953:
should return to good sense. Indeed, for some reason or other, such self-indulgence assailed and idiocy possessed those
Christians, that they did not follow the practices of the ancients, which their own ancestors had, perhaps, instituted, but according to their own will and as it pleased them, they made laws for themselves that they observed, and gathered various peoples in diverse areas. Then when our order was issued stating that they should return themselves to the practices of the ancients, many were subjected to peril, and many were even killed. Many more persevered in their way of life, and we saw that they neither offered proper worship and cult to the gods, or to the god of the Christians. Considering the observation of our own mild clemency and eternal custom, by which we are accustomed to grant clemency to all people, we have decided to extend our most speedy indulgence to these people as well, so that Christians may once more establish their own meeting places, so long as they do not act in a disorderly way. We are about to send another letter to our officials detailing the conditions they ought to observe. Consequently, in accord with our indulgence, they ought to pray to their god for our health and the safety of the state, so that the state may be kept safe on all sides, and they may be able to live safely and securely in their own homes.
750:
and unexpected monstrosities among the race of the
Persians—a nation still hostile to us—and have made their way into our empire, where they are committing many outrages, disturbing the tranquility of our people and even inflicting grave damage to the civic communities. We have cause to fear that with the passage of time they will endeavour, as usually happens, to infect the modest and tranquil of an innocent nature with the damnable customs and perverse laws of the Persians as with the poison of a malignant (serpent) … We order that the authors and leaders of these sects be subjected to severe punishment, and, together with their abominable writings, burnt in the flames. We direct their followers, if they continue recalcitrant, shall suffer capital punishment, and their goods be forfeited to the imperial treasury. And if those who have gone over to that hitherto unheard-of, scandalous and wholly infamous creed, or to that of the Persians, are persons who hold public office, or are of any rank or of superior social status, you will see to it that their estates are confiscated and the offenders sent to the (quarry) at Phaeno or the mines at Proconnesus. And in order that this plague of iniquity shall be completely extirpated from this our most happy age, let your devotion hasten to carry out our orders and commands.
815:, the god of boundaries. It was the day they would terminate Christianity. The next day, Diocletian's first "Edict against the Christians" was published. The key targets of this piece of legislation were senior Christian clerics and Christians' property, just as they had been during Valerian's persecution. The edict prohibited Christians from assembling for worship and ordered the destruction of their scriptures, liturgical books, and places of worship across the empire. But Christians tried to retain the scriptures as far as possible, though, according to de Ste Croix, "it appears that giving them up...was not regarded as a sin" in the East; sufficient numbers of them must have been successfully saved, as is evident from the representative findings of "early biblical papyri" in the stream of the transmission of the text during this period. Christians might have given up apocryphal or pseudepigraphal works, or even refused to surrender their scriptures at the cost of their own lives, and there were some cases where the scriptures were not in the end destroyed. Christians were also deprived of the right to petition the courts, making them potential subjects for judicial torture; Christians could not respond to actions brought against them in court; Christian
1681:, however, suggests that the initiative was Maximinus's alone, and not that of Constantine or Licinius. It is also the only passage in the ancient sources providing Maximinus's rationale for his actions, without the hostility of Lactantius and Eusebius. Maximinus states that he supported Diocletian and Galerius's early legislation but, upon being made Caesar, came to realize the drain such policies would have on his labor force, and began to employ persuasion without coercion. He goes on to assert that he resisted petitions from Nicomedians to forbid Christians from their city (an event Eusebius does not otherwise record), and that when he accepted the demands of deputations from other cities he was only following imperial custom. Maximinus concludes his letter by referencing the letter he wrote after Galerius's edict, asking that his subordinates be lenient. He does not refer to his early letters, which encouraged avid persecution.
1698:
498:, a return to the "Golden Age of Rome". As such, he reinforced the long-standing Roman preference for ancient customs and Imperial opposition to independent societies. The Diocletianic regime's activist stance, however, and Diocletian's belief in the power of central government to effect major change in morals and society made him unusual. Most earlier emperors tended to be quite cautious in their administrative policies, preferring to work within existing structures rather than overhauling them. Diocletian, by contrast, was willing to reform every aspect of public life to satisfy his goals. Under his rule, coinage, taxation, architecture, law and history were all radically reconstructed to reflect his authoritarian and traditionalist ideology. The reformation of the empire's "moral fabric"—and the elimination of religious minorities—was simply one step in that process.
416:
915:(junior emperors). According to Lactantius, Galerius had forced Diocletian's hand in the matter and secured the appointment of loyal friends to the imperial office. In this "Second Tetrarchy", it seems that only the Eastern emperors, Galerius and Maximinus, continued with the persecution. As they left office, Diocletian and Maximian probably imagined Christianity to be in its last throes. Churches had been destroyed, the Church leadership and hierarchy had been snapped, and the army and civil service had been purged. Eusebius declares that apostates from the faith were "countless" (μυρίοι) in number. At first, the new Tetrarchy seemed even more vigorous than the first. Maximinus in particular was eager to persecute. In 306 and 309, he published his own edicts demanding universal sacrifice. Eusebius accuses Galerius of pressing on with the persecution as well.
629:
922:, son of Maximian, had been overlooked in the Diocletianic succession, offending the parents and angering the sons. Constantine, against Galerius's will, succeeded his father on July 25, 306. He immediately ended any ongoing persecutions and offered Christians full restitution of what they had lost under the persecution. This declaration gave Constantine the opportunity to portray himself as a possible liberator of oppressed Christians everywhere. Maxentius, meanwhile, had seized power in Rome on October 28, 306, and soon brought toleration to all Christians within his realm. Galerius made two attempts to unseat Maxentius but failed both times. During the first campaign against Maxentius, Severus was captured, imprisoned, and executed.
1726:; and the "Church of the Martyrs" under Meletius. When the two groups found themselves imprisoned together in Alexandria during the persecution, Peter of Alexandria drew up a curtain in the middle of their cell. He then said: "There are some who are of my view, let them come over on my side, and those of Melitius's view, stay with Melitius." Thus divided, the two sects went on with their affairs, purposely ignoring each other's existence. The schism continued to grow throughout the persecution, even with its leaders in jail, and would persist long after the deaths of both Peter and Meletius. Fifty-one bishoprics are attested for Egypt in 325; fifteen are only known otherwise as seats of the schismatic Church.
1282:, was not consecrated until either November or December 308; it was likely not possible to elect a new bishop during the persecution. In the meantime, two factions diverged in the Roman Church, separating the lapsed (Christians who had complied with the edicts to ensure their own safety) and the rigorists (those who would not compromise with secular authority). These two groups clashed in street fights and riots, eventually leading to murders. It is said that Marcellus, a rigorist, purged all mention of Marcellinus from church records and removed his name from the official list of bishops. Marcellus was banished from the city and died in exile on January 16, 309.
948:, Bulgaria) Galerius, officially ending the Diocletianic persecution of Christianity in the East. Galerius issued this proclamation to end hostilities while on his deathbed, which gave Christians the rights to exist freely under the law and to peaceable assembly. Persecution was everywhere at an end. Lactantius preserves the Latin text of this pronouncement, describing it as an edict. Eusebius provides a Greek translation of the pronouncement. His version includes imperial titles and an address to provincials, suggesting that the proclamation is, in fact, an imperial letter. The document seems to have been promulgated only in Galerius's provinces.
1685:
support. For the first time, Maximinus issued a law which offered comprehensive toleration and the means to effectively secure it. As in his earlier letter, Maximinus is apologetic but one-sided. Maximinus absolves himself for all the failings of his policy, locating fault with local judges and enforcers instead. He frames the new universal toleration as a means of removing all ambiguity and extortion. Maximinus then declares full freedom of religious practice, encourages
Christians to rebuild their churches, and pledges to restore Christian property lost in the persecution. The edict changed little: Licinius defeated Maximinus at the
1535:
Levant. He issued his own persecutory edict in the spring of 306, ordering general sacrifice. The edict of 304 had been difficult to enforce, since the imperial government had no record of city-dwelling subjects who held no agricultural land. Galerius solved this problem in 306 by running another census. This contained the names of all urban heads of household and the number of their dependents (past censuses had only listed persons paying tax on land, such as landowners and tenants). Using lists drawn up by the civil service, Maximinus ordered his heralds to call all men, women, and children down to the temples. There, after
720:, and loathed the Christians for avoiding her festivals. Newly prestigious and influential after his victories in the Persian war, Galerius might have wished to compensate for a previous humiliation at Antioch, when Diocletian had forced him to walk at the front of the imperial caravan, rather than inside it. His resentment fed his discontent with official policies of tolerance; from 302 on, he probably urged Diocletian to enact a general law against the Christians. Since Diocletian was already surrounded by an anti-Christian clique of counsellors, these suggestions must have carried great force.
696:, a contemporary ecclesiastical historian, tells a similar story: commanders were told to give their troops the choice of sacrifice or loss of rank. These terms were strong—a soldier would lose his career in the military, his state pension and his personal savings—but not fatal. According to Eusebius, the purge was broadly successful, but Eusebius is confused about the technicalities of the event, and his characterization of the overall size of the apostasy is ambiguous. Eusebius also attributes the initiative for the purge to Galerius, rather than Diocletian.
835:
powers. Galerius's recommendation—burning alive—became a common method of executing
Christians in the East. After the edict was posted in Nicomedia, a man named Eutius tore it down and ripped it up, shouting "Here are your Gothic and Sarmatian triumphs!" He was arrested for treason, tortured, and burned alive soon after, becoming the edict's first martyr. The provisions of the edict were known and enforced in Palestine by March or April (just before Easter), and it was in use by local officials in North Africa by May or June. The earliest martyr at
856:, Turkey) and Syria, a second edict was published, ordering the arrest and imprisonment of all bishops and priests. In the judgment of historian Roger Rees, there was no logical necessity for this second edict; that Diocletian issued one indicates that he was either unaware the first edict was being carried out, or that he felt it was not working as quickly as he wanted it to. Following the publication of the second edict, prisons began to fill—the underdeveloped prison system of the time could not handle the deacons, lectors, priests, bishops, and
33:
1639:, Israel), were burned alive. On February 16, Pamphilus and his six companions were executed. In the aftermath, four more members of Pamphilus's household were martyred for their displays of sympathy for the condemned. The last martyrs before Galerius's edict of toleration were executed on March 5 and 7. Then the executions stopped. Eusebius does not explain this sudden halt, but it coincides with the replacement of Firmilianus with Valentinianus, a man appointed at some time before Galerius's death. The replacement is only attested to via
1710:, Egypt is covered only in passing. When Eusebius remarks on the region, however, he writes of tens, twenties, even hundreds of Christians put to death on a single day, which would seem to make Egypt the region that suffered the most during the persecutions. According to one report that Barnes calls "plausible, if unverifiable", 660 Christians were killed in Alexandria alone between 303 and 311. In Egypt, Peter of Alexandria fled his namesake city early on in the persecution, leaving the Church leaderless.
1493:, for the duration of the persecution, although he also traveled to Phoenicia and Egypt, and perhaps Arabia as well. Eusebius's account is imperfect. It focuses on martyrs that were his personal friends before the persecutions began and includes martyrdoms that took place outside of Palestine. His coverage is uneven. He provides only bare generalities at the bloody end of the persecutions, for example. Eusebius recognizes some of his faults. At the outset of his account of the general persecution in the
1753:
fortitude of the martyrs in the face of death had earned the faith respectability in the past, though it may have won few converts. The thought of martyrdom, however, sustained
Christians under trial and in prison, hardening their faith. Packaged with the promise of eternal life, martyrdom proved attractive for the growing segment of the pagan population which was, to quote Dodds, "in love with death". To use Tertullian's famous phrase, the blood of the martyrs was the seed of the Church.
1849:
alleged of holy martyrs, whose wounds had been instantly healed, whose strength had been renewed, and whose lost members had miraculously been restored, were extremely convenient for the purpose of removing every difficulty, and of silencing every objection. The most extravagant legends, as they conduced to the honour of the church, were applauded by the credulous multitude, countenanced by the power of the clergy, and attested by the suspicious evidence of ecclesiastical history.
395:, Decius's friend, took up the imperial mantle in 253. Though he was at first thought of as "exceptionally friendly" towards the Christians, his actions soon showed otherwise. In July 257, he issued a persecutory edict. As punishment for following the Christian faith, Christians were to face exile or condemnation to the mines. In August 258, he issued a second edict, making the punishment death. This persecution stalled in June 260, when Valerian was captured in battle. His son
1652:
with its provisions only reluctantly. Maximinus told his praetorian prefect
Sabinus to write to provincial governors, requesting that they and their subordinates ignore "that letter" (Galerius's edict). Christians were to be free from molestation, and their mere Christianity would not leave them open to criminal charges. Unlike Galerius's edict, however, Maximinus's letter made no provisions for Christian assembly, nor did he suggest that Christians build more churches.
716:
consistently the main advocate of such persecution. He was also eager to exploit this position to his own political advantage. As the lowest-ranking emperor, Galerius was always listed last in imperial documents. Until the end of the
Persian war in 299, he had not even had a major palace. Lactantius states that Galerius hungered for a higher position in the imperial hierarchy. Galerius's mother, Romula, was bitterly anti-Christian, for she had been a pagan priestess in
700:
that would have been purged—Diocletian had left his in Egypt to quell continuing unrest—Antiochenes would understandably have believed
Galerius to be its instigator. The historian David Woods argues instead that Eusebius and Lactantius are referring to different events. Eusebius, according to Woods, describes the beginnings of the army purge in Palestine, while Lactantius describes events at court. Woods asserts that the relevant passage in Eusebius's
234:, Christianity was an illegal religion in the eyes of the Roman state. For the first two centuries of its existence, Christianity and its practitioners were unpopular with the people at large. Christians were always suspect, members of a "secret society" who communicated with a private code and who shied away from the public sphere. It was popular hostility—the anger of the crowd—which drove the earliest persecutions, not official action. Around 112,
1143:. The second, third and fourth edicts seem not to have been enforced in the West at all. It is possible that Constantius's relatively tolerant policies were the result of Tetrarchic jealousies; the persecution, after all, had been the project of the Eastern emperors, not the Western ones. After Constantine succeeded his father in 306, he urged the recovery of Church property lost in the persecution and legislated full freedom for all Christians in his domain.
9639:
9659:
1404:, were decapitated. The persecution intensified; presbyters and other clergymen could be arrested without having even been accused of a crime and condemned to death. A second fire appeared sixteen days after the first. Galerius left the city, declaring it unsafe, and Diocletian soon followed. Lactantius blames Galerius's allies for setting the fire; Constantine, in a later reminiscence, attributes the fire to "lightning from heaven".
391:(renunciation of the faith). At Smyrna, the bishop Euctemon sacrificed and encouraged others to do the same. Because the Church was largely urban, it should have been easy to identify, isolate and destroy the Church hierarchy. This did not happen. In June 251, Decius died in battle, leaving his persecution incomplete. His persecutions were not followed up for another six years, allowing some Church functions to resume.
537:
many individuals willing to be martyrs and many provincials willing to ignore any persecutory edicts from the emperors as well. Even
Constantius was known to have disapproved of persecutory policies. The lower classes demonstrated little of the enthusiasm they had shown for earlier persecutions. They no longer believed the slanderous accusations that were popular in the 1st and 2nd centuries. Perhaps, as the historian
1086:
864:
this legislation. He may also have sought to fracture the
Christian community by publicizing the fact that its clergy had apostatized. The demand to sacrifice was unacceptable to many of the imprisoned, but wardens often managed to obtain at least nominal compliance. Some of the clergy sacrificed willingly; others did so on pain of torture. Wardens were eager to be rid of the clergy in their midst. Eusebius, in his
9649:
1807:", was held to begin with Diocletian's accession to the emperorship in 284, rather than 303, when persecutions actually began; Barnes argues that they fabricated a large number of martyrs' tales (indeed, most surviving martyrs' tales are forgeries), exaggerated the facts in others, and embroidered true accounts with miraculous details. According to Curran, of the surviving martyrs' acts, only those of
1617:, who kept the records, saw to it that there were no evasions. Maximinus introduced some innovations to the process, making him the only known persecuting emperor to have done so. This edict now required food sold in the marketplaces to be covered in libation. Maximinus sent sentries to stand guard at bathhouses and city gates to ensure that all customers sacrificed. He issued copies of the fictitious
318:, it was a purely local affair; it did not spread beyond the city limits of Rome. These early persecutions were certainly violent, but they were sporadic, brief and limited in extent. They were of limited threat to Christianity as a whole. The very capriciousness of official action, however, made the threat of state coercion loom large in the Christian imagination.
601:. Like Hierocles, he unfavorably compared Jesus to Apollonius of Tyana. Porphyry held that Christians blasphemed by worshiping a human being rather than the Supreme God and behaved treasonably in forsaking the traditional Roman cult. "To what sort of penalties might we not justly subject people," Porphyry asked, "who are fugitives from their fathers' customs?"
790:. Porphyry may also have been present at this meeting. Upon returning, the messenger told the court that "the just on earth" hindered Apollo's ability to speak. These "just", Diocletian was informed by members of the court, could only refer to the Christians of the empire. At the behest of his court, Diocletian acceded to demands for a universal persecution.
131:'s accession in 260, these laws went into abeyance. Diocletian's assumption of power in 284 did not mark an immediate reversal of imperial inattention to Christianity, but it did herald a gradual shift in official attitudes toward religious minorities. In the first fifteen years of his rule, Diocletian purged the army of Christians, condemned
1172:
should compel Christians to sacrifice to the gods. Governor Valerius Florus enforced the same policy in Numidia during the summer or autumn of 303, when he called for "days of incense burning"; Christians would sacrifice or they would lose their lives. In addition to those already listed, African martyrs also include Saturninus and the
1769:. 378–95), Christianity became the state religion. By the 5th century, Christianity was the empire's predominant faith, and filled the same role paganism had at the end of the 3rd century. Because of the persecution, however, a number of Christian communities were riven between those who had complied with imperial authorities (
976:
Gaul, Spain, and Britain, moreover, Christians already had far more than Galerius was offering to Eastern Christians. Other late 20th-century historians, like Graeme Clark and David S. Potter, assert that for all its hedging, Galerius's issuance of the edict was a landmark event in the histories of Christianity and the Roman empire.
1094:
Spain, and Africa), it was firmly enforced; and in the East, under Diocletian (Asia Minor, Syria, Palestine and Egypt) and Galerius (Greece and the Balkans), its provisions were pursued with more fervor than anywhere else. For the Eastern provinces, Peter Davies tabulated the total number of martyrdoms for an article in the
1593:, the highest authority in judicial proceedings after the emperor, demanding that Christians conform to pagan customs. His new legislation called for another general sacrifice, coupled with a general offering of libations. It was even more systematic than the first, allowing no exceptions for infants or servants.
1878:
Although the number of verifiably true martyrs' tales has decreased, and estimates of the total casualty rate have been reduced, the majority of modern writers are less skeptical than Gibbon of the severity of the persecution. As the author Stephen Williams wrote in 1985, "even allowing a margin for
1542:
At some point after the publication of Maximinus's first edict, perhaps in 307, Maximinus changed the penalty for transgressions. Instead of receiving the death penalty, Christians would now be mutilated and condemned to labor in state-owned mines. Since Egyptian mines were overstaffed, mostly due to
873:
In 304, the fourth edict ordered all persons, men, women, and children, to gather in a public space and offer a collective sacrifice. If they refused, they were to be executed. The precise date of the edict is unknown, but it was probably issued in either January or February 304 and was being applied
863:
In anticipation of the upcoming twentieth anniversary of his reign on November 20, 303, Diocletian declared a general amnesty in a third edict. Any imprisoned clergyman could be freed so long as he agreed to make a sacrifice to the gods. Diocletian may have been searching for some good publicity with
513:
forbidding incestuous marriages and affirming the supremacy of Roman law over local law. Its preamble insists that it is every emperor's duty to enforce the sacred precepts of Roman law, for "the immortal gods themselves will favour and be at peace with the Roman name...if we have seen to it that all
147:
Persecutory policies varied in intensity across the empire. Whereas Galerius and Diocletian were avid persecutors, Constantius was unenthusiastic. Later persecutory edicts, including the calls for universal sacrifice, were not applied in his domain. His son, Constantine, on taking the imperial office
1534:
The bulk of Eusebius's account deals with Maximinus, who took up the office of emperor in Nicomedia on May 1, 305, and immediately thereafter left the city for Caesarea, hurrying, Lactantius alleges, so as to oppress and trample the diocese of Oriens. Initially, Maximinus governed only Egypt and the
1294:
of the emperor. Maxentius did not permit religious freedom for Christians in the realm or the restitution of confiscated property. The Great Persecution continued until 311 when Constantine arrived at Rome's gates and defeated Maxentius with an army only half as big. Maxentius was such a tyrant that
1285:
The persecution was firmly enforced until Maximian's abdication in 305 but started to wane when Constantius (who seemed not to have been enthusiast about it) succeeded as august. After Constantius's death, Maxentius took advantage of Galerius's unpopularity in Italy (Galerius had introduced taxation
870:, records the case of one man who after being brought to an altar, had his hands seized and made to complete a sacrificial offering. The clergyman was told that his act of sacrifice had been recognized and was summarily dismissed. Others were told they had sacrificed even when they had done nothing.
