Dissolution of the monasteries

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monastic pensions. Cromwell had intended that the bulk of this wealth should serve as regular income. After Cromwell's fall in 1540, Henry needed money quickly to fund his military ambitions in France and Scotland. Monastic property was sold off, representing by 1547 an annual value of £90,000 (equivalent to £66,252,000 in 2023). Lands and endowments were not offered for sale, let alone auctioned. Instead, the government responded to the flood of applications for purchase. Many applicants had been founders or patrons of the relevant houses and could expect to be successful. Purchasers were predominantly leading nobles, local magnates and gentry, people with no discernible religious tendency, other than a determination to maintain and extend their family's local status. The landed property of the former monasteries included large numbers of manorial estates, each carrying the right and duty to hold a court for tenants and others. Acquiring such feudal rights was regarded as essential to establish a family in the late medieval gentry. For a long period, freehold manorial estates had been very rare in the market, and families seized on the opportunity now offered to entrench their positions. Nothing would subsequently induce them to surrender their new acquisitions. The Court of Augmentations retained income sufficient to meet its continuing obligations to pay annual pensions; but as pensioners died off, or as pensions were extinguished when their holders accepted a royal appointment of higher value, then surplus property became available each year for further disposal. The last surviving monks continued to draw their pensions into the reign of

3526:, which had been retained as a cathedral, reverted to being a monastery; while the communities of the Bridgettine nuns and of the Observant Franciscans, which had gone into exile in the reign of Henry VIII, returned to their former houses at Syon and Greenwich respectively. A small group of fifteen surviving Carthusians was re-established in their old house at Sheen, as were eight Dominican canonesses in Dartford. A house of Dominican friars was established at Smithfield, but this was only possible through importing professed religious from Holland and Spain, and Mary's hopes of further refoundations foundered, as she found it very difficult to persuade former monks and nuns to resume the religious life. Schemes for restoring the abbeys at Glastonbury and St Albans failed for lack of volunteers. All the refounded houses were in properties that had remained in Crown possession. None of Mary's lay supporters would co-operate in returning their holdings of monastic lands to religious use. Lay lords in Parliament proved unremittingly hostile, as a revival of the "mitred" abbeys would have returned the House of Lords to having an ecclesiastical majority. There remained a widespread suspicion that the return of religious communities to their former premises might unsettle the legal title of lay purchasers of monastic land, and accordingly all Mary's foundations were technically new communities in law. In 1554, 2353:, and for inquiring into evidence of moral laxity (especially sexual). The chosen commissioners were mostly secular clergy, and appear to have been Erasmian, doubtful of the value of monastic life and universally dismissive of relics and miraculous tokens. By comparison with the valuation commissions, the timetable for these monastic visitations was tight, with some houses missed altogether, and inquiries appear to have concentrated on gross faults and laxity; consequently, where the reports of misbehaviour can be checked against other sources, they commonly appear to have been both rushed and greatly exaggerated, often recalling events from years before. The visitors interviewed each member of the house and selected servants, prompting individual confessions of wrongdoing and asking them to inform on one another. From their correspondence with Cromwell it can be seen that the visitors knew that findings of impropriety were both expected and desired; however, where no faults were revealed, none were reported. The visitors put the worst construction they could on whatever they were told, but they do not appear to have fabricated allegations of wrongdoing outright. 2396:

immediately surrendered. A two-stage procedure was applied, the commissions reporting back to Cromwell for a decision as to whether to proceed with dissolution. These commissioners often supported the continuation of a house where they found no serious problem; arguments that Cromwell appears to have accepted. Around 80 houses were exempted. Where dissolution was determined, a second visit would affect the arrangements for closure of the house, disposal of its assets and endowments and provisions for the future of its members. Otherwise, the second visit would collect a fine. In general, these commissioners were less inclined to report faults in monastic observance within the smaller houses than the earlier group had been, although this may have been coloured by an awareness that monks and nuns with a bad reputation would be difficult to place elsewhere. The 1536 Act established that, whatever the claims of founders or patrons, the property of the dissolved smaller houses reverted to the Crown. Cromwell established a new government agency, the

2598:

surrender if they could obtain favourable terms for pensions; they also knew that if they refused to surrender, they might suffer the penalty for treason and their house would be dissolved anyway. Where the King had been able to establish himself as founder, he exploited his position to place compliant monks and nuns as the head of the house while non-royal patrons and founders also tended to press superiors for an early surrender, hoping to get preferential treatment in the disposal of monastic properties. From the beginning of 1538, Cromwell targeted the houses that he knew to be wavering in their resolve, cajoling and bullying their superiors to apply for surrender. Nevertheless, the public stance of the government was that the better-run houses could still expect to survive, and Cromwell dispatched a circular in March 1538 condemning false rumours of a general policy of dissolution while also warning superiors against asset-stripping or concealment of valuables, which could be construed as treasonable action.

