, cited in Frend, "Genesis and Legacy", 504; Dodds, 110. 1980:. Hopkins' study is cited at Potter, 314. The historian 1405: 1172:

The persecution in Africa encouraged the development of

1124:) from the persecutions under Constantius. The death of 8374:

The Bible in Christian North Africa: The Donatist World

2482:

The Classical World: An Epic History of Greece and Rome

1635: 16:

Persecution of Christians in the Roman Empire (303–313)

4228:

Baynes, "Two Notes", 189; de Ste Croix, "Aspects", 77.

2519:

3.9, qtd. and tr. in Frend, "Genesis and Legacy", 512.

2476: 2474: 1120:. A group of bishops declared that "Gaul was immune" ( 828:

was executed on June 7, and the edict was in force at

399: 8840:

Genocide of Serbs in the Independent State of Croatia

7595:

The Making of a Christian Empire: Lactantius and Rome

4168:, 181–82; de Ste Croix, "Aspects", 76–77. 3508:

Jones, 71; Liebeschuetz, 235–52, 246–48.

3055:

15.2, cited in Keresztes, 379; Potter, 337, 661 n.16.

2853:

5.4, qtd. and tr. in Curran, 48. See also: Dodd, 111.

2049:

associates the persecution with Galerius's defeat by

915:

The Peace of Galerius and the Edict of Milan, 311–313

7905:

Klingshirn, William E.; Safran, Linda, eds. (2007).

7469:

Martyrdom and Memory: Early Christian Culture Making

6945:

The History of the Church from Christ to Constantine

6386:(Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1993), 10. 5928:, 153; Keresztes, 384; Lane Fox, 596; Mitchell, 112. 4572:(Paris, 1693), 5.44, qtd. and tr. in Keresztes, 390. 2773: 2771: 2370:

Frend, "Genesis and Legacy", 504, citing Suetonius,

833:

officially halted when Maxentius took power in 306.

498:(subordinate emperor) Galerius issued an edict from 436:; his co-emperor, Maximian, associated himself with 219:

From its first appearance to its legalization under

7773:

History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire

6396: 6394: 6392: 4546:94 (1912) 412; and J. Vogt, "Christenverflolgung", 3710:, 22; Clarke, 650; Odahl, 67–69; Potter, 337. 2731: 2729: 2471: 2113:"). Elsewhere in the passion, the text is called a 1830:

History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire

836: 746: 8915:1998 attacks on Christians in southeastern Gujarat 8880:Persecution of Christians in the post–Cold War era 8835:Persecution of Jehovah's Witnesses in Nazi Germany 8713:Captivity of Mangalorean Catholics at Seringapatam 8355:The Great Persecution: A Historical Re-examination 8317:. Philadelphia: University of Philadelphia Press. 6788:Edward Gibbon: Luminous Historian, 1772–1794 5516: 5514: 5331:, 42–44; Odahl, 111. Cf. also Curran, 72–75. 3925:Clarke, 650; de Ste Croix, "Aspects", 75–76. 2640:Frend, "Genesis and Legacy", 514, citing Cyprian, 1357:. Constantine's army had advanced on Rome under a 1228:. Marcellinus appears in the 4th-century Church's 8431:The Warrior Saints in Byzantine Art and Tradition 7525:The Cambridge Companion to the Age of Constantine 6769:, (New York: Harper & Brothers, 1839), 1:327. 6670:Richard Gerberding, "The later Roman Empire," in 6044: 6042: 4948: 4946: 4639:45.1, 48.2, qtd. and tr. in Clarke, 662–63. 3880:. Vol. 1. Casemate Publishers. p. 276. 3682:The Persecution of Diocletian: A Historical Essay 2768: 2506:, 113–14; Frend, "Genesis and Legacy", 511. 1505:for the emperors. Procopius responded by quoting 863:in the Balkans in March. The edict was in use in 9664: 8950:2008 attacks on Christians in southern Karnataka 7904: 7792:The West from the Reformation to the Present Day 7689:(Reissued ed.). James Clarke Company, U.K. 6389: 4252:Martyrion ton hagion Agapes, Eirenes kai Chiones 4044:, 180; Clarke, 651; Keresztes, 382; Potter, 337. 2964:Lane Fox, 590–92. See also: Rodney Stark, 2726: 2552:6.28, cited in Frend, "Genesis and Legacy", 513. 1976:Hopkins assumes a constant growth rate of 3.35% 1827:In the final chapter of the first volume of his 1279:to support him, mutiny, and invest him with the 325:, a 4th-century history of dubious reliability, 267:, Christians showed "hatred of the human race" ( 8668:Destruction of the Church of the Holy Sepulchre 8262: 8246:Christian Persecution, Martyrdom, and Orthodoxy 8243: 8214: 7771:Gibbon, Edward (1995). Womersley, David (ed.). 7396:Barnes, Timothy D. (2001). "Monotheists All?". 6413:68.3.3, qtd. and tr. in MacMullen, 92–93. 5511: 3972: 3970: 3968: 3966: 2207: 762:Throughout these years the moral and religious 7336:Bulletin of the Institute of Classical Studies 7213:. Liverpool: Liverpool University Press, 1996. 6686: 6684: 6134: 6132: 6039: 5877: 5875: 5399: 5397: 4943: 4649: 4647: 4645: 4580: 4578: 4194:(S), praef. 2; (S) 1.3–4; (L) 1.5b; and 3912: 3910: 3797: 3795: 3793: 3555: 3553: 3325:; Barnes, "Sossianus Hierocles", 245; Barnes, 3226:"; Croke; and Digeser, "Religious Toleration". 2968:(Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1996). 2631:Clarke, 635; Frend, "Genesis and Legacy", 514. 1528:called everyone by name, everyone sacrificed. 8550: 8331: 8163:. Edinburgh, UK: Edinburgh University Press. 7625:. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press. 7146:The Work of St. Optatus Against the Donatists 6521:Drake, 149–53; Lane Fox, 598–601. 2827: 2825: 1520:, for example, though he does not name them. 345:. 235–238) targeted Christian leaders. 215:Persecution of Christians in the Roman Empire 8920:1998 attacks on Christians in Dangs district 7982: 7313:The New Empire of Diocletian and Constantine 7167:Brauunsberg, David, and Roger Pearse, eds. " 7148:. London: Longmans, Green, & Co., 1917. 6629:A History of the Byzantine State and Society 6616:Revue internationale de droit de l’Antiquité 3963: 2875:(New York: Allen Lane, 2007), 499–505. 1932:Clarke argues that other evidence (Cyprian, 8046:. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. 8044:The Roman Near East, 31 B.C.–A.D. 337 7315:. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. 7296:. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. 7169:Porphyry, Against the Christians: Fragments 7107:Of the Manner in Which the Persecutors Died 7000:The Life of the Blessed Emperor Constantine 6891:Bryce, Hamilton, and Hugh Campbell, trans. 6842:, 393–94; Liebeschuetz, 251–52. 6710: 6708: 6681: 6491:4.18.1–2, qtd. and tr. Nicholson, 49. 6129: 5872: 5702:University of Birmingham Historical Journal 5394: 5220: 5177: 4642: 4575: 3907: 3835:praef. 1; and Optatus, Appendix 2; Barnes, 3790: 3550: 3262:Porphyry frg. 60, 63; Frend, "Prelude", 12. 3197:10.29, qtd. and tr. in Frend, "Prelude", 9. 2989:Keresztes, 379; Lane Fox, 587; Potter, 314. 2537:Tertullian: A Historical and Literary Study 1413:Recorded martyrdoms in Palestine (dubious) 892:(senior emperors), while two new emperors, 8557: 8543: 7963: 7789: 5649:de Ste Croix, "Aspects", 97, 113; Barnes, 5376:Corpus Basilicarum Christianarum Romanorum 4083:de Ste Croix, "Christian Persecution", 55. 3947:11.8, qtd. in Clarke, 651; Keresztes, 381. 3857:de Ste Croix, "Christian Persecution", 47. 2920:6.4, qtd. and tr. in Clarke, 649; Barnes, 2822: 2175:S. Lieberman located this event at Lydda ( 1311:, a Christian who dared to carry the holy 192:. This can be attributed to the political 8955:2021 anti-Christian violence in Karnataka 8140:The Roman Empire at Bay: AD 180–395 8097: 8022: 7883: 7808: 7775:. Vol. 1. London: Penguin Classics. 7661:The Christianity of Constantine the Great 6748: 6746: 4732: 4730: 2653:Frend, "Genesis and Legacy", 514, citing 2345:de Ste-Croix, "Persecuted?", 16–17. 1493:, was sent to Caesarea from Scythopolis ( 1337:in Aquileia as well. In Spain the bishop 655:in an attempt to predict the future. The 612: 8447: 8060: 7944: 7923: 7522: 7503: 7475: 7466: 7453: 6705: 6461:2601, tr. J.R. Rhea, quoted in Barnes, " 4631: 4629: 4288: 4286: 3875: 2421:(= Musurillo, 2–21) and Eusebius, 2247: 2245: 2105:") may simply have been written to echo 1685: 1455: 1073: 1067: 712: 616: 408:Head from a statue of Diocletian at the 403: 20: 7985:Continuity and Change in Roman Religion 7968:. London: Routledge. pp. 258–292. 7926:Revue Belge de Philologie et d'Histoire 7845: 7658: 7639: 7589: 6583:50; Dodds, 133; MacMullen, 29–30. 6273:9.9a.7–9; Mitchell, 114–15. 6181:9.7.3–14, cited in Mitchell, 114. 5533:8.6.10, qtd. and tr. in Keresztes, 389. 5153: 5151: 5149: 4843:Christianity in Roman Britain to AD 500 4533:Knipfing, 705, cited in Keresztes, 390. 4529: 4527: 4040:(= Musurillo, 266–71); Corcoran, 3399: 3397: 3283: 3281: 3253:Porphyry frg. 49; Frend, "Prelude", 12. 3244:Porphyry frg. 58; Frend, "Prelude", 12. 3092: 3063: 3061: 2900: 2898: 2705:, 52; Frend, "Genesis and Legacy", 517. 1325:was executed during this period, while 988:Known martyrdoms in the East (Dubious) 9665: 8428: 8409: 8390: 8371: 8312: 8283: 8137: 8041: 7770: 7751: 7560: 7541: 7484: 7471:. New York: Columbia University Press. 7424: 7395: 7362: 7329: 7310: 7291: 7262: 7225: 6743: 4845:(London: Batsford, 1981), 48–50. 4727: 4568:Louis-Sébastien Le Nain de Tillemont, 3757:version is given here, from Corcoran, 2976: 2974: 2918:Mosiacarum et Romanarum Legum Collatio 1400: 1006:Diocletian's provinces (303–305) 732:Collatio Legum Mosaicarum et Romanarum 8538: 8487: 8466: 8248:. New York: Oxford University Press. 8177: 8118: 7874: 7732: 7703: 7684: 7620: 7611: 7095:Book on the Deaths of the Persecutors 6727:de Ste Croix, "Aspects", 103–4. 6552:Lane Fox, 441; MacMullen, 29–30 5945:(Westminster, MD: Newman, 1950), 116. 5902:, 153; Keresztes, 384; Mitchell, 112. 5687:, 152; Keresztes, 384; Mitchell, 112. 4980:(= Musurillo, 250–59); Tilley, 4964:(= Musurillo, 244–49); Tilley, 4745:Clarke, 651; Keresztes, 384–85. 4626: 4283: 2242: 2235: 2233: 1406:Before Galerius's edict of toleration 982: 607: 311:Christians were now rich or from the 208: 9637: 8935:2007 Christmas violence in Kandhamal 8352: 8156: 8121:Constantine and the Christian Empire 8027:. New Haven: Yale University Press. 8001: 7597:. Ithaca: Cornell University Press. 7480:. New York: Oxford University Press. 7363:Barnes, Timothy D. (2000). "Review: 6440:Clarke, 651; Lane Fox, 597–98. 6096:9.1.2, 9.1.3–6; Mitchell, 113. 5146: 4524: 3878:The Early Church at Work and Worship 3394: 3278: 3058: 2895: 2319:Dodds, 115–16, citing Justin, 2201: 1748:Christianization of the Roman empire 1636:After Galerius's edict of toleration 1068:After Davies, pp. 68–69. 1051:Galerius's provinces (305–311) 1023:Galerius's provinces (303–305) 782: 7987:. Oxford: Oxford University Press. 7009:Richardson, Ernest Cushing, trans. 6910:(Berlin: Weidmann, 1892–1916) 6803:(1790), xxviii, qtd. in Womersley, 5442:, 24; Southern, 168; Williams, 177. 5374:Curran, 93–96, citing Krautheimer, 4121:, 181; de Ste Croix, "Aspects", 76. 3347:Barnes, "Sossianus Hierocles", 245. 2971: 2747:11(3)6, qtd. and tr. Williams, 162. 1263:What followed Marcellinus's act of 1100: 400:Persecution and Tetrarchic ideology 13: 9539:Forty Martyrs of England and Wales 8736:1843 and 1846 massacres in Hakkari 8286:Journal of Early Christian Studies 8244:de Sainte-Croix, G. E. M. (2006). 7983:Liebeschuetz, J. H. W. G. (1979). 7848:Journal of Early Christian Studies 7348:10.1111/j.2041-5370.1994.tb00451.x 6970:McGiffert, Arthur Cushman, trans. 6866: 6672:The New Cambridge Medieval History 6371:Journal of Early Christian Studies 6168:36.7, qtd. and tr. in Clarke, 660. 6109:9.2.1; Clarke, 660; Mitchell, 114. 4929:Martyrium Perpetuae et Felicitatis 4147:, 24; de Ste Croix, "Aspects", 76. 3934:Clarke, 650–51; Potter, 337. 2765:Curran, 47; Williams, 58–59. 2598:Journal of Early Christian Studies 2336:Castelli, 38; Gaddis, 30–31. 2230: 1649:was beheaded on November 26, 311. 1335:Cantius, Cantianus and Cantianilla 1210: 333:. 193–211) issued a general 14: 9724: 8945:2008 Kandhamal nun gang rape case 8512: 8450:Diocletian and the Roman Recovery 7706:Journal of Ecclesiastical History 7218: 7121:The Acts of the Christian Martyrs 6478:11.2, qtd. and tr. Nicholson, 50. 6070:, 22–23; Michell, 113 n.21. 5023:, 25–49; Clarke, 652 n.153. 4919:Frend, "Genesis and Legacy", 510. 4828:Optatus, 1.22; Clarke, 651 n.149. 3727:, 21; Gaddis, 29; Keresztes, 381. 3369:Woods, "Two Notes", 128–31. 3171:. 39.48, cited in Keresztes, 381. 2714:Frend, "Genesis and Legacy", 517. 2688:Frend, "Genesis and Legacy", 516. 2666:Frend, "Genesis and Legacy", 514. 2239:Frend, "Genesis and Legacy", 503. 522:deities were losing credibility. 506: 9646: 9636: 9627: 9626: 9554:Martyrs of the Spanish Civil War 7123:. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1972. 6845: 6832: 6819: 6810: 6801:Letters to Mr. Archdeacon Travis 6793: 6772: 6759: 6730: 6721: 6693: 6664: 6655: 6638: 6621: 6608: 6599: 6586: 6573: 6564: 6555: 6546: 6537: 6524: 6515: 6506: 6494: 6481: 6468: 6452: 6443: 6434: 6425: 6416: 6403: 6376: 6363: 6354: 6341: 6338:9.10.10–11; Mitchell, 115. 6328: 6315: 6306: 6293: 6276: 6263: 6250: 6237: 6224: 6211: 6202: 6193: 6184: 6171: 6158: 6145: 6112: 6099: 6086: 6073: 6060: 6051: 6026: 6013: 5996: 5979: 5966: 5957: 5948: 5931: 5914: 5905: 5888: 5859: 5842: 5825: 5808: 5787: 5770: 5753: 5740: 5728: 5711: 5690: 5673: 5656: 5643: 5630: 5613: 5600: 5583: 5566: 5549: 5536: 5523: 5498: 5485: 5476: 5467: 5454: 5445: 5432: 5423: 5410: 5381: 5368: 5351: 5334: 5321: 5296: 5272: 5263: 5246: 5233: 5207: 5190: 5164: 5133: 5120: 5107: 5094: 5081: 5068: 5044: 5035: 5026: 5013: 5000: 4987: 4971: 4955: 4934: 4922: 4913: 4904: 4891: 4878: 4861: 4848: 4831: 4822: 4801: 4788: 4775: 4766: 4757: 4748: 4739: 4718: 4709: 4700: 4691: 4682: 4673: 4660: 4613: 4600: 4591: 4562: 4553: 4536: 4515: 4506: 4493: 4476: 4455: 4446: 4433: 4420: 4407: 4394: 4373: 4360: 4347: 4338: 4325: 4316: 4299: 4274: 4257: 4240: 4231: 4222: 4205: 4180: 4171: 4150: 4133: 4124: 4099: 4086: 4077: 4064: 4057:1.1–2, cited in Corcoran, 4047: 4022: 4013: 3988: 3979: 3950: 3937: 3928: 3919: 3894: 3869: 3860: 3851: 3842: 3821: 3804: 3777: 3764: 3743: 3730: 3713: 3700: 3687: 3670: 3653: 3636: 3619: 3610: 3597: 3588: 3579: 3566: 3537: 3524: 3515: 3502: 3493: 3480: 3467: 3458: 3445: 3424: 3415: 3406: 3381: 3372: 3363: 3350: 3341: 3332: 3312: 3303: 3290: 3089:de Ste-Croix, "Persecuted?", 21. 2622:(New York: Routledge, 1998), 61. 