749:
We have heard that the Manichaens have set up new and hitherto unheard-of sects in opposition to the older creeds so that they might cast out the doctrines vouchsafed to us in the past by the divine favour for the benefit of their own depraved doctrine. They have sprung forth very recently like new
194:
in Egypt, persisted long after the persecutions. The Donatists would not be reconciled to the Church until after 411. Some historians consider that, in the centuries that followed the persecutory era, Christians created a "cult of the martyrs" and exaggerated the barbarity of the persecutions. Other
135:
to death, and surrounded himself with public opponents of Christianity. Diocletian's preference for activist government, combined with his self-image as a restorer of past Roman glory, foreboded the most pervasive persecution in Roman history. In the winter of 302, Galerius urged Diocletian to begin
1756:
By 324, Constantine, the Christian convert, ruled the entire empire alone. Christianity became the greatest beneficiary of imperial largesse. The persecutors had been routed. As the historian J. Liebeschuetz has written: "The final result of the Great Persecution provided a testimonial to the truth
1738:
has put it, it was simply "too little and too late". Christians were never purged systematically in any part of the empire, and Christian evasion continually undermined the edicts' enforcement. Some bribed their way to freedom. The Christian Copres escaped on a technicality: To avoid sacrificing in
1664:
was executed in Nicomedia on January 7, 312. According to Eusebius, many Egyptian bishops suffered the same fate. According to Lactantius, Maximinus ordered confessors to have "their eyes gouged out, their hands cut off, their feet amputated, their noses or ears severed". Antioch asked Maximinus if
1655:
Maximinus issued orders in Autumn 311 forbidding Christians to congregate in cemeteries. After issuing these orders, he was approached by embassies from cities within his domain, demanding he begin a general persecution. Lactantius and Eusebius state that these petitions were not voluntary, but had
1651:
After Galerius's death, Maximinus seized Asia Minor. Even after Galerius's edict of toleration in 311, Maximinus continued to persecute. His name is absent from the list of emperors publishing Galerius's edict of toleration, perhaps through later suppression. Eusebius states that Maximinus complied
1407:
Lactantius, still living in Nicomedia, saw the beginnings of the apocalypse in Diocletian's persecution. Lactantius's writings during the persecution exhibit both bitterness and Christian triumphalism. His eschatology runs directly counter to Tetrarchic claims to "renewal". Diocletian asserted that
1116:
The sources are inconsistent regarding the extent of the persecution in Constantius's domain, though all portray it as quite limited. Lactantius states that the destruction of church buildings was the worst thing that came to pass. Eusebius explicitly denies that any churches were destroyed in both
979:
Galerius's law was not effective for long in Maximinus's district. Within seven months of Galerius's proclamation, Maximinus resumed persecution, which continued until 313, shortly before his death. At a meeting between Licinius and Constantine in Milan in February 313, the two emperors drafted the
975:
called the edict "insignificant"; likewise, the late 20th-century historian Timothy Barnes cautions that the "novelty or importance of measure should not be overestimated". Barnes notes that Galerius's legislation only brought to the East rights Christians already possessed in Italy and Africa. In
952:
Among all the other arrangements that we are always making for the benefit and utility of the state, we have heretofore wished to repair all things in accordance with the laws and public discipline of the Romans, and to ensure that even the Christians, who abandoned the practice of their ancestors,
536:
It is unknown how much support there was for persecution within the aristocracy. After Gallienus's peace, Christians reached high ranks in Roman government. Diocletian even appointed several Christians to those positions, and his wife and daughter may have been sympathetic to the Church. There were
321:
In the 3rd century, the pattern changed. Emperors became more active, and government officials began to actively pursue Christians rather than merely to respond to the will of the crowd. Christianity also changed. No longer were its practitioners merely "the lower orders fomenting discontent"; some
1684:
In the early spring of 313, as Licinius advanced against Maximinus, the latter resorted to savagery in his dealings with his own citizens, and his Christians in particular. In May 313, Maximinus issued one more edict of toleration, hoping to persuade Licinius to stop advancing, and win more public
1585:
records no Palestinian martyrs between July 25, 308 and November 13, 309. The political climate probably impinged on persecutory policy here: This was the period of the conference of Carnuntum, which met in November 308. Maximinus probably spent the next few months in discussion with Galerius over
1171:
refused his army bonus and took off his uniform in public. Once persecutions began, public authorities were eager to assert their authority. Anullinus, proconsul of Africa, expanded on the edict, deciding that in addition to the destruction of the Christians' scriptures and churches the government
1151:
While the persecution under Constantius was relatively light, there is no doubt about the force of the persecution in Maximian's domain. Its effects are recorded at Rome, Sicily, Spain, and in Africa—indeed, Maximian encouraged particularly strict enforcement of the edict in Africa. Africa's
1093:
The enforcement of the persecutory edicts was inconsistent. Since the Tetrarchs were more or less sovereign in their own realms, they had a good deal of control over persecutory policy. In Constantius's realm (Britain and Gaul) the persecution was only lightly enforced; in Maximian's realm (Italy,
777:
of the emperors was reaching a fevered pitch; at the behest of an oracle, it was to hit its peak. According to Lactantius, Diocletian and Galerius entered into an argument over what imperial policy towards Christians should be while at Nicomedia in 302. Diocletian argued that forbidding Christians
699:
Modern scholar Peter Davies surmises that Eusebius is referring to the same event as Lactantius, but that he heard of the event through public rumors and knew nothing of the privileged discussion at the emperor's private religion ceremony that Lactantius had access to. Since it was Galerius's army
442:
to Maximian declared: "You have heaped the gods with altars and statues, temples and offerings, which you dedicated with your own name and your own image, whose sanctity is increased by the example you set, of veneration for the gods. Surely, men will now understand what power resides in the gods,
179:
The persecution failed to check the rise of the Church. By 324, Constantine was sole ruler of the empire, and Christianity had become his favored religion. Although the persecution resulted in death, torture, imprisonment, or dislocation for many Christians, most of the empire's Christians avoided
843:
from May 19. In Gaul and Britain Constantius did not enforce this edict, but in the East progressively harsher legislation was devised; the edict was firmly enforced in Maximian's domain until his abdication in 305, but persecutions later began to wane when Constantius succeeded Maximian and were
834:
Diocletian requested that the edict be pursued "without bloodshed", against Galerius's demands that all those refusing to sacrifice be burned alive. In spite of Diocletian's request, local judges often enforced executions during the persecution, as capital punishment was among their discretionary
613:
The augurs, the dream interpreters, the soothsayers, the prophets, and the priestlings, ever vain...fearing that their own arts be brought to nought, and that they may extort but scanty contributions from the devotees, now few and infrequent, cry aloud, 'The gods are neglected, and in the temples
1302:
won. Eusebius was a moderate, however, in a still-divided Church. Heraclius, head of the rigorist faction, opposed readmission of the lapsed. Rioting followed, and Maxentius exiled the combative pair from the city, leaving Eusebius to die in Sicily on October 21. The office was vacant for almost
532:
even sat on a hill overlooking the imperial palace. These new churches probably represented not only absolute growth in Christian population, but also the increasing affluence of the Christian community. In some areas where Christians were influential, such as North Africa and Egypt, traditional
1869:
put it in 1954, "The so-called Great Persecution has been exaggerated in the Christian tradition to an extent which even Gibbon did not fully appreciate." In 1972, the ecclesiastical Protestant historian Hermann Dörries was embarrassed to admit to his colleagues that his sympathies lay with the
1848:
After the church had triumphed over all her enemies, the interest as well as vanity of the captives prompted them to magnify the merit of their respective sufferings. A convenient distance of time or place gave an ample scope to the progress of fiction; and the frequent instances which might be
527:
has given crude and tentative estimates for the Christian population in the 3rd century. Hopkins estimates that the Christian community grew from a population of 1.1 million in 250 to a population of 6 million by 300, about 10% of the empire's total population. Christians even expanded into the
715:
each allege that Galerius was the prime impetus for the military purge, and its prime beneficiary. Diocletian, for all his religious conservatism, still had tendencies towards religious tolerance. Galerius, by contrast, was a devoted and passionate pagan. According to Christian sources, he was
501:
The unique position of the Christians and Jews of the empire became increasingly apparent. The Jews had earned imperial toleration on account of the great antiquity of their faith. They had been exempted from Decius's persecution and continued to enjoy freedom from persecution under Tetrarchic
1752:
The pagan crowd was more sympathetic to the Christians' sufferings than they had been in the past. Lactantius, Eusebius and Constantine write of revulsion at the excesses of the persecutors—Constantine of executioners "wearied out, and disgusted at the cruelties" they had committed. The
769:
visited a court while preliminary sacrifices were taking place and interrupted the ceremonies, denouncing the act in a loud voice. He was arrested and sentenced to be set aflame, but Diocletian overruled the decision and decided that Romanus should have his tongue removed instead. Romanus was
86:
rescinding Christians' legal rights and demanding that they comply with traditional religious practices. Later edicts targeted the clergy and demanded universal sacrifice, ordering all inhabitants to sacrifice to the gods. The persecution varied in intensity across the empire—weakest in
1623:
to encourage popular hatred of Christ. Prostitutes confessed, under judicial torture, to having engaged in debaucheries with Christians. Bishops were reassigned to work as stable boys for the Imperial horse guard or keepers of the Imperial camels. Maximinus also worked for a revival of pagan
988:
We thought it fit to commend these things most fully to your care that you may know that we have given to those Christians free and unrestricted opportunity of religious worship. When you see that this has been granted to them by us, your Worship will know that we have also conceded to other
687:
divination. Diocletian, enraged by this turn of events, declared that all members of the court must make a sacrifice. Diocletian and Galerius also sent letters to the military command, demanding that the entire army perform the sacrifices or else face discharge. Since there are no reports of
1193:
bishops (those who had handed scriptures over to secular authorities). One of the key moments in the break with the mainline Church occurred in Carthage in 304. The Christians from Abitinae had been brought to the city and imprisoned. Friends and relatives of the prisoners came to visit but
1665:
it could forbid Christians from living in the city. In response, Maximinus issued a rescript encouraging every city to expel its Christians. This rescript was published in Sardis on April 6, 312, and in Tyre by May or June. There are three surviving copies of Maximinus's rescript, in Tyre,
1929:
Early pagan opponents of the Christians would see their God as a political criminal, executed under a governor of Judea for proclaiming himself "King of the Jews", and note that their holy texts included an allegorical attack on the Roman state that prophesied its imminent destruction
1566:(Ṣūr, Lebanon) thrown to the sea for conversing with Christians attending trial and refusing sacrifice; the Christians in court, meanwhile, he sent to Phaeno. On a single day, November 2, 307, Urbanus sentenced a man named Domninus to be burned alive, three youths to fight as
957:
Galerius's words reinforce the Tetrarchy's theological basis for the persecution; the acts did nothing more than attempt to enforce traditional civic and religious practices, even if the edicts were thoroughly nontraditional. Galerius does nothing to violate the spirit of the
604:
Pagan priests, too, were interested in suppressing any threat to traditional religion. They believed their ceremonies were hindered by the presence of Christians, who were thought to cloud the sight of oracles and stall the gods' recognition of their sacrifices. The Christian
958:
persecution—Christians are still admonished for their nonconformity and foolish practices—Galerius never admits that he did anything wrong. Certain early 20th-century historians have declared that Galerius's edict definitively nullified the old "legal formula"
1372:. It had become, officially at least, a Christian army. Constantine's apparent conversion was visible elsewhere, too. Bishops dined at Constantine's table, and many Christian building projects began soon after his victory. On November 9, 312, the old headquarters of the
470:
in Italy. He did, however, favor gods who provided for the safety of the whole empire instead of the local deities of the provinces. In Africa, Diocletian's revival focused on Jupiter, Hercules, Mercury, Apollo and the imperial cult. The cult of Saturn, the Romanized
2055:
Helgeland places the event in 301. Barnes argued for a date of 302 or "not long before" in 1976, but accepted a date of 299 in 1981. Woods argues for a date of 297, on the grounds that Diocletian and Galerius were both in the area at this time, and because Eusebius's
2190:, Israel). Barnes contests this identification, arguing that since Eusebius specifically identifies the city as wholly Jewish, it is unlikely to have been Lydda, which had a Christian bishop by 325. Diocaesarea, however, was noted for its Jewishness long thereafter.
1152:
political elite were insistent that the persecution be fulfilled, and Africa's Christians, especially in Numidia, were equally insistent on resisting them. For the Numidians, to hand over scriptures was an act of terrible apostasy. Africa had long been home to the
989:
religions the right of open and free observance of their worship for the sake of the peace of our times, that each one may have the free opportunity to worship as he pleases; this regulation is made that we may not seem to detract from any dignity or any religion.
293:
Nonetheless, for the first two centuries of the Christian era, no emperor issued general laws against the faith or its Church. These persecutions were carried out under the authority of local government officials. At Bithynia–Pontus in 111, it was Pliny; at
1879:
invention, what remains is terrible enough. Unlike Gibbon, we live in an age which has experienced similar things, and knows how unsound is that civilised smile of incredulity at such reports. Things can be, have been, every bit as bad as our worst imaginings."
1718:), took up the job in his place. Meletius performed ordinations without Peter's permission, which caused some bishops to complain to Peter. Meletius soon refused to treat Peter as any kind of authority, and expanded his operations into Alexandria. According to
1669:(Aykiriçay, Turkey), and Colbasa. They are all essentially identical. To address a complaint from Lycia and Pamphylia about the "detestable pursuits of the atheists ", Maximinus promised the provincials whatever they wanted—perhaps an exemption from the
364:. 249–251), demanding a show of support for the faith, proclaimed that all inhabitants of the empire must sacrifice to the gods, eat sacrificial meat, and testify to these acts. Christians were obstinate in their non-compliance. Church leaders, like
528:
countryside, where they had never been numerous before. Churches in the later 3rd century were no longer as inconspicuous as they had been in the first and second. Large churches were prominent in certain major cities throughout the empire. The church in
1701:
Wall painting of martyred saints, Ananias, Azarias, and Misael from the town of Samalut with Saints Damian and Cosmas; martyred during the persecutions of Diocletian in the late 3rd century AD. Stucco. 6th century AD. From Wadi Sarga, Egypt. British
1874:
estimated that 3,000–3,500 Christians were killed in the persecution, although this number is disputed. The historian Min Seok Shin estimates that over 23,500 Christians suffered martyrdom under Diocletian, of whom the names of 850 are known.
597:. In the work, Porphyry expressed his shock at the rapid expansion of Christianity. He also revised his earlier opinions of Jesus, questioning Jesus' exclusion of the rich from the Kingdom of Heaven, and his permissiveness in regards to the demons
502:
government. Because their faith was new and unfamiliar and not typically identified with Judaism by this time, Christians had no such excuse. Moreover, Christians had been distancing themselves from their Jewish heritage for their entire history.
1226:
Maximian probably seized the Christian property in Rome quite easily—Roman cemeteries were noticeable, and Christian meeting places could have been easily found out. Senior churchmen would have been similarly prominent. The bishop of Rome
878:
in April 304 and in Palestine soon after. This last edict was not enforced at all in the domains of Constantius and was applied in the domains of Maximian until his abdication in 305. In the East, it remained applicable until the issue of the
3230:
1784:, "the embodiment of irrational ferocity". To medieval Christians, Diocletian was the most loathsome of all Roman emperors. From the 4th century on, Christians would describe the great persecution of Diocletian's reign as a bloodbath. The
1745:, wrote that "once more the fields and woods received the worshippers of God". To contemporary theologians, there was no sin in this behavior. Lactantius held that Christ himself had encouraged it, and Bishop Peter of Alexandria quoted
522:
Christian communities grew quickly in many parts of the empire (and especially in the East) after 260, when Gallienus brought peace to the Church. The data to calculate the figures are nearly non-existent, but historian and sociologist
1697:
330:, writing at about 248, tells of "the multitude of people coming in to the faith, even rich men and persons in positions of honour and ladies of high refinement and birth." Official reaction grew firmer. In 202, according to the
1156:—in Africa, martyrs held more religious authority than the clergy—and harbored a particularly intransigent, fanatical, and legalistic variety of Christianity. It was Africa that gave the West most of its martyrdoms.
560:, the works of these men demonstrated "the alliance of pagan intellectuals with the Establishment". Hierocles thought Christian beliefs absurd. If Christians applied their principles consistently, he argued, they would pray to
1624:
religion. He appointed high priests for each province, men who were to wear white robes and supervise daily worship of the gods. Maximinus demanded that vigorous restoration work be done on decaying temples within his domain.
1555:. Firmilianus cut the tendons on their left feet, blinded their right eyes, and sent them to the mines of Palestine. On another occasion, 130 others received the same punishment. Some were sent to Phaeno, and some to Cilicia.
728:
Affairs quieted after the initial persecution. Diocletian remained in Antioch for the following three years. He visited Egypt once, over the winter of 301–302, where he began the grain dole in Alexandria. In Egypt, some
564:
instead of Jesus. Hierocles considered that Apollonius's miracles had been far more impressive and Apollonius never had the temerity to call himself "God". He thought the scriptures were full of "lies and contradictions" and
2155:
The document is not actually an edict, but a letter. The two can be distinguished by the presence of a specific addressee on a letter, and the absence of one on an edict. The version of the document preserved by Lactantius
2086:
Barnes argues that Diocletian was prepared to tolerate Christianity—he did, after all, live within sight of Nicomedia's Christian church, and his wife and daughter were, if not Christians themselves (as per Eusebius,
1676:
When Maximinus received notice that Constantine had succeeded in his campaign against Maxentius, he issued a new letter restoring Christians their former liberties. The text of this letter, which is preserved in Eusebius's
1574:, a priest, scholar, and defender of the theologian Origen. Soon after, and for unknown reasons, Urbanus was stripped of his rank, imprisoned, tried, and executed, all in one day of expedited proceedings. His replacement,
514:
subject to our rule entirely lead a pious, religious, peaceable and chaste life in every respect". These principles, if given their full extension, would logically require Roman emperors to enforce conformity in religion.
273:
tells of children disinherited for becoming Christians. Traditional Roman religion was inextricably interwoven into the fabric of Roman society and state, but Christians refused to observe its practices. In the words of
1853:
Throughout his history, Gibbon implies that the early Church undermined traditional Roman virtues, and thereby impaired the health of civil society. When Gibbon sought to reduce the numbers of the martyrs in his
114:
Christians had been subject to intermittent local discrimination in the empire, but emperors prior to Diocletian were reluctant to issue general laws against the religious group. In the 250s, under the reigns of
7215:, Vol. 3. Edited by Alexander Roberts, James Donaldson, and A. Cleveland Coxe. (Buffalo, NY: Christian Literature Publishing Co., 1885.) Revised and edited for New Advent by Kevin Knight. Accessed June 16, 2009.
1631:, Israel) on their way to visit the confessors in Cilicia. Three were beheaded; the rest lost their left feet and right eyes. On January 10, 310, Peter and the bishop Asclepius from the dualist Christian sect
7125:, Vol. 7. Edited by Alexander Roberts, James Donaldson, and A. Cleveland Coxe. Buffalo, NY: Christian Literature Publishing Co., 1886. Revised and edited for New Advent by Kevin Knight. Accessed June 9, 2009.
7093:, Vol. 7. Edited by Alexander Roberts, James Donaldson, and A. Cleveland Coxe. Buffalo, NY: Christian Literature Publishing Co., 1886. Revised and edited for New Advent by Kevin Knight. Accessed June 9, 2009.
7063:, Vol. 7. Edited by Alexander Roberts, James Donaldson, and A. Cleveland Coxe. Buffalo, NY: Christian Literature Publishing Co., 1886. Revised and edited for New Advent by Kevin Knight. Accessed June 9, 2009.
6912:, Vol. 6. Edited by Alexander Roberts, James Donaldson, and A. Cleveland Coxe. Buffalo, NY: Christian Literature Publishing Co., 1886. Revised and edited for New Advent by Kevin Knight. Accessed June 9, 2009.
1995:
gives a smaller estimate of the Christian population in 300—4% or 5% of the empire's total population—but allows that Christian numbers grew as a result of the hardship of the years from 250 to
591:. He had few complaints about Jesus, whom he praised as a saintly individual, a "humble" man. Christ's followers, however, he damned as "arrogant". Around 290, Porphyry wrote a fifteen-volume work entitled
778:
from the bureaucracy and military would be sufficient to appease the gods, while Galerius pushed for their extermination. The two men sought to resolve their dispute by sending a messenger to consult the
1802:
argues that hagiographers portrayed a persecution far more extensive than the real one had been, and the Christians responsible for this cult were loose with the facts. Their "heroic age" of martyrs, or
9244:
1500:
Since no one below the status of governor held the legal power to enforce capital punishment, most recalcitrant Christians would have been sent to Caesarea to await punishment. The first martyr,
1497:, Eusebius laments the incompleteness of his reportage: "how could one number the multitude of martyrs in each province, and especially those in Africa and Mauretania, and in Thebaid and Egypt?"
1388:
Before the end of February 303, a fire destroyed part of the imperial palace at Nicomedia. Galerius convinced Diocletian that the culprits were Christian conspirators who had plotted with palace
1194:
encountered resistance from a local mob. The group was harassed, beaten, and whipped; the food they had brought for their imprisoned friends was scattered on the ground. The mob had been sent by
7030:, Second Series, Vol. 1. Edited by Philip Schaff and Henry Wace. Buffalo, NY: Christian Literature Publishing Co., 1890. Revised and edited for New Advent by Kevin Knight. Accessed June 9, 2009.
6991:, Second Series, Vol. 1. Edited by Philip Schaff and Henry Wace. Buffalo, NY: Christian Literature Publishing Co., 1890. Revised and edited for New Advent by Kevin Knight. Accessed June 9, 2009.
2095:
15.1), at least sympathetic to the faith—but was successively brought closer and closer to intolerance under Galerius's influence. Davies takes a more skeptical view of the same evidence.
1581:
Eusebius notes that this event marked the beginning of a temporary respite from persecution. Although the precise dating of this respite is not specifically noted by Eusebius, the text of the
475:, was neglected. In imperial iconography Jupiter and Hercules were pervasive. The same pattern of favoritism affected Egypt as well. Native Egyptian deities saw no revival, nor was the sacred
614:
there is now a very thin attendance. Former ceremonies are exposed to derision, and the time-honoured rites of institutions once sacred have sunk before the superstitions of new religions.'
1790:, a collection of biographies of the popes, alleges 17,000 martyrs within a single thirty-day period. In the 4th century, Christians created a "cult of martyrs" in homage to the fallen.
176:
in 313, which offered a more comprehensive acceptance of Christianity than Galerius's edict had provided. Licinius ousted Maximinus in 313, bringing an end to persecution in the East.
2550:(Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1971), 151, calls this supposed rescript an "invention" of the author, reflecting his own religious prejudices instead of imperial policy under the Severans.
5711:
7.1–4; Keresztes, 388. On Christian condemnation to the mines in general, see J.G. Davies, "Condemnation to the Mines: A Neglected Chapter in the History of the Persecutions,"
676:
eventually declared that this failure was the result of interruptions in the process caused by profane men. Certain Christians in the imperial household had been observed making the
2403:
Clarke, 616; Frend, "Genesis and Legacy", 510. See also: Barnes, "Legislation"; de Sainte-Croix, "Persecuted?"; Musurillo, lviii–lxii; and Sherwin-White, "Early Persecutions."
1235:
that Marcellinus was "brought away by the persecution", an obscure phrase that may refer to his martyrdom or to the fact that he fled the city. Others assert that Marcellinus was a
1777:
Caecilian to the bishopric of Carthage, continued to resist the authority of the central Church until after 411. The Melitians in Egypt left the Egyptian Church similarly divided.
1527:, published the fourth edict. Eusebius probably does not list a complete account of all those executed under the fourth edict—he alludes in passing to others imprisoned with
1570:, and a priest to be exposed to a beast. On the same day, he ordered some young men to be castrated, sent three virgins to brothels, and imprisoned a number of others, including
573:
had peddled falsehoods. In the early 4th century, an unidentified philosopher published a pamphlet attacking the Christians. This philosopher, who might have been a pupil of the
1311:, the head of the city, responsible for publishing imperial edicts within the city, to ensure compliance. African Christians were still recovering lost property as late as 312.
1214:
would give the dissident movement its name. By the time Constantine took over the province, the African Church was deeply divided. The Donatists would not be reconciled to the
770:
executed on November 18, 303. The boldness of this Christian displeased Diocletian, and he left the city and made for Nicomedia to spend the winter, accompanied by Galerius.
980:
terms of a universal peace. The terms of this peace were posted by the victorious Licinius at Nicomedia on June 13, 313. Later ages have taken to calling the document the "
1858:, he was perceived as intending to diminish the Church and deny sacred history. He was attacked for his suspected irreligion in print. The contemporary classical scholar
8295:
Schott, Jeremy M. (2005). "Porphyry on Christians and Others: "Barbarian Wisdom," Identity Politics, and Anti-Christian Polemics on the Eve of the Great Persecution".
1900:
1524:
5715:
6 (1958), 99–107. The same punishment was later used on Christian heretics, on which see Mark Gustafson, "Condemnation to the Mines in the Later Roman Empire,"
544:
Within the highest ranks of the imperial administration, however, there were men who were ideologically opposed to the toleration of Christians, like the philosopher
9306:
8701:
6380:
Keresztes, 389. On the Egyptian response to the persecutions, see also: Annemarie Luijendijk, "Papyri from the Great Persecution: Roman and Christian Perspectives,"
2160:
48.2–12) is a letter to the governor of Bithynia, and was presumably posted in Nicomedia after Licinius had taken the city from Maximinus. Eusebius's version (
1253:
had been listed—a "glaring" absence, in the opinion of historian John Curran. Within forty years, Donatists began spreading rumors that Marcellinus had been a
7179:
1969:
The Palestinian Talmud records that when Diocletian paid a visit to the region, he decreed that "sacrifices should be offered by all the people except the Jews".
1840:
918:
In the West, however, what remained after the Diocletianic settlement had weakened the Tetrarchy as a system of government. Constantine, son of Constantius, and
1689:
on April 30, 313; the now-powerless Maximinus committed suicide at Tarsus in the summer of 313. On June 13, Licinius published the Edict of Milan in Nicomedia.
8890:
2173:
These figures count only the total number of martyrdoms, not the number of individuals martyred. Davies takes his figures from martyrs' acts collected by the
1286:
for the city and countryside of Rome for the first time in the history of the empire) to declare himself emperor. On October 28, 306, Maxentius convinced the
1108:, in a passage on the origins of the early persecution edicts, criticizes Davies' over-reliance on these "dubious martyr acts" and dismisses his conclusions.
9219:
8850:
8845:
95:, where only the first edict was applied, and strongest in the Eastern provinces. Persecutory laws were nullified by different emperors (Galerius with the
451:. This connection between god and emperor helped to legitimize the emperors' claims to power and tied imperial government closer to the traditional cult.
8567:
250:
in 177, it was only the intervention of civil authorities that stopped a pagan mob from dragging Christians from their houses and beating them to death.
1960:
Although some members of the laity were persecuted, the primary targets of official action were always the clergy and the more prominent lay Christians.
148:
in 306, restored Christians to full legal equality and returned property that had been confiscated during the persecution. In Italy in 306, the usurper
8925:
8723:
195:
historians using texts and archeological evidence from the period assert that this position is in error. Christian accounts were criticized during the
8756:
2767:
Bowman, "Diocletian", 70–71; Corcoran, "Before Constantine", 40; Liebeschuetz, 235–52, 240–43; Odahl, 43–44; Williams, 58–59.
1241:
454:
Diocletian did not insist on exclusive worship of Jupiter and Hercules, which would have been a drastic change in the pagan tradition. For example,
8960:
9624:
9619:
9381:
9234:
8678:
8612:
1307:
was elected on July 2, 311, as Maxentius prepared to face Constantine in battle. Miltiades sent two deacons with letters from Maxentius to the
7465:
Beatrice, Pier Franco (1993). "Antistes Philosophiae. Ein Christenfeindlicher Propagandist am Hofe Diokletians nach dem Zeugnis des Laktanz".
1627:
The next few months saw the worst extremes of the persecution. On December 13, 309, Firmilianus condemned some Egyptians arrested at Ascalon (
1558:
Eusebius characterizes Urbanus as a man who enjoyed some variety in his punishments. One day, shortly after Easter 307, he ordered the virgin
672:, diviners of omens from sacrificed animals, were unable to read the sacrificed animals and failed to do so after repeated trials. The master
144:
for guidance. The oracle's reply was read as an endorsement of Galerius's position, and a general persecution was called on February 23, 303.
9401:
8885:
8622:
1314:
Outside Rome, there are fewer sure details of the progress and effects of the persecution in Italy, and the number of deaths is unclear. The
225:
1396:
were eliminated. One individual named Peter was stripped, raised high, and scourged. Salt and vinegar were poured in his wounds, and he was
1392:. An investigation into the act was commissioned, but no responsible party was found. Executions followed. The palace eunuchs Dorotheus and
9214:
9209:
8930:
211:, have attempted to determine whether Christian sources exaggerated the scope of the Diocletianic persecution, but disagreements continue.