2370:

have instructed houses to reintroduce the strict practice of common dining and cloistered living, urging that those unable to comply should be encouraged to leave; and many appear to have been released from their monastic vows. The visitors reported the number of professed religious persons continuing in each house. In the case of seven houses, impropriety or irreligion had been so great, or the numbers remaining so few, that the commissioners had felt compelled to suppress it on the spot; in others, the abbot, prior or noble patron was reported to be petitioning the King for a house to be dissolved. Such authority had formerly rested with the Pope, but now the King would need to establish a legal basis for dissolution in statutory law. Moreover, it was by no means clear that the property of a surrendered house would automatically be at the disposal of the Crown; a good case could be made for this property to revert to the heirs and descendants of the founder or other patron. Parliament enacted the

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taken a considerable period to gain acceptance, and the circumstances of the church in the late 1530s may not have encouraged candidates to come forward. For 20 years afterwards (until the succession of Elizabeth I), the number of ordinands in every diocese in England and Wales fell drastically. At the same time, the restrictions on 'pluralism' introduced through legislation in 1529 prevented the accumulation of multiple benefices by individual clergy, and accordingly by 1559 some 10% of benefices were vacant and former reserve Mass priests had been absorbed into the ranks of beneficed clergy. Monastic successors preferred to sponsor university graduates as candidates for the priesthood; and, although the government failed to respond to the consequent need for expanded educational provision, individual benefactors stepped into the breach, with the refoundation as university colleges of five out of the six former monastic colleges of Oxford and Cambridge.

982: 2362: 2746:, Cromwell's commissioner, in October 1538, demanding the surrender of the abbey; but following a direct appeal to Cromwell himself, the house was assured that it could continue. Lady Katherine assured Cromwell that "there is neither pope nor purgatory, image nor pilgrimage nor praying to dead saints used or regarded amongst us". Godstow Abbey was providing highly regarded boarding and schooling for girls of notable families. This was the case for several other nunneries, a factor which may have accounted for their surviving so long. Diarmaid MacCulloch further suggests that "customary male cowardice" was also a factor in the reluctance of the government to confront the heads of female religious houses. But the stay of execution for Godstow Abbey lasted just over a year: the abbey was suppressed in November 1539 along with all other nunnery survivors, as Henry was determined that none should continue. 3469:

walks of life. The Court of Augmentations retained around a third of the overall monastic income since it was necessary to continue making pension payments to former monks and nuns. Just over half of the remaining property was left to be offered for sale at market prices (Henry gave away very little property to favored staff, and what he did give away tended to return to the Crown after its beneficiaries fell out of favor and were charged with treason). The English and Welsh dissolutions produced a comparatively small amount of new educational endowments compared to the violent closure of monasteries elsewhere in Protestant Europe, but the treatment of former monks and nuns was more benevolent, and there was no analogue to the mechanisms established in England to maintain pension payments over successive decades.

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parish clergy; and consequently, numbers of new ordinations dropped drastically in the ten years after the dissolution and ceased almost entirely in the reign of Edward VI. It was only in 1549, after Edward came to the throne, that former monks and nuns were permitted to marry. Within a year of permission being granted, only around a quarter had done so, only to find themselves forcibly separated (and denied their pensions) in the reign of Mary. On the succession of Elizabeth, these former monks and friars (reunited both with their wives and their pensions) formed a major part of the new Anglican church and may properly claim credit for maintaining the religious life of the country until a new generation of ordinands became available in the 1560s and 1570s.

2400:, to manage that. Although the property rights of lay founders and patrons were legally extinguished, the incomes of lay holders of monastic offices, pensions and annuities were generally preserved, as were the rights of tenants of monastic lands. Ordinary monks and nuns were given the choice of secularisation (with a cash gratuity but no pension), or of transfer to a continuing larger house of the same order. The majority of those then remaining chose to continue in the religious life. In some areas, the premises of a suppressed religious house were recycled into a new foundation to accommodate them, and rehousing those seeking a transfer proved much more difficult and time-consuming than appears to have been anticipated. Two houses, 2573:

actions diminished the eventual net return to the Crown from each house's endowments, but they were not officially discouraged. Cromwell obtained and solicited many such fees in his own personal favour. Crucially, having created the precedent that tenants and lay recipients of monastic incomes might expect to have their interests recognised by the Court of Augmentations following dissolution, the government's apparent acquiescence to the granting of additional such rights helped establish a predisposition towards dissolution amongst tenants. At the same time, and especially once the loss of income from shrines and pilgrimages was taken into account, the long-term financial sustainability of many remaining houses was fragile.