2210:The Early Christian World, Vol.2 2169: 2156: 2138: 2129: 2120: 2087: 2069: 2056: 2038: 1782: 1037:Galerius's provinces (undatable) 837:Second, third, and fourth edicts 747:Diocletian and Galerius, 302–303 188:and afterwards, most notably by 88:in 311) at different times, but 9713:Persecution of early Christians 8731:Constantinople massacre of 1821 8376:. Minneapolis: Fortress Press. 8025:Christianizing the Roman Empire 7790:Greenslade, S. L., ed. (1975). 7467:Castelli, Elizabeth A. (2004). 7144:Vassall-Phillips, O.R., trans. 6534:22, qtd. and tr. in Drake, 150. 6286:9.10.1–2 and Lactantius, 5805:, 152–53; Keresztes, 388. 4070:Optatus, Appendix 1; Corcoran, 3275:, 6; Frend, "Prelude", 13 n.89. 3265: 3256: 3247: 3238: 3229: 3209: 3200: 3187: 3174: 3161: 3144: 3131: 3114: 3105: 3083: 3074: 3045: 3032: 3019: 3010: 3001: 2992: 2983: 2958: 2949: 2940: 2927: 2911: 2878: 2865: 2856: 2843: 2834: 2813: 2804: 2789: 2780: 2759: 2750: 2738: 2717: 2708: 2691: 2682: 2669: 2660: 2657:15 (= Musurillo, 156–57). 2647: 2634: 2625: 2612: 2603: 2586: 2573: 2564: 2555: 2542: 2522: 2509: 2496: 2487: 2462: 2445: 2432: 2412: 2395: 2386: 2377: 2364: 2348: 2339: 2330: 2313: 2023: 2016:; Lactantius describes it as a 2006: 1997: 1988: 1970: 1961: 1952: 1943: 1926: 1912: 1894:4th century in Lebanon §§ 1536:in Asia Minor. At Diocaesarea ( 1497:, Israel), where he had been a 1456:Palestinian martyrdoms recorded 1365:were razed to make way for the 921:Edict of Toleration by Galerius 8925:1998 Ramgiri-Udaygiri violence 8673:Kisrawan campaigns (1292–1305) 8469:Journal of Theological Studies 8334:Journal of Theological Studies 8119:Odahl, Charles Matson (2004). 8100:Journal of Theological Studies 7685:Frend, William H. C. (2008) . 7563:Journal of Theological Studies 7175:. 2006. Accessed June 9, 2009. 7173:Selected Fathers of the Church 7017:Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers 6978:Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers 6940:. 325. Books Eight and Nine. 6908:Inscriptiones Latinae Selectae 6816:de Ste. Croix, "Aspects", 104. 6325:9.10.8–9; Mitchell, 115. 6260:9.9a.5–6; Mitchell, 114. 6234:9.9a.2–3; Mitchell, 114. 6221:9.9a.4–9; Mitchell, 114. 5941:, see also: Johannes Quasten, 4841:, 180, citing Charles Thomas, 4819:13.12; Clarke, 651, 651 n.149. 4550:1199, cited in Keresztes, 390. 4366:Clarke, 655, citing Eusebius, 3960:11.8, cited in Keresztes, 381. 3534:9.9–10; Odahl, 303 n.24. 3271:Porphyry frg. 1, tr. Digeser, 3235:Frend, "Prelude", 10–11. 3184:10.1, cited in Keresztes, 381. 2937:, 20. See also: Lane Fox, 594. 2798:Inscriptiones Latinae Selectae 2484:(Toronto: Penguin, 2006), 576. 2300: 2281: 2272: 2263: 2254: 2192: 1187:, the bishop of the city, and 1086:Journal of Theological Studies 787: 410:Istanbul Archaeological Museum 1: 9609:Eastern Catholics in the USSR 8793:Great Famine of Mount Lebanon 8761:Tự Đức's Catholic persecution 7949:. New York: Alfred A. Knopf. 7334:and its Historical Setting". 7131:Contra Parmenianum Donatistam 6928:. 300, eighth and ninth book 6861: 6290:37.3–42; Mitchell, 115. 5051:Acts of the Abitinian Martyrs 4993:Optatus, Appendix 1; Barnes, 4763:Lane Fox, 596; Williams, 180. 4465:33.11–35 and Eusebius, 2529:Scriptores Historiae Augustae 2208:Philip F. Esler, ed. (2000). 295:; at Lyon in 177, it was the 203: 44:was the last and most severe 8429:Walter, Christopher (2003). 8160:Diocletian and the Tetrarchy 7665:University of Scranton Press 6596:, 48–49, 208–13. 6351:46.8–9; Mitchell, 115. 5835:(L) 8.1; (S) 11.31; Barnes, 5305:, ed. De Rossi; Duchesne in 5143:, 38, 303 n.100; Curran, 49. 4237:de Ste Croix, "Aspects", 77. 3848:de Ste Croix, "Aspects", 75. 3676:The reply was translated as 3141:5.2.3; Frend, "Prelude", 13. 2998:Keresztes, 379; Potter, 314. 2427:Martyrium Scillitanarum acta 2186: 1464:After Clarke, 657–58. 1372: 1343:Battle of the Milvian Bridge 627:. A 14th-century mural from 141:ousted Maximian's successor 7: 8524:"Persecution of Christians" 8372:Tilley, Maureen A. (1997). 7546:. Oxford: Clarendon Press. 7508:. Oxford: Clarendon Press. 7311:Barnes, Timothy D. (1982). 7292:Barnes, Timothy D. (1981). 7119:Musurillo, Herbert, trans. 6965:On the Martyrs of Palestine 6784:Religion: The First Triumph 6718:, 177–80; Curran, 50. 6463:Constantine and the Bishops 6373:16:3 (2008): 341–369. 6057:Clarke, 660; Mitchell, 113. 5187:13.12, qtd. in Clarke, 652. 4469:8.17.1–11; Corcoran, 4335:8.3.1, qtd. in Clarke, 655. 4280:Liebeschuetz, 250–51. 3071:, 21; Clarke, 621–22. 2425:4.15; Frend, 509 (Smyrna); 1879:Acts of Shmona and of Gurya 1871: 1474:. Eusebius was resident in 1318:Martyrologium Hieronymianus 929:continued until May 4. The 728:De Maleficiis et Manichaeis 722:, followers of the prophet 10: 9729: 9569:Saints of the Cristero War 9529:Saint Martyrs of Jasenovac 8960:2010 Manila hostage crisis 8448:Williams, Stephen (1997). 8313:Schott, Jeremy M. (2008). 8217:Harvard Theological Review 8023:MacMullen, Ramsay (1984). 7879:. Oxford: Basil Blackwell. 7591:Digeser, Elizabeth DePalma 7209:Tilley, Maureen A, trans. 7104:Fletcher, William, trans. 7072:Fletcher, William, trans. 7042:Fletcher, William, trans. 5708:87:4 (1994), 421–33. 5706:Harvard Theological Review 5303:Martyrologia Hieronomianum 5256:10.5.15–17; Barnes, 3876:Ferguson, Everett (2014). 3442:, 19, 294; Keresztes, 381. 3124:5.2.12–13; Digeser, 949:non licet esse Christianos 918: 700:Eusebius, Lactantius, and 394:little peace of the Church 235:advised him to ignore. In 212: 9622: 9509:Massacre of the Innocents 9491: 9429: 9251: 9156: 9110: 9079: 9043: 9002: 8986: 8977: 8890:Maluku sectarian conflict 8721: 8681: 8643: 8610: 8592: 8583: 8569:Persecution of Christians 8504:10.1163/15685250152909057 8229:10.1017/S0017816000027504 8138:Potter, David S. (2005). 8016:10.1163/15700720252984846 7966:The Early Christian World 7718:10.1017/S002204690002248X 7439:10.1017/S0009838800007102 6983:Cureton, William, trans. 6947:. London: Penguin, 1989. 6943:Williamson, G.A., trans. 6840:Martyrdom and Persecution 5989:10.1ff, cited in Barnes, 5737:7 (1939–44), 410ff. 4597:Clarke, 657; Potter, 356. 4357:4.8, 9.2; Keresztes, 384. 4355:De Martyribus Palaestinae 4313:, 25–26; Odahl, 71. 4109:8.2.5; 8.6.8–9 and 3434:10.6, 31.1 and Eusebius, 3421:Woods, "'Veturius'", 589. 3412:Woods, "'Veturius'", 588. 2600:9:3 (2001): 339–58. 2453:Cambridge Ancient History 2018:scrutator rerum futurarum 1718: 1624:, both from Anaia, (near 1412: 1333:mention the martyrdom of 1321:, the bishop of Aquileia 1307:records the martyrdom of 1135: 635:At the conclusion of the 574:On the Return of the Soul 46:persecution of Christians 9693:4th-century Christianity 9678:300s in the Roman Empire 9673:Diocletianic Persecution 9459:Violence against Mormons 8635:Diocletianic Persecution 8574:Anti-Christian sentiment 8180:Journal of Roman Studies 8063:Journal of Roman Studies 7945:Lane Fox, Robin (1986). 7907:The Early Christian Book 7875:Jones, A. H. M. (1964). 7752:Gaddis, Michael (2005). 7681:Fox, see Lane Fox, Robin 7504:Corcoran, Simon (1996). 7476:Chadwick, Henry (2001). 7294:Constantine and Eusebius 7265:Journal of Roman Studies 7228:Journal of Roman Studies 7090:De Mortibus Persecutorum 6961:De Martyribus Palestinae 6646:Constantine and Eusebius 6594:Constantine and Eusebius 6532:Oratio ad Sanctum Coetum 6503:, qtd. in Nicholson, 51. 6349:De Mortibus Persecutorum 6288:De Mortibus Persecutorum 6166:De Mortibus Persecutorum 6124:De Mortibus Persecutorum 6034:Constantine and Eusebius 6021:Constantine and Eusebius 6008:Constantine and Eusebius 6004:De Martyribus Palestinae 5991:Constantine and Eusebius 5987:De Martyribus Palestinae 5974:Constantine and Eusebius 5926:Constantine and Eusebius 5922:De Martyribus Palestinae 5900:Constantine and Eusebius 5896:De Martyribus Palestinae 5883:Constantine and Eusebius 5867:Constantine and Eusebius 5854:Constantine and Eusebius 5850:De Martyribus Palestinae 5837:Constantine and Eusebius 5833:De Martyribus Palestinae 5820:Constantine and Eusebius 5816:De Martyribus Palestinae 5803:Constantine and Eusebius 5799:De Martyribus Palestinae 5782:Constantine and Eusebius 5778:De Martyribus Palestinae 5765:Constantine and Eusebius 5761:De Martyribus Palestinae 5748:Constantine and Eusebius 5723:Constantine and Eusebius 5719:De Martyribus Palestinae 5698:De Martyribus Palestinae 5685:Constantine and Eusebius 5681:De Martyribus Palestinae 5668:Constantine and Eusebius 5664:De Mortibus Persecutorum 5651:Constantine and Eusebius 5638:De Martyribus Palestinae 5625:Constantine and Eusebius 5621:De Mortibus Persecutorum 5608:Constantine and Eusebius 5595:Constantine and Eusebius 5591:De Martyribus Palestinae 5578:Constantine and Eusebius 5574:De Martyribus Palestinae 5561:Constantine and Eusebius 5557:De Martyribus Palestinae 5544:Constantine and Eusebius 5506:Constantine and Eusebius 5493:Constantine and Eusebius 5440:Constantine and Eusebius 5418:Constantine and Eusebius 5405:Constantine and Eusebius 5389:Constantine and Eusebius 5363:Constantine and Eusebius 5342:Constantine and Eusebius 5329:Constantine and Eusebius 5258:Constantine and Eusebius 5241:Constantine and Eusebius 5228:Constantine and Eusebius 5215:Constantine and Eusebius 5202:Constantine and Eusebius 5198:De Mortibus Persecutorum 5185:De Martyribus Palestinae 5174:, 38, 303–4 n.105. 5172:Constantine and Eusebius 5159:Constantine and Eusebius 5141:Constantine and Eusebius 5128:Constantine and Eusebius 5115:, Historia Ecclesiastica 5089:Constantine and Eusebius 5057:, 44–46); Tilley, 5008:Constantine and Eusebius 4995:Constantine and Eusebius 4899:Constantine and Eusebius 4886:Constantine and Eusebius 4873:Constantine and Eusebius 4869:De Mortibus Persecutorum 4817:De Martyribus Palestinae 4796:De Mortibus Persecutorum 4637:De Mortibus Persecutorum 4621:Constantine and Eusebius 4586:Constantine and Eusebius 4501:De Mortibus Persecutorum 4463:De Mortibus Persecutorum 4428:Constantine and Eusebius 4415:Constantine and Eusebius 4402:Constantine and Eusebius 4389:Constantine and Eusebius 4381:De Mortibus Persecutorum 4311:Constantine and Eusebius 4307:De Mortibus Persecutorum 4294:Constantine and Eusebius 4269:Constantine and Eusebius 4265:De Martyribus Palestinae 4248:Constantine and Eusebius 4217:Constantine and Eusebius 4213:De Martyribus Palestinae 4192:De Martyribus Palestinae 4188:Constantine and Eusebius 4162:Constantine and Eusebius 4145:Constantine and Eusebius 4115:Constantine and Eusebius 4111:De Martyribus Palestinae 4055:De Martyribus Palestinae 4034:De Martyribus Palestinae 4004:Constantine and Eusebius 3996:De Mortibus Persecutorum 3958:De Mortibus Persecutorum 3945:De Mortibus Persecutorum 3902:Constantine and Eusebius 3837:Constantine and Eusebius 3833:De Martyribus Palestinae 3816:Constantine and Eusebius 3738:Constantine and Eusebius 3725:Constantine and Eusebius 3721:De Mortibus Persecutorum 3708:Constantine and Eusebius 3695:Constantine and Eusebius 3631:Constantine and Eusebius 3627:De Mortibus Persecutorum 3605:Constantine and Eusebius 3561:Constantine and Eusebius 3547:11.1–2; Odahl, 66. 3545:De Mortibus Persecutorum 3532:De Mortibus Persecutorum 3488:Constantine and Eusebius 3475:Constantine and Eusebius 3453:Constantine and Eusebius 3440:Constantine and Eusebius 3432:De Mortibus Persecutorum 3358:Constantine and Eusebius 3327:Constantine and Eusebius 3321:De Mortibus Persecutorum 3182:De Mortibus Persecutorum 3156:Constantine and Eusebius 3100:Constantine and Eusebius 3069:Constantine and Eusebius 3053:De Mortibus Persecutorum 3027:Constantine and Eusebius 2935:Constantine and Eusebius 2922:Constantine and Eusebius 2906:Constantine and Eusebius 2886:Constantine and Eusebius 2147:De Mortibus Persecutorum 2097:which includes the word 2082:De Mortibus Persecutorum 2064:Oratio ad Coetum Sanctum 1905: 1885:Archelais and Companions 1681: 647:). The Christian rhetor 588:residing in pigs' bodies 455:at Rome and a temple to 179:in North Africa and the 8940:2008 Kandhamal violence 8529:Encyclopædia Britannica 8452:. New York: Routledge. 8414:. New York: Continuum. 8353:Shin, Min Seok (2018). 8142:. New York: Routledge. 8123:. New York: Routledge. 