704:
was corrupted in the translation to Latin and that Eusebius's text originally located the beginnings of the army persecution at a fort in
9476:
2369:
415:
8771:
8693:
2104:
The edict might not actually have been an "edict" in the technical sense; Eusebius does not refer to it as such, and the passage in the
1746:
403:. 260–268), ended the persecution and inaugurated nearly 40 years of freedom from official sanctions, praised by Eusebius as the "
127:
or face imprisonment and execution, but there is no evidence that these edicts were specifically intended to attack Christianity. After
9652:
9459:
3596:
Iain Gardner and Samuel N. C. Lieu, eds., Manichaean Texts from the Roman Empire (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2004), 117–18.
860:
forced upon it. Eusebius writes that the edict netted so many priests that ordinary criminals were crowded out and had to be released.
8965:
1104:
that are incomplete and only partially reliable, point to a heavier persecution under Diocletian than under Galerius. The historian
9723:
9376:
9271:
180:
punishment. The persecution did, however, cause many churches to split between those who had complied with imperial authority (the
17:
9356:
8560:
1278:, if it ever actually happened, is unclear. There appears to have been a break in the episcopal succession since his successor,
1202:, his deacon, for reasons that remain obscure. In 311, Caecilian was elected bishop of Carthage. His opponents charged that his
972:
426:
Diocletian, acclaimed emperor on November 20, 284, was a religious conservative, faithful to the traditional Roman cult. Unlike
9326:
8733:
1758:
8534:
9386:
9361:
9281:
8411:
8373:
8333:
8109:
Nicholson, Oliver (1989). "Flight from Persecution as Imitation of Christ: Lactantius' Divine Institutes IV. 18, 1–2".
7984:
7925:
7791:
7753:
7705:
7312:
3896:
2232:
1326:
around, refusing to surrender them. Euplus was arrested on April 29, 304, tried, and martyred on August 12. According to the
1271:. The latter work states that the bishop had indeed apostatized but redeemed himself through martyrdom a few days afterward.
642:, Georgia. Christian tradition places the martyrdom of St. George, formerly a Roman army officer, in the reign of Diocletian.
628:
3708:, 21; Elliott, 35–36; Keresztes, 381; Lane Fox, 595; Liebeschuetz, 235–52, 246–48; Odahl, 67; Potter, 338.
1543:
the influx of Christian prisoners, Egyptian penitents were increasingly sent to the copper mines at Phaeno in Palestine and
9396:
9371:
9351:
9321:
9276:
8945:
1295:
the Romans would not open the gates for his defeated, retreating army, but opened them only for the conqueror Constantine.
2005:
Clarke argues against reading a large advancement in either the numbers or the social status of Christians into this data.
1481:
Palestine is the only region for which an extended local perspective of the persecution exists, in the form of Eusebius's
9421:
9391:
2117:
1345:
282:). Among the more credulous, Christians were thought to use black magic in pursuit of revolutionary aims and to practise
1360:
river and drowned. Constantine entered the city the next day but declined to take part in the traditional ascent up the
9642:
9549:
9431:
9411:
9406:
9301:
8746:
8683:
8655:
8553:
1520:: "the lordship of many is not a good thing; let there be one ruler, one king". The governor beheaded the man at once.
1377:
1096:
900:
1862:
mocked Gibbon, writing that his humanity never slept, "unless when women are ravished, or the Christians persecuted".
1400:
over an open flame. The executions continued until at least April 24, 303, when six individuals, including the bishop
693:
9703:
9688:
9683:
9336:
9331:
8955:
8468:
8449:
8430:
8392:
8264:
8179:
8158:
8139:
8062:
8043:
8003:
7965:
7810:
7772:
7683:
7660:
7641:
7613:
7562:
7543:
7524:
7505:
7331:
6963:
2812:
617, 641, 618; Frend, "Prelude", 3; Lane Fox, 593. See also Millar, 182, on Tetrarchic triumphalism in the Near East.
2470:, ed. Alan K. Bowman, Edward Champlin, and Andrew Linott (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1996), 869–70.
1512:
and an exorcist. He was brought before the governor on June 7, 303, and asked to sacrifice to the gods and to pour a
1365:
1210:. Many others in Africa, including the Abitinians, also supported Majorinus against Caecilian. Majorinus's successor
598:
1551:, Israel) in the spring of 308, 97 Christian confessors were received by Firmilianus from the porphyry mines in the
9564:
1951:
3.15) undermines Eusebius's picture of Maximin's policy, and vouches for a comparatively light persecution instead.
7651:
Edwards, Mark (2005). "Christianity, A.D. 70–192". In Bowman, Alan; Cameron, Averil; Garnsey, Peter (eds.).
7625:
Pagan and Christian in an Age of Anxiety: Some Aspects of Religious Experience from Marcus Aurelius to Constantine
9291:
8741:
931:
7744:
Frend, W. H. C. (2006). "Persecutions: Genesis and Legacy". In Mitchell, Margaret M.; Young, Frances M. (eds.).
4514:
34.1–5, qtd. and tr. in Potter, 355–56. See Clarke, 656–57, for a translation from J.L. Creed.
156:, promising full religious toleration. Galerius ended the persecution in the East in 311, but it was resumed in
9713:
9708:
9286:
8975:
8935:
8781:
6625:
Iole Fargnoli, "Many Faiths and One Emperor: Remarks about the Religious Legislation of Theodosius the Great,"
2808:
1780:
In future generations, both Christians and pagans would look back on Diocletian as, in the words of theologian
1723:
737:, were denounced in the presence of the proconsul of Africa. On March 31, 302, in an official edict called the
384:
of Smyrna. Origen was tortured during the persecution and died about a year after from the resulting injuries.
7496:
Clarke, Graeme (2005). "Third-Century Christianity". In Bowman, Alan; Cameron, Averil; Garnsey, Peter (eds.).
828:
8803:
1089:
Map of the Roman Empire under the Tetrarchy, showing the dioceses and the four Tetrarchs' zones of influence.
1739:
court, he gave his brother power of attorney, and had him do it instead. Many simply fled. Eusebius, in his
1523:
Further martyrdoms followed in the months thereafter, increasing in the next spring, when the new governor,
1257:
and that he had even sacrificed to the pagan gods. The tale was embroidered in the 5th-century forgery the "
490:
before him, styled himself a "restorer". He urged the public to see his reign and his governing system, the
7975:
Leadbetter, William (2004). "From Constantine to Theodosius (and Beyond)". In Esler, Philip Francis (ed.).
7675:
6997:
History of the Martyrs in Palestine by Eusebius of Caesarea, Discovered in a Very Antient Syriac Manuscript
1844:(1776), Gibbon claims that Christians had greatly exaggerated the scale of the persecutions they suffered:
1353:
420:
407:". The peace was undisturbed, save for occasional, isolated persecutions, until Diocletian became emperor.
323:
1823:
are even remotely historical. These traditional accounts were first questioned in the Enlightenment, when
9698:
1889:
1871:
1781:
1328:
1298:
On April 18, 308, Maxentius allowed the Christians to hold another election for the city's bishop, which
1231:
died in 304, during the persecution, but how he died is disputed among historians: Eusebius wrote in his
1139:, the first British Christian martyr, was once dated to this era, but most now assign it to the reign of
538:
495:
2014:
Clarke cautions, however, that this shift in attitudes may simply be an artifact of the source material.
1722:, the Church split into two sections: the "Catholic Church", under Peter, and, after Peter's execution,
1408:
he had instituted a new era of security and peace; Lactantius saw the beginning of a cosmic revolution.
688:
bloodshed in Lactantius's narrative, Christians in the imperial household must have survived the event.
458:
had tried fostering his own god and no others and had failed dramatically. Diocletian built temples for
443:
when you worship them so fervently." Diocletian associated himself with the head of the Roman pantheon,
253:
To the followers of the traditional cults, Christians were odd creatures: not quite Roman but not quite
9579:
9539:
9366:
8663:
6751:
The Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire, (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1988), 128, 128 n.109.
1657:
1589:
In the autumn of 309, Maximinus resumed persecution by issuing letters to provincial governors and his
1575:
1373:
1258:
816:
404:
8539:
609:, writing during Diocletian's reign, attributes financial concerns to provisioners of pagan services:
505:
Persecution was not the only outlet of the Tetrarchy's moral fervor. In 295, either Diocletian or his
265:, avoided public office, and publicly criticized ancient traditions. Conversions tore families apart:
9519:
9509:
8900:
8751:
8579:
7601:
1119:
803:
On February 23, 303, Diocletian ordered that the newly built Christian church at Nicomedia be razed,
56:
8545:
7805:. The Cambridge History of the Bible. Vol. 3 (Paperback ed.). Cambridge University Press.
7160:
1910:
1906:
1643:
remains, like stone inscriptions; Eusebius does not mention Valentinianus anywhere in his writings.
762:
Diocletian was in Antioch in the autumn of 302, when the next instance of persecution occurred. The
307:
9544:
9469:
9449:
9416:
8860:
8584:
7100:
1895:
1656:
been made at Maximinus's behest. Maximinus began persecuting Church leaders before the end of 311.
1501:
9189:
9184:
7698:
Martyrdom and persecution in the early church: a study of a conflict from the Maccabees to Donatus
1619:
1159:
Africa had produced martyrs even in the years immediately prior to the Great Persecution. In 298,
936:
In the East, the persecution was officially discontinued on April 30, 311, although martyrdoms in
39:
flogged in the presence of Emperor Diocletian. Byzantine artwork, from the crypt of the church of
9481:
9426:
8950:
8013:
Löhr, Winrich (2002). "Some Observations on Karl-Heinz Schwarte's 'Diokletians Christengesetz'".
7274:
Barnes, Timothy D. (1976). "Sossianus Hierocles and the Antecedents of the "Great Persecution"".
3689:
it was impossible for (the oracle) to speak the truth because of the righteous men upon the Earth
1934:). These arguments were less effective as time went on, since Christians were visibly apolitical.
1773:) and those who had refused. In Africa, the Donatists, who protested the election of the alleged
580:, dined repeatedly at the imperial court. Diocletian was surrounded by an anti-Christian clique.
40:
583:
Porphyry was somewhat restrained in his criticism of Christianity, at least in his early works,
8920:
8875:
8402:
Tilley, Maureen A. (2006). "North Africa". In Mitchell, Margaret M.; Young, Frances M. (eds.).
8072:
Mitchell, Stephen (1988). "Maximinus and the Christians in A.D. 312: A New Latin Inscription".
7168:
2304:
1866:
1799:
1167:, had been tried for refusing to follow military discipline; in Mauretania in 298, the soldier
647:
593:
545:
208:
8529:
9296:
9102:
9071:
8970:
8940:
8915:
7765:
There Is No Crime for Those Who Have Christ: Religious Violence in the Christian Roman Empire
5326:
2164:
10.5.2–14) is probably a copy sent to the governor of Palestine and posted in Caesarea.
1820:
1719:
1711:
1571:
1401:
1160:
712:
231:
124:
100:
8668:
6816:
Gibbon and the 'Watchmen of the Holy City': The Historian and his Reputation 1776–1815
1586:
his role in the imperial government, and did not have the time to deal with the Christians.
541:
has suggested, the long-established Church had become another accepted part of their lives.
434:. 270–275), Diocletian did not foster any new cult of his own. He preferred the older
9486:
9346:
9249:
9179:
8905:
6924:
1341:
1168:
866:
476:
381:
377:
196:
8706:
380:, were arrested, tried and executed, as were certain members of the Christian laity, like
242:, was sent long lists of denunciations of Christians by anonymous citizens, which Emperor
8:
9718:
9662:
9604:
9599:
9594:
9224:
8635:
8501:
6996:
3850:, 22; Clarke, 650; Liebeschuetz, 249–50; Potter, 337; de Ste Croix, "Aspects", 75.
1749:("when they persecute you in this city, flee ye into another") in support of the tactic.
1741:
1686:
1173:
912:
766:
561:
549:
444:
262:
239:
79:
4021:, 179; Williams, 176. The quotation is from Lactantius, and the translation by Williams.
3692:
9614:
9589:
9529:
9493:
9128:
9045:
8840:
8776:
8673:
8640:
8630:
8604:
8312:
8243:
8214:
8206:
8097:
8089:
7874:
7845:
7837:
7732:
7589:
7453:
7424:
7395:
7362:
7358:
7291:
7262:
7254:
1931:
1816:
1786:
1590:
1528:
1380:. Under Constantine's rule, Christianity became the prime focus of official patronage.
1319:
1267:
392:
373:
315:
161:
120:
32:
8823:
6797:(Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2010), ix–xi, 34; Patricia B. Craddock,
3695:
by Arthur James Mason M.A.; Deighton Bell and Co publishers, Cambridge, 1876; page 63.
1176:, another group martyred on February 12, 304 in Carthage, and the martyrs of Milevis (
9658:
9030:
8808:
8716:
8499:
Woods, David (2001). "'Veturius' and the Beginning of the Diocletianic Persecution".
8464:
8445:
8426:
8407:
8388:
8369:
8329:
8316:
8260:
8247:
8218:
8175:
8154:
8135:
8101:
8058:
8039:
7999:
7980:
7961:
7921:
7878:
7849:
7806:
7787:
7768:
7749:
7736:
7701:
7679:
7656:
7637:
7609:
7558:
7539:
7520:
7501:
7457:
7327:
7308:
7266:
6959:
3892:
3329:
2416:, 87–93; Edwards, 579; Frend, "Genesis and Legacy", 506–8, citing Pliny,
2228:
2146:
Gaddis writes that the quotation may be a slur on Galerius's trans-Danubian ancestry.
1661:
1559:
1486:
1349:
1333:
1140:
836:
677:
662:
records that at Antioch some time in 299, the emperors were engaged in sacrifice and
337:
287:
235:
9153:
7517:
The Empire of the Tetrarchs, Imperial Pronouncements and Government AD 284–324
9609:
9574:
9559:
9503:
9454:
8910:
8880:
8766:
8761:
8711:
8510:
8487:
8352:
8304:
8283:
8235:
8198:
8118:
8081:
8022:
7944:
7904:
7866:
7829:
7724:
7581:
7445:
7416:
7387:
7354:
7283:
7246:
3340:, 18–19; Davies, 78–79; Helgeland, 159; Liebeschuetz, 246–8; Odahl, 65.
1509:
1490:
1397:
1337:
1287:
1279:
1228:
941:
570:
435:
387:
The Decian persecution was a grave blow to the Church. At Carthage, there was mass
332:
204:
96:
1978:
The edict illegalized sibling marriage, which had long been customary in the East.
438:. Nonetheless, Diocletian did wish to inspire a general religious revival. As the
9534:
9239:
9133:
9035:
8870:
8865:
8855:
8835:
8793:
8788:
8169:
2046:(written in the 10th century) that Porphyry only "survived until of Diocletian".
1812:
1757:
of Christianity which it could have won in no other way." After Constantine, the
1361:
1352:
narrowly escaped martyrdom. Constantine confronted and defeated Maxentius at the
1308:
1215:
1127:, but lists Gaul as an area suffering from the effects of the persecution in his
968:, "on a par with Judaism", and secured Christians' property, among other things.
494:(rule by four emperors), as a renewal of traditional Roman values and, after the
349:
7715:
Frend, W. H. C. (1987). "Prelude to the Great Persecution: The Propaganda War".
6642:(Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1997), 122. See also: MacMullen, vii, and
2064:. (For, although Eusebius dates the defeat to 302, it actually occurred in 297.)
899:
Diocletian and Maximian resigned on May 1, 305. Constantius and Galerius became
9584:
9554:
9464:
9158:
9138:
8895:
8818:
8798:
8274:
de Sainte-Croix, G. E. M. (1963). "Why Were the Early Christians Persecuted?".
7895:
Keresztes, Paul (1983). "From the Great Persecution To the Peace of Galerius".
1992:
1859:
1804:
1735:
1505:
1304:
1211:
1105:
981:
964:
908:
880:
812:
734:
506:
369:
173:
169:
108:
8514:
8239:
8026:
7728:
7449:
3311:, 1.24, qtd. in Davies, 79–80, from a translation by Bryce and Campbell.
2479:
Clarke, 616; Frend, "Genesis and Legacy", 510; de Ste-Croix, "Persecuted?", 7.
827:, veterans, and soldiers were deprived of their ranks; and Christian imperial
9677:
9524:
9148:
9097:
9004:
7888:
The Later Roman Empire, 284–602: A Social, Economic and Administrative Survey
7572:
Davies, P. S. (1989). "The Origin and Purpose of the Persecution of AD 303".
7163:, Transcribed at tertullian.org by Roger Pearse, 2006. Accessed June 9, 2009.
7137:
6395:
Athanasius and Constantius: Theology and Politics in the Constantinian Empire
5321:
3053:
8.6.2–4, 8.9.7, 8.11.2, cited in Keresztes, 379; Potter, 337, 661 n.16.
1832:
1824:
1808:
1563:
1299:
1291:
1187:, a schismatic movement that forbade any compromise with Roman government or
971:
Not all have been so enthusiastic. The 17th-century ecclesiastical historian
944:, also called Edict of Toleration by Galerius, was issued in 311 in Serdica (
884:
524:
266:
200:
92:
64:
8356:
8189:
Rives, J. B. (1999). "The Decree of Decius and the Religion of the Empire".
7908:
7820:
Helgeland, John (1974). "Christians and the Roman Army A.D. 173–337".
7207:
7117:
7085:
7055:
7022:
6983:
6904:
5290:
894:
9693:
9316:
9204:
9174:
8830:
8491:
8343:
Sherwin-White, A. N. (1952). "The Early Persecutions and Roman Law Again".
8308:
7948:
7870:
3761:
3751:, 22; Clarke, 650; Potter, 337; de Ste Croix, "Aspects", 75; Williams, 176.
2262:
Frend, "Genesis and Legacy", 511; de Ste-Croix, "Persecuted?", 15–16.
1762:
1670:
1206:
made him unworthy of the office and declared itself for another candidate,
875:
804:
754:
The Christians of the empire were vulnerable to the same line of thinking.
650:
in 299, co-emperors Diocletian and Galerius traveled from Persia to Syrian
633:
574:
467:
136:
a general persecution of the Christians. Diocletian was wary and asked the
60:
8287:
8122:
7935:
Knipfing, J. R. (1922). "The Edict of Galerius (311 A.D.) re-considered".
7585:
2603:
E. Leigh Gibson, "Jewish Antagonism or Christian Polemic: The Case of the
9311:
9199:
9194:
9143:
9107:
8530:
A Chronological Chart of the Persecution with primary sources hyperlinked
4581:
Mémoires pour servir à l'histoire ecclésiastique des six premiers siècles
2073:
Davies disputes Barnes' identification of Constantine's unnamed emperor (
1636:
1250:
1199:
1177:
1136:
774:
730:
566:
557:
472:
365:
186:), and those who had remained "pure". Certain schisms, like those of the
157:
132:
36:
7593:
7366:
3927:
Clarke, 650–51; Potter, 337; de Ste Croix, "Aspects", 75–76.
3233:, qtd. and tr. Frend, "Prelude", 10 n.64. See also: Barnes, "Porphyry's
1865:
Some later historians, however, took Gibbon's emphases even further. As
925:
9569:
9341:
9061:
8404:
The Cambridge History of Christianity, Volume I: Origins to Constantine
7841:
7746:
The Cambridge History of Christianity, Volume I: Origins to Constantine
7428:
7399:
7191:
7035:
5746:
Annuaire de l'Institut de Philologie et d'Histoire Orientales et Slaves
4942:
13.1 (= Musurillo, 106–31), cited in Tilley, "North Africa", 391.
4553:
Knipfing, 705; K. Bihlmeyer, "Das Toleranzedikt des Galerius von 311",
3674:
2.50. Davies (80 n.75) believes that this should be re-written as "the
2174:
1632:
904:
663:
659:
577:
479:
used. Unity in worship was central to Diocletian's religious policies.
455:
270:
153:
67:
8226:
de Sainte-Croix, G. E. M. (1954). "Aspects of the Great Persecution".
8210:
8093:
7295:
7258:
7161:
Quick links to the separate books and parts of ‘Against the Donatists’
3653:
Schott, "Porphyry on Christians", 278; Beatrice, 1–47; Digeser,
2122:
exiit edictum a Caesare Augusto ut profiteretur universus orbis terrae
1164:
9081:
9076:
8575:
7767:. Berkeley, Los Angeles, and London: University of California Press.
7534:
Corcoran, Simon (2006). "Before Constantine". In Lenski, Noel (ed.).
7222:
Donatist Martyr Stories: The Church in Conflict in Roman North Africa
6689:, ed. Paul Fouracre (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2005), 21.
4213:, 181–82; de Ste Croix, "Aspects", 76–77; Keresztes, 383.
2224:
1640:
1603:
1567:
1548:
1393:
1207:
1195:
1189:
1153:
1100:. Davies argues that the figures, although reliant on collections of
937:
919:
705:
529:
491:
439:
396:
303:
254:
191:
182:
149:
128:
123:, Roman subjects including Christians were compelled to sacrifice to
8423:
Early Christian Historiography: Narratives of redistributive justice
7833:
7420:
7391:
7000:. London: Williams & Norgate, 1861. Accessed September 28, 2009.
6801:(Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1989), 60–61, 122.
852:
In the summer of 303, following a series of rebellions in Melitene (
261:. Christians rejected public festivals, refused to take part in the
9066:
9025:
8202:
8085:
7287:
7250:
6884:
6840:, trans. R.H. Bainton (New York: Harper & Row, 1972), 13 n. 11.
2581:
Clarke, 625–27; Frend, "Genesis and Legacy", 513; Rives, 135.
1828:
1666:
1628:
1609:
1578:, was a veteran soldier and one of Maximinus's trusted confidants.
1513:
1249:, or calendar of feasts, where all Marcellinus's predecessors from
1184:
888:
857:
824:
689:
668:
606:
553:
510:
483:
448:
427:
388:
345:
299:
187:
165:
104:
75:
71:
8326:
Christianity, Empire, and the Making of Religion in Late Antiquity
3402:
8.4.2–3; Barnes, "Sossianus Hierocles", 246; Helgeland, 159.
2137:
This apparently included any house in which scriptures were found.
2040:
Later dates are possible, but discouraged by the statement in the
9229:
7341:
Barnes, Timothy D. (1994). "Scholarship or Propaganda? Poprphyry
7237:
Barnes, Timothy D. (1968). "Legislation Against the Christians".
3765:
3488:, 20; Corcoran, "Before Constantine", 51; Odahl, 54–56, 62.
1552:
1544:
1536:
1369:
1085:
853:
820:
655:
651:
463:
275:
7857:
Hopkins, Keith (1998). "Christian Number and Its Implications".
7489:
The Church in Ancient Society: From Galilee to Gregory the Great
7436:
Baynes, Norman H. (1924). "Two Notes on the Great Persecution".
9040:
7653:
The Cambridge Ancient History, Volume XII: The Crisis of Empire
7498:
The Cambridge Ancient History, Volume XII: The Crisis of Empire
2114:
exiit edictum imperatorum et Caesarum super omnem faciem terrae
2061:
1389:
1323:
895:
Abdications, instability, and renewed toleration, 305–311
787:
783:
779:
763:
487:
357:
327:
295:
283:
269:
tells of a pagan husband who denounced his Christian wife, and
257:
either. Their practices were deeply threatening to traditional
243:
141:
137:
116:
4951:
Edwards, 585; Tilley, "North Africa", 387, 395; Williams, 179.
4230:, 24; Liebeschuetz, 249–50; de Ste Croix, "Aspects", 77.
3829:, 22; De Ste Croix, "Aspects", 75; Liebeschuetz, 249–50.
2394:
Dodds, 111–12, 112 n.1; de Ste-Croix, "Persecuted?", 20.
9112:
8813:
5431:, 24; Lane Fox, 596; Williams, 178. See also: Keresztes, 382.
2546:, 17.1; Frend, "Genesis and Legacy", 511. Timothy Barnes, at
2023:
Aurelius Victor describes the circle around Diocletian as an
1870:
Christians rather than their persecutors. Anglican historian
1734:
The Diocletianic persecution was ultimately unsuccessful. As
1715:
1517:
1357:
945:
840:
807:, and its treasures seized. February 23 was the feast of the
717:
680:
during the ceremonies and were alleged to have disrupted the
639:
258:
207:
and secular tenor of that period. Modern historians, such as
83:
7555:
Pagan City and Christian Capital: Rome in the Fourth Century
1356:
outside Rome on October 28, 312; Maxentius retreated to the
745:
and addressed to the proconsul of Africa, Diocletian wrote:
172:. Constantine and Licinius, Severus's successor, signed the
111:
in 313 has traditionally marked the end of the persecution.
9020:
8478:
Woods, David (1992). "Two Notes on the Great Persecution".
5954:
Patrology, volume I: The Beginnings of Patristic Literature
2977:
The Rise of Christianity: A Sociologist Reconsiders History
2594:
6.39.4; Clarke, 632, 634; Frend, "Genesis and Legacy", 514.
2462:
G. W. Clarke, "The origins and spread of Christianity," in
2042:
1420:
459:
311:
247:
88:
8406:. New York: Cambridge University Press. pp. 381–396.
7748:. New York: Cambridge University Press. pp. 503–523.
7655:. New York: Cambridge University Press. pp. 573–588.
7500:. New York: Cambridge University Press. pp. 589–671.
4765:
Corcoran, "Before Constantine", 45–46; Williams, 67.
4307:, 26–27; Odahl, 72–74; Southern, 152–53.
1901:
List of Christians martyred during the reign of Diocletian
1835:
questioned traditional accounts of the Christian martyrs.
2690:
7.10.3, qtd. and tr. in Frend, "Genesis and Legacy", 515.
2453:
5.1 (= Musurillo, 62–85); Edwards, 587; Frend, 508.
2440:(= Musurillo, 86–89), cited in Frend, 510 (Scilli).
2187:
2128:. The text of the edict itself does not actually survive.
1303:
three years, until Maxentius permitted another election.
348:
forbidding conversion to either Judaism or Christianity.
314:
executed Christians for their alleged involvement in the
7920:. Washington: The Catholic University of America Press.
7634:
Constantine and the Bishops: The Politics of Intolerance
7538:. New York: Cambridge University Press. pp. 35–58.
7376:
Constantine and the Bishops: The Politics of Intolerance
6818:(New York: Oxford University Press, 2002), 184–185 n.39.
5291:"Santi Canzio, Canziano e Canzianilla su santiebeati.it"
2372:, cited in Frend, "Genesis and Legacy", 504; Dodds, 110.
1991:. Hopkins' study is cited at Potter, 314. The historian
1416:
1183:
The persecution in Africa encouraged the development of
1135:) from the persecutions under Constantius. The death of
8385:
The Bible in Christian North Africa: The Donatist World
2493:
The Classical World: An Epic History of Greece and Rome
1646:
27:
Persecution of Christians in the Roman Empire (303–313)
4239:
Baynes, "Two Notes", 189; de Ste Croix, "Aspects", 77.
2530:
3.9, qtd. and tr. in Frend, "Genesis and Legacy", 512.
2487:
2485:
1131:. A group of bishops declared that "Gaul was immune" (
839:
was executed on June 7, and the edict was in force at
410:
8851:
Genocide of Serbs in the Independent State of Croatia
7606:
The Making of a Christian Empire: Lactantius and Rome
4179:, 181–82; de Ste Croix, "Aspects", 76–77.
3519:
Jones, 71; Liebeschuetz, 235–52, 246–48.
3066:
15.2, cited in Keresztes, 379; Potter, 337, 661 n.16.
2864:
5.4, qtd. and tr. in Curran, 48. See also: Dodd, 111.
2060:
associates the persecution with Galerius's defeat by
926:
The Peace of Galerius and the Edict of Milan, 311–313
7916:
Klingshirn, William E.; Safran, Linda, eds. (2007).
7480:
Martyrdom and Memory: Early Christian Culture Making
6956:
The History of the Church from Christ to Constantine
6397:(Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1993), 10.
5939:, 153; Keresztes, 384; Lane Fox, 596; Mitchell, 112.
4583:(Paris, 1693), 5.44, qtd. and tr. in Keresztes, 390.
2784:
2782:
2381:
Frend, "Genesis and Legacy", 504, citing Suetonius,
844:
officially halted when Maxentius took power in 306.
509:(subordinate emperor) Galerius issued an edict from
447:; his co-emperor, Maximian, associated himself with
230:
From its first appearance to its legalization under
7784:
History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire
6407:
6405:
6403:
4557:94 (1912) 412; and J. Vogt, "Christenverflolgung",
3721:, 22; Clarke, 650; Odahl, 67–69; Potter, 337.
2742:
2740:
2482:
2124:"). Elsewhere in the passion, the text is called a
1841:
History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire
847:
757:
8926:1998 attacks on Christians in southeastern Gujarat
8891:Persecution of Christians in the post–Cold War era
8846:Persecution of Jehovah's Witnesses in Nazi Germany
8724:Captivity of Mangalorean Catholics at Seringapatam
8366:The Great Persecution: A Historical Re-examination
8328:. Philadelphia: University of Philadelphia Press.
6799:Edward Gibbon: Luminous Historian, 1772–1794
5527:
5525:
5342:, 42–44; Odahl, 111. Cf. also Curran, 72–75.
3936:Clarke, 650; de Ste Croix, "Aspects", 75–76.
2651:Frend, "Genesis and Legacy", 514, citing Cyprian,
1368:. Constantine's army had advanced on Rome under a
1239:. Marcellinus appears in the 4th-century Church's
8442:The Warrior Saints in Byzantine Art and Tradition
7536:The Cambridge Companion to the Age of Constantine
6780:, (New York: Harper & Brothers, 1839), 1:327.
6681:Richard Gerberding, "The later Roman Empire," in
6055:
6053:
4959:
4957:
4650:45.1, 48.2, qtd. and tr. in Clarke, 662–63.
3891:. Vol. 1. Casemate Publishers. p. 276.
3693:The Persecution of Diocletian: A Historical Essay
2779:
2517:, 113–14; Frend, "Genesis and Legacy", 511.
1516:for the emperors. Procopius responded by quoting
874:in the Balkans in March. The edict was in use in
9675:
8961:2008 attacks on Christians in southern Karnataka
7915:
7803:The West from the Reformation to the Present Day
7700:(Reissued ed.). James Clarke Company, U.K.
6400:
4263:Martyrion ton hagion Agapes, Eirenes kai Chiones
4055:, 180; Clarke, 651; Keresztes, 382; Potter, 337.
2975:Lane Fox, 590–92. See also: Rodney Stark,
2737:
2563:6.28, cited in Frend, "Genesis and Legacy", 513.
1987:Hopkins assumes a constant growth rate of 3.35%
1838:In the final chapter of the first volume of his
1290:to support him, mutiny, and invest him with the
336:, a 4th-century history of dubious reliability,
278:, Christians showed "hatred of the human race" (
8679:Destruction of the Church of the Holy Sepulchre
8273:
8257:Christian Persecution, Martyrdom, and Orthodoxy
8254:
8225:
7782:Gibbon, Edward (1995). Womersley, David (ed.).
7407:Barnes, Timothy D. (2001). "Monotheists All?".
6424:68.3.3, qtd. and tr. in MacMullen, 92–93.
5522:
3983:
3981:
3979:
3977:
2218:
773:Throughout these years the moral and religious
7347:Bulletin of the Institute of Classical Studies
7224:. Liverpool: Liverpool University Press, 1996.
6697:
6695:
6145:
6143:
6050:
5888:
5886:
5410:
5408:
4954:
4660:
4658:
4656:
4591:
4589:
4205:(S), praef. 2; (S) 1.3–4; (L) 1.5b; and
3923:
3921:
3808:
3806:
3804:
3566:
3564:
3336:; Barnes, "Sossianus Hierocles", 245; Barnes,
3237:"; Croke; and Digeser, "Religious Toleration".
2979:(Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1996).
2642:Clarke, 635; Frend, "Genesis and Legacy", 514.
1539:called everyone by name, everyone sacrificed.
8561:
8342:
8174:. Edinburgh, UK: Edinburgh University Press.
7636:. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press.
7157:The Work of St. Optatus Against the Donatists
6532:Drake, 149–53; Lane Fox, 598–601.
2838:
2836:
1531:, for example, though he does not name them.
356:. 235–238) targeted Christian leaders.
226:Persecution of Christians in the Roman Empire
8931:1998 attacks on Christians in Dangs district
7993:
7324:The New Empire of Diocletian and Constantine
7178:Brauunsberg, David, and Roger Pearse, eds. "
7159:. London: Longmans, Green, & Co., 1917.
6640:A History of the Byzantine State and Society
6627:Revue internationale de droit de l’Antiquité
3974:
2886:(New York: Allen Lane, 2007), 499–505.
1943:Clarke argues that other evidence (Cyprian,
8057:. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
8055:The Roman Near East, 31 B.C.–A.D. 337
7326:. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
7307:. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
7180:Porphyry, Against the Christians: Fragments
7118:Of the Manner in Which the Persecutors Died
7011:The Life of the Blessed Emperor Constantine
6902:Bryce, Hamilton, and Hugh Campbell, trans.
6853:, 393–94; Liebeschuetz, 251–52.
6721:
6719:
6692:
6502:4.18.1–2, qtd. and tr. Nicholson, 49.
6140:
5883:
5713:University of Birmingham Historical Journal
5405:
5231:
5188:
4653:
4586:
3918:
3846:praef. 1; and Optatus, Appendix 2; Barnes,
3801:
3561:
3273:Porphyry frg. 60, 63; Frend, "Prelude", 12.
3208:10.29, qtd. and tr. in Frend, "Prelude", 9.
3000:Keresztes, 379; Lane Fox, 587; Potter, 314.
2548:Tertullian: A Historical and Literary Study
1424:Recorded martyrdoms in Palestine (dubious)
903:(senior emperors), while two new emperors,
8568:
8554:
7974:
7800:
5660:de Ste Croix, "Aspects", 97, 113; Barnes,
5387:Corpus Basilicarum Christianarum Romanorum
4094:de Ste Croix, "Christian Persecution", 55.
3958:11.8, qtd. in Clarke, 651; Keresztes, 381.
3868:de Ste Croix, "Christian Persecution", 47.
2931:6.4, qtd. and tr. in Clarke, 649; Barnes,
2833:
2186:S. Lieberman located this event at Lydda (
1322:, a Christian who dared to carry the holy
203:. This can be attributed to the political
8966:2021 anti-Christian violence in Karnataka
8151:The Roman Empire at Bay: AD 180–395
8108:
8033:
7894:
7819:
7786:. Vol. 1. London: Penguin Classics.
7672:The Christianity of Constantine the Great
6759:
6757:
4743:
4741:
2664:Frend, "Genesis and Legacy", 514, citing
2356:de Ste-Croix, "Persecuted?", 16–17.
1504:, was sent to Caesarea from Scythopolis (
1348:in Aquileia as well. In Spain the bishop
666:in an attempt to predict the future. The
623:
8458:
8071:
7955:
7934:
7533:
7514:
7486:
7477:
7464:
6716:
6472:2601, tr. J.R. Rhea, quoted in Barnes, "
4642:
4640:
4299:
4297:
3886:
2432:(= Musurillo, 2–21) and Eusebius,
2258:
2256:
2116:") may simply have been written to echo
1696:
1466:
1084:
1078:
723:
627:
419:Head from a statue of Diocletian at the
414:
31:
7996:Continuity and Change in Roman Religion
7979:. London: Routledge. pp. 258–292.
7937:Revue Belge de Philologie et d'Histoire
7856:
7669:
7650:
7600:
6594:50; Dodds, 133; MacMullen, 29–30.
6284:9.9a.7–9; Mitchell, 114–15.
6192:9.7.3–14, cited in Mitchell, 114.
5544:8.6.10, qtd. and tr. in Keresztes, 389.
5164:
5162:
5160:
4854:Christianity in Roman Britain to AD 500
4544:Knipfing, 705, cited in Keresztes, 390.
4540:
4538:
4051:(= Musurillo, 266–71); Corcoran,
3410:
3408:
3294:
3292:
3264:Porphyry frg. 49; Frend, "Prelude", 12.
3255:Porphyry frg. 58; Frend, "Prelude", 12.
3103:
3074:
3072:
2911:
2909:
2716:, 52; Frend, "Genesis and Legacy", 517.
1336:was executed during this period, while
999:Known martyrdoms in the East (Dubious)
14:
9676:
8439:
8420:
8401:
8382:
8323:
8294:
8148:
8052:
7781:
7762:
7571:
7552:
7495:
7482:. New York: Columbia University Press.
7435:
7406:
7373:
7340:
7321:
7302:
7273:
7236:
6754:
4856:(London: Batsford, 1981), 48–50.
4738:
4579:Louis-Sébastien Le Nain de Tillemont,
3768:version is given here, from Corcoran,
2987:
2985:
2929:Mosiacarum et Romanarum Legum Collatio
1411:
1017:Diocletian's provinces (303–305)
743:Collatio Legum Mosaicarum et Romanarum
8549:
8498:
8477:
8259:. New York: Oxford University Press.
8188:
8129:
7885:
7743:
7714:
7695:
7631:
7622:
7106:Book on the Deaths of the Persecutors
6738:de Ste Croix, "Aspects", 103–4.
6563:Lane Fox, 441; MacMullen, 29–30
5956:(Westminster, MD: Newman, 1950), 116.
5913:, 153; Keresztes, 384; Mitchell, 112.
5698:, 152; Keresztes, 384; Mitchell, 112.
4991:(= Musurillo, 250–59); Tilley,
4975:(= Musurillo, 244–49); Tilley,
4756:Clarke, 651; Keresztes, 384–85.
4637:
4294:
2253:
2246:
2244:
1417:Before Galerius's edict of toleration
993:
618:
322:Christians were now rich or from the
219:
9648:
8946:2007 Christmas violence in Kandhamal
8363:
8167:
8132:Constantine and the Christian Empire
8038:. New Haven: Yale University Press.
8012:
7608:. Ithaca: Cornell University Press.
7491:. New York: Oxford University Press.
7374:Barnes, Timothy D. (2000). "Review:
6451:Clarke, 651; Lane Fox, 597–98.
6107:9.1.2, 9.1.3–6; Mitchell, 113.
5157:
4535:
3889:The Early Church at Work and Worship
3405:
3289:
3069:
2906:
2330:Dodds, 115–16, citing Justin,
2212:
1759:Christianization of the Roman empire
1647:After Galerius's edict of toleration
1079:After Davies, pp. 68–69.
1062:Galerius's provinces (305–311)
1034:Galerius's provinces (303–305)
793:
7998:. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
7020:Richardson, Ernest Cushing, trans.
6921:(Berlin: Weidmann, 1892–1916)
6814:(1790), xxviii, qtd. in Womersley,
5453:, 24; Southern, 168; Williams, 177.
5385:Curran, 93–96, citing Krautheimer,
4132:, 181; de Ste Croix, "Aspects", 76.
3358:Barnes, "Sossianus Hierocles", 245.
2982:
2758:11(3)6, qtd. and tr. Williams, 162.
1274:What followed Marcellinus's act of
1111:
411:Persecution and Tetrarchic ideology
24:
9550:Forty Martyrs of England and Wales
8747:1843 and 1846 massacres in Hakkari
8297:Journal of Early Christian Studies
8255:de Sainte-Croix, G. E. M. (2006).
7994:Liebeschuetz, J. H. W. G. (1979).
7859:Journal of Early Christian Studies
7359:10.1111/j.2041-5370.1994.tb00451.x
6981:McGiffert, Arthur Cushman, trans.
6877:
6683:The New Cambridge Medieval History
6382:Journal of Early Christian Studies
6179:36.7, qtd. and tr. in Clarke, 660.
6120:9.2.1; Clarke, 660; Mitchell, 114.
4940:Martyrium Perpetuae et Felicitatis
4158:, 24; de Ste Croix, "Aspects", 76.
3945:Clarke, 650–51; Potter, 337.
2776:Curran, 47; Williams, 58–59.
2609:Journal of Early Christian Studies
2347:Castelli, 38; Gaddis, 30–31.
2241:
1660:was beheaded on November 26, 311.
1346:Cantius, Cantianus and Cantianilla
1221:
344:. 193–211) issued a general
25:
9735:
8956:2008 Kandhamal nun gang rape case
8523:
8461:Diocletian and the Roman Recovery
7717:Journal of Ecclesiastical History
7229:
7132:The Acts of the Christian Martyrs
6489:11.2, qtd. and tr. Nicholson, 50.
6081:, 22–23; Michell, 113 n.21.
5034:, 25–49; Clarke, 652 n.153.
4930:Frend, "Genesis and Legacy", 510.
4839:Optatus, 1.22; Clarke, 651 n.149.
3738:, 21; Gaddis, 29; Keresztes, 381.
3380:Woods, "Two Notes", 128–31.
3182:. 39.48, cited in Keresztes, 381.
2725:Frend, "Genesis and Legacy", 517.
2699:Frend, "Genesis and Legacy", 516.
2677:Frend, "Genesis and Legacy", 514.
2250:Frend, "Genesis and Legacy", 503.
533:deities were losing credibility.
517:
9657:
9647:
9638:
9637:
9565:Martyrs of the Spanish Civil War
7134:. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1972.
6856:
6843:
6830:
6821:
6812:Letters to Mr. Archdeacon Travis
6804:
6783:
6770:
6741:
6732:
6704:
6675:
6666:
6649:
6632:
6619:
6610:
6597:
6584:
6575:
6566:
6557:
6548:
6535:
6526:
6517:
6505:
6492:
6479:
6463:
6454:
6445:
6436:
6427:
6414:
6387:
6374:
6365:
6352:
6349:9.10.10–11; Mitchell, 115.
6339:
6326:
6317:
6304:
6287:
6274:
6261:
6248:
6235:
6222:
6213:
6204:
6195:
6182:
6169:
6156:
6123:
6110:
6097:
6084:
6071:
6062:
6037:
6024:
6007:
5990:
5977:
5968:
5959:
5942:
5925:
5916:
5899:
5870:
5853:
5836:
5819:
5798:
5781:
5764:
5751:
5739:
5722:
5701:
5684:
5667:
5654:
5641:
5624:
5611:
5594:
5577:
5560:
5547:
5534:
5509:
5496:
5487:
5478:
5465:
5456:
5443:
5434:
5421:
5392:
5379:
5362:
5345:
5332:
5307:
5283:
5274:
5257:
5244:
5218:
5201:
5175:
5144:
5131:
5118:
5105:
5092:
5079:
5055:
5046:
5037:
5024:
5011:
4998:
4982:
4966:
4945:
4933:
4924:
4915:
4902:
4889:
4872:
4859:
4842:
4833:
4812:
4799:
4786:
4777:
4768:
4759:
4750:
4729:
4720:
4711:
4702:
4693:
4684:
4671:
4624:
4611:
4602:
4573:
4564:
4547:
4526:
4517:
4504:
4487:
4466:
4457:
4444:
4431:
4418:
4405:
4384:
4371:
4358:
4349:
4336:
4327:
4310:
4285:
4268:
4251:
4242:
4233:
4216:
4191:
4182:
4161:
4144:
4135:
4110:
4097:
4088:
4075:
4068:1.1–2, cited in Corcoran,
4058:
4033:
4024:
3999:
3990:
3961:
3948:
3939:
3930:
3905:
3880:
3871:
3862:
3853:
3832:
3815:
3788:
3775:
3754:
3741:
3724:
3711:
3698:
3681:
3664:
3647:
3630:
3621:
3608:
3599:
3590:
3577:
3548:
3535:
3526:
3513:
3504:
3491:
3478:
3469:
3456:
3435:
3426:
3417:
3392:
3383:
3374:
3361:
3352:
3343:
3323:
3314:
3301:
3100:de Ste-Croix, "Persecuted?", 21.
2633:(New York: Routledge, 1998), 61.
2221:The Early Christian World, Vol.2
2180:
2167:
2149:
2140:
2131:
2098:
2080:
2067:
2049:
1793:
1048:Galerius's provinces (undatable)
848:Second, third, and fourth edicts
758:Diocletian and Galerius, 302–303
199:and afterwards, most notably by
99:in 311) at different times, but
9724:Persecution of early Christians
8742:Constantinople massacre of 1821
8387:. Minneapolis: Fortress Press.
8036:Christianizing the Roman Empire
7801:Greenslade, S. L., ed. (1975).
7478:Castelli, Elizabeth A. (2004).
7155:Vassall-Phillips, O.R., trans.
6545:22, qtd. and tr. in Drake, 150.
6297:9.10.1–2 and Lactantius,
5816:, 152–53; Keresztes, 388.
4081:Optatus, Appendix 1; Corcoran,
3286:, 6; Frend, "Prelude", 13 n.89.
3276:
3267:
3258:
3249:
3240:
3220:
3211:
3198:
3185:
3172:
3155:
3142:
3125:
3116:
3094:
3085:
3056:
3043:
3030:
3021:
3012:
3003:
2994:
2969:
2960:
2951:
2938:
2922:
2889:
2876:
2867:
2854:
2845:
2824:
2815:
2800:
2791:
2770:
2761:
2749:
2728:
2719:
2702:
2693:
2680:
2671:
2668:15 (= Musurillo, 156–57).
2658:
2645:
2636:
2623:
2614:
2597:
2584:
2575:
2566:
2553:
2533:
2520:
2507:
2498:
2473:
2456:
2443:
2423:
2406:
2397:
2388:
2375:
2359:
2350:
2341:
2324:
2034:
2027:; Lactantius describes it as a
2017:
2008:
1999:
1981:
1972:
1963:
1954:
1937:
1923:
1905:4th century in Lebanon §§
1547:in Asia Minor. At Diocaesarea (
1508:, Israel), where he had been a
1467:Palestinian martyrdoms recorded
1376:were razed to make way for the
932:Edict of Toleration by Galerius
8936:1998 Ramgiri-Udaygiri violence
8684:Kisrawan campaigns (1292–1305)
8480:Journal of Theological Studies
8345:Journal of Theological Studies
8130:Odahl, Charles Matson (2004).
8111:Journal of Theological Studies
7696:Frend, William H. C. (2008) .
7574:Journal of Theological Studies
7186:. 2006. Accessed June 9, 2009.
7184:Selected Fathers of the Church
7028:Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers
6989:Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers
6951:. 325. Books Eight and Nine.
6919:Inscriptiones Latinae Selectae
6827:de Ste. Croix, "Aspects", 104.
6336:9.10.8–9; Mitchell, 115.
6271:9.9a.5–6; Mitchell, 114.
6245:9.9a.2–3; Mitchell, 114.
6232:9.9a.4–9; Mitchell, 114.
5952:, see also: Johannes Quasten,
4852:, 180, citing Charles Thomas,
4830:13.12; Clarke, 651, 651 n.149.
4561:1199, cited in Keresztes, 390.
4377:Clarke, 655, citing Eusebius,
3971:11.8, cited in Keresztes, 381.
3545:9.9–10; Odahl, 303 n.24.
3282:Porphyry frg. 1, tr. Digeser,
3246:Frend, "Prelude", 10–11.
3195:10.1, cited in Keresztes, 381.
2948:, 20. See also: Lane Fox, 594.
2809:Inscriptiones Latinae Selectae
2495:(Toronto: Penguin, 2006), 576.
2311:
2292:
2283:
2274:
2265:
2203:
1198:, the bishop of the city, and
1097:Journal of Theological Studies
798:
421:Istanbul Archaeological Museum
13:
1:
9620:Eastern Catholics in the USSR
8804:Great Famine of Mount Lebanon
8772:Tự Đức's Catholic persecution
7960:. New York: Alfred A. Knopf.
7345:and its Historical Setting".
7142:Contra Parmenianum Donatistam
6939:. 300, eighth and ninth book
6872:
6301:37.3–42; Mitchell, 115.
5062:Acts of the Abitinian Martyrs
5004:Optatus, Appendix 1; Barnes,
4774:Lane Fox, 596; Williams, 180.
4476:33.11–35 and Eusebius,
2540:Scriptores Historiae Augustae
2219:Philip F. Esler, ed. (2000).
306:; at Lyon in 177, it was the
214:
55:was the last and most severe
8440:Walter, Christopher (2003).
8171:Diocletian and the Tetrarchy
7676:University of Scranton Press
6607:, 48–49, 208–13.
6362:46.8–9; Mitchell, 115.
5846:(L) 8.1; (S) 11.31; Barnes,
5316:, ed. De Rossi; Duchesne in
5154:, 38, 303 n.100; Curran, 49.
4248:de Ste Croix, "Aspects", 77.
3859:de Ste Croix, "Aspects", 75.
3687:The reply was translated as
3152:5.2.3; Frend, "Prelude", 13.
3009:Keresztes, 379; Potter, 314.
2438:Martyrium Scillitanarum acta
2197:
1475:After Clarke, 657–58.
1383:
1354:Battle of the Milvian Bridge
638:. A 14th-century mural from
152:ousted Maximian's successor
7:
8535:"Persecution of Christians"
8383:Tilley, Maureen A. (1997).
7557:. Oxford: Clarendon Press.
7519:. Oxford: Clarendon Press.
7322:Barnes, Timothy D. (1982).
7303:Barnes, Timothy D. (1981).
7130:Musurillo, Herbert, trans.
6976:On the Martyrs of Palestine
6795:Religion: The First Triumph
6729:, 177–80; Curran, 50.
6474:Constantine and the Bishops
6384:16:3 (2008): 341–369.
6068:Clarke, 660; Mitchell, 113.
5198:13.12, qtd. in Clarke, 652.
4480:8.17.1–11; Corcoran,
4346:8.3.1, qtd. in Clarke, 655.
4291:Liebeschuetz, 250–51.
3082:, 21; Clarke, 621–22.
2436:4.15; Frend, 509 (Smyrna);
1890:Acts of Shmona and of Gurya
1882:
1485:. Eusebius was resident in
1329:Martyrologium Hieronymianus
940:continued until May 4. The
739:De Maleficiis et Manichaeis
733:, followers of the prophet
10:
9740:
9580:Saints of the Cristero War
9540:Saint Martyrs of Jasenovac
8971:2010 Manila hostage crisis
8459:Williams, Stephen (1997).
8324:Schott, Jeremy M. (2008).
8228:Harvard Theological Review
8034:MacMullen, Ramsay (1984).
7890:. Oxford: Basil Blackwell.
7602:Digeser, Elizabeth DePalma
7220:Tilley, Maureen A, trans.
7115:Fletcher, William, trans.
7083:Fletcher, William, trans.
7053:Fletcher, William, trans.
5719:87:4 (1994), 421–33.
5717:Harvard Theological Review
5314:Martyrologia Hieronomianum
5267:10.5.15–17; Barnes,
3887:Ferguson, Everett (2014).
3453:, 19, 294; Keresztes, 381.