8042:Millar, Fergus (1993). 7898:10.1163/157007283X00241 7659:Elliott, T. G. (1996). 7427:The Classical Quarterly 6512:Nicholson, 50–51. 6449:Lane Fox, 597–98. 5954:Lane Fox, 596–97. 5780:7.1f, cited in Barnes, 5269:Clarke, 651, 651 n.151. 4439:Clarke, 656; Corcoran, 4198:8.2.5, 6.10; Corcoran, 4190:, 24, citing Eusebius, 4143:8.6.8–9; Barnes, 3629:10.6–11; Barnes, 2735:Williams, 161–62. 1787:20th century historian 1750:continued apace. Under 1703:, bishop of Lycopolis ( 578:Philosophy from Oracles 287:in 156 and Scilli near 30:Santa Maria in Via Lata 9564:North American Martyrs 8910:Maspero demonstrations 8865:Mountain War (Lebanon) 8653:Homs revolts (854–855) 8410:Trompf, G. W. (2000). 8298:10.1353/earl.2005.0045 7938:10.3406/rbph.1922.6200 7860:10.1353/earl.1998.0035 7332:Against the Christians 6994:Eusebius of Caesarea. 6959:Eusebius of Caesarea. 6918:Historia Ecclesiastica 6780:Barbarism and Religion 6465:", 382; Lane Fox, 598. 6336:Historia Ecclesiastica 6323:Historia Ecclesiastica 6284:Historia Ecclesiastica 6271:Historia Ecclesiastica 6258:Historia Ecclesiastica 6247:9.9a.4; Mitchell, 114. 6245:Historia Ecclesiastica 6232:Historia Ecclesiastica 6219:Historia Ecclesiastica 6179:Historia Ecclesiastica 6153:Historia Ecclesiastica 6140:Historia Ecclesiastica 6120:Historia Ecclesiastica 6107:Historia Ecclesiastica 6094:Historia Ecclesiastica 6081:Historia Ecclesiastica 5937:Lane Fox, 596. On the 5852:9.1, cited in Barnes, 5795:Historia Ecclesiastica 5767:, 153; Keresztes, 388. 5725:, 153; Keresztes, 388. 5531:Historia Ecclesiastica 5254:Historia Ecclesiastica 4809:Historia Ecclesiastica 4608:Historia Ecclesiastica 4484:Historia Ecclesiastica 4467:Historia Ecclesiastica 4368:Historia Ecclesiastica 4333:Historia Ecclesiastica 4196:Historia Ecclesiastica 4158:Historia Ecclesiastica 4141:Historia Ecclesiastica 4107:Historia Ecclesiastica 4030:Historia Ecclesiastica 4000:Historia Ecclesiastica 3904:, 23; Klingshirn, 169. 3829:Historia Ecclesiastica 3812:Historia Ecclesiastica 3576:, 261; Keresztes, 381. 3512:: Davies, 66–94. 3438:8, app. 1, 3; Barnes, 3436:Historia Ecclesiastica 3389:Historia Ecclesiastica 3224:Against the Christians 3040:Historia Ecclesiastica 2699:Historia Ecclesiastica 2677:Historia Ecclesiastica 2581:Historia Ecclesiastica 2550:Historia Ecclesiastica 2440:Historia Ecclesiastica 2423:Historia Ecclesiastica 2294:Praeparatio Evangelica 2291:, 2, citing Eusebius, 2151:Historia Ecclesiastica 2078:Historia Ecclesiastica 1840: 1820:, and, most famously, 1692: 1668:Historia Ecclesiastica 1484:Ecclesiastical History 1222:Historia Ecclesiastica 1109:Ecclesiastical History 1079: 980: 951:, made Christianity a 944: 741: 632: 613:Christians in the army 605: 583:Against the Christians 485:anarchic third century 412: 198:G. E. M. de Ste. Croix 33: 9703:Christian terminology 9698:4th-century conflicts 9179:Tomás Garrido Canabal 9174:Plutarco Elías Calles 9092:Al-Hakim bi-Amr Allah 8930:1999 Ranalai violence 8905:Boko Haram insurgency 8746:1860 Lebanon conflict 8357:. Turnhout: Brepols. 8346:10.1093/jts/III.2.199 7947:Pagans and Christians 7621:Drake, H. A. (2000). 7612:Dodds, E. R. (1970). 7542:Curran, John (2000). 7194:Thelwall, S., trans. 7135:Against the Donatists 7045:The Divine Institutes 7033:The Divine Institutes 7029:Divinae Institutiones 6853:The Great Persecution 6827:Constantine the Great 6738:The Transformation of 6489:Divinae Institutiones 6083:9.1.1; Mitchell, 113. 5721:8.1–4; Barnes, 5462:Divinae Institutiones 5316:Catholic Encyclopedia 4385:Divinae Institutiones 3594:Clarke, 647–48. 3206:Frend, "Prelude", 10. 3152:Divinae Institutiones 3139:Divinae Institutiones 3122:Divinae Institutiones 3080:Clarke, 621–22. 2618:Joseph Wilson Trigg, 2561:Clarke, 621–25. 2014:imminentium scrutator 1835: 1810:Marcellinus and Peter 1709:Epiphanius of Salamis 1689: 1561:Pamphilus of Caesarea 1231:depositio episcoporum 1143:Church of the Martyrs 1077: 975: 939: 919:Further information: 794:its scriptures burned 736: 713:Manichean persecution 697:(El-Lejjun, Jordan). 620: 600: 407: 229:Bithynia–Pontus 213:Further information: 24: 9239:Abu Bakr al-Baghdadi 9169:Mwanga II of Buganda 8895:Nag Hammadi massacre 8696:Revolt in the Vendée 8481:10.1093/jts/43.1.128 8157:Rees, Roger (2004). 8004:Vigiliae Christianae 7886:Vigiliae Christianae 6973:Martyrs of Palestine 6924:) first seven books 6914:Eusebius of Caesarea 6543:Drake, 98–103. 6422:MacMullen, 160 n.17. 6303:, 68; Mitchell, 115. 6126:36.3; Mitchell, 114. 6122:9.2 and Lactantius, 5640:4.8; Keresztes, 384. 5309:, Nov. II, cited in 4772:Davies, 68–69. 3866:Greenslade, 476–477. 3499:Davies, 66–94. 3464:Davies, 82–83. 3403:Davies, 89–92. 2980:Frend, "Prelude", 2. 2849:Palestinian Talmud, 2795:Potter, 296, citing 2777:Frend, "Prelude", 4. 2609:Dodds, 108, 108 n.2. 2594:Martyrdom of Pionius 2216:. pp. 827–829. 1697:Martyrs of Palestine 1472:Martyrs of Palestine 1460:Martyrs of Palestine 1363:Imperial Horse Guard 1118:Martyrs of Palestine 856:Martyrs of Palestine 269:odium generis humani 9614:21 Martyrs of Libya 9594:522 Spanish Martyrs 9589:498 Spanish Martyrs 9584:233 Spanish Martyrs 8625:Persecution in Lyon 8277:10.1093/past/26.1.6 8112:10.1093/jts/40.1.48 7817:(2): 149–163, 200. 7616:. New York: Norton. 7575:10.1093/jts/40.1.66 7202:Ante-Nicene Fathers 7112:Ante-Nicene Fathers 7080:Ante-Nicene Fathers 7075:On the Anger of God 7063:On the Wrath of God 7050:Ante-Nicene Fathers 7012:Life of Constantine 6899:Ante-Nicene Fathers 6894:Against the Heathen 6882:Against the Heathen 6155:9.6.3; Clarke, 660. 6142:9.6.2; Clarke, 660. 5801:7.3ff; 13; Barnes, 5559:(L) 1.1ff; Barnes, 4610:9.2.1; Clarke, 659. 4544:Theol. Quartalschr. 3998:13.2 and Eusebius, 2457:The Augustan Empire 2419:Martyrium Polycarpi 2080:8.1.3; Lactantius, 1789:G.E.M. de Ste Croix 1676:Battle of Tzirallum 1647:Peter of Alexandria 1401:Palestine and Syria 1331:Venatius Fortunatus 1248:Council of Sinuessa 1163:Martyrs of Abitinae 1114:Life of Constantine 989: 551:Apollonius of Tyana 539:Sossianus Hierocles 466:hieroglyphic script 297:provincial governor 291:in 180, it was the 71:issued a series of 9688:4th century in law 9604:Martyrs of Daimiel 9579:Vietnamese Martyrs 9519:Carthusian Martyrs 9118:Toyotomi Hideyoshi 8987:Early Christianity 8830:Red Terror (Spain) 8766:Hamidian massacres 8663:Bashmurian revolts 8658:Martyrs of Córdoba 8630:Decian persecution 8620:Great Fire of Rome 8594:Early Christianity 8265:Past & Present 6932:. 313, tenth book 6702:1.162; Curran, 50. 6700:Liber Pontificalis 6627:Warren Treadgold, 6605:Liebeschuetz, 252. 6501:King James Version 6459:Oxyrhynchus Papyri 5041:Clarke, 652 n.153. 5032:Clarke, 652 n.153. 4888:, 23; Clarke, 651. 4875:, 28; Clarke, 652. 4798:15.7; Clarke, 651. 4113:praef. 2; Barnes, 2873:Rome and Jerusalem 2308:Making of Religion 2289:Making of Religion 2066:22) with Galerius. 1806:Felix and Adauctus 1776:Liber Pontificalis 1693: 1580:praetorian prefect 1257:Liber Pontificalis 1122:immunis est Gallia 1080: 987: 983:Regional variation 820:were re-enslaved. 633: 608:Early persecutions 413: 227:, the governor of 209:Prior persecutions 157:by his successor, 34: 9660: 9659: 9466:Oriental Orthodox 9247: 9246: 9020:Septimius Severus 8973: 8972: 8803:Assyrian genocide 8798:Armenian genocide 8706:Kakure Kirishitan 8691:French Revolution 8402:978-0-521-81239-9 8364:978-2-503-57447-9 8324:978-0-8122-4092-4 7975:978-0-415-16496-2 7916:978-0-8132-1486-3 7782:978-0-14-043393-7 7744:978-0-521-81239-9 7696:978-0-227-17229-2 7303:978-0-674-16531-1 7141:. 366–367. 7039:. 303–311. 6906:Dessau, Hermann. 6888:. 295–300. 6878:Adversus Nationes 6825:Hermann Dörries, 6778:J. G. A. Pocock, 6736:David Womersley, 6676:c.500–c.700 5576:(L) 1.5; Barnes, 5464:7; Williams, 178. 5130:, 38; Curran, 49. 5065:, 9, 57–66. 4486:9.1.1; Corcoran, 3887:978-0-227-90374-2 3298:Adversus Nationes 3167:Aurelius Victor, 3154:5.2.3ff; Barnes, 2745:Panegyrici Latini 2533:Septimius Severus 2323:2.2; Tertullian, 2223:978-0-415-16497-9 1936:75.10.1f; Origen 1651:Lucian of Antioch 1478:, the capital of 1468: 1467: 1355:Temple of Jupiter 1339:Ossius of Corduba 1309:Euplus of Catania 1207:until after 411. 1130:Septimius Severus 1072: 1071: 783:Great Persecution 667:sign of the cross 625:before Diocletian 471:Diocletian, like 367:bishop of Antioch 327:Septimius Severus 42:Great Persecution 9720: 9650: 9640: 9639: 9630: 9629: 9599:Martyrs of Turon 9549:Martyrs of Japan 9502: 9449:Eastern Orthodox 9432:persecuted group 8984: 8983: 8965:Genocide by ISIL 8900:Kosheh massacres 8870:Beer Hall Putsch 8756:Kucheng massacre 8751:Tianjin Massacre 8701:Martyrs of Japan 8590: 8589: 8559: 8552: 8545: 8536: 8535: 8507: 8484: 8463: 8444: 8425: 8406: 8387: 8368: 8349: 8328: 8309: 8280: 8259: 8240: 8211: 8174: 8153: 8134: 8115: 8094: 8057: 8038: 8019: 7998: 7979: 7960: 7941: 7920: 7901: 7880: 7871: 7842: 7805: 7786: 7767: 7748: 7729: 7700: 7678: 7663:. Scranton, PA: 7655: 7636: 7617: 7608: 7586: 7557: 7538: 7519: 7500: 7481: 7472: 7463: 7450: 7433:(3–4): 189–194. 7421: 7404:(1–2): 142–162. 7392: 7375:(3–4): 381–383. 7359: 7326: 7307: 7288: 7259: 7101:. 313–15. 7006:. 336–39. 6996:Vita Constantini 6936:. 315, epilogue 6856: 6849: 6843: 6836: 6830: 6823: 6817: 6814: 6808: 6797: 6791: 6776: 6770: 6767:Decline and Fall 6763: 6757: 6750: 6741: 6734: 6728: 6725: 6719: 6712: 6703: 6697: 6691: 6688: 6679: 6668: 6662: 6659: 6653: 6642: 6636: 6625: 6619: 6612: 6606: 6603: 6597: 6590: 6584: 6577: 6571: 6568: 6562: 6559: 6553: 6550: 6544: 6541: 6535: 6528: 6522: 6519: 6513: 6510: 6504: 6498: 6492: 6485: 6479: 6476:Vita Constantini 6472: 6466: 6456: 6450: 6447: 6441: 6438: 6432: 6429: 6423: 6420: 6414: 6407: 6401: 6400:Leadbetter, 259. 6398: 6387: 6382:Timothy Barnes, 6380: 6374: 6367: 6361: 6358: 6352: 6345: 6339: 6332: 6326: 6319: 6313: 6310: 6304: 6297: 6291: 6280: 6274: 6267: 6261: 6254: 6248: 6241: 6235: 6228: 6222: 6215: 6209: 6206: 6200: 6197: 6191: 6188: 6182: 6175: 6169: 6162: 6156: 6149: 6143: 6136: 6127: 6116: 6110: 6103: 6097: 6090: 6084: 6077: 6071: 6064: 6058: 6055: 6049: 6046: 6037: 6030: 6024: 6023:, 154, 357 n.49. 6017: 6011: 6006:11.1ff; Barnes, 6000: 5994: 5983: 5977: 5970: 5964: 5961: 5955: 5952: 5946: 5935: 5929: 5918: 5912: 5909: 5903: 5892: 5886: 5879: 5870: 5869:, 153, 357 n.42. 5863: 5857: 5846: 5840: 5829: 5823: 5812: 5806: 5791: 5785: 5774: 5768: 5757: 5751: 5744: 5738: 5732: 5726: 5715: 5709: 5694: 5688: 5677: 5671: 5666:23.1ff; Barnes, 5660: 5654: 5647: 5641: 5634: 5628: 5617: 5611: 5604: 5598: 5597:, 151, 356 n.27. 5587: 5581: 5570: 5564: 5553: 5547: 5540: 5534: 5527: 5521: 5518: 5509: 5502: 5496: 5489: 5483: 5480: 5474: 5471: 5465: 5458: 5452: 5449: 5443: 5436: 5430: 5427: 5421: 5414: 5408: 5401: 5392: 5385: 5379: 5372: 5366: 5361:1.42.1; Barnes, 5359:Vita Constantini 5355: 5349: 5348:: MacMullen, 45. 5338: 5332: 5325: 5319: 5300: 5294: 5293: 5291: 5290: 5276: 5270: 5267: 5261: 5250: 5244: 5237: 5231: 5224: 5218: 5217:, 38, 304 n.107. 5211: 5205: 5194: 5188: 5181: 5175: 5168: 5162: 5161:, 38, 304 n.106. 5155: 5144: 5137: 5131: 5124: 5118: 5111: 5105: 5098: 5092: 5085: 5079: 5072: 5066: 5048: 5042: 5039: 5033: 5030: 5024: 5017: 5011: 5004: 4998: 4991: 4985: 4975: 4969: 4962:Acta Maximiliani 4959: 4953: 4950: 4941: 4938: 4932: 4926: 4920: 4917: 4911: 4908: 4902: 4895: 4889: 4882: 4876: 4865: 4859: 4852: 4846: 4835: 4829: 4826: 4820: 4813:Vita Constantini 4805: 4799: 4792: 4786: 4779: 4773: 4770: 4764: 4761: 4755: 4752: 4746: 4743: 4737: 4734: 4725: 4724:Davies, 69 n.11. 4722: 4716: 4715:Davies, 69 n.10. 4713: 4707: 4704: 4698: 4695: 4689: 4686: 4680: 4677: 4671: 4664: 4658: 4651: 4640: 4633: 4624: 4617: 4611: 4604: 4598: 4595: 4589: 4582: 4573: 4566: 4560: 4557: 4551: 4540: 4534: 4531: 4522: 4519: 4513: 4510: 4504: 4497: 4491: 4490:, 186, 186 n.68. 