3135:5.2.12–13; Digeser,
960:non licet esse Christianos
929:
711:Eusebius, Lactantius, and
405:little peace of the Church
246:advised him to ignore. In
223:
9633:
9520:Massacre of the Innocents
9502:
9440:
9262:
9167:
9121:
9090:
9054:
9013:
8997:
8988:
8901:Maluku sectarian conflict
8732:
8692:
8654:
8621:
8603:
8594:
8580:Persecution of Christians
8515:10.1163/15685250152909057
8240:10.1017/S0017816000027504
8149:Potter, David S. (2005).
8027:10.1163/15700720252984846
7977:The Early Christian World
7729:10.1017/S002204690002248X
7450:10.1017/S0009838800007102
6994:Cureton, William, trans.
6958:. London: Penguin, 1989.
6954:Williamson, G.A., trans.
6851:Martyrdom and Persecution
6000:10.1ff, cited in Barnes,
5748:7 (1939–44), 410ff.
4608:Clarke, 657; Potter, 356.
4368:4.8, 9.2; Keresztes, 384.
4366:De Martyribus Palaestinae
4324:, 25–26; Odahl, 71.
4120:8.2.5; 8.6.8–9 and
3445:10.6, 31.1 and Eusebius,
3432:Woods, "'Veturius'", 589.
3423:Woods, "'Veturius'", 588.
2611:9:3 (2001): 339–58.
2464:Cambridge Ancient History
2029:scrutator rerum futurarum
1729:
1635:, both from Anaia, (near
1423:
1344:mention the martyrdom of
1332:, the bishop of Aquileia
1318:records the martyrdom of
1146:
646:At the conclusion of the
585:On the Return of the Soul
57:persecution of Christians
9704:4th-century Christianity
9689:300s in the Roman Empire
9684:Diocletianic Persecution
9470:Violence against Mormons
8646:Diocletianic Persecution
8585:Anti-Christian sentiment
8191:Journal of Roman Studies
8074:Journal of Roman Studies
7956:Lane Fox, Robin (1986).
7918:The Early Christian Book
7886:Jones, A. H. M. (1964).
7763:Gaddis, Michael (2005).
7692:Fox, see Lane Fox, Robin
7515:Corcoran, Simon (1996).
7487:Chadwick, Henry (2001).
7305:Constantine and Eusebius
7276:Journal of Roman Studies
7239:Journal of Roman Studies
7101:De Mortibus Persecutorum
6972:De Martyribus Palestinae
6657:Constantine and Eusebius
6605:Constantine and Eusebius
6543:Oratio ad Sanctum Coetum
6514:, qtd. in Nicholson, 51.
6360:De Mortibus Persecutorum
6299:De Mortibus Persecutorum
6177:De Mortibus Persecutorum
6135:De Mortibus Persecutorum
6045:Constantine and Eusebius
6032:Constantine and Eusebius
6019:Constantine and Eusebius
6015:De Martyribus Palestinae
6002:Constantine and Eusebius
5998:De Martyribus Palestinae
5985:Constantine and Eusebius
5937:Constantine and Eusebius
5933:De Martyribus Palestinae
5911:Constantine and Eusebius
5907:De Martyribus Palestinae
5894:Constantine and Eusebius
5878:Constantine and Eusebius
5865:Constantine and Eusebius
5861:De Martyribus Palestinae
5848:Constantine and Eusebius
5844:De Martyribus Palestinae
5831:Constantine and Eusebius
5827:De Martyribus Palestinae
5814:Constantine and Eusebius
5810:De Martyribus Palestinae
5793:Constantine and Eusebius
5789:De Martyribus Palestinae
5776:Constantine and Eusebius
5772:De Martyribus Palestinae
5759:Constantine and Eusebius
5734:Constantine and Eusebius
5730:De Martyribus Palestinae
5709:De Martyribus Palestinae
5696:Constantine and Eusebius
5692:De Martyribus Palestinae
5679:Constantine and Eusebius
5675:De Mortibus Persecutorum
5662:Constantine and Eusebius
5649:De Martyribus Palestinae
5636:Constantine and Eusebius
5632:De Mortibus Persecutorum
5619:Constantine and Eusebius
5606:Constantine and Eusebius
5602:De Martyribus Palestinae
5589:Constantine and Eusebius
5585:De Martyribus Palestinae
5572:Constantine and Eusebius
5568:De Martyribus Palestinae
5555:Constantine and Eusebius
5517:Constantine and Eusebius
5504:Constantine and Eusebius
5451:Constantine and Eusebius
5429:Constantine and Eusebius
5416:Constantine and Eusebius
5400:Constantine and Eusebius
5374:Constantine and Eusebius
5353:Constantine and Eusebius
5340:Constantine and Eusebius
5269:Constantine and Eusebius
5252:Constantine and Eusebius
5239:Constantine and Eusebius
5226:Constantine and Eusebius
5213:Constantine and Eusebius
5209:De Mortibus Persecutorum
5196:De Martyribus Palestinae
5185:, 38, 303–4 n.105.
5183:Constantine and Eusebius
5170:Constantine and Eusebius
5152:Constantine and Eusebius
5139:Constantine and Eusebius
5126:, Historia Ecclesiastica
5100:Constantine and Eusebius
5068:, 44–46); Tilley,
5019:Constantine and Eusebius
5006:Constantine and Eusebius
4910:Constantine and Eusebius
4897:Constantine and Eusebius
4884:Constantine and Eusebius
4880:De Mortibus Persecutorum
4828:De Martyribus Palestinae
4807:De Mortibus Persecutorum
4648:De Mortibus Persecutorum
4632:Constantine and Eusebius
4597:Constantine and Eusebius
4512:De Mortibus Persecutorum
4474:De Mortibus Persecutorum
4439:Constantine and Eusebius
4426:Constantine and Eusebius
4413:Constantine and Eusebius
4400:Constantine and Eusebius
4392:De Mortibus Persecutorum
4322:Constantine and Eusebius
4318:De Mortibus Persecutorum
4305:Constantine and Eusebius
4280:Constantine and Eusebius
4276:De Martyribus Palestinae
4259:Constantine and Eusebius
4228:Constantine and Eusebius
4224:De Martyribus Palestinae
4203:De Martyribus Palestinae
4199:Constantine and Eusebius
4173:Constantine and Eusebius
4156:Constantine and Eusebius
4126:Constantine and Eusebius
4122:De Martyribus Palestinae
4066:De Martyribus Palestinae
4045:De Martyribus Palestinae
4015:Constantine and Eusebius
4007:De Mortibus Persecutorum
3969:De Mortibus Persecutorum
3956:De Mortibus Persecutorum
3913:Constantine and Eusebius
3848:Constantine and Eusebius
3844:De Martyribus Palestinae
3827:Constantine and Eusebius
3749:Constantine and Eusebius
3736:Constantine and Eusebius
3732:De Mortibus Persecutorum
3719:Constantine and Eusebius
3706:Constantine and Eusebius
3642:Constantine and Eusebius
3638:De Mortibus Persecutorum
3616:Constantine and Eusebius
3572:Constantine and Eusebius
3558:11.1–2; Odahl, 66.
3556:De Mortibus Persecutorum
3543:De Mortibus Persecutorum
3499:Constantine and Eusebius
3486:Constantine and Eusebius
3464:Constantine and Eusebius
3451:Constantine and Eusebius
3443:De Mortibus Persecutorum
3369:Constantine and Eusebius
3338:Constantine and Eusebius
3332:De Mortibus Persecutorum
3193:De Mortibus Persecutorum
3167:Constantine and Eusebius
3111:Constantine and Eusebius
3080:Constantine and Eusebius
3064:De Mortibus Persecutorum
3038:Constantine and Eusebius
2946:Constantine and Eusebius
2933:Constantine and Eusebius
2917:Constantine and Eusebius
2897:Constantine and Eusebius
2158:De Mortibus Persecutorum
2108:which includes the word
2093:De Mortibus Persecutorum
2075:Oratio ad Coetum Sanctum
1916:
1896:Archelais and Companions
1692:
658:). The Christian rhetor
599:residing in pigs' bodies
466:at Rome and a temple to
190:in North Africa and the
18:Diocletianic persecution
8951:2008 Kandhamal violence
8540:Encyclopædia Britannica
8463:. New York: Routledge.
8425:. New York: Continuum.
8364:Shin, Min Seok (2018).
8153:. New York: Routledge.
8134:. New York: Routledge.
8053:Millar, Fergus (1993).
7909:10.1163/157007283X00241
7670:Elliott, T. G. (1996).
7438:The Classical Quarterly
6523:Nicholson, 50–51.
6460:Lane Fox, 597–98.
5965:Lane Fox, 596–97.
5791:7.1f, cited in Barnes,
5280:Clarke, 651, 651 n.151.
4450:Clarke, 656; Corcoran,
4209:8.2.5, 6.10; Corcoran,
4201:, 24, citing Eusebius,
4154:8.6.8–9; Barnes,
3640:10.6–11; Barnes,
2746:Williams, 161–62.
1798:20th century historian
1761:continued apace. Under
1714:, bishop of Lycopolis (
589:Philosophy from Oracles
298:in 156 and Scilli near
41:Santa Maria in Via Lata
9575:North American Martyrs
8921:Maspero demonstrations
8876:Mountain War (Lebanon)
8664:Homs revolts (854–855)
8421:Trompf, G. W. (2000).
8309:10.1353/earl.2005.0045
7949:10.3406/rbph.1922.6200
7871:10.1353/earl.1998.0035
7343:Against the Christians
7005:Eusebius of Caesarea.
6970:Eusebius of Caesarea.
6929:Historia Ecclesiastica
6791:Barbarism and Religion
6476:", 382; Lane Fox, 598.
6347:Historia Ecclesiastica
6334:Historia Ecclesiastica
6295:Historia Ecclesiastica
6282:Historia Ecclesiastica
6269:Historia Ecclesiastica
6258:9.9a.4; Mitchell, 114.
6256:Historia Ecclesiastica
6243:Historia Ecclesiastica
6230:Historia Ecclesiastica
6190:Historia Ecclesiastica
6164:Historia Ecclesiastica
6151:Historia Ecclesiastica
6131:Historia Ecclesiastica
6118:Historia Ecclesiastica
6105:Historia Ecclesiastica
6092:Historia Ecclesiastica
5948:Lane Fox, 596. On the
5863:9.1, cited in Barnes,
5806:Historia Ecclesiastica
5778:, 153; Keresztes, 388.
5736:, 153; Keresztes, 388.
5542:Historia Ecclesiastica
5265:Historia Ecclesiastica
4820:Historia Ecclesiastica
4619:Historia Ecclesiastica
4495:Historia Ecclesiastica
4478:Historia Ecclesiastica
4379:Historia Ecclesiastica
4344:Historia Ecclesiastica
4207:Historia Ecclesiastica
4169:Historia Ecclesiastica
4152:Historia Ecclesiastica
4118:Historia Ecclesiastica
4041:Historia Ecclesiastica
4011:Historia Ecclesiastica
3915:, 23; Klingshirn, 169.
3840:Historia Ecclesiastica
3823:Historia Ecclesiastica
3587:, 261; Keresztes, 381.
3523:: Davies, 66–94.
3449:8, app. 1, 3; Barnes,
3447:Historia Ecclesiastica
3400:Historia Ecclesiastica
3235:Against the Christians
3051:Historia Ecclesiastica
2710:Historia Ecclesiastica
2688:Historia Ecclesiastica
2592:Historia Ecclesiastica
2561:Historia Ecclesiastica
2451:Historia Ecclesiastica
2434:Historia Ecclesiastica
2305:Praeparatio Evangelica
2302:, 2, citing Eusebius,
2162:Historia Ecclesiastica
2089:Historia Ecclesiastica
1851:
1831:, and, most famously,
1703:
1679:Historia Ecclesiastica
1495:Ecclesiastical History
1233:Historia Ecclesiastica
1120:Ecclesiastical History
1090:
991:
962:, made Christianity a
955:
752:
643:
624:Christians in the army
616:
594:Against the Christians
496:anarchic third century
423:
209:G. E. M. de Ste. Croix
44:
9714:Christian terminology
9709:4th-century conflicts
9190:Tomás Garrido Canabal
9185:Plutarco Elías Calles
9103:Al-Hakim bi-Amr Allah
8941:1999 Ranalai violence
8916:Boko Haram insurgency
8757:1860 Lebanon conflict
8368:. Turnhout: Brepols.
8357:10.1093/jts/III.2.199
7958:Pagans and Christians
7632:Drake, H. A. (2000).
7623:Dodds, E. R. (1970).
7553:Curran, John (2000).
7205:Thelwall, S., trans.
7146:Against the Donatists
7056:The Divine Institutes
7044:The Divine Institutes
7040:Divinae Institutiones
6864:The Great Persecution
6838:Constantine the Great
6749:The Transformation of
6500:Divinae Institutiones
6094:9.1.1; Mitchell, 113.
5732:8.1–4; Barnes,
5473:Divinae Institutiones
5327:Catholic Encyclopedia
4396:Divinae Institutiones
3605:Clarke, 647–48.
3217:Frend, "Prelude", 10.
3163:Divinae Institutiones
3150:Divinae Institutiones
3133:Divinae Institutiones
3091:Clarke, 621–22.
2629:Joseph Wilson Trigg,
2572:Clarke, 621–25.
2025:imminentium scrutator
1846:
1821:Marcellinus and Peter
1720:Epiphanius of Salamis
1700:
1572:Pamphilus of Caesarea
1242:depositio episcoporum
1154:Church of the Martyrs
1088:
986:
950:
930:Further information:
805:its scriptures burned
747:
724:Manichean persecution
708:(El-Lejjun, Jordan).
631:
611:
418:
240:Bithynia–Pontus
224:Further information:
35:
9250:Abu Bakr al-Baghdadi
9180:Mwanga II of Buganda
8906:Nag Hammadi massacre
8707:Revolt in the Vendée
8492:10.1093/jts/43.1.128
8168:Rees, Roger (2004).
8015:Vigiliae Christianae
7897:Vigiliae Christianae
6984:Martyrs of Palestine
6935:) first seven books
6925:Eusebius of Caesarea
6554:Drake, 98–103.
6433:MacMullen, 160 n.17.
6314:, 68; Mitchell, 115.
6137:36.3; Mitchell, 114.
6133:9.2 and Lactantius,
5651:4.8; Keresztes, 384.
5320:, Nov. II, cited in
4783:Davies, 68–69.
3877:Greenslade, 476–477.
3510:Davies, 66–94.
3475:Davies, 82–83.
3414:Davies, 89–92.
2991:Frend, "Prelude", 2.
2860:Palestinian Talmud,
2806:Potter, 296, citing
2788:Frend, "Prelude", 4.
2620:Dodds, 108, 108 n.2.
2605:Martyrdom of Pionius
2227:. pp. 827–829.
1708:Martyrs of Palestine
1483:Martyrs of Palestine
1471:Martyrs of Palestine
1374:Imperial Horse Guard
1129:Martyrs of Palestine
867:Martyrs of Palestine
280:odium generis humani
9625:21 Martyrs of Libya
9605:522 Spanish Martyrs
9600:498 Spanish Martyrs
9595:233 Spanish Martyrs
8636:Persecution in Lyon
8288:10.1093/past/26.1.6
8123:10.1093/jts/40.1.48
7828:(2): 149–163, 200.
7627:. New York: Norton.
7586:10.1093/jts/40.1.66
7213:Ante-Nicene Fathers
7123:Ante-Nicene Fathers
7091:Ante-Nicene Fathers
7086:On the Anger of God
7074:On the Wrath of God
7061:Ante-Nicene Fathers
7023:Life of Constantine
6910:Ante-Nicene Fathers
6905:Against the Heathen
6893:Against the Heathen
6166:9.6.3; Clarke, 660.
6153:9.6.2; Clarke, 660.
5812:7.3ff; 13; Barnes,
5570:(L) 1.1ff; Barnes,
4621:9.2.1; Clarke, 659.
4555:Theol. Quartalschr.
4009:13.2 and Eusebius,
2468:The Augustan Empire
2430:Martyrium Polycarpi
2091:8.1.3; Lactantius,
1800:G.E.M. de Ste Croix
1687:Battle of Tzirallum
1658:Peter of Alexandria
1412:Palestine and Syria
1342:Venatius Fortunatus
1259:Council of Sinuessa
1174:Martyrs of Abitinae
1125:Life of Constantine
1000:
562:Apollonius of Tyana
550:Sossianus Hierocles
477:hieroglyphic script
308:provincial governor
302:in 180, it was the
82:issued a series of
9699:4th century in law
9615:Martyrs of Daimiel
9590:Vietnamese Martyrs
9530:Carthusian Martyrs
9129:Toyotomi Hideyoshi
8998:Early Christianity
8841:Red Terror (Spain)
8777:Hamidian massacres
8674:Bashmurian revolts
8669:Martyrs of Córdoba
8641:Decian persecution
8631:Great Fire of Rome
8605:Early Christianity
8276:Past & Present
6943:. 313, tenth book
6713:1.162; Curran, 50.
6711:Liber Pontificalis
6638:Warren Treadgold,
6616:Liebeschuetz, 252.
6512:King James Version
6470:Oxyrhynchus Papyri
5052:Clarke, 652 n.153.
5043:Clarke, 652 n.153.
4899:, 23; Clarke, 651.
4886:, 28; Clarke, 652.
4809:15.7; Clarke, 651.
4124:praef. 2; Barnes,
2884:Rome and Jerusalem
2319:Making of Religion
2300:Making of Religion
2077:22) with Galerius.
1817:Felix and Adauctus
1787:Liber Pontificalis
1704:
1591:praetorian prefect
1268:Liber Pontificalis
1133:immunis est Gallia
1091:
998:
994:Regional variation
831:were re-enslaved.
644:
619:Early persecutions
424:
238:, the governor of
220:Prior persecutions
168:by his successor,
45:
9671:
9670:
9477:Oriental Orthodox
9258:
9257:
9031:Septimius Severus
8984:
8983:
8814:Assyrian genocide
8809:Armenian genocide
8717:Kakure Kirishitan
8702:French Revolution
8413:978-0-521-81239-9
8375:978-2-503-57447-9
8335:978-0-8122-4092-4
7986:978-0-415-16496-2
7927:978-0-8132-1486-3
7793:978-0-14-043393-7
7755:978-0-521-81239-9
7707:978-0-227-17229-2
7314:978-0-674-16531-1
7152:. 366–367.
7050:. 303–311.
6917:Dessau, Hermann.
6899:. 295–300.
6889:Adversus Nationes
6836:Hermann Dörries,
6789:J. G. A. Pocock,
6747:David Womersley,
6687:c.500–c.700
5587:(L) 1.5; Barnes,
5475:7; Williams, 178.
5141:, 38; Curran, 49.
5076:, 9, 57–66.
4497:9.1.1; Corcoran,
3898:978-0-227-90374-2
3309:Adversus Nationes
3178:Aurelius Victor,
3165:5.2.3ff; Barnes,
2756:Panegyrici Latini
2544:Septimius Severus
2334:2.2; Tertullian,
2234:978-0-415-16497-9
1947:75.10.1f; Origen
1662:Lucian of Antioch
1489:, the capital of
1479:
1478:
1366:Temple of Jupiter
1350:Ossius of Corduba
1320:Euplus of Catania
1218:until after 411.
1141:Septimius Severus
1083:
1082:
794:Great Persecution
678:sign of the cross
636:before Diocletian
482:Diocletian, like
378:bishop of Antioch
338:Septimius Severus
53:Great Persecution
16:(Redirected from
9731:
9661:
9651:
9650:
9641:
9640:
9610:Martyrs of Turon
9560:Martyrs of Japan
9513:
9460:Eastern Orthodox
9443:persecuted group
8995:
8994:
8976:Genocide by ISIL
8911:Kosheh massacres
8881:Beer Hall Putsch
8767:Kucheng massacre
8762:Tianjin Massacre
8712:Martyrs of Japan
8601:
8600:
8570:
8563:
8556:
8547:
8546:
8518:
8495:
8474:
8455:
8436:
8417:
8398:
8379:
8360:
8339:
8320:
8291:
8270:
8251:
8222:
8185:
8164:
8145:
8126:
8105:
8068:
8049:
8030:
8009:
7990:
7971:
7952:
7931:
7912:
7891:
7882:
7853:
7816:
7797:
7778:
7759:
7740:
7711:
7689:
7674:. Scranton, PA:
7666:
7647:
7628:
7619:
7597:
7568:
7549:
7530:
7511:
7492:
7483:
7474:
7461:
7444:(3–4): 189–194.
7432:
7415:(1–2): 142–162.
7403:
7386:(3–4): 381–383.
7370:
7337:
7318:
7299:
7270:
7112:. 313–15.
7017:. 336–39.
7007:Vita Constantini
6947:. 315, epilogue
6867:
6860:
6854:
6847:
6841:
6834:
6828:
6825:
6819:
6808:
6802:
6787:
6781:
6778:Decline and Fall
6774:
6768:
6761:
6752:
6745:
6739:
6736:
6730:
6723:
6714:
6708:
6702:
6699:
6690:
6679:
6673:
6670:
6664:
6653:
6647:
6636:
6630:
6623:
6617:
6614:
6608:
6601:
6595:
6588:
6582:
6579:
6573:
6570:
6564:
6561:
6555:
6552:
6546:
6539:
6533:
6530:
6524:
6521:
6515:
6509:
6503:
6496:
6490:
6487:Vita Constantini
6483:
6477:
6467:
6461:
6458:
6452:
6449:
6443:
6440:
6434:
6431:
6425:
6418:
6412:
6411:Leadbetter, 259.
6409:
6398:
6393:Timothy Barnes,
6391:
6385:
6378:
6372:
6369:
6363:
6356:
6350:
6343:
6337:
6330:
6324:
6321:
6315:
6308:
6302:
6291:
6285:
6278:
6272:
6265:
6259:
6252:
6246:
6239:
6233:
6226:
6220:
6217:
6211:
6208:
6202:
6199:
6193:
6186:
6180:
6173:
6167:
6160:
6154:
6147:
6138:
6127:
6121:
6114:
6108:
6101:
6095:
6088:
6082:
6075:
6069:
6066:
6060:
6057:
6048:
6041:
6035:
6034:, 154, 357 n.49.
6028:
6022:
6017:11.1ff; Barnes,
6011:
6005:
5994:
5988:
5981:
5975:
5972:
5966:
5963:
5957:
5946:
5940:
5929:
5923:
5920:
5914:
5903:
5897:
5890:
5881:
5880:, 153, 357 n.42.
5874:
5868:
5857:
5851:
5840:
5834:
5823:
5817:
5802:
5796:
5785:
5779:
5768:
5762:
5755:
5749:
5743:
5737:
5726:
5720:
5705:
5699:
5688:
5682:
5677:23.1ff; Barnes,
5671:
5665:
5658:
5652:
5645:
5639:
5628:
5622:
5615:
5609:
5608:, 151, 356 n.27.
5598:
5592:
5581:
5575:
5564:
5558:
5551:
5545:
5538:
5532:
5529:
5520:
5513:
5507:
5500:
5494:
5491:
5485:
5482:
5476:
5469:
5463:
5460:
5454:
5447:
5441:
5438:
5432:
5425:
5419:
5412:
5403:
5396:
5390:
5383:
5377:
5372:1.42.1; Barnes,
5370:Vita Constantini
5366:
5360:
5359:: MacMullen, 45.
5349:
5343:
5336:
5330:
5311:
5305:
5304:
5302:
5301:
5287:
5281:
5278:
5272:
5261:
5255:
5248:
5242:
5235:
5229:
5228:, 38, 304 n.107.
5222:
5216:
5205:
5199:
5192:
5186:
5179:
5173:
5172:, 38, 304 n.106.
5166:
5155:
5148:
5142:
5135:
5129:
5122:
5116:
5109:
5103:
5096:
5090:
5083:
5077:
5059:
5053:
5050:
5044:
5041:
5035:
5028:
5022:
5015:
5009:
5002:
4996:
4986:
4980:
4973:Acta Maximiliani
4970:
4964:
4961:
4952:
4949:
4943:
4937:
4931:
4928:
4922:
4919:
4913:
4906:
4900:
4893:
4887:
4876:
4870:
4863:
4857:
4846:
4840:
4837:
4831:
4824:Vita Constantini
4816:
4810:
4803:
4797:
4790:
4784:
4781:
4775:
4772:
4766:
4763:
4757:
4754:
4748:
4745:
4736:
4735:Davies, 69 n.11.
4733:
4727:
4726:Davies, 69 n.10.
4724:
4718:
4715:
4709:
4706:
4700:
4697:
4691:
4688:
4682:
4675:
4669:
4662:
4651:
4644:
4635:
4628:
4622:
4615:
4609:
4606:
4600:
4593:
4584:
4577:
4571:
4568:
4562:
4551:
4545:
4542:
4533:
4530:
4524:
4521:
4515:
4508:
4502:
4501:, 186, 186 n.68.
4491:
4485:
4470:
4464:
4461:
4455:
4448:
4442:
4435:
4429:
4422:
4416:
4409:
4403:
4398:1.1.13; Barnes,
4388:
4382:
4375:
4369:
4362:
4356:
4353:
4347:
4340:
4334:
4331:
4325:
4314:
4308:
4301:
4292:
4289:
4283:
4272:
4266:
4255:
4249:
4246:
4240:
4237:
4231:
4220:
4214:
4195:
4189:
4186:
4180:
4175:, 24; Corcoran,
4171:8.6.10; Barnes,
4165:
4159:
4148:
4142:
4139:
4133:
4128:, 24; Corcoran,
4114:
4108:
4101:
4095:
4092:
4086:
4079:
4073:
4062:
4056:
4037:
4031:
4028:
4022:
4017:, 22; Corcoran,
4003:
3997:
3994:
3988:
3985:
3972:
3965:
3959:
3952:
3946:
3943:
3937:
3934:
3928:
3925:
3916:
3909:
3903:
3902:
3884:
3878:
3875:
3869:
3866:
3860:
3857:
3851:
3836:
3830:
3825:9.10.8; Barnes,
3819:
3813:
3810:
3799:
3792:
3786:
3779:
3773:
3758:
3752:
3745:
3739:
3734:, 12.1; Barnes,
3728:
3722:
3715:
3709:
3702:
3696:
3685:
3679:
3672:Vita Constantini
3668:
3662:
3655:Christian Empire
3651:
3645:
3644:, 21; Odahl, 67.
3634:
3628:
3625:
3619:
3612:
3606:
3603:
3597:
3594:
3588:
3581:
3575:
3568:
3559:
3552:
3546:
3539:
3533:
3530:
3524:
3517:
3511:
3508:
3502:
3495:
3489:
3482:
3476:
3473:
3467:
3460:
3454:
3439:
3433:
3430:
3424:
3421:
3415:
3412:
3403:
3396:
3390:
3387:
3381:
3378:
3372:
3365:
3359:
3356:
3350:
3347:
3341:
3327:
3321:
3318:
3312:
3305:
3299:
3296:
3287:
3284:Christian Empire
3280:
3274:
3271:
3265:
3262:
3256:
3253:
3247:
3244:
3238:
3224:
3218:
3215:
3209:
3202:
3196:
3189:
3183:
3176:
3170:
3159:
3153:
3146:
3140:
3137:Christian Empire
3129:
3123:
3120:
3114:
3107:
3101:
3098:
3092:
3089:
3083:
3076:
3067:
3060:
3054:
3047:
3041:
3034:
3028:
3025:
3019:
3016:
3010:
3007:
3001:
2998:
2992:
2989:
2980:
2973:
2967:
2964:
2958:
2955:
2949:
2942:
2936:
2926:
2920:
2913:
2904:
2899:, 19, 295 n.50;
2893:
2887:
2882:Martin Goodman,
2880:
2874:
2871:
2865:
2858:
2852:
2849:
2843:
2840:
2831:
2828:
2822:
2819:
2813:
2804:
2798:
2795:
2789:
2786:
2777:
2774:
2768:
2765:
2759:
2753:
2747:
2744:
2735:
2732:
2726:
2723:
2717:
2714:Christian Empire
2706:
2700:
2697:
2691:
2684:
2678:
2675:
2669:
2666:Martyrium Pionii
2662:
2656:
2649:
2643:
2640:
2634:
2627:
2621:
2618:
2612:
2601:
2595:
2588:
2582:
2579:
2573:
2570:
2564:
2557:
2551:
2537:
2531:
2524:
2518:
2511:
2505:
2502:
2496:
2491:Robin Lane Fox,
2489:
2480:
2477:
2471:
2460:
2454:
2447:
2441:
2427:
2421:
2410:
2404:
2401:
2395:
2392:
2386:
2379:
2373:
2363:
2357:
2354:
2348:
2345:
2339:
2328:
2322:
2315:
2309:
2296:
2290:
2287:
2281:
2278:
2272:
2269:
2263:
2260:
2251:
2248:
2239:
2238:
2216:
2210:
2207:
2191:
2184:
2178:
2171:
2165:
2153:
2147:
2144:
2138:
2135:
2129:
2102:
2096:
2084:
2078:
2071:
2065:
2053:
2047:
2038:
2032:
2021:
2015:
2012:
2006:
2003:
1997:
1985:
1979:
1976:
1970:
1967:
1961:
1958:
1952:
1941:
1935:
1927:
1742:Vita Constantini
1421:
1378:Lateran Basilica
1338:Maximus of Turin
1288:Praetorian Guard
1112:Britain and Gaul
1001:
997:
942:Edict of Serdica
741:compiled in the
686:
546:Porphyry of Tyre
333:Historia Augusta
97:Edict of Serdica
21:
9739:
9738:
9734:
9733:
9732:
9730:
9729:
9728:
9674:
9673:
9672:
9667:
9629:
9535:Chinese Martyrs
9507:
9506:
9498:
9442:
9436:
9264:
9254:
9240:Abubakar Shekau
9163:
9134:Tokugawa Ieyasu
9117:
9086:
9050:
9036:Maximinus Thrax
9009:
8990:
8980:
8871:Damour massacre
8866:Chouf massacres
8856:Istanbul pogrom
8836:Shusha massacre
8824:İzmit massacres
8794:Boxer Rebellion
8789:Candia massacre
8728:
8688:
8650:
8617:
8596:
8590:
8589:
8574:
8526:
8521:
8471:
8452:
8433:
8414:
8395:
8376:
8336:
8267:
8182:
8161:
8142:
8065:
8046:
8006:
7987:
7968:
7928:
7834:10.2307/3163949
7813:
7794:
7775:
7756:
7708:
7686:
7663:
7644:
7616:
7565:
7546:
7527:
7508:
7421:10.2307/1089029
7392:10.2307/1089082
7334:
7315:
7232:
7227:
6880:
6878:Ancient sources
6875:
6870:
6861:
6857:
6848:
6844:
6835:
6831:
6826:
6822:
6809:
6805:
6788:
6784:
6775:
6771:
6762:
6755:
6746:
6742:
6737:
6733:
6724:
6717:
6709:
6705:
6700:
6693:
6680:
6676:
6671:
6667:
6654:
6650:
6637:
6633:
6629:53 (2006): 146.
6624:
6620:
6615:
6611:
6602:
6598:
6589:
6585:
6580:
6576:
6571:
6567:
6562:
6558:
6553:
6549:
6540:
6536:
6531:
6527:
6522:
6518:
6510:
6506:
6497:
6493:
6484:
6480:
6468:
6464:
6459:
6455:
6450:
6446:
6441:
6437:
6432:
6428:
6419:
6415:
6410:
6401:
6392:
6388:
6379:
6375:
6370:
6366:
6357:
6353:
6344:
6340:
6331:
6327:
6322:
6318:
6309:
6305:
6292:
6288:
6279:
6275:
6266:
6262:
6253:
6249:
6240:
6236:
6227:
6223:
6218:
6214:
6209:
6205:
6200:
6196:
6187:
6183:
6174:
6170:
6161:
6157:
6148:
6141:
6128:
6124:
6115:
6111:
6102:
6098:
6089:
6085:
6076:
6072:
6067:
6063:
6058:
6051:
6042:
6038:
6029:
6025:
6012:
6008:
5995:
5991:
5982:
5978:
5973:
5969:
5964:
5960:
5947:
5943:
5930:
5926:
5921:
5917:
5904:
5900:
5891:
5884:
5875:
5871:
5858:
5854:
5841:
5837:
5824:
5820:
5803:
5799:
5786:
5782:
5769:
5765:
5756:
5752:
5744:
5740:
5727:
5723:
5706:
5702:
5689:
5685:
5681:, 151–52.
5672:
5668:
5659:
5655:
5646:
5642:
5629:
5625:
5616:
5612:
5599:
5595:
5582:
5578:
5574:, 150–51.
5565:
5561:
5552:
5548:
5539:
5535:
5531:Keresztes, 389.
5530:
5523:
5519:, 154–55.
5514:
5510:
5506:, 148–50.
5501:
5497:
5492:
5488:
5483:
5479:
5470:
5466:
5461:
5457:
5448:
5444:
5439:
5435:
5426:
5422:
5413:
5406:
5397:
5393:
5384:
5380:
5367:
5363:
5350:
5346:
5337:
5333:
5322:St. Chrysogonus
5312:
5308:
5299:
5297:
5289:
5288:
5284:
5279:
5275:
5262:
5258:
5249:
5245:
5236:
5232:
5223:
5219:
5206:
5202:
5193:
5189:
5180:
5176:
5167:
5158:
5149:
5145:
5136:
5132:
5123:
5119:
5110:
5106:
5097:
5093:
5084:
5080:
5060:
5056:
5051:
5047:
5042:
5038:
5029:
5025:
5016:
5012:
5003:
4999:
4987:
4983:
4971:
4967:
4962:
4955:
4950:
4946:
4938:
4934:
4929:
4925:
4920:
4916:
4907:
4903:
4894:
4890:
4877:
4873:
4869:, 181–82.
4864:
4860:
4847:
4843:
4838:
4834:
4817:
4813:
4804:
4800:
4791:
4787:
4782:
4778:
4773:
4769:
4764:
4760:
4755:
4751:
4746:
4739:
4734:
4730:
4725:
4721:
4717:Davies, 69 n.9.
4716:
4712:
4708:Davies, 69 n.8.
4707:
4703:
4699:Davies, 68 n.7.
4698:
4694:
4690:Davies, 68 n.6.
4689:
4685:
4676:
4672:
4668:, 158–59.
4663:
4654:
4645:
4638:
4629:
4625:
4616:
4612:
4607:
4603:
4594:
4587:
4578:
4574:
4570:Keresztes, 390.
4569:
4565:
4552:
4548:
4543:
4536:
4531:
4527:
4522:
4518:
4509:
4505:
4492:
4488:
4471:
4467:
4462:
4458:
4449:
4445:
4436:
4432:
4423:
4419:
4410:
4406:
4389:
4385:
4376:
4372:
4363:
4359:
4354:
4350:
4341:
4337:
4333:Keresztes, 384.
4332:
4328:
4315:
4311:
4302:
4295:
4290:
4286:
4273:
4269:
4256:
4252:
4247:
4243:
4238:
4234:
4221:
4217:
4196:
4192:
4187:
4183:
4166:
4162:
4149:
4145:
4140:
4136:
4115:
4111:
4102:
4098:
4093:
4089:
4080:
4076:
4063:
4059:
4038:
4034:
4030:Gaddis, 30 n.4.
4029:
4025:
4013:8.5.1; Barnes,
4004:
4000:
3996:Keresztes, 381.
3995:
3991:
3986:
3975:
3966:
3962:
3953:
3949:
3944:
3940:
3935:
3931:
3926:
3919:
3910:
3906:
3899:
3885:
3881:
3876:
3872:
3867:
3863:
3858:
3854:
3837:
3833:
3820:
3816:
3811:
3802:
3793:
3789:
3780:
3776:
3772:, 179–80.
3759:
3755:
3746:
3742:
3729:
3725:
3716:
3712:
3703:
3699:
3686:
3682:
3669:
3665:
3652:
3648:
3635:
3631:
3626:
3622:
3613:
3609:
3604:
3600:
3595:
3591:
3582:
3578:
3569:
3562:
3553:
3549:
3540:
3536:
3531:
3527:
3518:
3514:
3509:
3505:
3496:
3492:
3483:
3479:
3474:
3470:
3461:
3457:
3440:
3436:
3431:
3427:
3422:
3418:
3413:
3406:
3397:
3393:
3389:Keresztes, 380.
3388:
3384:
3379:
3375:
3366:
3362:
3357:
3353:
3349:Helgeland, 159.
3348:
3344:
3328:
3324:
3319:
3315:
3306:
3302:
3297:
3290:
3281:
3277:
3272:
3268:
3263:
3259:
3254:
3250:
3245:
3241:
3225:
3221:
3216:
3212:
3203:
3199:
3190:
3186:
3177:
3173:
3160:
3156:
3147:
3143:
3130:
3126:
3121:
3117:
3108:
3104:
3099:
3095:
3090:
3086:
3077:
3070:
3061:
3057:
3048:
3044:
3035:
3031:
3026:
3022:
3018:Keresztes, 379.
3017:
3013:
3008:
3004:
2999:
2995:
2990:
2983:
2974:
2970:
2965:
2961:
2956:
2952:
2943:
2939:
2927:
2923:
2914:
2907:
2894:
2890:
2881:
2877:
2872:
2868:
2859:
2855:
2850:
2846:
2841:
2834:
2829:
2825:
2820:
2816:
2805:
2801:
2796:
2792:
2787:
2780:
2775:
2771:
2766:
2762:
2754:
2750:
2745:
2738:
2733:
2729:
2724:
2720:
2712:7.15; Digeser,
2707:
2703:
2698:
2694:
2685:
2681:
2676:
2672:
2663:
2659:
2650:
2646:
2641:
2637:
2628:
2624:
2619:
2615:
2602:
2598:
2589:
2585:
2580:
2576:
2571:
2567:
2558:
2554:
2538:
2534:
2525:
2521:
2512:
2508:
2503:
2499:
2490:
2483:
2478:
2474:
2461:
2457:
2448:
2444:
2428:
2424:
2411:
2407:
2402:
2398:
2393:
2389:
2380:
2376:
2364:
2360:
2355:
2351:
2346:
2342:
2329:
2325:
2316:
2312:
2297:
2293:
2288:
2284:
2279:
2275:
2270:
2266:
2261:
2254:
2249:
2242:
2235:
2217:
2213:
2208:
2204:
2200:
2195:
2194:
2185:
2181:
2172:
2168:
2154:
2150:
2145:
2141:
2136:
2132:
2103:
2099:
2085:
2081:
2072:
2068:
2054:
2050:
2039:
2035:
2022:
2018:
2013:
2009:
2004:
2000:
1986:
1982:
1977:
1973:
1968:
1964:
1959:
1955:
1942:
1938:
1928:
1924:
1919:
1885:
1796:
1732:
1695:
1649:
1491:Roman Palestine
1474:
1468:
1462:
1452:
1442:
1419:
1414:
1386:
1362:Capitoline Hill
1309:prefect of Rome
1224:
1222:Italy and Spain
1216:Catholic Church
1163:, a soldier in
1149:
1114:
1074:
1067:
1057:
1043:
1027:
1022:
996:
934:
928:
897:
850:
801:
796:
760:
726:
684:
626:
621:
520:
413:
310:. When Emperor
228:
222:
217:
28:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
9737:
9727:
9726:
9721:
9716:
9711:
9706:
9701:
9696:
9691:
9686:
9669:
9668:
9666:
9665:
9655:
9645:
9634:
9631:
9630:
9628:
9627:
9622:
9617:
9612:
9607:
9602:
9597:
9592:
9587:
9585:Uganda Martyrs
9582:
9577:
9572:
9567:
9562:
9557:
9555:Korean Martyrs
9552:
9547:
9542:
9537:
9532:
9527:
9522:
9516:
9514:
9500:
9499:
9497:
9496:
9491:
9490:
9489:
9484:
9474:
9473:
9472:
9462:
9457:
9452:
9446:
9444:
9438:
9437:
9435:
9434:
9429:
9424:
9419:
9414:
9409:
9404:
9399:
9394:
9389:
9384:
9382:Ottoman Empire
9379:
9374:
9369:
9364:
9359:
9354:
9349:
9344:
9339:
9334:
9329:
9324:
9319:
9314:
9309:
9304:
9299:
9294:
9289:
9284:
9279:
9274:
9268:
9266:
9260:
9259:
9256:
9255:
9253:
9252:
9247:
9242:
9237:
9232:
9227:
9222:
9217:
9212:
9210:Vladimir Lenin
9207:
9202:
9197:
9192:
9187:
9182:
9177:
9171:
9169:
9165:
9164:
9162:
9161:
9159:Queen Jeongsun
9156:
9151:
9146:
9141:
9136:
9131:
9125:
9123:
9119:
9118:
9116:
9115:
9110:
9105:
9100:
9094:
9092:
9088:
9087:
9085:
9084:
9079:
9074:
9069:
9064:
9058:
9056:
9055:Late Antiquity
9052:
9051:
9049:
9048:
9043:
9038:
9033:
9028:
9023:
9017:
9015:
9011:
9010:
9008:
9007:
9001:
8999:
8992:
8986:
8985:
8982:
8981:
8979:
8978:
8973:
8968:
8963:
8958:
8953:
8948:
8943:
8938:
8933:
8928:
8923:
8918:
8913:
8908:
8903:
8898:
8896:Sumgait pogrom
8893:
8888:
8883:
8878:
8873:
8868:
8863:
8861:Black Thursday
8858:
8853:
8848:
8843:
8838:
8833:
8828:
8827:
8826:
8819:Greek genocide
8816:
8811:
8806:
8801:
8799:Adana massacre
8796:
8791:
8786:
8785:
8784:
8774:
8769:
8764:
8759:
8754:
8749:
8744:
8738:
8736:
8730:
8729:
8727:
8726:
8721:
8720:
8719:
8709:
8704:
8698:
8696:
8690:
8689:
8687:
8686:
8681:
8676:
8671:
8666:
8660:
8658:
8652:
8651:
8649:
8648:
8643:
8638:
8633:
8627:
8625:
8619:
8618:
8616:
8615:
8609:
8607:
8598:
8592:
8591:
8588:
8587:
8582:
8576:
8573:
8572:
8565:
8558:
8550:
8544:
8543:
8532:
8525:
8524:External links
8522:
8520:
8519:
8509:(5): 587–591.
8496:
8486:(1): 128–134.
8475:
8469:
8456:
8450:
8437:
8431:
8418:
8412:
8399:
8393:
8380:
8374:
8361:
8351:(2): 199–213.
8340:
8334:
8321:
8303:(3): 277–314.
8292:
8271:
8265:
8252:
8223:
8203:10.2307/300738
8186:
8180:
8165:
8159:
8146:
8140:
8127:
8106:
8086:10.2307/301453
8069:
8063:
8050:
8044:
8031:
8010:
8004:
7991:
7985:
7972:
7966:
7953:
7943:(4): 693–705.
7932:
7926:
7913:
7903:(4): 379–399.
7892:
7883:
7865:(2): 185–226.
7854:
7822:Church History
7817:
7811:
7798:
7792:
7779:
7773:
7760:
7754:
7741:
7712:
7706:
7693:
7690:
7684:
7667:
7661:
7648:
7642:
7629:
7620:
7614:
7598:
7569:
7563:
7550:
7544:
7531:
7525:
7512:
7506:
7493:
7484:
7475:
7462:
7433:
7404:
7371:
7338:
7332:
7319:
7313:
7300:
7288:10.2307/311244
7271:
7251:10.2307/299693
7245:(1–2): 32–50.
7233:
7231:
7230:Modern sources
7228:
7226:
7225:
7218:
7217:
7216:
7189:
7188:
7187:
7166:
7165:
7164:
7135:
7128:
7127:
7126:
7096:
7095:
7094:
7066:
7065:
7064:
7033:
7032:
7031:
7003:
7002:
7001:
6992:
6968:
6967:
6966:
6933:Church History
6922:
6915:
6914:
6913:
6881:
6879:
6876:
6874:
6871:
6869:
6868:
6855:
6842:
6829:
6820:
6803:
6782:
6769:
6765:Transformation
6753:
6740:
6731:
6715:
6703:
6691:
6674:
6672:Chadwick, 179.
6665:
6661:Martyr Stories
6659:, 56; Tilley,
6648:
6631:
6618:
6609:
6596:
6583:
6574:
6572:Lane Fox, 441.
6565:
6556:
6547:
6534:
6525:
6516:
6504:
6491:
6478:
6462:
6453:
6444:
6442:Lane Fox, 590.
6435:
6426:
6413:
6399:
6386:
6373:
6371:Mitchell, 116.
6364:
6351:
6338:
6325:
6323:Mitchell, 115.
6316:
6303:
6286:
6273:
6260:
6247:
6234:
6221:
6219:Lane Fox, 598.
6212:
6210:Mitchell, 117.
6203:
6201:Mitchell, 114.
6194:
6181:
6168:
6155:
6139:
6122:
6109:
6096:
6083:
6070:
6061:
6059:Mitchell, 113.
6049:
6036:
6023:
6006:
5989:
5976:
5974:Mitchell, 112.
5967:
5958:
5950:Acts of Pilate
5941:
5924:
5922:Lane Fox, 596.
5915:
5898:
5882:
5869:
5852:
5835:
5818:
5797:
5780:
5774:8.13; Barnes,
5763:
5750:
5738:
5721:
5700:
5683:
5666:
5653:
5640:
5634:19.1; Barnes,
5623:
5610:
5593:
5576:
5559:
5546:
5533:
5521:
5508:
5495:
5493:Williams, 181.
5486:
5477:
5464:
5455:
5442:
5440:Williams, 178.
5433:
5420:
5404:
5402:, 48–49.
5391:
5378:
5361:
5344:
5331:
5306:
5295:Santiebeati.it
5282:
5273:
5256:
5254:, 38–39.
5243:
5230:
5217:
5211:23.5; Barnes,
5200:
5187:
5174:
5156:
5143:
5130:
5117:
5113:Martyr Stories
5104:
5091:
5078:
5070:Martyr Stories
5066:Martyr Stories
5064:20 (= Tilley,
5054:
5045:
5036:
5032:Martyr Stories
5023:
5010:
4997:
4981:
4979:, 45–46.
4965:
4963:Williams, 179.
4953:
4944:
4932:
4923:
4921:Williams, 177.
4914:
4901:
4888:
4882:24.9; Barnes,
4871:
4858:
4841:
4832:
4811:
4798:
4785:
4776:
4767:
4758:
4749:
4737:
4728:
4719:
4710:
4701:
4692:
4683:
4670:
4652:
4636:
4623:
4610:
4601:
4585:
4572:
4563:
4546:
4534:
4525:
4516:
4503:
4486:
4465:
4456:
4443:
4441:, 30–31.
4430:
4417:
4404:
4383:
4370:
4357:
4348:
4335:
4326:
4309:
4293:
4284:
4267:
4250:
4241:
4232:
4215:
4190:
4181:
4160:
4143:
4134:
4109:
4096:
4087:
4074:
4057:
4032:
4023:
3998:
3989:
3973:
3960:
3947:
3938:
3929:
3917:
3904:
3897:
3879:
3870:
3861:
3852:
3831:
3814:
3800:
3787:
3774:
3753:
3740:
3723:
3710:
3697:
3680:
3663:
3646:
3629:
3627:Lane Fox, 595.
3620:
3618:, 20–21.
3607:
3598:
3589:
3576:
3560:
3547:
3534:
3525:
3512:
3503:
3501:, 19–21.
3490:
3477:
3468:
3455:
3434:
3425:
3416:
3404:
3391:
3382:
3373:
3371:, 18–19.
3360:
3351:
3342:
3322:
3313:
3300:
3288:
3275:
3266:
3257:
3248:
3239:
3219:
3210:
3206:De Citivae Dei
3197:
3184:
3171:
3154:
3141:
3124:
3115:
3113:, 21–22.
3102:
3093:
3084:
3068:
3055:
3042:
3029:
3020:
3011:
3002:
2993:
2981:
2968:
2959:
2950:
2937:
2935:, 19–20.
2921:
2905:
2888:
2875:
2873:Lane Fox, 430.
2866:
2853:
2844:
2832:
2823:
2814:
2799:
2790:
2778:
2769:
2760:
2748:
2736:
2734:Williams, 161.
2727:
2718:
2701:
2692:
2679:
2670:
2657:
2644:
2635:
2622:
2613:
2596:
2583:
2574:
2565:
2552:
2532:
2519:
2506:
2497:
2481:
2472:
2455:
2442:
2422:
2405:
2396:
2387:
2374:
2358:
2349:
2340:
2323:
2310:
2291:
2282:
2280:MacMullen, 35.