4480: 4474: 4459: 4453: 4450: 4444: 4437: 4431: 4424: 4418: 4411: 4405: 4398: 4392: 4387:1.1.13; Barnes, 4377: 4371: 4364: 4358: 4351: 4345: 4342: 4336: 4329: 4323: 4320: 4314: 4303: 4297: 4290: 4281: 4278: 4272: 4261: 4255: 4244: 4238: 4235: 4229: 4226: 4220: 4209: 4203: 4184: 4178: 4175: 4169: 4164:, 24; Corcoran, 4160:8.6.10; Barnes, 4154: 4148: 4137: 4131: 4128: 4122: 4117:, 24; Corcoran, 4103: 4097: 4090: 4084: 4081: 4075: 4068: 4062: 4051: 4045: 4026: 4020: 4017: 4011: 4006:, 22; Corcoran, 3992: 3986: 3983: 3977: 3974: 3961: 3954: 3948: 3941: 3935: 3932: 3926: 3923: 3917: 3914: 3905: 3898: 3892: 3891: 3873: 3867: 3864: 3858: 3855: 3849: 3846: 3840: 3825: 3819: 3814:9.10.8; Barnes, 3808: 3802: 3799: 3788: 3781: 3775: 3768: 3762: 3747: 3741: 3734: 3728: 3723:, 12.1; Barnes, 3717: 3711: 3704: 3698: 3691: 3685: 3674: 3668: 3661:Vita Constantini 3657: 3651: 3644:Christian Empire 3640: 3634: 3633:, 21; Odahl, 67. 3623: 3617: 3614: 3608: 3601: 3595: 3592: 3586: 3583: 3577: 3570: 3564: 3557: 3548: 3541: 3535: 3528: 3522: 3519: 3513: 3506: 3500: 3497: 3491: 3484: 3478: 3471: 3465: 3462: 3456: 3449: 3443: 3428: 3422: 3419: 3413: 3410: 3404: 3401: 3392: 3385: 3379: 3376: 3370: 3367: 3361: 3354: 3348: 3345: 3339: 3336: 3330: 3316: 3310: 3307: 3301: 3294: 3288: 3285: 3276: 3273:Christian Empire 3269: 3263: 3260: 3254: 3251: 3245: 3242: 3236: 3233: 3227: 3213: 3207: 3204: 3198: 3191: 3185: 3178: 3172: 3165: 3159: 3148: 3142: 3135: 3129: 3126:Christian Empire 3118: 3112: 3109: 3103: 3096: 3090: 3087: 3081: 3078: 3072: 3065: 3056: 3049: 3043: 3036: 3030: 3023: 3017: 3014: 3008: 3005: 2999: 2996: 2990: 2987: 2981: 2978: 2969: 2962: 2956: 2953: 2947: 2944: 2938: 2931: 2925: 2915: 2909: 2902: 2893: 2888:, 19, 295 n.50; 2882: 2876: 2871:Martin Goodman, 2869: 2863: 2860: 2854: 2847: 2841: 2838: 2832: 2829: 2820: 2817: 2811: 2808: 2802: 2793: 2787: 2784: 2778: 2775: 2766: 2763: 2757: 2754: 2748: 2742: 2736: 2733: 2724: 2721: 2715: 2712: 2706: 2703:Christian Empire 2695: 2689: 2686: 2680: 2673: 2667: 2664: 2658: 2655:Martyrium Pionii 2651: 2645: 2638: 2632: 2629: 2623: 2616: 2610: 2607: 2601: 2590: 2584: 2577: 2571: 2568: 2562: 2559: 2553: 2546: 2540: 2526: 2520: 2513: 2507: 2500: 2494: 2491: 2485: 2480:Robin Lane Fox, 2478: 2469: 2466: 2460: 2449: 2443: 2436: 2430: 2416: 2410: 2399: 2393: 2390: 2384: 2381: 2375: 2368: 2362: 2352: 2346: 2343: 2337: 2334: 2328: 2317: 2311: 2304: 2298: 2285: 2279: 2276: 2270: 2267: 2261: 2258: 2252: 2249: 2240: 2237: 2228: 2227: 2205: 2199: 2196: 2180: 2173: 2167: 2160: 2154: 2142: 2136: 2133: 2127: 2124: 2118: 2091: 2085: 2073: 2067: 2060: 2054: 2042: 2036: 2027: 2021: 2010: 2004: 2001: 1995: 1992: 1986: 1974: 1968: 1965: 1959: 1956: 1950: 1947: 1941: 1930: 1924: 1916: 1731:Vita Constantini 1410: 1367:Lateran Basilica 1327:Maximus of Turin 1277:Praetorian Guard 1101:Britain and Gaul 990: 986: 931:Edict of Serdica 730:compiled in the 675: 535:Porphyry of Tyre 322:Historia Augusta 86:Edict of Serdica 9728: 9727: 9723: 9722: 9721: 9719: 9718: 9717: 9663: 9662: 9661: 9656: 9618: 9524:Chinese Martyrs 9496: 9495: 9487: 9431: 9425: 9253: 9243: 9229:Abubakar Shekau 9152: 9123:Tokugawa Ieyasu 9106: 9075: 9039: 9025:Maximinus Thrax 8998: 8979: 8969: 8860:Damour massacre 8855:Chouf massacres 8845:Istanbul pogrom 8825:Shusha massacre 8813:İzmit massacres 8783:Boxer Rebellion 8778:Candia massacre 8717: 8677: 8639: 8606: 8585: 8579: 8578: 8563: 8515: 8510: 8460: 8441: 8422: 8403: 8384: 8365: 8325: 8256: 8171: 8150: 8131: 8054: 8035: 7995: 7976: 7957: 7917: 7823:10.2307/3163949 7802: 7783: 7764: 7745: 7697: 7675: 7652: 7633: 7605: 7554: 7535: 7516: 7497: 7410:10.2307/1089029 7381:10.2307/1089082 7323: 7304: 7221: 7216: 6869: 6867:Ancient sources 6864: 6859: 6850: 6846: 6837: 6833: 6824: 6820: 6815: 6811: 6798: 6794: 6777: 6773: 6764: 6760: 6751: 6744: 6735: 6731: 6726: 6722: 6713: 6706: 6698: 6694: 6689: 6682: 6669: 6665: 6660: 6656: 6643: 6639: 6626: 6622: 6618:53 (2006): 146. 6613: 6609: 6604: 6600: 6591: 6587: 6578: 6574: 6569: 6565: 6560: 6556: 6551: 6547: 6542: 6538: 6529: 6525: 6520: 6516: 6511: 6507: 6499: 6495: 6486: 6482: 6473: 6469: 6457: 6453: 6448: 6444: 6439: 6435: 6430: 6426: 6421: 6417: 6408: 6404: 6399: 6390: 6381: 6377: 6368: 6364: 6359: 6355: 6346: 6342: 6333: 6329: 6320: 6316: 6311: 6307: 6298: 6294: 6281: 6277: 6268: 6264: 6255: 6251: 6242: 6238: 6229: 6225: 6216: 6212: 6207: 6203: 6198: 6194: 6189: 6185: 6176: 6172: 6163: 6159: 6150: 6146: 6137: 6130: 6117: 6113: 6104: 6100: 6091: 6087: 6078: 6074: 6065: 6061: 6056: 6052: 6047: 6040: 6031: 6027: 6018: 6014: 6001: 5997: 5984: 5980: 5971: 5967: 5962: 5958: 5953: 5949: 5936: 5932: 5919: 5915: 5910: 5906: 5893: 5889: 5880: 5873: 5864: 5860: 5847: 5843: 5830: 5826: 5813: 5809: 5792: 5788: 5775: 5771: 5758: 5754: 5745: 5741: 5733: 5729: 5716: 5712: 5695: 5691: 5678: 5674: 5670:, 151–52. 5661: 5657: 5648: 5644: 5635: 5631: 5618: 5614: 5605: 5601: 5588: 5584: 5571: 5567: 5563:, 150–51. 5554: 5550: 5541: 5537: 5528: 5524: 5520:Keresztes, 389. 5519: 5512: 5508:, 154–55. 5503: 5499: 5495:, 148–50. 5490: 5486: 5481: 5477: 5472: 5468: 5459: 5455: 5450: 5446: 5437: 5433: 5428: 5424: 5415: 5411: 5402: 5395: 5386: 5382: 5373: 5369: 5356: 5352: 5339: 5335: 5326: 5322: 5311:St. Chrysogonus 5301: 5297: 5288: 5286: 5278: 5277: 5273: 5268: 5264: 5251: 5247: 5238: 5234: 5225: 5221: 5212: 5208: 5195: 5191: 5182: 5178: 5169: 5165: 5156: 5147: 5138: 5134: 5125: 5121: 5112: 5108: 5099: 5095: 5086: 5082: 5073: 5069: 5049: 5045: 5040: 5036: 5031: 5027: 5018: 5014: 5005: 5001: 4992: 4988: 4976: 4972: 4960: 4956: 4951: 4944: 4939: 4935: 4927: 4923: 4918: 4914: 4909: 4905: 4896: 4892: 4883: 4879: 4866: 4862: 4858:, 181–82. 4853: 4849: 4836: 4832: 4827: 4823: 4806: 4802: 4793: 4789: 4780: 4776: 4771: 4767: 4762: 4758: 4753: 4749: 4744: 4740: 4735: 4728: 4723: 4719: 4714: 4710: 4706:Davies, 69 n.9. 4705: 4701: 4697:Davies, 69 n.8. 4696: 4692: 4688:Davies, 68 n.7. 4687: 4683: 4679:Davies, 68 n.6. 4678: 4674: 4665: 4661: 4657:, 158–59. 4652: 4643: 4634: 4627: 4618: 4614: 4605: 4601: 4596: 4592: 4583: 4576: 4567: 4563: 4559:Keresztes, 390. 4558: 4554: 4541: 4537: 4532: 4525: 4520: 4516: 4511: 4507: 4498: 4494: 4481: 4477: 4460: 4456: 4451: 4447: 4438: 4434: 4425: 4421: 4412: 4408: 4399: 4395: 4378: 4374: 4365: 4361: 4352: 4348: 4343: 4339: 4330: 4326: 4322:Keresztes, 384. 4321: 4317: 4304: 4300: 4291: 4284: 4279: 4275: 4262: 4258: 4245: 4241: 4236: 4232: 4227: 4223: 4210: 4206: 4185: 4181: 4176: 4172: 4155: 4151: 4138: 4134: 4129: 4125: 4104: 4100: 4091: 4087: 4082: 4078: 4069: 4065: 4052: 4048: 4027: 4023: 4019:Gaddis, 30 n.4. 4018: 4014: 4002:8.5.1; Barnes, 3993: 3989: 3985:Keresztes, 381. 3984: 3980: 3975: 3964: 3955: 3951: 3942: 3938: 3933: 3929: 3924: 3920: 3915: 3908: 3899: 3895: 3888: 3874: 3870: 3865: 3861: 3856: 3852: 3847: 3843: 3826: 3822: 3809: 3805: 3800: 3791: 3782: 3778: 3769: 3765: 3761:, 179–80. 3748: 3744: 3735: 3731: 3718: 3714: 3705: 3701: 3692: 3688: 3675: 3671: 3658: 3654: 3641: 3637: 3624: 3620: 3615: 3611: 3602: 3598: 3593: 3589: 3584: 3580: 3571: 3567: 3558: 3551: 3542: 3538: 3529: 3525: 3520: 3516: 3507: 3503: 3498: 3494: 3485: 3481: 3472: 3468: 3463: 3459: 3450: 3446: 3429: 3425: 3420: 3416: 3411: 3407: 3402: 3395: 3386: 3382: 3378:Keresztes, 380. 3377: 3373: 3368: 3364: 3355: 3351: 3346: 3342: 3338:Helgeland, 159. 3337: 3333: 3317: 3313: 3308: 3304: 3295: 3291: 3286: 3279: 3270: 3266: 3261: 3257: 3252: 3248: 3243: 3239: 3234: 3230: 3214: 3210: 3205: 3201: 3192: 3188: 3179: 3175: 3166: 3162: 3149: 3145: 3136: 3132: 3119: 3115: 3110: 3106: 3097: 3093: 3088: 3084: 3079: 3075: 3066: 3059: 3050: 3046: 3037: 3033: 3024: 3020: 3015: 3011: 3007:Keresztes, 379. 3006: 3002: 2997: 2993: 2988: 2984: 2979: 2972: 2963: 2959: 2954: 2950: 2945: 2941: 2932: 2928: 2916: 2912: 2903: 2896: 2883: 2879: 2870: 2866: 2861: 2857: 2848: 2844: 2839: 2835: 2830: 2823: 2818: 2814: 2809: 2805: 2794: 2790: 2785: 2781: 2776: 2769: 2764: 2760: 2755: 2751: 2743: 2739: 2734: 2727: 2722: 2718: 2713: 2709: 2701:7.15; Digeser, 2696: 2692: 2687: 2683: 2674: 2670: 2665: 2661: 2652: 2648: 2639: 2635: 2630: 2626: 2617: 2613: 2608: 2604: 2591: 2587: 2578: 2574: 2569: 2565: 2560: 2556: 2547: 2543: 2527: 2523: 2514: 2510: 2501: 2497: 2492: 2488: 2479: 2472: 2467: 2463: 2450: 2446: 2437: 2433: 2417: 2413: 2400: 2396: 2391: 2387: 2382: 2378: 2369: 2365: 2353: 2349: 2344: 2340: 2335: 2331: 2318: 2314: 2305: 2301: 2286: 2282: 2277: 2273: 2268: 2264: 2259: 2255: 2250: 2243: 2238: 2231: 2224: 2206: 2202: 2197: 2193: 2189: 2184: 2183: 2174: 2170: 2161: 2157: 2143: 2139: 2134: 2130: 2125: 2121: 2092: 2088: 2074: 2070: 2061: 2057: 2043: 2039: 2028: 2024: 2011: 2007: 2002: 1998: 1993: 1989: 1975: 1971: 1966: 1962: 1957: 1953: 1948: 1944: 1931: 1927: 1917: 1913: 1908: 1874: 1785: 1721: 1684: 1638: 1480:Roman Palestine 1463: 1457: 1451: 1441: 1431: 1408: 1403: 1375: 1351:Capitoline Hill 1298:prefect of Rome 1213: 1211:Italy and Spain 1205:Catholic Church 1152:, a soldier in 1138: 1103: 1063: 1056: 1046: 1032: 1016: 1011: 985: 923: 917: 886: 839: 790: 785: 749: 715: 673: 615: 610: 509: 402: 299:. When Emperor 217: 211: 206: 17: 12: 11: 5: 9726: 9716: 9715: 9710: 9705: 9700: 9695: 9690: 9685: 9680: 9675: 9658: 9657: 9655: 9654: 9644: 9634: 9623: 9620: 9619: 9617: 9616: 9611: 9606: 9601: 9596: 9591: 9586: 9581: 9576: 9574:Uganda Martyrs 9571: 9566: 9561: 9556: 9551: 9546: 9544:Korean Martyrs 9541: 9536: 9531: 9526: 9521: 9516: 9511: 9505: 9503: 9489: 9488: 9486: 9485: 9480: 9479: 9478: 9473: 9463: 9462: 9461: 9451: 9446: 9441: 9435: 9433: 9427: 9426: 9424: 9423: 9418: 9413: 9408: 9403: 9398: 9393: 9388: 9383: 9378: 9373: 9371:Ottoman Empire 9368: 9363: 9358: 9353: 9348: 9343: 9338: 9333: 9328: 9323: 9318: 9313: 9308: 9303: 9298: 9293: 9288: 9283: 9278: 9273: 9268: 9263: 9257: 9255: 9249: 9248: 9245: 9244: 9242: 9241: 9236: 9231: 9226: 9221: 9216: 9211: 9206: 9201: 9199:Vladimir Lenin 9196: 9191: 9186: 9181: 9176: 9171: 9166: 9160: 9158: 9154: 9153: 9151: 9150: 9148:Queen Jeongsun 9145: 9140: 9135: 9130: 9125: 9120: 9114: 9112: 9108: 9107: 9105: 9104: 9099: 9094: 9089: 9083: 9081: 9077: 9076: 9074: 9073: 9068: 9063: 9058: 9053: 9047: 9045: 9044:Late Antiquity 9041: 9040: 9038: 9037: 9032: 9027: 9022: 9017: 9012: 9006: 9004: 9000: 8999: 8997: 8996: 8990: 8988: 8981: 8975: 8974: 8971: 8970: 8968: 8967: 8962: 8957: 8952: 8947: 8942: 8937: 8932: 8927: 8922: 8917: 8912: 8907: 8902: 8897: 8892: 8887: 8885:Sumgait pogrom 8882: 8877: 8872: 8867: 8862: 8857: 8852: 8850:Black Thursday 8847: 8842: 8837: 8832: 8827: 8822: 8817: 8816: 8815: 8808:Greek genocide 8805: 8800: 8795: 8790: 8788:Adana massacre 8785: 8780: 8775: 8774: 8773: 8763: 8758: 8753: 8748: 8743: 8738: 8733: 8727: 8725: 8719: 8718: 8716: 8715: 8710: 8709: 8708: 8698: 8693: 8687: 8685: 8679: 8678: 8676: 8675: 8670: 8665: 8660: 8655: 8649: 8647: 8641: 8640: 8638: 8637: 8632: 8627: 8622: 8616: 8614: 8608: 8607: 8605: 8604: 8598: 8596: 8587: 8581: 8580: 8577: 8576: 8571: 8565: 8562: 8561: 8554: 8547: 8539: 8533: 8532: 8521: 8514: 8513:External links 8511: 8509: 8508: 8498:(5): 587–591. 8485: 8475:(1): 128–134. 8464: 8458: 8445: 8439: 8426: 8420: 8407: 8401: 8388: 8382: 8369: 8363: 8350: 8340:(2): 199–213. 8329: 8323: 8310: 8292:(3): 277–314. 8281: 8260: 8254: 8241: 8212: 8192:10.2307/300738 8175: 8169: 8154: 8148: 8135: 8129: 8116: 8095: 8075:10.2307/301453 8058: 8052: 8039: 8033: 8020: 7999: 7993: 7980: 7974: 7961: 7955: 7942: 7932:(4): 693–705. 7921: 7915: 7902: 7892:(4): 379–399. 7881: 7872: 7854:(2): 185–226. 7843: 7811:Church History 7806: 7800: 7787: 7781: 7768: 7762: 7749: 7743: 7730: 7701: 7695: 7682: 7679: 7673: 7656: 7650: 7637: 7631: 7618: 7609: 7603: 7587: 7558: 7552: 7539: 7533: 7520: 7514: 7501: 7495: 7482: 7473: 7464: 7451: 7422: 7393: 7360: 7327: 7321: 7308: 7302: 7289: 7277:10.2307/311244 7260: 7240:10.2307/299693 7234:(1–2): 32–50. 7222: 7220: 7219:Modern sources 7217: 7215: 7214: 7207: 7206: 7205: 7178: 7177: 7176: 7155: 7154: 7153: 7124: 7117: 7116: 7115: 7085: 7084: 7083: 7055: 7054: 7053: 7022: 7021: 7020: 6992: 6991: 6990: 6981: 6957: 6956: 6955: 6922:Church History 6911: 6904: 6903: 6902: 6870: 6868: 6865: 6863: 6860: 6858: 6857: 6844: 6831: 6818: 6809: 6792: 6771: 6758: 6754:Transformation 6742: 6729: 6720: 6704: 6692: 6680: 6663: 6661:Chadwick, 179. 6654: 6650:Martyr Stories 6648:, 56; Tilley, 6637: 6620: 6607: 6598: 6585: 6572: 6563: 6561:Lane Fox, 441. 6554: 6545: 6536: 6523: 6514: 6505: 6493: 6480: 6467: 6451: 6442: 6433: 6431:Lane Fox, 590. 6424: 6415: 6402: 6388: 6375: 6362: 6360:Mitchell, 116. 6353: 6340: 6327: 6314: 6312:Mitchell, 115. 6305: 6292: 6275: 6262: 6249: 6236: 6223: 6210: 6208:Lane Fox, 598. 6201: 6199:Mitchell, 117. 6192: 6190:Mitchell, 114. 6183: 6170: 6157: 6144: 6128: 6111: 6098: 6085: 6072: 6059: 6050: 6048:Mitchell, 113. 6038: 6025: 6012: 5995: 5978: 5965: 5963:Mitchell, 112. 5956: 5947: 5939:Acts of Pilate 5930: 5913: 5911:Lane Fox, 596. 5904: 5887: 5871: 5858: 5841: 5824: 5807: 5786: 5769: 5763:8.13; Barnes, 5752: 5739: 5727: 5710: 5689: 5672: 5655: 5642: 5629: 5623:19.1; Barnes, 5612: 5599: 5582: 5565: 5548: 5535: 5522: 5510: 5497: 5484: 5482:Williams, 181. 5475: 5466: 5453: 5444: 5431: 5429:Williams, 178. 5422: 5409: 5393: 5391:, 48–49. 5380: 5367: 5350: 5333: 5320: 5295: 5284:Santiebeati.it 5271: 5262: 5245: 5243:, 38–39. 5232: 5219: 5206: 5200:23.5; Barnes, 5189: 5176: 5163: 5145: 5132: 5119: 5106: 5102:Martyr Stories 5093: 5080: 5067: 5059:Martyr Stories 5055:Martyr Stories 5053:20 (= Tilley, 5043: 5034: 5025: 5021:Martyr Stories 5012: 4999: 4986: 4970: 4968:, 45–46. 4954: 4952:Williams, 179. 4942: 4933: 4921: 4912: 4910:Williams, 177. 4903: 4890: 4877: 4871:24.9; Barnes, 4860: 4847: 4830: 4821: 4800: 4787: 4774: 4765: 4756: 4747: 4738: 4726: 4717: 4708: 4699: 4690: 4681: 4672: 4659: 4641: 4625: 4612: 4599: 4590: 4574: 4561: 4552: 4535: 4523: 4514: 4505: 4492: 4475: 4454: 4445: 4432: 4430:, 30–31. 4419: 4406: 4393: 4372: 4359: 4346: 4337: 4324: 4315: 4298: 4282: 4273: 4256: 4239: 4230: 4221: 4204: 4179: 4170: 4149: 4132: 4123: 4098: 4085: 4076: 4063: 4046: 4021: 4012: 3987: 3978: 3962: 3949: 3936: 3927: 3918: 3906: 3893: 3886: 3868: 3859: 3850: 3841: 3820: 3803: 3789: 3776: 3763: 3742: 3729: 3712: 3699: 3686: 3669: 3652: 3635: 3618: 3616:Lane Fox, 595. 3609: 3607:, 20–21. 3596: 3587: 3578: 3565: 3549: 3536: 3523: 3514: 3501: 3492: 3490:, 19–21. 3479: 3466: 3457: 3444: 3423: 3414: 3405: 3393: 3380: 3371: 3362: 3360:, 18–19. 3349: 3340: 3331: 3311: 3302: 3289: 3277: 3264: 3255: 3246: 3237: 3228: 3208: 3199: 3195:De Citivae Dei 3186: 3173: 3160: 3143: 3130: 3113: 3104: 3102:, 21–22. 3091: 3082: 3073: 3057: 3044: 3031: 3018: 3009: 3000: 2991: 2982: 2970: 2957: 2948: 2939: 2926: 2924:, 19–20. 2910: 2894: 2877: 2864: 2862:Lane Fox, 430. 2855: 2842: 2833: 2821: 2812: 2803: 2788: 2779: 2767: 2758: 2749: 2737: 2725: 2723:Williams, 161. 2716: 2707: 2690: 2681: 2668: 2659: 2646: 2633: 2624: 2611: 2602: 2585: 2572: 2563: 2554: 2541: 2521: 2508: 2495: 2486: 2470: 2461: 2444: 2431: 2411: 2394: 2385: 2376: 2363: 2347: 2338: 2329: 2312: 2299: 2280: 2271: 2269:MacMullen, 35. 2262: 2253: 2241: 2229: 2222: 2200: 2190: 2188: 2185: 2182: 2181: 2168: 2155: 2137: 2128: 2119: 2095:Passio Felicis 2086: 2068: 2055: 2037: 2022: 2005: 1996: 1987: 1982:Robin Lane Fox 1969: 1960: 1951: 1942: 1925: 1910: 1909: 1907: 1904: 1903: 1902: 1892: 1887: 1882: 1873: 1870: 1849:Richard Porson 1794:Era of Martyrs 1784: 1781: 1771:Henry Chadwick 1725:Robin Lane Fox 1720: 1717: 1683: 1680: 1637: 1634: 1626:Eleutheropolis 1609:Acts of Pilate 1518:Thecla of Gaza 1466: 1465: 1453: 1452: 1449: 1447: 1443: 1442: 1439: 1437: 1433: 1432: 1429: 1427: 1423: 1422: 1419: 1415: 1414: 1407: 1404: 1402: 1399: 1374: 1371: 1359:Christian sign 1212: 1209: 1137: 1134: 1102: 1099: 1095:Simon Corcoran 1070: 1069: 1065: 1064: 1061: 1059: 1057: 1054: 1052: 1048: 1047: 1044: 1042: 1040: 1038: 1034: 1033: 1030: 1028: 1026: 1024: 1020: 1019: 1017: 1014: 1012: 1009: 1007: 1003: 1002: 999: 996: 993: 984: 981: 971:Edict of Milan 954:religio licita 916: 913: 885: 882: 870:Edict of Milan 838: 835: 789: 786: 784: 781: 748: 745: 714: 711: 614: 611: 609: 606: 541:, governor of 528:Timothy Barnes 508: 507:Public support 505: 401: 398: 359:bishop of Rome 210: 207: 205: 202: 163:Edict of Milan 98:Edict of Milan 52:. In 303, the 15: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 9725: 9714: 9711: 9709: 9706: 9704: 9701: 9699: 9696: 9694: 9691: 9689: 9686: 9684: 9681: 9679: 9676: 9674: 9671: 9670: 9668: 9653: 9649: 9645: 9643: 9635: 9633: 9625: 9624: 9621: 9615: 9612: 9610: 9607: 9605: 9602: 9600: 9597: 9595: 9592: 9590: 9587: 9585: 9582: 9580: 9577: 9575: 9572: 9570: 9567: 9565: 9562: 9560: 9557: 9555: 9552: 9550: 9547: 9545: 9542: 9540: 9537: 9535: 9534:Drina Martyrs 9532: 9530: 9527: 9525: 9522: 9520: 9517: 9515: 9514:Saint Stephen 9512: 9510: 9507: 9506: 9504: 9500: 9494: 9490: 9484: 9481: 9477: 9474: 9472: 9469: 9468: 9467: 9464: 9460: 9457: 9456: 9455: 9452: 9450: 9447: 9445: 9442: 9440: 9437: 9436: 9434: 9428: 9422: 9419: 9417: 9414: 9412: 9409: 9407: 9404: 9402: 9399: 9397: 9394: 9392: 9389: 9387: 9384: 9382: 9379: 9377: 9374: 9372: 9369: 9367: 9364: 9362: 9359: 9357: 9354: 9352: 9349: 9347: 9344: 9342: 9339: 9337: 9334: 9332: 9329: 9327: 9324: 9322: 9319: 9317: 9314: 9312: 9309: 9307: 9304: 9302: 9301:German Empire 9299: 9297: 9294: 9292: 9289: 9287: 9284: 9282: 9279: 9277: 9274: 9272: 9269: 9267: 9264: 9262: 9259: 9258: 9256: 9250: 9240: 9237: 9235: 9232: 9230: 9227: 9225: 9222: 9220: 9217: 9215: 9212: 9210: 9207: 9205: 9204:Joseph Stalin 9202: 9200: 9197: 9195: 9192: 9190: 9187: 9185: 9182: 9180: 9177: 9175: 9172: 9170: 9167: 9165: 9162: 9161: 9159: 9155: 9149: 9146: 9144: 9141: 9139: 9136: 9134: 9131: 9129: 9126: 9124: 9121: 9119: 9116: 9115: 9113: 9109: 9103: 9100: 9098: 9095: 9093: 9090: 9088: 9087:Al-Mutawakkil 9085: 9084: 9082: 9078: 9072: 9069: 9067: 9064: 9062: 9059: 9057: 9054: 9052: 9049: 9048: 9046: 9042: 9036: 9033: 9031: 9028: 9026: 9023: 9021: 9018: 9016: 9013: 9011: 9008: 9007: 9005: 9001: 8995: 8992: 8991: 8989: 8985: 8982: 8976: 8966: 8963: 8961: 8958: 8956: 8953: 8951: 8948: 8946: 8943: 8941: 8938: 8936: 8933: 8931: 8928: 8926: 8923: 8921: 8918: 8916: 8913: 8911: 8908: 8906: 8903: 8901: 8898: 8896: 8893: 8891: 8888: 8886: 8883: 8881: 8878: 8876: 8873: 8871: 8868: 8866: 8863: 8861: 8858: 8856: 8853: 8851: 8848: 8846: 8843: 8841: 8838: 8836: 8833: 8831: 8828: 8826: 8823: 8821: 8818: 8814: 8811: 8810: 8809: 8806: 8804: 8801: 8799: 8796: 8794: 8791: 8789: 8786: 8784: 8781: 8779: 8776: 8772: 8769: 8768: 8767: 8764: 8762: 8759: 8757: 8754: 8752: 8749: 8747: 8744: 8742: 8739: 8737: 8734: 8732: 8729: 8728: 8726: 8724: 8720: 8714: 8711: 8707: 8704: 8703: 8702: 8699: 8697: 8694: 8692: 8689: 8688: 8686: 8684: 8680: 8674: 8671: 8669: 8666: 8664: 8661: 8659: 8656: 8654: 8651: 8650: 8648: 8646: 8642: 8636: 8633: 8631: 8628: 8626: 8623: 8621: 8618: 8617: 8615: 8613: 8609: 8603: 8602:New Testament 8600: 8599: 8597: 8595: 8591: 8588: 8582: 8575: 8572: 8570: 8567: 8566: 8560: 8555: 8553: 8548: 8546: 8541: 8540: 8537: 8531: 8530: 8525: 8522: 8520: 8517: 8516: 8505: 8501: 8497: 8493: 8492: 8486: 8482: 8478: 8474: 8470: 8465: 8461: 8459:0-415-91827-8 8455: 8451: 8446: 8442: 8440:1-84014-694-X 8436: 8432: 8427: 8423: 8421:0-8264-5294-9 8417: 8413: 8408: 8404: 8398: 8394: 8389: 8385: 8383:0-8006-2880-2 8379: 8375: 8370: 8366: 8360: 8356: 8351: 8347: 8343: 8339: 8335: 8330: 8326: 8320: 8316: 8311: 8307: 8303: 8299: 8295: 8291: 8287: 8282: 8278: 8274: 8270: 8266: 8261: 8257: 8255:0-19-927812-1 8251: 8247: 8242: 8238: 8234: 8230: 8226: 8223:(2): 75–113. 8222: 8218: 8213: 8209: 8205: 8201: 8197: 8193: 8189: 8185: 8181: 8176: 8172: 8170:9780748616602 8166: 8162: 8161: 8155: 8151: 8149:0-415-10057-7 8145: 8141: 8136: 8132: 8130:0-415-17485-6 8126: 8122: 8117: 8113: 8109: 8105: 8101: 8096: 8092: 8088: 8084: 8080: 8076: 8072: 8068: 8064: 8059: 8055: 8053:0-674-77885-5 8049: 8045: 8040: 8036: 8034:0-300-03642-6 8030: 8026: 8021: 8017: 8013: 8009: 8005: 8000: 7996: 7994:0-19-814822-4 7990: 7986: 7981: 7977: 7971: 7967: 7962: 7958: 7956:0-394-55495-7 7952: 7948: 7943: 7939: 7935: 7931: 7927: 7922: 7918: 7912: 7908: 7903: 7899: 7895: 7891: 7887: 7882: 7878: 7873: 7869: 7865: 7861: 7857: 7853: 7849: 7844: 7840: 7836: 7832: 7828: 7824: 7820: 7816: 7812: 7807: 7803: 7801:0-521-29016-3 7797: 7793: 7788: 7784: 7778: 7774: 7769: 7765: 7763:0-520-24104-5 7759: 7755: 7750: 7746: 7740: 7736: 7731: 7727: 7723: 7719: 7715: 7711: 7707: 7702: 7698: 7692: 7688: 7683: 7680: 7676: 7674:0-940866-59-5 7670: 7666: 7662: 7657: 7653: 7651:0-521-30199-8 7647: 7643: 7638: 7634: 7632:0-8018-6218-3 7628: 7624: 7619: 7615: 7610: 7606: 7604:0-8014-3594-3 7600: 7596: 7592: 7588: 7584: 7580: 7576: 7572: 7568: 7564: 7559: 7555: 7553:0-19-815278-7 7549: 7545: 7540: 7536: 7534:0-521-81838-9 7530: 7526: 7521: 7517: 7515:0-19-814984-0 7511: 7507: 7502: 7498: 7496:0-521-30199-8 7492: 7488: 7483: 7479: 7474: 7470: 7465: 7461: 7458:(in German). 7457: 7452: 7448: 7444: 7440: 7436: 7432: 7428: 7423: 7419: 7415: 7411: 7407: 7403: 7399: 7394: 7390: 7386: 7382: 7378: 7374: 7370: 7366: 7361: 7357: 7353: 7349: 7345: 7341: 7337: 7333: 7328: 7324: 7322:0-7837-2221-4 7318: 7314: 7309: 7305: 7299: 7295: 7290: 7286: 7282: 7278: 7274: 7270: 7266: 7261: 7257: 7253: 7249: 7245: 7241: 7237: 7233: 7229: 7224: 7223: 7212: 7208: 7203: 7199: 7198: 7193: 7192: 7190: 7186: 7182: 7179: 7174: 7170: 7166: 7165: 7163: 7159: 7156: 7151: 7147: 7143: 7142: 7140: 7136: 7132: 7128: 7125: 7122: 7118: 7113: 7109: 7108: 7103: 7102: 7100: 7096: 7092: 7091: 7086: 7081: 7077: 7076: 7071: 7070: 7068: 7064: 7060: 7056: 7051: 7047: 7046: 7041: 7040: 7038: 7034: 7030: 7026: 7023: 7018: 7014: 7013: 7008: 7007: 7005: 7001: 6997: 6993: 6988: 6987: 6982: 6979: 6975: 6974: 6969: 6968: 6966: 6962: 6958: 6954: 6953:0-14-044535-8 6950: 6946: 6942: 6941: 6939: 6935: 6931: 6927: 6923: 6919: 6915: 6912: 6909: 6905: 6900: 6896: 6895: 6890: 6889: 6887: 6883: 6879: 6875: 6872: 6871: 6854: 6848: 6841: 6835: 6828: 6822: 6813: 6806: 6802: 6796: 6789: 6785: 6781: 6775: 6768: 6762: 6755: 6749: 6747: 6739: 6733: 6724: 6717: 6711: 6709: 6701: 6696: 6687: 6685: 6677: 6673: 6667: 6658: 6651: 6647: 6641: 6634: 6630: 6624: 6617: 6611: 6602: 6595: 6589: 6582: 6576: 6567: 6558: 6549: 6540: 6533: 6530:Constantine, 6527: 6518: 6509: 6502: 6497: 6490: 6484: 6477: 6471: 6464: 6460: 6455: 6446: 6437: 6428: 6419: 6412: 6406: 6397: 6395: 6393: 6385: 6379: 6372: 6366: 6357: 6350: 6344: 6337: 6331: 6324: 6318: 6309: 6302: 6296: 6289: 6285: 6279: 6272: 6266: 6259: 6253: 6246: 6240: 6233: 6227: 6220: 6214: 6205: 6196: 6187: 6180: 6174: 6167: 6161: 6154: 6148: 6141: 6135: 6133: 6125: 6121: 6115: 6108: 6102: 6095: 6089: 6082: 6076: 6069: 6063: 6054: 6045: 6043: 6035: 6029: 6022: 6016: 6009: 6005: 5999: 5992: 5988: 5982: 5975: 5969: 5960: 5951: 5944: 5940: 5934: 5927: 5924:9.2; Barnes, 5923: 5917: 5908: 5901: 5898:9.2; Barnes, 5897: 5891: 5884: 5878: 5876: 5868: 5862: 5855: 5851: 5845: 5838: 5834: 5828: 5821: 5818:7.7; Barnes, 5817: 5811: 5804: 5800: 5796: 5790: 5783: 5779: 5773: 5766: 5762: 5756: 5749: 5743: 5736: 5731: 5724: 5720: 5714: 5707: 5703: 5699: 5693: 5686: 5683:4.8; Barnes, 5682: 5676: 5669: 5665: 5659: 5652: 5646: 5639: 5633: 5626: 5622: 5616: 5609: 5603: 5596: 5593:3.1; Barnes, 5592: 5586: 5579: 5575: 5569: 5562: 5558: 5552: 5545: 5539: 5532: 5526: 5517: 5515: 5507: 5501: 5494: 5488: 5479: 5470: 5463: 5457: 5448: 5441: 5435: 5426: 5419: 5413: 5406: 5400: 5398: 5390: 5384: 5377: 5371: 5364: 5360: 5354: 5347: 5343: 5337: 5330: 5324: 5318: 5317: 5312: 5308: 5304: 5299: 5285: 5281: 5275: 5266: 5259: 5255: 5249: 5242: 5236: 5229: 5223: 5216: 5210: 5203: 5199: 5193: 5186: 5180: 5173: 5167: 5160: 5154: 5152: 5150: 5142: 5136: 5129: 5123: 5116: 5110: 5103: 5097: 5090: 5084: 5077: 5071: 5064: 5060: 5056: 5052: 5047: 5038: 5029: 5022: 5016: 5009: 5003: 4996: 4990: 4983: 4979: 4978:Acta Marcelli 4974: 4967: 4963: 4958: 4949: 4947: 4937: 4930: 4925: 4916: 4907: 4900: 4894: 4887: 4881: 4874: 4870: 4864: 4857: 4851: 4844: 4840: 4834: 4825: 4818: 4814: 4810: 4804: 4797: 4791: 4784: 4778: 4769: 4760: 4751: 4742: 4733: 4731: 4721: 4712: 4703: 4694: 4685: 4676: 4669: 4663: 4656: 4650: 4648: 4646: 4638: 4632: 4630: 4622: 4616: 4609: 4603: 4594: 4587: 4581: 4579: 4571: 4565: 4556: 4549: 4545: 4539: 4530: 4528: 4518: 4509: 4502: 4496: 4489: 4485: 4479: 4472: 4468: 4464: 4458: 4449: 4442: 4436: 4429: 4423: 4416: 4410: 4403: 4397: 4390: 4386: 4382: 4376: 4369: 4363: 4356: 4350: 4341: 4334: 4328: 4319: 4312: 4308: 4302: 4295: 4289: 4287: 4277: 4270: 4267:3.1; Barnes, 4266: 4260: 4253: 4250:, 24, citing 4249: 4243: 4234: 4225: 4218: 4215:3.1; Barnes, 4214: 4208: 4201: 4197: 4193: 4189: 4183: 4174: 4167: 4163: 4159: 4153: 4146: 4142: 4136: 4127: 4120: 4116: 4112: 4108: 4102: 4095: 4089: 4080: 4073: 4067: 4060: 4056: 4050: 4043: 4039: 4035: 4031: 4025: 4016: 4009: 4005: 4001: 3997: 3991: 3982: 3973: 3971: 3969: 3967: 3959: 3953: 3946: 3940: 3931: 3922: 3913: 3911: 3903: 3897: 3889: 3883: 3879: 3872: 3863: 3854: 3845: 3838: 3834: 3830: 3824: 3817: 3813: 3807: 3798: 3796: 3794: 3786: 3780: 3773: 3767: 3760: 3756: 3752: 3746: 3739: 3733: 3726: 3722: 3716: 3709: 3703: 3696: 3690: 3683: 3680:as quoted in 3679: 3673: 3666: 3662: 3656: 3649: 3645: 3639: 3632: 3628: 3622: 3613: 3606: 3600: 3591: 3582: 3575: 3569: 3562: 3556: 3554: 3546: 3540: 3533: 3527: 3518: 3511: 3505: 3496: 3489: 3483: 3476: 3470: 3461: 3454: 3448: 3441: 3437: 3433: 3427: 3418: 3409: 3400: 3398: 3390: 3384: 3375: 3366: 3359: 3353: 3344: 3335: 3328: 3324: 3322: 3315: 3306: 3299: 3293: 3284: 3282: 3274: 3268: 3259: 3250: 3241: 3232: 3225: 3221: 3217: 3212: 3203: 3196: 3190: 3183: 3177: 3170: 3164: 3157: 3153: 3147: 3140: 3134: 3127: 3123: 3117: 3108: 3101: 3095: 3086: 3077: 3070: 3064: 3062: 3054: 3048: 3041: 3035: 3028: 3022: 3013: 3004: 2995: 2986: 2977: 2975: 2967: 2961: 2955:Hopkins, 191. 