2273:
2264:
2252:
2240:
2233:
2211:
2201:
2199:
2196:
2193:
2192:
2179:
2166:
2148:
2139:
2130:
2106:Passio Felicis
2097:
2079:
2066:
2048:
2033:
2016:
2007:
1998:
1993:Robin Lane Fox
1980:
1971:
1962:
1953:
1936:
1921:
1920:
1918:
1915:
1914:
1913:
1903:
1898:
1893:
1884:
1881:
1860:Richard Porson
1805:Era of Martyrs
1795:
1792:
1782:Henry Chadwick
1736:Robin Lane Fox
1731:
1728:
1694:
1691:
1648:
1645:
1637:Eleutheropolis
1620:Acts of Pilate
1529:Thecla of Gaza
1477:
1476:
1464:
1463:
1460:
1458:
1454:
1453:
1450:
1448:
1444:
1443:
1440:
1438:
1434:
1433:
1430:
1426:
1425:
1418:
1415:
1413:
1410:
1385:
1382:
1370:Christian sign
1223:
1220:
1148:
1145:
1113:
1110:
1106:Simon Corcoran
1081:
1080:
1076:
1075:
1072:
1070:
1068:
1065:
1063:
1059:
1058:
1055:
1053:
1051:
1049:
1045:
1044:
1041:
1039:
1037:
1035:
1031:
1030:
1028:
1025:
1023:
1020:
1018:
1014:
1013:
1010:
1007:
1004:
995:
992:
982:Edict of Milan
965:religio licita
927:
924:
896:
893:
881:Edict of Milan
849:
846:
800:
797:
795:
792:
759:
756:
725:
722:
625:
622:
620:
617:
552:, governor of
539:Timothy Barnes
519:
518:Public support
516:
412:
409:
370:bishop of Rome
221:
218:
216:
213:
174:Edict of Milan
109:Edict of Milan
63:. In 303, the
26:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
9736:
9725:
9722:
9720:
9717:
9715:
9712:
9710:
9707:
9705:
9702:
9700:
9697:
9695:
9692:
9690:
9687:
9685:
9682:
9681:
9679:
9664:
9660:
9656:
9654:
9646:
9644:
9636:
9635:
9632:
9626:
9623:
9621:
9618:
9616:
9613:
9611:
9608:
9606:
9603:
9601:
9598:
9596:
9593:
9591:
9588:
9586:
9583:
9581:
9578:
9576:
9573:
9571:
9568:
9566:
9563:
9561:
9558:
9556:
9553:
9551:
9548:
9546:
9545:Drina Martyrs
9543:
9541:
9538:
9536:
9533:
9531:
9528:
9526:
9525:Saint Stephen
9523:
9521:
9518:
9517:
9515:
9511:
9505:
9501:
9495:
9492:
9488:
9485:
9483:
9480:
9479:
9478:
9475:
9471:
9468:
9467:
9466:
9463:
9461:
9458:
9456:
9453:
9451:
9448:
9447:
9445:
9439:
9433:
9430:
9428:
9425:
9423:
9420:
9418:
9415:
9413:
9410:
9408:
9405:
9403:
9400:
9398:
9395:
9393:
9390:
9388:
9385:
9383:
9380:
9378:
9375:
9373:
9370:
9368:
9365:
9363:
9360:
9358:
9355:
9353:
9350:
9348:
9345:
9343:
9340:
9338:
9335:
9333:
9330:
9328:
9325:
9323:
9320:
9318:
9315:
9313:
9312:German Empire
9310:
9308:
9305:
9303:
9300:
9298:
9295:
9293:
9290:
9288:
9285:
9283:
9280:
9278:
9275:
9273:
9270:
9269:
9267:
9261:
9251:
9248:
9246:
9243:
9241:
9238:
9236:
9233:
9231:
9228:
9226:
9223:
9221:
9218:
9216:
9215:Joseph Stalin
9213:
9211:
9208:
9206:
9203:
9201:
9198:
9196:
9193:
9191:
9188:
9186:
9183:
9181:
9178:
9176:
9173:
9172:
9170:
9166:
9160:
9157:
9155:
9152:
9150:
9147:
9145:
9142:
9140:
9137:
9135:
9132:
9130:
9127:
9126:
9124:
9120:
9114:
9111:
9109:
9106:
9104:
9101:
9099:
9098:Al-Mutawakkil
9096:
9095:
9093:
9089:
9083:
9080:
9078:
9075:
9073:
9070:
9068:
9065:
9063:
9060:
9059:
9057:
9053:
9047:
9044:
9042:
9039:
9037:
9034:
9032:
9029:
9027:
9024:
9022:
9019:
9018:
9016:
9012:
9006:
9003:
9002:
9000:
8996:
8993:
8987:
8977:
8974:
8972:
8969:
8967:
8964:
8962:
8959:
8957:
8954:
8952:
8949:
8947:
8944:
8942:
8939:
8937:
8934:
8932:
8929:
8927:
8924:
8922:
8919:
8917:
8914:
8912:
8909:
8907:
8904:
8902:
8899:
8897:
8894:
8892:
8889:
8887:
8884:
8882:
8879:
8877:
8874:
8872:
8869:
8867:
8864:
8862:
8859:
8857:
8854:
8852:
8849:
8847:
8844:
8842:
8839:
8837:
8834:
8832:
8829:
8825:
8822:
8821:
8820:
8817:
8815:
8812:
8810:
8807:
8805:
8802:
8800:
8797:
8795:
8792:
8790:
8787:
8783:
8780:
8779:
8778:
8775:
8773:
8770:
8768:
8765:
8763:
8760:
8758:
8755:
8753:
8750:
8748:
8745:
8743:
8740:
8739:
8737:
8735:
8731:
8725:
8722:
8718:
8715:
8714:
8713:
8710:
8708:
8705:
8703:
8700:
8699:
8697:
8695:
8691:
8685:
8682:
8680:
8677:
8675:
8672:
8670:
8667:
8665:
8662:
8661:
8659:
8657:
8653:
8647:
8644:
8642:
8639:
8637:
8634:
8632:
8629:
8628:
8626:
8624:
8620:
8614:
8613:New Testament
8611:
8610:
8608:
8606:
8602:
8599:
8593:
8586:
8583:
8581:
8578:
8577:
8571:
8566:
8564:
8559:
8557:
8552:
8551:
8548:
8542:
8541:
8536:
8533:
8531:
8528:
8527:
8516:
8512:
8508:
8504:
8503:
8497:
8493:
8489:
8485:
8481:
8476:
8472:
8470:0-415-91827-8
8466:
8462:
8457:
8453:
8451:1-84014-694-X
8447:
8443:
8438:
8434:
8432:0-8264-5294-9
8428:
8424:
8419:
8415:
8409:
8405:
8400:
8396:
8394:0-8006-2880-2
8390:
8386:
8381:
8377:
8371:
8367:
8362:
8358:
8354:
8350:
8346:
8341:
8337:
8331:
8327:
8322:
8318:
8314:
8310:
8306:
8302:
8298:
8293:
8289:
8285:
8281:
8277:
8272:
8268:
8266:0-19-927812-1
8262:
8258:
8253:
8249:
8245:
8241:
8237:
8234:(2): 75–113.
8233:
8229:
8224:
8220:
8216:
8212:
8208:
8204:
8200:
8196:
8192:
8187:
8183:
8181:9780748616602
8177:
8173:
8172:
8166:
8162:
8160:0-415-10057-7
8156:
8152:
8147:
8143:
8141:0-415-17485-6
8137:
8133:
8128:
8124:
8120:
8116:
8112:
8107:
8103:
8099:
8095:
8091:
8087:
8083:
8079:
8075:
8070:
8066:
8064:0-674-77885-5
8060:
8056:
8051:
8047:
8045:0-300-03642-6
8041:
8037:
8032:
8028:
8024:
8020:
8016:
8011:
8007:
8005:0-19-814822-4
8001:
7997:
7992:
7988:
7982:
7978:
7973:
7969:
7967:0-394-55495-7
7963:
7959:
7954:
7950:
7946:
7942:
7938:
7933:
7929:
7923:
7919:
7914:
7910:
7906:
7902:
7898:
7893:
7889:
7884:
7880:
7876:
7872:
7868:
7864:
7860:
7855:
7851:
7847:
7843:
7839:
7835:
7831:
7827:
7823:
7818:
7814:
7812:0-521-29016-3
7808:
7804:
7799:
7795:
7789:
7785:
7780:
7776:
7774:0-520-24104-5
7770:
7766:
7761:
7757:
7751:
7747:
7742:
7738:
7734:
7730:
7726:
7722:
7718:
7713:
7709:
7703:
7699:
7694:
7691:
7687:
7685:0-940866-59-5
7681:
7677:
7673:
7668:
7664:
7662:0-521-30199-8
7658:
7654:
7649:
7645:
7643:0-8018-6218-3
7639:
7635:
7630:
7626:
7621:
7617:
7615:0-8014-3594-3
7611:
7607:
7603:
7599:
7595:
7591:
7587:
7583:
7579:
7575:
7570:
7566:
7564:0-19-815278-7
7560:
7556:
7551:
7547:
7545:0-521-81838-9
7541:
7537:
7532:
7528:
7526:0-19-814984-0
7522:
7518:
7513:
7509:
7507:0-521-30199-8
7503:
7499:
7494:
7490:
7485:
7481:
7476:
7472:
7469:(in German).
7468:
7463:
7459:
7455:
7451:
7447:
7443:
7439:
7434:
7430:
7426:
7422:
7418:
7414:
7410:
7405:
7401:
7397:
7393:
7389:
7385:
7381:
7377:
7372:
7368:
7364:
7360:
7356:
7352:
7348:
7344:
7339:
7335:
7333:0-7837-2221-4
7329:
7325:
7320:
7316:
7310:
7306:
7301:
7297:
7293:
7289:
7285:
7281:
7277:
7272:
7268:
7264:
7260:
7256:
7252:
7248:
7244:
7240:
7235:
7234:
7223:
7219:
7214:
7210:
7209:
7204:
7203:
7201:
7197:
7193:
7190:
7185:
7181:
7177:
7176:
7174:
7170:
7167:
7162:
7158:
7154:
7153:
7151:
7147:
7143:
7139:
7136:
7133:
7129:
7124:
7120:
7119:
7114:
7113:
7111:
7107:
7103:
7102:
7097:
7092:
7088:
7087:
7082:
7081:
7079:
7075:
7071:
7067:
7062:
7058:
7057:
7052:
7051:
7049:
7045:
7041:
7037:
7034:
7029:
7025:
7024:
7019:
7018:
7016:
7012:
7008:
7004:
6999:
6998:
6993:
6990:
6986:
6985:
6980:
6979:
6977:
6973:
6969:
6965:
6964:0-14-044535-8
6961:
6957:
6953:
6952:
6950:
6946:
6942:
6938:
6934:
6930:
6926:
6923:
6920:
6916:
6911:
6907:
6906:
6901:
6900:
6898:
6894:
6890:
6886:
6883:
6882:
6865:
6859:
6852:
6846:
6839:
6833:
6824:
6817:
6813:
6807:
6800:
6796:
6792:
6786:
6779:
6773:
6766:
6760:
6758:
6750:
6744:
6735:
6728:
6722:
6720:
6712:
6707:
6698:
6696:
6688:
6684:
6678:
6669:
6662:
6658:
6652:
6645:
6641:
6635:
6628:
6622:
6613:
6606:
6600:
6593:
6587:
6578:
6569:
6560:
6551:
6544:
6541:Constantine,
6538:
6529:
6520:
6513:
6508:
6501:
6495:
6488:
6482:
6475:
6471:
6466:
6457:
6448:
6439:
6430:
6423:
6417:
6408:
6406:
6404:
6396:
6390:
6383:
6377:
6368:
6361:
6355:
6348:
6342:
6335:
6329:
6320:
6313:
6307:
6300:
6296:
6290:
6283:
6277:
6270:
6264:
6257:
6251:
6244:
6238:
6231:
6225:
6216:
6207:
6198:
6191:
6185:
6178:
6172:
6165:
6159:
6152:
6146:
6144:
6136:
6132:
6126:
6119:
6113:
6106:
6100:
6093:
6087:
6080:
6074:
6065:
6056:
6054:
6046:
6040:
6033:
6027:
6020:
6016:
6010:
6003:
5999:
5993:
5986:
5980:
5971:
5962:
5955:
5951:
5945:
5938:
5935:9.2; Barnes,
5934:
5928:
5919:
5912:
5909:9.2; Barnes,
5908:
5902:
5895:
5889:
5887:
5879:
5873:
5866:
5862:
5856:
5849:
5845:
5839:
5832:
5829:7.7; Barnes,
5828:
5822:
5815:
5811:
5807:
5801:
5794:
5790:
5784:
5777:
5773:
5767:
5760:
5754:
5747:
5742:
5735:
5731:
5725:
5718:
5714:
5710:
5704:
5697:
5694:4.8; Barnes,
5693:
5687:
5680:
5676:
5670:
5663:
5657:
5650:
5644:
5637:
5633:
5627:
5620:
5614:
5607:
5604:3.1; Barnes,
5603:
5597:
5590:
5586:
5580:
5573:
5569:
5563:
5556:
5550:
5543:
5537:
5528:
5526:
5518:
5512:
5505:
5499:
5490:
5481:
5474:
5468:
5459:
5452:
5446:
5437:
5430:
5424:
5417:
5411:
5409:
5401:
5395:
5388:
5382:
5375:
5371:
5365:
5358:
5354:
5348:
5341:
5335:
5329:
5328:
5323:
5319:
5315:
5310:
5296:
5292:
5286:
5277:
5270:
5266:
5260:
5253:
5247:
5240:
5234:
5227:
5221:
5214:
5210:
5204:
5197:
5191:
5184:
5178:
5171:
5165:
5163:
5161:
5153:
5147:
5140:
5134:
5127:
5121:
5114:
5108:
5101:
5095:
5088:
5082:
5075:
5071:
5067:
5063:
5058:
5049:
5040:
5033:
5027:
5020:
5014:
5007:
5001:
4994:
4990:
4989:Acta Marcelli
4985:
4978:
4974:
4969:
4960:
4958:
4948:
4941:
4936:
4927:
4918:
4911:
4905:
4898:
4892:
4885:
4881:
4875:
4868:
4862:
4855:
4851:
4845:
4836:
4829:
4825:
4821:
4815:
4808:
4802:
4795:
4789:
4780:
4771:
4762:
4753:
4744:
4742:
4732:
4723:
4714:
4705:
4696:
4687:
4680:
4674:
4667:
4661:
4659:
4657:
4649:
4643:
4641:
4633:
4627:
4620:
4614:
4605:
4598:
4592:
4590:
4582:
4576:
4567:
4560:
4556:
4550:
4541:
4539:
4529:
4520:
4513:
4507:
4500:
4496:
4490:
4483:
4479:
4475:
4469:
4460:
4453:
4447:
4440:
4434:
4427:
4421:
4414:
4408:
4401:
4397:
4393:
4387:
4380:
4374:
4367:
4361:
4352:
4345:
4339:
4330:
4323:
4319:
4313:
4306:
4300:
4298:
4288:
4281:
4278:3.1; Barnes,
4277:
4271:
4264:
4261:, 24, citing
4260:
4254:
4245:
4236:
4229:
4226:3.1; Barnes,
4225:
4219:
4212:
4208:
4204:
4200:
4194:
4185:
4178:
4174:
4170:
4164:
4157:
4153:
4147:
4138:
4131:
4127:
4123:
4119:
4113:
4106:
4100:
4091:
4084:
4078:
4071:
4067:
4061:
4054:
4050:
4046:
4042:
4036:
4027:
4020:
4016:
4012:
4008:
4002:
3993:
3984:
3982:
3980:
3978:
3970:
3964:
3957:
3951:
3942:
3933:
3924:
3922:
3914:
3908:
3900:
3894:
3890:
3883:
3874:
3865:
3856:
3849:
3845:
3841:
3835:
3828:
3824:
3818:
3809:
3807:
3805:
3797:
3791:
3784:
3778:
3771:
3767:
3763:
3757:
3750:
3744:
3737:
3733:
3727:
3720:
3714:
3707:
3701:
3694:
3691:as quoted in
3690:
3684:
3677:
3673:
3667:
3660:
3656:
3650:
3643:
3639:
3633:
3624:
3617:
3611:
3602:
3593:
3586:
3580:
3573:
3567:
3565:
3557:
3551:
3544:
3538:
3529:
3522:
3516:
3507:
3500:
3494:
3487:
3481:
3472:
3465:
3459:
3452:
3448:
3444:
3438:
3429:
3420:
3411:
3409:
3401:
3395:
3386:
3377:
3370:
3364:
3355:
3346:
3339:
3335:
3333:
3326:
3317:
3310:
3304:
3295:
3293:
3285:
3279:
3270:
3261:
3252:
3243:
3236:
3232:
3228:
3223:
3214:
3207:
3201:
3194:
3188:
3181:
3175:
3168:
3164:
3158:
3151:
3145:
3138:
3134:
3128:
3119:
3112:
3106:
3097:
3088:
3081:
3075:
3073:
3065:
3059:
3052:
3046:
3039:
3033:
3024:
3015:
3006:
2997:
2988:
2986:
2978:
2972:
2966:Hopkins, 191.
2963:
2954:
2947:
2941:
2934:
2930:
2925:
2918:
2912:
2910:
2902:
2898:
2892:
2885:
2879:
2870:
2863:
2857:
2848:
2839:
2837:
2827:
2818:
2811:
2810:
2803:
2794:
2785:
2783:
2773:
2764:
2757:
2752:
2743:
2741:
2731:
2722:
2715:
2711:
2705:
2696:
2689:
2683:
2674:
2667:
2661:
2654:
2648:
2639:
2632:
2626:
2617:
2610:
2606:
2600:
2593:
2587:
2578:
2569:
2562:
2556:
2549:
2545:
2541:
2536:
2529:
2528:Contra Celsum
2523:
2516:
2510:
2504:Castelli, 38.
2501:
2494:
2488:
2486:
2476:
2469:
2465:
2459:
2452:
2446:
2439:
2435:
2431:
2426:
2419:
2415:
2409:
2400:
2391:
2384:
2378:
2371:
2368:
2362:
2353:
2344:
2337:
2333:
2327:
2320:
2314:
2307:
2306:
2301:
2295:
2286:
2277:
2268:
2259:
2257:
2247:
2245:
2236:
2230:
2226:
2222:
2215:
2206:
2202:
2189:
2183:
2176:
2170:
2163:
2159:
2152:
2143:
2134:
2127:
2123:
2119:
2115:
2111:
2107:
2101:
2094:
2090:
2083:
2076:
2070:
2063:
2059:
2052:
2045:
2044:
2037:
2030:
2026:
2020:
2011:
2002:
1994:
1990:
1984:
1975:
1966:
1957:
1950:
1949:Contra Celsus
1946:
1940:
1933:
1926:
1922:
1912:
1908:
1904:
1902:
1899:
1897:
1894:
1892:
1891:
1887:
1886:
1880:
1876:
1873:
1868:
1863:
1861:
1857:
1850:
1845:
1843:
1842:
1836:
1834:
1833:Edward Gibbon
1830:
1826:
1825:Henry Dodwell
1822:
1818:
1814:
1810:
1806:
1801:
1794:Controversies
1791:
1789:
1788:
1783:
1778:
1776:
1772:
1768:
1764:
1760:
1754:
1750:
1748:
1747:Matthew 10:23
1744:
1743:
1737:
1727:
1725:
1721:
1717:
1713:
1709:
1706:In Eusebius'
1699:
1690:
1688:
1682:
1680:
1674:
1672:
1668:
1663:
1659:
1653:
1644:
1642:
1638:
1634:
1630:
1625:
1622:
1621:
1616:
1612:
1611:
1606:
1605:
1600:
1596:
1592:
1587:
1584:
1579:
1577:
1573:
1569:
1565:
1561:
1556:
1554:
1550:
1546:
1540:
1538:
1532:
1530:
1526:
1521:
1519:
1515:
1511:
1507:
1503:
1498:
1496:
1492:
1488:
1484:
1472:
1465:
1459:
1457:310–311
1456:
1455:
1449:
1447:306–310
1446:
1445:
1439:
1437:303–305
1436:
1435:
1431:
1428:
1427:
1422:
1409:
1405:
1403:
1399:
1398:slowly boiled
1395:
1391:
1381:
1379:
1375:
1371:
1367:
1363:
1359:
1355:
1351:
1347:
1343:
1339:
1335:
1331:
1330:
1325:
1321:
1317:
1312:
1310:
1306:
1301:
1296:
1293:
1289:
1283:
1281:
1277:
1272:
1270:
1269:
1264:
1263:vita Marcelli
1260:
1256:
1252:
1248:
1244:
1243:
1238:
1234:
1230:
1219:
1217:
1213:
1209:
1205:
1201:
1197:
1192:
1191:
1186:
1181:
1179:
1175:
1170:
1166:
1162:
1157:
1155:
1144:
1142:
1138:
1134:
1130:
1126:
1122:
1121:
1109:
1107:
1103:
1099:
1098:
1087:
1077:
1071:
1069:
1064:
1061:
1060:
1054:
1052:
1050:
1047:
1046:
1040:
1038:
1036:
1033:
1032:
1029:
1024:
1019:
1016:
1015:
1011:
1008:
1005:
1003:
1002:
990:
985:
983:
977:
974:
969:
967:
966:
961:
954:
949:
947:
943:
939:
933:
923:
921:
916:
914:
910:
906:
902:
892:
890:
886:
882:
877:
871:
869:
868:
861:
859:
855:
845:
842:
838:
832:
830:
826:
822:
818:
814:
810:
806:
791:
789:
785:
781:
776:
771:
768:
765:
755:
751:
746:
744:
740:
736:
732:
721:
719:
714:
709:
707:
703:
697:
695:
691:
683:
679:
675:
671:
670:
665:
661:
657:
653:
649:
641:
637:
635:
630:
615:
610:
608:
602:
600:
596:
595:
590:
586:
581:
579:
576:
572:
568:
563:
559:
555:
551:
547:
542:
540:
534:
531:
526:
525:Keith Hopkins
515:
512:
508:
503:
499:
497:
493:
489:
485:
480:
478:
474:
469:
465:
461:
457:
452:
450:
446:
441:
437:
436:Olympian gods
433:
429:
422:
417:
408:
406:
402:
398:
394:
390:
385:
383:
379:
375:
371:
367:
363:
359:
355:
351:
347:
343:
339:
335:
334:
329:
325:
324:upper classes
319:
317:
313:
309:
305:
301:
297:
291:
289:
285:
281:
277:
272:
268:
267:Justin Martyr
264:
263:imperial cult
260:
256:
251:
249:
245:
241:
237:
233:
227:
212:
210:
206:
202:
201:Edward Gibbon
198:
197:Enlightenment
193:
189:
185:
184:
177:
175:
171:
167:
163:
159:
155:
151:
145:
143:
139:
134:
130:
126:
122:
118:
112:
110:
106:
102:
98:
94:
90:
85:
81:
77:
73:
69:
66:
62:
58:
54:
50:
42:
38:
34:
30:
19:
9402:Soviet Union
9392:Saudi Arabia
9317:Nazi Germany
9220:Adolf Hitler
9205:Three Pashas
9175:Ranavalona I
9122:Early modern
9014:Roman Empire
8886:Eastern Bloc
8831:Cristero War
8694:Early modern
8645:
8623:Roman Empire
8538:
8506:
8500:
8483:
8479:
8460:
8441:
8422:
8403:
8384:
8365:
8348:
8344:
8325:
8300:
8296:
8279:
8275:
8256:
8231:
8227:
8194:
8190:
8170:
8150:
8131:
8117:(1): 48–65.
8114:
8110:
8077:
8073:
8054:
8035:
8021:(1): 75–95.
8018:
8014:
7995:
7976:
7957:
7940:
7936:
7917:
7900:
7896:
7887:
7862:
7858:
7825:
7821:
7802:
7783:
7764:
7745:
7720:
7716:
7697:
7671:
7652:
7633:
7624:
7605:
7580:(1): 66–94.
7577:
7573:
7554:
7535:
7516:
7497:
7488:
7479:
7470:
7466:
7441:
7437:
7412:
7408:
7383:
7379:
7375:
7350:
7346:
7342:
7323:
7304:
7279:
7275:
7242:
7238:
7221:
7212:
7206:
7199:
7196:Apologeticus
7195:
7183:
7172:
7156:
7149:
7145:
7141:
7131:
7122:
7116:
7109:
7105:
7099:
7098:Lactantius.
7090:
7084:
7077:
7073:
7069:
7068:Lactantius.
7060:
7054:
7047:
7043:
7039:
7027:
7021:
7014:
7010:
7006:
6995:
6988:
6982:
6975:
6971:
6955:
6948:
6944:
6940:
6936:
6932:
6928:
6918:
6909:
6903:
6896:
6892:
6888:
6863:
6858:
6850:
6845:
6837:
6832:
6823:
6815:
6811:
6806:
6798:
6794:
6790:
6785:
6777:
6772:
6764:
6748:
6743:
6734:
6726:
6710:
6706:
6686:
6682:
6677:
6668:
6660:
6656:
6651:
6643:
6639:
6634:
6626:
6621:
6612:
6604:
6599:
6592:Apologeticus
6591:
6590:Tertullian,
6586:
6577:
6568:
6559:
6550:
6542:
6537:
6528:
6519:
6511:
6507:
6499:
6498:Lactantius,
6494:
6486:
6481:
6473:
6469:
6465:
6456:
6447:
6438:
6429:
6421:
6420:Epiphanius,
6416:
6394:
6389:
6381:
6376:
6367:
6359:
6358:Lactantius,
6354:
6346:
6341:
6333:
6328:
6319:
6311:
6306:
6298:
6294:
6289:
6281:
6276:
6268:
6263:
6255:
6250:
6242:
6237:
6229:
6224:
6215:
6206:
6197:
6189:
6184:
6176:
6175:Lactantius,
6171:
6163:
6158:
6150:
6134:
6130:
6125:
6117:
6112:
6104:
6099:
6091:
6086:
6078:
6073:
6064:
6044:
6039:
6031:
6026:
6018:
6014:
6009:
6001:
5997:
5992:
5984:
5979:
5970:
5961:
5953:
5949:
5944:
5936:
5932:
5927:
5918:
5910:
5906:
5901:
5893:
5877:
5872:
5864:
5860:
5855:
5847:
5843:
5838:
5830:
5826:
5821:
5813:
5809:
5805:
5800:
5792:
5788:
5783:
5775:
5771:
5766:
5758:
5753:
5745:
5741:
5733:
5729:
5724:
5716:
5712:
5708:
5703:
5695:
5691:
5686:
5678:
5674:
5673:Lactantius,
5669:
5661:
5656:
5648:
5643:
5635:
5631:
5630:Lactantius,
5626:
5618:
5613:
5605:
5601:
5596:
5588:
5584:
5579:
5571:
5567:
5562:
5554:
5549:
5541:
5536:
5516:
5511:
5503:
5498:
5489:
5484:Trompf, 120.