2952: 2943: 2936: 2930: 2923: 2919: 2914: 2907: 2901: 2899: 2891: 2887: 2881: 2874: 2868: 2859: 2852: 2846: 2837: 2828: 2826: 2816: 2807: 2800: 2799: 2792: 2783: 2774: 2772: 2762: 2753: 2746: 2741: 2732: 2730: 2720: 2711: 2704: 2700: 2694: 2685: 2678: 2672: 2663: 2656: 2650: 2643: 2637: 2628: 2621: 2615: 2606: 2599: 2595: 2589: 2582: 2576: 2567: 2558: 2551: 2545: 2538: 2534: 2530: 2525: 2518: 2517:Contra Celsum 2512: 2505: 2499: 2493:Castelli, 38. 2490: 2483: 2477: 2475: 2465: 2458: 2454: 2448: 2441: 2435: 2428: 2424: 2420: 2415: 2408: 2404: 2398: 2389: 2380: 2373: 2367: 2360: 2357: 2351: 2342: 2333: 2326: 2322: 2316: 2309: 2303: 2296: 2295: 2290: 2284: 2275: 2266: 2257: 2248: 2246: 2236: 2234: 2225: 2219: 2215: 2211: 2204: 2195: 2191: 2178: 2172: 2165: 2159: 2152: 2148: 2141: 2132: 2123: 2116: 2112: 2108: 2104: 2100: 2096: 2090: 2083: 2079: 2072: 2065: 2059: 2052: 2048: 2041: 2034: 2033: 2026: 2019: 2015: 2009: 2000: 1991: 1983: 1979: 1973: 1964: 1955: 1946: 1939: 1938:Contra Celsus 1935: 1929: 1922: 1915: 1911: 1901: 1897: 1893: 1891: 1888: 1886: 1883: 1881: 1880: 1876: 1875: 1869: 1865: 1862: 1857: 1852: 1850: 1846: 1839: 1834: 1832: 1831: 1825: 1823: 1822:Edward Gibbon 1819: 1815: 1814:Henry Dodwell 1811: 1807: 1803: 1799: 1795: 1790: 1783:Controversies 1780: 1778: 1777: 1772: 1767: 1765: 1761: 1757: 1753: 1749: 1743: 1739: 1737: 1736:Matthew 10:23 1733: 1732: 1726: 1716: 1714: 1710: 1706: 1702: 1698: 1695:In Eusebius' 1688: 1679: 1677: 1671: 1669: 1663: 1661: 1657: 1652: 1648: 1642: 1633: 1631: 1627: 1623: 1619: 1614: 1611: 1610: 1605: 1601: 1600: 1595: 1594: 1589: 1585: 1581: 1576: 1573: 1568: 1566: 1562: 1558: 1554: 1550: 1545: 1543: 1539: 1535: 1529: 1527: 1521: 1519: 1515: 1510: 1508: 1504: 1500: 1496: 1492: 1487: 1485: 1481: 1477: 1473: 1461: 1454: 1448: 1446:310–311 1445: 1444: 1438: 1436:306–310 1435: 1434: 1428: 1426:303–305 1425: 1424: 1420: 1417: 1416: 1411: 1398: 1394: 1392: 1388: 1387:slowly boiled 1384: 1380: 1370: 1368: 1364: 1360: 1356: 1352: 1348: 1344: 1340: 1336: 1332: 1328: 1324: 1320: 1319: 1314: 1310: 1306: 1301: 1299: 1295: 1290: 1285: 1282: 1278: 1272: 1270: 1266: 1261: 1259: 1258: 1253: 1252:vita Marcelli 1249: 1245: 1241: 1237: 1233: 1232: 1227: 1223: 1219: 1208: 1206: 1202: 1198: 1194: 1190: 1186: 1181: 1180: 1175: 1170: 1168: 1164: 1159: 1155: 1151: 1146: 1144: 1133: 1131: 1127: 1123: 1119: 1115: 1111: 1110: 1098: 1096: 1092: 1088: 1087: 1076: 1066: 1060: 1058: 1053: 1050: 1049: 1043: 1041: 1039: 1036: 1035: 1029: 1027: 1025: 1022: 1021: 1018: 1013: 1008: 1005: 1004: 1000: 997: 994: 992: 991: 979: 974: 972: 966: 963: 958: 956: 955: 950: 943: 938: 936: 932: 928: 922: 912: 910: 905: 903: 899: 895: 891: 881: 879: 875: 871: 866: 860: 858: 857: 850: 848: 844: 834: 831: 827: 821: 819: 815: 811: 807: 803: 799: 795: 780: 778: 774: 770: 765: 760: 757: 754: 744: 740: 735: 733: 729: 725: 721: 710: 708: 703: 698: 696: 692: 686: 684: 680: 672: 668: 664: 660: 659: 654: 650: 646: 642: 638: 630: 626: 624: 619: 604: 599: 597: 591: 589: 585: 584: 579: 575: 570: 568: 565: 561: 557: 552: 548: 544: 540: 536: 531: 529: 523: 520: 515: 514:Keith Hopkins 504: 501: 497: 492: 488: 486: 482: 478: 474: 469: 467: 463: 458: 454: 450: 446: 441: 439: 435: 430: 426: 425:Olympian gods 422: 418: 411: 406: 397: 395: 391: 387: 383: 379: 374: 372: 368: 364: 360: 356: 352: 348: 344: 340: 336: 332: 328: 324: 323: 318: 314: 313:upper classes 308: 306: 302: 298: 294: 290: 286: 280: 278: 274: 270: 266: 261: 257: 256:Justin Martyr 253: 252:imperial cult 249: 245: 240: 238: 234: 230: 226: 222: 216: 201: 199: 195: 191: 190:Edward Gibbon 187: 186:Enlightenment 182: 178: 174: 173: 166: 164: 160: 156: 152: 148: 144: 140: 134: 132: 128: 123: 119: 115: 111: 107: 101: 99: 95: 91: 87: 83: 79: 74: 70: 66: 62: 58: 55: 51: 47: 43: 39: 31: 27: 23: 19: 9391:Soviet Union 9381:Saudi Arabia 9306:Nazi Germany 9209:Adolf Hitler 9194:Three Pashas 9164:Ranavalona I 9111:Early modern 9003:Roman Empire 8875:Eastern Bloc 8820:Cristero War 8683:Early modern 8634: 8612:Roman Empire 8527: 8495: 8489: 8472: 8468: 8449: 8430: 8411: 8392: 8373: 8354: 8337: 8333: 8314: 8289: 8285: 8268: 8264: 8245: 8220: 8216: 8183: 8179: 8159: 8139: 8120: 8106:(1): 48–65. 8103: 8099: 8066: 8062: 8043: 8024: 8010:(1): 75–95. 8007: 8003: 7984: 7965: 7946: 7929: 7925: 7906: 7889: 7885: 7876: 7851: 7847: 7814: 7810: 7791: 7772: 7753: 7734: 7709: 7705: 7686: 7660: 7641: 7622: 7613: 7594: 7569:(1): 66–94. 7566: 7562: 7543: 7524: 7505: 7486: 7477: 7468: 7459: 7455: 7430: 7426: 7401: 7397: 7372: 7368: 7364: 7339: 7335: 7331: 7312: 7293: 7268: 7264: 7231: 7227: 7210: 7201: 7195: 7188: 7185:Apologeticus 7184: 7172: 7161: 7145: 7138: 7134: 7130: 7120: 7111: 7105: 7098: 7094: 7088: 7087:Lactantius. 7079: 7073: 7066: 7062: 7058: 7057:Lactantius. 7049: 7043: 7036: 7032: 7028: 7016: 7010: 7003: 6999: 6995: 6984: 6977: 6971: 6964: 6960: 6944: 6937: 6933: 6929: 6925: 6921: 6917: 6907: 6898: 6892: 6885: 6881: 6877: 6852: 6847: 6839: 6834: 6826: 6821: 6812: 6804: 6800: 6795: 6787: 6783: 6779: 6774: 6766: 6761: 6753: 6737: 6732: 6723: 6715: 6699: 6695: 6675: 6671: 6666: 6657: 6649: 6645: 6640: 6632: 6628: 6623: 6615: 6610: 6601: 6593: 6588: 6581:Apologeticus 6580: 6579:Tertullian, 6575: 6566: 6557: 6548: 6539: 6531: 6526: 6517: 6508: 6500: 6496: 6488: 6487:Lactantius, 6483: 6475: 6470: 6462: 6458: 6454: 6445: 6436: 6427: 6418: 6410: 6409:Epiphanius, 6405: 6383: 6378: 6370: 6365: 6356: 6348: 6347:Lactantius, 6343: 6335: 6330: 6322: 6317: 6308: 6300: 6295: 6287: 6283: 6278: 6270: 6265: 6257: 6252: 6244: 6239: 6231: 6226: 6218: 6213: 6204: 6195: 6186: 6178: 6173: 6165: 6164:Lactantius, 6160: 6152: 6147: 6139: 6123: 6119: 6114: 6106: 6101: 6093: 6088: 6080: 6075: 6067: 6062: 6053: 6033: 6028: 6020: 6015: 6007: 6003: 5998: 5990: 5986: 5981: 5973: 5968: 5959: 5950: 5942: 5938: 5933: 5925: 5921: 5916: 5907: 5899: 5895: 5890: 5882: 5866: 5861: 5853: 5849: 5844: 5836: 5832: 5827: 5819: 5815: 5810: 5802: 5798: 5794: 5789: 5781: 5777: 5772: 5764: 5760: 5755: 5747: 5742: 5734: 5730: 5722: 5718: 5713: 5705: 5701: 5697: 5692: 5684: 5680: 5675: 5667: 5663: 5662:Lactantius, 5658: 5650: 5645: 5637: 5632: 5624: 5620: 5619:Lactantius, 5615: 5607: 5602: 5594: 5590: 5585: 5577: 5573: 5568: 5560: 5556: 5551: 5543: 5538: 5530: 5525: 5505: 5500: 5492: 5487: 5478: 5473:Trompf, 120. 5469: 5461: 5460:Lactantius, 5456: 5447: 5439: 5434: 5425: 5417: 5412: 5404: 5388: 5383: 5375: 5370: 5362: 5358: 5353: 5345: 5341: 5336: 5328: 5323: 5314: 5306: 5302: 5298: 5287:. Retrieved 5283: 5274: 5265: 5257: 5253: 5248: 5240: 5235: 5227: 5222: 5214: 5209: 5201: 5197: 5196:Lactantius, 5192: 5184: 5179: 5171: 5166: 5158: 5140: 5135: 5127: 5122: 5114: 5109: 5101: 5096: 5088: 5083: 5075: 5070: 5062: 5058: 5054: 5050: 5046: 5037: 5028: 5020: 5015: 5007: 5002: 4994: 4989: 4981: 4977: 4973: 4965: 4961: 4957: 4936: 4928: 4924: 4915: 4906: 4898: 4893: 4885: 4880: 4872: 4868: 4867:Lactantius, 4863: 4855: 4850: 4842: 4838: 4833: 4824: 4816: 4812: 4808: 4803: 4795: 4794:Lactantius, 4790: 4782: 4777: 4768: 4759: 4750: 4741: 4720: 4711: 4702: 4693: 4684: 4675: 4667: 4662: 4654: 4636: 4635:Lactantius, 4620: 4615: 4607: 4602: 4593: 4585: 4569: 4564: 4555: 4547: 4543: 4538: 4521:Clarke, 657. 4517: 4512:Potter, 356. 4508: 4500: 4499:Lactantius, 4495: 4487: 4483: 4478: 4470: 4466: 4462: 4461:Lactantius, 4457: 4452:Clarke, 656. 4448: 4440: 4435: 4427: 4422: 4414: 4409: 4401: 4396: 4388: 4384: 4380: 4379:Lactantius, 4375: 4367: 4362: 4354: 4349: 4344:Clarke, 655. 4340: 4332: 4327: 4318: 4310: 4309:18; Barnes, 4306: 4305:Lactantius, 4301: 4293: 4276: 4268: 4264: 4259: 4251: 4247: 4242: 4233: 4224: 4216: 4212: 4207: 4199: 4195: 4191: 4187: 4182: 4173: 4165: 4161: 4157: 4152: 4144: 4140: 4135: 4126: 4118: 4114: 4110: 4106: 4101: 4093: 4088: 4079: 4071: 4066: 4058: 4054: 4049: 4041: 4038:Acta Felicis 4037: 4036:praef.; and 4033: 4029: 4024: 4015: 4007: 4003: 3999: 3995: 3994:Lactantius, 3990: 3981: 3976:Clarke, 651. 3957: 3956:Lactantius, 3952: 3944: 3943:Lactantius, 3939: 3930: 3921: 3901: 3896: 3877: 3871: 3862: 3853: 3844: 3836: 3832: 3828: 3823: 3815: 3811: 3806: 3784: 3779: 3771: 3766: 3758: 3745: 3737: 3732: 3724: 3720: 3719:Lactantius, 3715: 3707: 3702: 3694: 3689: 3677: 3672: 3664: 3660: 3655: 3647: 3643: 3638: 3630: 3626: 3625:Lactantius, 3621: 3612: 3604: 3599: 3590: 3581: 3573: 3568: 3560: 3544: 3543:Lactantius, 3539: 3531: 3530:Lactantius, 3526: 3517: 3509: 3504: 3495: 3487: 3482: 3474: 3469: 3460: 3452: 3447: 3439: 3435: 3431: 3430:Lactantius, 3426: 3417: 3408: 3388: 3383: 3374: 3365: 3357: 3352: 3343: 3334: 3326: 3323:10.1–5 3320: 3319:Lactantius, 3314: 3305: 3297: 3292: 3272: 3267: 3258: 3249: 3240: 3231: 3223: 3215: 3211: 3202: 3194: 3189: 3181: 3180:Lactantius, 3176: 3168: 3163: 3155: 3151: 3150:Lactantius, 3146: 3138: 3137:Lactantius, 3133: 3125: 3121: 3120:Lactantius, 3116: 3107: 3099: 3094: 3085: 3076: 3068: 3052: 3051:Lactantius, 3047: 3039: 3034: 3026: 3021: 3016:Clarke, 615. 3012: 3003: 2994: 2985: 2965: 2960: 2951: 2942: 2934: 2929: 2921: 2917: 2913: 2905: 2889: 2885: 2880: 2872: 2867: 2858: 2850: 2845: 2840:Clarke, 627. 2836: 2819:Potter, 333. 2815: 2810:Potter, 336. 2806: 2796: 2791: 2782: 2761: 2752: 2744: 2740: 2719: 2710: 2702: 2698: 2693: 2684: 2676: 2671: 2662: 2654: 2649: 2641: 2636: 2627: 2619: 2614: 2605: 2597: 2593: 2588: 2580: 2575: 2566: 2557: 2549: 2544: 2536: 2532: 2528: 2524: 2516: 2511: 2503: 2498: 2489: 2481: 2464: 2456: 2452: 2447: 2439: 2434: 2426: 2422: 2418: 2414: 2406: 2402: 2397: 2388: 2379: 2371: 2366: 2355: 2350: 2341: 2332: 2324: 2320: 2315: 2307: 2302: 2292: 2288: 2283: 2274: 2265: 2256: 2209: 2203: 2194: 2171: 2158: 2150: 2146: 2140: 2131: 2122: 2114: 2110: 2102: 2098: 2094: 2089: 2081: 2077: 2071: 2063: 2058: 2046: 2040: 2030: 2025: 2017: 2013: 2008: 1999: 1990: 1977: 1972: 1963: 1954: 1945: 1937: 1933: 1928: 1914: 1898: and 1877: 1866: 1861:W.H.C. Frend 1853: 1844: 1841: 1836: 1828: 1826: 1786: 1774: 1768: 1763: 1759: 1755: 1752:Theodosius I 1744: 1740: 1729: 1722: 1696: 1694: 1672: 1667: 1664: 1643: 1639: 1615: 1607: 1603: 1597: 1591: 1587: 1583: 1577: 1571: 1569: 1546: 1530: 1522: 1511: 1488: 1483: 1471: 1469: 1459: 1395: 1376: 1316: 1304: 1302: 1286: 1281:purple robes 1273: 1264: 1262: 1255: 1251: 1243: 1235: 1234:but not its 1229: 1225: 1221: 1214: 1192: 1177: 1171: 1169:, Algeria). 1147: 1139: 1121: 1117: 1113: 1107: 1104: 1090: 1084: 1081: 976: 967: 959: 952: 948: 945: 940: 924: 906: 887: 865:Thessalonica 861: 854: 851: 840: 822: 797: 791: 761: 750: 742: 737: 731: 727: 716: 699: 690: 687: 670: 662: 656: 637:Persian wars 634: 623:Saint George 621: 601: 592: 581: 577: 573: 571: 564:Neoplatonist 532: 524: 510: 493: 489: 470: 442: 420: 414: 389: 375: 350: 342: 330: 320: 309: 281: 268: 241: 218: 194:anticlerical 170: 167: 135: 102: 50:Roman Empire 41: 38:Diocletianic 37: 35: 18: 9559:New Martyrs 9483:Protestants 9439:Anabaptists 9366:North Korea 9261:Afghanistan 9224:Kim Il-sung 9189:Enver Hoxha 9184:Bai Chongxi 9133:Tipu Sultan 9097:Hulagu Khan 9080:Middle Ages 8741:1850 Aleppo 8645:Middle Ages 8433:. Ashgate. 8186:: 135–154. 8069:: 105–124. 7712:(1): 1–18. 7271:: 239–252. 6752:Womersley, 6690:Curran, 50. 6570:Dodds, 135. 6036:, 357 n.49. 5750:, 357 n.39. 4785:, 261 n.58. 4736:Davies, 68. 3801:Curran, 49. 3309:Walter, 111 3287:Davies, 92. 3193:Augustine, 3111:Dodds, 109. 2946:Davies, 93. 2908:, 295 n.50. 2831:Curran, 48. 2786:Curran, 47. 2455:, vol. 10, 2278:Dodds, 110. 2260:Dodds, 111. 2198:Gaddis, 29. 2164:Bollandists 1565:Firmilianus 1495:Beit She'an 1421:Martyrdoms 1323:Chrysogonus 1269:Marcellus I 1250:", and the 1218:Marcellinus 1126:Saint Alban 995:Asia Minor 874:Constantine 810:equestrians 788:First edict 764:didacticism 702:Constantine 277:cannibalism 221:Constantine 90:Constantine 69:Constantius 26:St. Erasmus 9708:Diocletian 9667:Categories 9346:Madagascar 9271:Azerbaijan 9234:Xi Jinping 9214:Mao Zedong 9051:Diocletian 8980:persecutor 8771:Diyarbekir 7181:Tertullian 7059:De Ira Dei 7025:Lactantius 6862:References 6782:, vol. 5, 6716:New Empire 6674:, vol. 1, 6474:Eusebius, 6334:Eusebius, 6321:Eusebius, 6301:New Empire 6282:Eusebius, 6269:Eusebius, 6256:Eusebius, 6243:Eusebius, 6230:Eusebius, 6217:Eusebius, 6177:Eusebius, 6151:Eusebius, 6138:Eusebius, 6118:Eusebius, 6105:Eusebius, 6092:Eusebius, 6079:Eusebius, 6068:New Empire 6002:Eusebius, 5985:Eusebius, 5920:Eusebius, 5894:Eusebius, 5848:Eusebius, 5831:Eusebius, 5814:Eusebius, 5793:Eusebius, 5776:Eusebius, 5759:Eusebius, 5717:Eusebius, 5696:Eusebius, 5679:Eusebius, 5636:Eusebius, 5589:Eusebius, 5572:Eusebius, 5555:Eusebius, 5529:Eusebius, 5451:Odahl, 68. 5357:Eusebius, 5344:, 48. Cf. 5289:2021-03-25 5252:Eusebius, 5183:Eusebius, 4854:Corcoran, 4837:Corcoran, 4815:1.13; and 4807:Eusebius, 4781:Corcoran, 4666:Corcoran, 4653:Corcoran, 4606:Eusebius, 4482:Eusebius, 4331:Eusebius, 4263:Eusebius, 4211:Eusebius, 4156:Eusebius, 4139:Eusebius, 4105:Eusebius, 4092:Corcoran, 4053:Eusebius, 4028:Eusebius, 3827:Eusebius, 3810:Eusebius, 3783:Corcoran, 3770:Corcoran, 3667:on earth". 3659:Eusebius, 3572:Corcoran, 3521:Odahl, 65. 3455:, 19, 294. 3387:Eusebius, 3296:Arnobius, 3038:Eusebius, 2892:, 62 n.76. 2890:New Empire 2851:Aboda Zara 2697:Eusebius, 2675:Eusebius, 2579:Eusebius, 2548:Eusebius, 2438:Eusebius, 2407:Epistaules 1921:Revelation 1760:traditores 1630:epigraphic 1622:Marcionism 1557:gladiators 1305:Acta Eulpi 1150:Maximilian 798:Terminalia 720:Manicheans 671:haruspices 658:haruspices 653:divination 649:Lactantius 567:Iamblichus 547:E.R. Dodds 462:Baal-hamon 445:Elagabalus 429:panegyrist 305:fire of 64 260:Tertullian 204:Background 172:traditores 155:Asia Minor 122:Manicheans 114:Roman gods 57:Diocletian 9471:Armenians 9444:Catholics 9316:Indonesia 9138:Minh Mạng 9071:Athanaric 9066:Shapur II 8994:Agrippa I 8491:Mnemosyne 8306:144484955 8237:161188245 8208:159942854 8091:163079454 7868:170769034 7839:162376477 7726:162190645 7447:170641484 7342:: 53–65. 7256:161858491 7162:Fragments 5313:from the 5117:, VII, 32 5076:The Bible 5063:The Bible 4982:The Bible 4966:The Bible 4811:8.13.13; 4417:, 30, 38. 4383:24.9 and 4370:8.14.9ff. 4353:Eusebius 4177:Rees, 64. 4130:Rees, 63. 3751:Old Latin 2642:De lapsis 2354:Tacitus, 2214:Routledge 2187:Citations 2115:programma 2047:Chronicle 1978:per annum 1934:Epistolae 1802:Sebastian 1713:Alexander 1604:tabularii 1593:strategoi 1588:curatores 1549:Theodosia 1538:Sepphoris 1491:Procopius 1383:Gorgonius 1373:Nicomedia 1294:Miltiades 1197:Majorinus 1189:Caecilian 1185:Mensurius 1158:Marcellus 962:Tillemont 909:Maxentius 900:, became 898:Maximinus 847:exorcists 814:decurions 695:Betthorus 691:Chronicon 519:Nicomedia 481:Tetrarchy 386:Gallienus 293:proconsul 244:barbarian 181:Melitians 177:Donatists 159:Maximinus 151:Palestine 139:Maxentius 118:Gallienus 9632:Category 9406:Thailand 9376:Pakistan 9351:Malaysia 9281:Cambodia 9061:Galerius 9056:Maximian 9035:Valerian 9015:Domitian 8586:incident 8271:: 6–38. 7593:(2000). 7583:23963763 7356:43646838 7158:Porphyry 6874:Arnobius 6799:Porson, 6765:Gibbon, 6714:Barnes, 6644:Barnes, 6592:Barnes, 6411:Panarion 6299:Barnes, 6066:Barnes, 6032:Barnes, 6019:Barnes, 5972:Barnes, 5881:Barnes, 5865:Barnes, 5797:8.13.5; 5746:Barnes, 5606:Barnes, 5542:Barnes, 5504:Barnes, 5491:Barnes, 5438:Barnes, 5416:Barnes, 5403:Barnes, 5387:Barnes, 5340:Barnes, 5327:Barnes, 5307:Acta SS. 5239:Barnes, 5226:Barnes, 5213:Barnes, 5170:Barnes, 5157:Barnes, 5139:Barnes, 5126:Barnes, 5113:Eusebius 5100:Tilley, 5087:Barnes, 5074:Tilley, 5019:Tilley, 5006:Barnes, 4897:Barnes, 4884:Barnes, 4619:Barnes, 4584:Barnes, 4426:Barnes, 4413:Barnes, 4400:Barnes, 4292:Barnes, 4246:Barnes, 4186:Barnes, 3900:Barnes, 3736:Barnes, 3706:Barnes, 3693:Barnes, 3603:Barnes, 3559:Barnes, 3486:Barnes, 3473:Barnes, 3451:Barnes, 3356:Barnes, 3098:Barnes, 3067:Barnes, 3025:Barnes, 2933:Barnes, 2904:Barnes, 2884:Barnes, 2515:Origen, 2325:Apologia 2321:Apologia 2306:Schott, 2287:Schott, 2107:Luke 2:1 1872:See also 1818:Voltaire 1764:traditor 1701:Meletius 1660:poll tax 1656:Arycanda 1618:Ashkelon 1599:duumviri 1584:Logistai 1526:tribunes 1503:libation 1476:Caesarea 1391:Anthimus 1289:Eusebius 1265:traditio 1244:traditor 1226:traditor 1193:traditio 1179:traditor 1174:Donatism 1112:and his 880:in 313. 878:Licinius 826:Caesarea 818:freedmen 806:senators 802:Terminus 683:Caesarea 679:Eusebius 663:haruspex 596:Arnobius 543:Bithynia 500:Damascus 473:Augustus 438:Hercules 417:Aurelian 382:Valerian 378:apostasy 335:rescript 289:Carthage 110:Valerian 94:Licinius 65:Galerius 61:Maximian 54:emperors 32:in Rome. 9642:Commons 9493:Martyrs 9454:Mormons 9416:Vietnam 9386:Somalia 9361:Nigeria 9341:Lebanon 9266:Algeria 9254:country 9219:Pol Pot 7831:3163949 7462:: 1–47. 7418:1089029 7398:Phoenix 7389:1089082 7369:Phoenix 7200:. From 7197:Apology 7191:) 197. 7189:Apology 7127:Optatus 7110:. From 7078:. From 7069:. 313. 7048:. From 7015:. From 6976:. From 6897:. From 6838:Frend, 5378:, 5.90. 4032:8.2.4; 3831:8.2.4; 3755:Vulgate 3665:profane 2504:Bishops 2502:Drake, 2403:Bishops 2401:Drake, 2359:15.44.6 2356:Annales 2099:edictum 1845:History 1572:Martyrs 1542:Thebaid 1534:Cilicia 1514:Urbanus 1458:in the 1379:eunuchs 1353:to the 1313:Gospels 1254:of the 1236:feriale 1201:Donatus 1154:Tebessa 1001:Danube 998:Oriens 902:caesars 894:Severus 890:augusti 843:Malatya 756:Romanus 645:Antakya 641:Antioch 453:Sarapis 434:Jupiter 371:Pionius 363:Babylas 339:Maximin 265:Tacitus 143:Severus 82:Britain 48:in the 9652:Portal 9411:Turkey 9356:Mexico 9296:France 9157:Modern 9143:Tự Đức 9128:Kangxi 9030:Decius 8723:Modern 8456: 8437: 8418: 8399: 8380: 8361: 8321: 8304: 8252: 8235: 8206: 8200:300738 8198: 8167: 8146: 8127: 8089: 8083:301453 8081: 8050: 8031: 7991: 7972: 7953: 7913: 7866: 7837: 7829: 7798: 7779: 7760: 7741: 7724: 7693: 7671: 7648: 7629: 7601: 7581: 7550: 7531: 7512: 7493: 7445: 7416: 7387: 7354: 7319: 7300: 7285:311244 7283: 7254: 7248:299693 7246: 7171:", in 6951: 6855:, 227. 6851:Shin, 6756:, 128. 6633:passim 6010:, 154. 5993:, 154. 5976:, 154. 5885:, 153. 5856:, 153. 5839:, 153. 5822:, 153. 5784:, 152. 5653:, 153. 5627:, 151. 5610:, 151. 5580:, 151. 5546:, 150. 5346:contra 5061:, xi; 4856:Empire 4839:Empire 4783:Empire 4668:Empire 4655:Empire 4623:, 149. 4488:Empire 4473:, 186. 4471:Empire 4443:, 186. 4441:Empire 4200:Empire 4166:Empire 4119:Empire 4096:, 181. 4094:Empire 4074:, 180. 4072:Empire 4061:, 180. 4059:Empire 4042:Empire 4008:Empire 3884: 3787:, 179. 3785:Empire 3774:, 180. 3772:Empire 3759:Empire 3648:passim 3574:Empire 3510:Contra 3220:π,2098 2620:Origen 2409:10.96. 2297:1.2.1. 2220: 2051:Narseh 1808:, and 1719:Legacy 1691:Museum 1602:, and 1499:reader 1240:Fabian 1136:Africa 800:, for 777:Didyma 773:Apollo 769:oracle 753:deacon 496:caesar 477:Trajan 361:, and 355:Fabian 347:Decius 317:Origen 285:Smyrna 273:incest 233:Trajan 153:, and 131:Didyma 127:oracle 106:Decius 73:edicts 67:, and 9476:Copts 9421:Yemen 9401:Sudan 9396:Spain 9331:Japan 9311:India 9291:Egypt 9286:China 9276:Burma 9102:Timur 8302:S2CID 8233:S2CID 8204:S2CID 8196:JSTOR 8087:S2CID 8079:JSTOR 7864:S2CID 7835:S2CID 7827:JSTOR 7722:S2CID 7579:JSTOR 7443:S2CID 7414:JSTOR 7385:JSTOR 7352:JSTOR 7281:JSTOR 7252:S2CID 7244:JSTOR 6652:, xi. 5407:, 24. 5365:, 48. 5260:, 39. 5230:, 38. 5204:, 29. 5104:, xi. 5091:, 56. 5078:, 10. 5010:, 23. 4997:, 23. 4984:, 46. 4901:, 23. 4588:, 39. 4404:, 28. 4391:, 28. 4271:, 24. 3563:, 19. 3158:, 22. 3029:, 21. 2374:16.2. 1906:Notes 1856:Croix 1798:Agnes 1705:Asyut 1682:Egypt 1551:from 1507:Homer 1418:Date 1347:Tiber 935:Sofia 830:Cirta 707:Dacia 674:' 629:Ubisi 556:Peter 545:. To 248:mores 225:Pliny 147:Egypt 9499:list 9336:Laos 9326:Iraq 9321:Iran 9010:Nero 8454:ISBN 8435:ISBN 8416:ISBN 8397:ISBN 8378:ISBN 8359:ISBN 8319:ISBN 8250:ISBN 8165:ISBN 8144:ISBN 8125:ISBN 8048:ISBN 8029:ISBN 7989:ISBN 7970:ISBN 7951:ISBN 7911:ISBN 7796:ISBN 7777:ISBN 7758:ISBN 7739:ISBN 7691:ISBN 7669:ISBN 7646:ISBN 7627:ISBN 7599:ISBN 7548:ISBN 7529:ISBN 7510:ISBN 7491:ISBN 7317:ISBN 7298:ISBN 6949:ISBN 4670:, 2. 3882:ISBN 3753:pre- 3749:The 3216:Suda 3169:Caes 3128:, 5. 2372:Nero 2310:, 1. 2218:ISBN 2032:Suda 1985:280. 1900:310s 1896:300s 1553:Tyre 1329:and 1167:Mila 1106:his 1091:acta 927:Gaza 896:and 876:and 724:Mani 576:and 560:Paul 558:and 537:and 475:and 451:and 449:Isis 301:Nero 275:and 237:Lyon 108:and 92:and 80:and 78:Gaul 36:The 9683:303 8500:doi 8477:doi 8342:doi 8294:doi 8273:doi 8225:doi 8188:doi 8108:doi 8071:doi 8012:doi 7934:doi 7894:doi 7856:doi 7819:doi 7714:doi 7571:doi 7456:Aug 7435:doi 7406:doi 7377:doi 7367:". 7344:doi 7273:doi 7236:doi 6967:). 4548:RAC 2596:," 2177:Lod 1590:), 973:". 872:by 775:at 771:of 681:of 457:Sol 129:at 40:or 9669:: 9430:By 9252:By 8978:By 8584:By 8496:54 8494:. 8473:43 8471:. 8336:. 8300:. 8290:13 8288:. 8269:26 8267:. 8231:. 8221:47 8219:. 8202:. 8194:. 8184:89 8182:. 8104:40 8102:. 8085:. 8077:. 8067:78 8065:. 8008:56 8006:. 7928:. 7890:37 7888:. 7862:. 7850:. 7833:. 7825:. 7815:43 7813:. 7720:. 7710:38 7708:. 7667:. 7577:. 7567:40 7565:. 7460:33 7441:. 7431:18 7429:. 7412:. 7402:55 7400:. 7383:. 7373:54 7371:. 7350:. 7340:39 7338:. 7279:. 7269:80 7267:. 7250:. 7242:. 7232:58 7230:. 7183:. 7164:. 7160:. 7139:ca 7137:) 7129:. 7099:ca 7097:) 7067:ca 7065:) 7037:ca 7035:) 7027:. 7004:ca 7002:) 6938:ca 6934:ca 6930:ca 6926:ca 6916:. 6886:ca 6884:) 6876:. 6745:^ 6707:^ 6683:^ 6391:^ 6131:^ 6041:^ 5874:^ 5513:^ 5396:^ 5282:. 5148:^ 4945:^ 4729:^ 4644:^ 4628:^ 4577:^ 4526:^ 4285:^ 3965:^ 3909:^ 3792:^ 3646:, 3552:^ 3396:^ 3280:^ 3218:, 3060:^ 2973:^ 2897:^ 2824:^ 2770:^ 2728:^ 2644:8. 2531:, 2473:^ 2327:3. 2244:^ 2232:^ 2212:. 2109:(" 2101:(" 1816:, 1804:, 1800:, 1662:. 1596:, 1450:44 1440:34 1430:13 1062:12 1055:12 1031:14 1015:31 1010:26 812:, 808:, 365:, 357:, 315:. 279:. 149:, 96:' 63:, 59:, 9501:) 9497:( 8558:e 8551:t 8544:v 8526:— 8506:. 8502:: 8483:. 8479:: 8462:. 8443:. 8424:. 8405:. 8386:. 8367:. 8348:. 8344:: 8338:3 8327:. 8308:. 8296:: 8279:. 8275:: 8258:. 8239:. 8227:: 8210:. 8190:: 8173:. 8152:. 8133:. 8114:. 8110:: 8093:. 8073:: 8056:. 8037:. 8018:. 8014:: 7997:. 7978:. 7959:. 7940:. 7936:: 7930:1 7919:. 7900:. 7896:: 7870:. 7858:: 7852:6 7841:. 7821:: 7804:. 7785:. 7766:. 7747:. 7728:. 7716:: 7699:. 7677:. 7654:. 7635:. 7607:. 7585:. 7573:: 7556:. 7537:. 7518:. 7499:. 7449:. 7437:: 7420:. 7408:: 7391:. 7379:: 7358:. 7346:: 7325:. 7306:. 7287:. 7275:: 7258:. 7238:: 7187:( 7133:( 7093:( 7061:( 7031:( 6998:( 6963:( 6920:( 6880:( 6635:. 5292:. 4254:. 3890:. 3650:. 2226:. 2166:. 2145:( 2020:. 1919:( 1792:" 1756:r 1754:( 1586:( 1462:. 1045:8 643:( 421:r 419:( 390:r 388:( 351:r 349:( 343:r 341:( 331:r 329:(

Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License. Additional terms may apply.

Knowledge

Diocletianic Persecution

Index