5480:
5472:
5471:Lactantius,
5467:
5458:
5450:
5445:
5436:
5428:
5423:
5415:
5399:
5394:
5386:
5381:
5373:
5369:
5364:
5356:
5352:
5347:
5339:
5334:
5325:
5317:
5313:
5309:
5298:. Retrieved
5294:
5285:
5276:
5268:
5264:
5259:
5251:
5246:
5238:
5233:
5225:
5220:
5212:
5208:
5207:Lactantius,
5203:
5195:
5190:
5182:
5177:
5169:
5151:
5146:
5138:
5133:
5125:
5120:
5112:
5107:
5099:
5094:
5086:
5081:
5073:
5069:
5065:
5061:
5057:
5048:
5039:
5031:
5026:
5018:
5013:
5005:
5000:
4992:
4988:
4984:
4976:
4972:
4968:
4947:
4939:
4935:
4926:
4917:
4909:
4904:
4896:
4891:
4883:
4879:
4878:Lactantius,
4874:
4866:
4861:
4853:
4849:
4844:
4835:
4827:
4823:
4819:
4814:
4806:
4805:Lactantius,
4801:
4793:
4788:
4779:
4770:
4761:
4752:
4731:
4722:
4713:
4704:
4695:
4686:
4678:
4673:
4665:
4647:
4646:Lactantius,
4631:
4626:
4618:
4613:
4604:
4596:
4580:
4575:
4566:
4558:
4554:
4549:
4532:Clarke, 657.
4528:
4523:Potter, 356.
4519:
4511:
4510:Lactantius,
4506:
4498:
4494:
4489:
4481:
4477:
4473:
4472:Lactantius,
4468:
4463:Clarke, 656.
4459:
4451:
4446:
4438:
4433:
4425:
4420:
4412:
4407:
4399:
4395:
4391:
4390:Lactantius,
4386:
4378:
4373:
4365:
4360:
4355:Clarke, 655.
4351:
4343:
4338:
4329:
4321:
4320:18; Barnes,
4317:
4316:Lactantius,
4312:
4304:
4287:
4279:
4275:
4270:
4262:
4258:
4253:
4244:
4235:
4227:
4223:
4218:
4210:
4206:
4202:
4198:
4193:
4184:
4176:
4172:
4168:
4163:
4155:
4151:
4146:
4137:
4129:
4125:
4121:
4117:
4112:
4104:
4099:
4090:
4082:
4077:
4069:
4065:
4060:
4052:
4049:Acta Felicis
4048:
4047:praef.; and
4044:
4040:
4035:
4026:
4018:
4014:
4010:
4006:
4005:Lactantius,
4001:
3992:
3987:Clarke, 651.
3968:
3967:Lactantius,
3963:
3955:
3954:Lactantius,
3950:
3941:
3932:
3912:
3907:
3888:
3882:
3873:
3864:
3855:
3847:
3843:
3839:
3834:
3826:
3822:
3817:
3795:
3790:
3782:
3777:
3769:
3756:
3748:
3743:
3735:
3731:
3730:Lactantius,
3726:
3718:
3713:
3705:
3700:
3688:
3683:
3675:
3671:
3666:
3658:
3654:
3649:
3641:
3637:
3636:Lactantius,
3632:
3623:
3615:
3610:
3601:
3592:
3584:
3579:
3571:
3555:
3554:Lactantius,
3550:
3542:
3541:Lactantius,
3537:
3528:
3520:
3515:
3506:
3498:
3493:
3485:
3480:
3471:
3463:
3458:
3450:
3446:
3442:
3441:Lactantius,
3437:
3428:
3419:
3399:
3394:
3385:
3376:
3368:
3363:
3354:
3345:
3337:
3334:10.1–5
3331:
3330:Lactantius,
3325:
3316:
3308:
3303:
3283:
3278:
3269:
3260:
3251:
3242:
3234:
3226:
3222:
3213:
3205:
3200:
3192:
3191:Lactantius,
3187:
3179:
3174:
3166:
3162:
3161:Lactantius,
3157:
3149:
3148:Lactantius,
3144:
3136:
3132:
3131:Lactantius,
3127:
3118:
3110:
3105:
3096:
3087:
3079:
3063:
3062:Lactantius,
3058:
3050:
3045:
3037:
3032:
3027:Clarke, 615.
3023:
3014:
3005:
2996:
2976:
2971:
2962:
2953:
2945:
2940:
2932:
2928:
2924:
2916:
2900:
2896:
2891:
2883:
2878:
2869:
2861:
2856:
2851:Clarke, 627.
2847:
2830:Potter, 333.
2826:
2821:Potter, 336.
2817:
2807:
2802:
2793:
2772:
2763:
2755:
2751:
2730:
2721:
2713:
2709:
2704:
2695:
2687:
2682:
2673:
2665:
2660:
2652:
2647:
2638:
2630:
2625:
2616:
2608:
2604:
2599:
2591:
2586:
2577:
2568:
2560:
2555:
2547:
2543:
2539:
2535:
2527:
2522:
2514:
2509:
2500:
2492:
2475:
2467:
2463:
2458:
2450:
2445:
2437:
2433:
2429:
2425:
2417:
2413:
2408:
2399:
2390:
2382:
2377:
2366:
2361:
2352:
2343:
2335:
2331:
2326:
2318:
2313:
2303:
2299:
2294:
2285:
2276:
2267:
2220:
2214:
2205:
2182:
2169:
2161:
2157:
2151:
2142:
2133:
2125:
2121:
2113:
2109:
2105:
2100:
2092:
2088:
2082:
2074:
2069:
2057:
2051:
2041:
2036:
2028:
2024:
2019:
2010:
2001:
1988:
1983:
1974:
1965:
1956:
1948:
1944:
1939:
1925:
1909: and
1888:
1877:
1872:W.H.C. Frend
1864:
1855:
1852:
1847:
1839:
1837:
1797:
1785:
1779:
1774:
1770:
1766:
1763:Theodosius I
1755:
1751:
1740:
1733:
1707:
1705:
1683:
1678:
1675:
1654:
1650:
1626:
1618:
1614:
1608:
1602:
1598:
1594:
1588:
1582:
1580:
1557:
1541:
1533:
1522:
1499:
1494:
1482:
1480:
1470:
1406:
1387:
1327:
1315:
1313:
1297:
1292:purple robes
1284:
1275:
1273:
1266:
1262:
1254:
1246:
1245:but not its
1240:
1236:
1232:
1225:
1203:
1188:
1182:
1180:, Algeria).
1158:
1150:
1132:
1128:
1124:
1118:
1115:
1101:
1095:
1092:
987:
978:
970:
963:
959:
956:
951:
935:
917:
898:
876:Thessalonica
872:
865:
862:
851:
833:
808:
802:
772:
761:
753:
748:
742:
738:
727:
710:
701:
698:
681:
673:
667:
648:Persian wars
645:
634:Saint George
632:
612:
603:
592:
588:
584:
582:
575:Neoplatonist
543:
535:
521:
504:
500:
481:
453:
431:
425:
400:
386:
361:
353:
341:
331:
320:
292:
279:
252:
229:
205:anticlerical
181:
178:
146:
113:
61:Roman Empire
52:
49:Diocletianic
48:
46:
29:
9570:New Martyrs
9494:Protestants
9450:Anabaptists
9377:North Korea
9272:Afghanistan
9235:Kim Il-sung
9200:Enver Hoxha
9195:Bai Chongxi
9144:Tipu Sultan
9108:Hulagu Khan
9091:Middle Ages
8752:1850 Aleppo
8656:Middle Ages
8444:. Ashgate.
8197:: 135–154.
8080:: 105–124.
7723:(1): 1–18.
7282:: 239–252.
6763:Womersley,
6701:Curran, 50.
6581:Dodds, 135.
6047:, 357 n.49.
5761:, 357 n.39.
4796:, 261 n.58.
4747:Davies, 68.
3812:Curran, 49.
3320:Walter, 111
3298:Davies, 92.
3204:Augustine,
3122:Dodds, 109.
2957:Davies, 93.
2919:, 295 n.50.
2842:Curran, 48.
2797:Curran, 47.
2466:, vol. 10,
2289:Dodds, 110.
2271:Dodds, 111.
2209:Gaddis, 29.
2175:Bollandists
1576:Firmilianus
1506:Beit She'an
1432:Martyrdoms
1334:Chrysogonus
1280:Marcellus I
1261:", and the
1229:Marcellinus
1137:Saint Alban
1006:Asia Minor
885:Constantine
821:equestrians
799:First edict
775:didacticism
713:Constantine
288:cannibalism
232:Constantine
101:Constantine
80:Constantius
37:St. Erasmus
9719:Diocletian
9678:Categories
9357:Madagascar
9282:Azerbaijan
9245:Xi Jinping
9225:Mao Zedong
9062:Diocletian
8991:persecutor
8782:Diyarbekir
7192:Tertullian
7070:De Ira Dei
7036:Lactantius
6873:References
6793:, vol. 5,
6727:New Empire
6685:, vol. 1,
6485:Eusebius,
6345:Eusebius,
6332:Eusebius,
6312:New Empire
6293:Eusebius,
6280:Eusebius,
6267:Eusebius,
6254:Eusebius,
6241:Eusebius,
6228:Eusebius,
6188:Eusebius,
6162:Eusebius,
6149:Eusebius,
6129:Eusebius,
6116:Eusebius,
6103:Eusebius,
6090:Eusebius,
6079:New Empire
6013:Eusebius,
5996:Eusebius,
5931:Eusebius,
5905:Eusebius,
5859:Eusebius,
5842:Eusebius,
5825:Eusebius,
5804:Eusebius,
5787:Eusebius,
5770:Eusebius,
5728:Eusebius,
5707:Eusebius,
5690:Eusebius,
5647:Eusebius,
5600:Eusebius,
5583:Eusebius,
5566:Eusebius,
5540:Eusebius,
5462:Odahl, 68.
5368:Eusebius,
5355:, 48. Cf.
5300:2021-03-25
5263:Eusebius,
5194:Eusebius,
4865:Corcoran,
4848:Corcoran,
4826:1.13; and
4818:Eusebius,
4792:Corcoran,
4677:Corcoran,
4664:Corcoran,
4617:Eusebius,
4493:Eusebius,
4342:Eusebius,
4274:Eusebius,
4222:Eusebius,
4167:Eusebius,
4150:Eusebius,
4116:Eusebius,
4103:Corcoran,
4064:Eusebius,
4039:Eusebius,
3838:Eusebius,
3821:Eusebius,
3794:Corcoran,
3781:Corcoran,
3678:on earth".
3670:Eusebius,
3583:Corcoran,
3532:Odahl, 65.
3466:, 19, 294.
3398:Eusebius,
3307:Arnobius,
3049:Eusebius,
2903:, 62 n.76.
2901:New Empire
2862:Aboda Zara
2708:Eusebius,
2686:Eusebius,
2590:Eusebius,
2559:Eusebius,
2449:Eusebius,
2418:Epistaules
1932:Revelation
1771:traditores
1641:epigraphic
1633:Marcionism
1568:gladiators
1316:Acta Eulpi
1161:Maximilian
809:Terminalia
731:Manicheans
682:haruspices
669:haruspices
664:divination
660:Lactantius
578:Iamblichus
558:E.R. Dodds
473:Baal-hamon
456:Elagabalus
440:panegyrist
316:fire of 64
271:Tertullian
215:Background
183:traditores
166:Asia Minor
133:Manicheans
125:Roman gods
68:Diocletian
9482:Armenians
9455:Catholics
9327:Indonesia
9149:Minh Mạng
9082:Athanaric
9077:Shapur II
9005:Agrippa I
8502:Mnemosyne
8317:144484955
8248:161188245
8219:159942854
8102:163079454
7879:170769034
7850:162376477
7737:162190645
7458:170641484
7353:: 53–65.
7267:161858491
7173:Fragments
5324:from the
5128:, VII, 32
5087:The Bible
5074:The Bible
4993:The Bible
4977:The Bible
4822:8.13.13;
4428:, 30, 38.
4394:24.9 and
4381:8.14.9ff.
4364:Eusebius
4188:Rees, 64.
4141:Rees, 63.
3762:Old Latin
2653:De lapsis
2365:Tacitus,
2225:Routledge
2198:Citations
2126:programma
2058:Chronicle
1989:per annum
1945:Epistolae
1813:Sebastian
1724:Alexander
1615:tabularii
1604:strategoi
1599:curatores
1560:Theodosia
1549:Sepphoris
1502:Procopius
1394:Gorgonius
1384:Nicomedia
1305:Miltiades
1208:Majorinus
1200:Caecilian
1196:Mensurius
1169:Marcellus
973:Tillemont
920:Maxentius
911:, became
909:Maximinus
858:exorcists
825:decurions
706:Betthorus
702:Chronicon
530:Nicomedia
492:Tetrarchy
397:Gallienus
304:proconsul
255:barbarian
192:Melitians
188:Donatists
170:Maximinus
162:Palestine
150:Maxentius
129:Gallienus
9643:Category
9417:Thailand
9387:Pakistan
9362:Malaysia
9292:Cambodia
9072:Galerius
9067:Maximian
9046:Valerian
9026:Domitian
8597:incident
8282:: 6–38.
7604:(2000).
7594:23963763
7367:43646838
7169:Porphyry
6885:Arnobius
6810:Porson,
6776:Gibbon,
6725:Barnes,
6655:Barnes,
6603:Barnes,
6422:Panarion
6310:Barnes,
6077:Barnes,
6043:Barnes,
6030:Barnes,
5983:Barnes,
5892:Barnes,
5876:Barnes,
5808:8.13.5;
5757:Barnes,
5617:Barnes,
5553:Barnes,
5515:Barnes,
5502:Barnes,
5449:Barnes,
5427:Barnes,
5414:Barnes,
5398:Barnes,
5351:Barnes,
5338:Barnes,
5318:Acta SS.
5250:Barnes,
5237:Barnes,
5224:Barnes,
5181:Barnes,
5168:Barnes,
5150:Barnes,
5137:Barnes,
5124:Eusebius
5111:Tilley,
5098:Barnes,
5085:Tilley,
5030:Tilley,
5017:Barnes,
4908:Barnes,
4895:Barnes,
4630:Barnes,
4595:Barnes,
4437:Barnes,
4424:Barnes,
4411:Barnes,
4303:Barnes,
4257:Barnes,
4197:Barnes,
3911:Barnes,
3747:Barnes,
3717:Barnes,
3704:Barnes,
3614:Barnes,
3570:Barnes,
3497:Barnes,
3484:Barnes,
3462:Barnes,
3367:Barnes,
3109:Barnes,
3078:Barnes,
3036:Barnes,
2944:Barnes,
2915:Barnes,
2895:Barnes,
2526:Origen,
2336:Apologia
2332:Apologia
2317:Schott,
2298:Schott,
2118:Luke 2:1
1883:See also
1829:Voltaire
1775:traditor
1712:Meletius
1671:poll tax
1667:Arycanda
1629:Ashkelon
1610:duumviri
1595:Logistai
1537:tribunes
1514:libation
1487:Caesarea
1402:Anthimus
1300:Eusebius
1276:traditio
1255:traditor
1237:traditor
1204:traditio
1190:traditor
1185:Donatism
1123:and his
891:in 313.
889:Licinius
837:Caesarea
829:freedmen
817:senators
813:Terminus
694:Caesarea
690:Eusebius
674:haruspex
607:Arnobius
554:Bithynia
511:Damascus
484:Augustus
449:Hercules
428:Aurelian
393:Valerian
389:apostasy
346:rescript
300:Carthage
121:Valerian
105:Licinius
76:Galerius
72:Maximian
65:emperors
43:in Rome.
9653:Commons
9504:Martyrs
9465:Mormons
9427:Vietnam
9397:Somalia
9372:Nigeria
9352:Lebanon
9277:Algeria
9265:country
9230:Pol Pot
7842:3163949
7473:: 1–47.
7429:1089029
7409:Phoenix
7400:1089082
7380:Phoenix
7211:. From
7208:Apology
7202:) 197.
7200:Apology
7138:Optatus
7121:. From
7089:. From
7080:. 313.
7059:. From
7026:. From
6987:. From
6908:. From
6849:Frend,
5389:, 5.90.
4043:8.2.4;
3842:8.2.4;
3766:Vulgate
3676:profane
2515:Bishops
2513:Drake,
2414:Bishops
2412:Drake,
2370:15.44.6
2367:Annales
2110:edictum
1856:History
1583:Martyrs
1553:Thebaid
1545:Cilicia
1525:Urbanus
1469:in the
1390:eunuchs
1364:to the
1324:Gospels
1265:of the
1247:feriale
1212:Donatus
1165:Tebessa
1012:Danube
1009:Oriens
913:caesars
905:Severus
901:augusti
854:Malatya
767:Romanus
656:Antakya
652:Antioch
464:Sarapis
445:Jupiter
382:Pionius
374:Babylas
350:Maximin
276:Tacitus
154:Severus
93:Britain
59:in the
9663:Portal
9422:Turkey
9367:Mexico
9307:France
9168:Modern
9154:Tự Đức
9139:Kangxi
9041:Decius
8734:Modern
8467:
8448:
8429:
8410:
8391:
8372:
8332:
8315:
8263:
8246:
8217:
8211:300738
8209:
8178:
8157:
8138:
8100:
8094:301453
8092:
8061:
8042:
8002:
7983:
7964:
7924:
7877:
7848:
7840:
7809:
7790:
7771:
7752:
7735:
7704:
7682:
7659:
7640:
7612:
7592:
7561:
7542:
7523:
7504:
7456:
7427:
7398:
7365:
7330:
7311:
7296:311244
7294:
7265:
7259:299693
7257:
7182:", in
6962:
6866:, 227.
6862:Shin,
6767:, 128.
6644:passim
6021:, 154.
6004:, 154.
5987:, 154.
5896:, 153.
5867:, 153.
5850:, 153.
5833:, 153.
5795:, 152.
5664:, 153.
5638:, 151.
5621:, 151.
5591:, 151.
5557:, 150.
5357:contra
5072:, xi;
4867:Empire
4850:Empire
4794:Empire
4679:Empire
4666:Empire
4634:, 149.
4499:Empire
4484:, 186.
4482:Empire
4454:, 186.
4452:Empire
4211:Empire
4177:Empire
4130:Empire
4107:, 181.
4105:Empire
4085:, 180.
4083:Empire
4072:, 180.
4070:Empire
4053:Empire
4019:Empire
3895:
3798:, 179.
3796:Empire
3785:, 180.
3783:Empire
3770:Empire
3659:passim
3585:Empire
3521:Contra
3231:π,2098
2631:Origen
2420:10.96.
2308:1.2.1.
2231:
2062:Narseh
1819:, and
1730:Legacy
1702:Museum
1613:, and
1510:reader
1251:Fabian
1147:Africa
811:, for
788:Didyma
784:Apollo
780:oracle
764:deacon
507:caesar
488:Trajan
372:, and
366:Fabian
358:Decius
328:Origen
296:Smyrna
284:incest
244:Trajan
164:, and
142:Didyma
138:oracle
117:Decius
84:edicts
78:, and
9487:Copts
9432:Yemen
9412:Sudan
9407:Spain
9342:Japan
9322:India
9302:Egypt
9297:China
9287:Burma
9113:Timur
8313:S2CID
8244:S2CID
8215:S2CID
8207:JSTOR
8098:S2CID
8090:JSTOR
7875:S2CID
7846:S2CID
7838:JSTOR
7733:S2CID
7590:JSTOR
7454:S2CID
7425:JSTOR
7396:JSTOR
7363:JSTOR
7292:JSTOR
7263:S2CID
7255:JSTOR
6663:, xi.
5418:, 24.
5376:, 48.
5271:, 39.
5241:, 38.
5215:, 29.
5115:, xi.
5102:, 56.
5089:, 10.
5021:, 23.
5008:, 23.
4995:, 46.
4912:, 23.
4599:, 39.
4415:, 28.
4402:, 28.
4282:, 24.
3574:, 19.
3169:, 22.
3040:, 21.
2385:16.2.
1917:Notes
1867:Croix
1809:Agnes
1716:Asyut
1693:Egypt
1562:from
1518:Homer
1429:Date
1358:Tiber
946:Sofia
841:Cirta
718:Dacia
685:'
640:Ubisi
567:Peter
556:. To
259:mores
236:Pliny
158:Egypt
9510:list
9347:Laos
9337:Iraq
9332:Iran
9021:Nero
8465:ISBN
8446:ISBN
8427:ISBN
8408:ISBN
8389:ISBN
8370:ISBN
8330:ISBN
8261:ISBN
8176:ISBN
8155:ISBN
8136:ISBN
8059:ISBN
8040:ISBN
8000:ISBN
7981:ISBN
7962:ISBN
7922:ISBN
7807:ISBN
7788:ISBN
7769:ISBN
7750:ISBN
7702:ISBN
7680:ISBN
7657:ISBN
7638:ISBN
7610:ISBN
7559:ISBN
7540:ISBN
7521:ISBN
7502:ISBN
7328:ISBN
7309:ISBN
6960:ISBN
4681:, 2.
3893:ISBN
3764:pre-
3760:The
3227:Suda
3180:Caes
3139:, 5.
2383:Nero
2321:, 1.
2229:ISBN
2043:Suda
1996:280.
1911:310s
1907:300s
1564:Tyre
1340:and
1178:Mila
1117:his
1102:acta
938:Gaza
907:and
887:and
735:Mani
587:and
571:Paul
569:and
548:and
486:and
462:and
460:Isis
312:Nero
286:and
248:Lyon
119:and
103:and
91:and
89:Gaul
47:The
9694:303
8511:doi
8488:doi
8353:doi
8305:doi
8284:doi
8236:doi
8199:doi
8119:doi
8082:doi
8023:doi
7945:doi
7905:doi
7867:doi
7830:doi
7725:doi
7582:doi
7467:Aug
7446:doi
7417:doi
7388:doi
7378:".
7355:doi
7284:doi
7247:doi
6978:).
4559:RAC
2607:,"
2188:Lod
1601:),
984:".
883:by
786:at
782:of
692:of
468:Sol
140:at
51:or
9680::
9441:By
9263:By
8989:By
8595:By
8507:54
8505:.
8484:43
8482:.
8347:.
8311:.
8301:13
8299:.
8280:26
8278:.
8242:.
8232:47
8230:.
8213:.
8205:.
8195:89
8193:.
8115:40
8113:.
8096:.
8088:.
8078:78
8076:.
8019:56
8017:.
7939:.
7901:37
7899:.
7873:.
7861:.
7844:.
7836:.
7826:43
7824:.
7731:.
7721:38
7719:.
7678:.
7588:.
7578:40
7576:.
7471:33
7452:.
7442:18
7440:.
7423:.
7413:55
7411:.
7394:.
7384:54
7382:.
7361:.
7351:39
7349:.
7290:.
7280:80
7278:.
7261:.
7253:.
7243:58
7241:.
7194:.
7175:.
7171:.
7150:ca
7148:)
7140:.
7110:ca
7108:)
7078:ca
7076:)
7048:ca
7046:)
7038:.
7015:ca
7013:)
6949:ca
6945:ca
6941:ca
6937:ca
6927:.
6897:ca
6895:)
6887:.
6756:^
6718:^
6694:^
6402:^
6142:^
6052:^
5885:^
5524:^
5407:^
5293:.
5159:^
4956:^
4740:^
4655:^
4639:^
4588:^
4537:^
4296:^
3976:^
3920:^
3803:^
3657:,
3563:^
3407:^
3291:^
3229:,
3071:^
2984:^
2908:^
2835:^
2781:^
2739:^
2655:8.
2542:,
2484:^
2338:3.
2255:^
2243:^
2223:.
2120:("
2112:("
1827:,
1815:,
1811:,
1673:.
1607:,
1461:44
1451:34
1441:13
1073:12
1066:12
1042:14
1026:31
1021:26
823:,
819:,
376:,
368:,
326:.
290:.
160:,
107:'
74:,
70:,
9512:)
9508:(
8569:e
8562:t
8555:v
8537:—
8517:.
8513::
8494:.
8490::
8473:.
8454:.
8435:.
8416:.
8397:.
8378:.
8359:.
8355::
8349:3
8338:.
8319:.
8307::
8290:.
8286::
8269:.
8250:.
8238::
8221:.
8201::
8184:.
8163:.
8144:.
8125:.
8121::
8104:.
8084::
8067:.
8048:.
8029:.
8025::
8008:.
7989:.
7970:.
7951:.
7947::
7941:1
7930:.
7911:.
7907::
7881:.
7869::
7863:6
7852:.
7832::
7815:.
7796:.
7777:.
7758:.
7739:.
7727::
7710:.
7688:.
7665:.
7646:.
7618:.
7596:.
7584::
7567:.
7548:.
7529:.
7510:.
7460:.
7448::
7431:.
7419::
7402:.
7390::
7369:.
7357::
7336:.
7317:.
7298:.
7286::
7269:.
7249::
7198:(
7144:(
7104:(
7072:(
7042:(
7009:(
6974:(
6931:(
6891:(
6646:.
5303:.
4265:.
3901:.
3661:.
2237:.
2177:.
2156:(
2031:.
1930:(
1803:"
1767:r
1765:(
1597:(
1473:.
1056:8
654:(
432:r
430:(
401:r
399:(
362:r
360:(
354:r
352:(
342:r
340:(
20:)
Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License. Additional terms may apply.