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monasteries was always planned. The selection of poorer houses for dissolution in the First Act minimised the potential release of funds to other purposes. Once pensions had been committed to former superiors, cash rewards paid to those wishing to leave the religious life, and funding allocated for refounded houses, it is unlikely that the crown profited beyond the fines levied on exempted houses. During 1537 (possibly conditioned by concern not to re-ignite rebellious impulses) no further dissolutions were undertaken. Episcopal visitations were renewed, monasteries adapted their internal discipline in accordance with Cromwell's injunctions, and many houses undertook overdue programmes of repair and reconstruction.

1887: 2919:, the conventual buildings themselves were converted to form the core of a Tudor great mansion. Otherwise, the most marketable fabric in monastic buildings was likely to be the lead on roofs, gutters and plumbing, and buildings were burned down as the easiest way to extract this. Building stone and slate were sold off to the highest bidder. Many monastic outbuildings were turned into granaries, barns and stables. Cromwell had already instigated a campaign against "superstitions": pilgrimages and veneration of saints, during which ancient and precious valuables were grabbed and melted down, the tombs of saints and kings ransacked for whatever profit could be got from them, and their 2961: 3419:, having acquired a grammar school education and appropriate experience, would have been presented to the bishop's commissary for examination. Candidates were sponsored by an ecclesiastical corporation which provided him with a 'title', a notional patrimony assuring the bishop of his financial security. By the 16th century, the sponsors were overwhelmingly religious houses, although monasteries provided no formal parochial training, and the financial 'title' was a legal fiction. With the rapid expansion of grammar school provision in the late medieval period, the numbers of men being presented each year for ordination greatly exceeded the number of 2771:, to obtain the friars' surrender, which he achieved rapidly by drafting new injunctions that enforced each order's rules and required friars to resume a strict conventual life within their walls. Failure to accept voluntary surrender would then result in enforced homelessness and starvation. Once the friars agreed to surrender, Yngworth reported to Cromwell. He noted on his actions for each friary, who was the current tenant of each of the gardens, what was the general state of the buildings, and whether any church had valuable lead on roofs and gutters. Most of the friaries were in disrepair, with leased-out gardens as the only valuable asset. 1328:

had been determined that all religious houses would have to go. In terms of popular esteem, the balance tilted the other way. Almost all monasteries supported themselves from their endowments; in late medieval terms 'they lived off their own'. Unless they were notably bad landlords, they tended to enjoy widespread local support; they also commonly appointed local notables to fee-bearing offices. The friars were by contrast much more likely to have been the objects of local hostility, especially since their practice of soliciting income through legacies appears to have been perceived as diminishing family inheritances.

486: 5885: 2007: 2623:

Where nuns came from well-born families, as many did, they seem commonly to have returned to live with their relatives. Otherwise, there were a number of instances where former nuns of a house clubbed together in a shared household. There were no retrospective pensions for those monks or nuns who had already sought secularisation following the 1535 visitation, nor for those members of the smaller houses dissolved in 1536 and 1537 who had not remained in the religious life, nor for those houses dissolved before 1538 due to the conviction for treason of their superior, and no friars were pensioned.

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nuns were provided with pensions, cash gratuities and clothing. Existing tenants would have their tenancies continued, and lay office holders would continue to receive their incomes and fees (even without duties or obligations). Monks or nuns who were aged, handicapped or infirm were given more generous pensions, and care was taken throughout that there should be nobody cast out of their place unprovided for (who might otherwise have increased the burden of charity for local parishes). In a few instances, even monastic servants were provided with a year's wages on discharge.

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surrendered, then the house ceased to exist, whether its members continued in the religious life or not. The founder and their heirs had a legally enforceable interest in certain aspects of the house; their nomination was required at the election of an abbot or prior, they could claim hospitality within the house when needed, and they could be buried within the house when they died. In addition, though this scarcely ever happened, the endowments of the house would revert to the founder's heirs if the community failed or dissolved. The status of 'founder' was considered in

2577: 1357: 1863:

should English houses cease to exist. Much would depend on who, at the time the house ended, held the status of founder or patron; as with other such disputes in real property, the standard procedure was to empanel a jury to decide between disputing claimants. In practice, the Crown claimed the status of 'founder' in all such cases that occurred. Consequently, when a monastic community failed (e.g., through the death of most of its members, or through insolvency), the bishop would seek to obtain papal approval for alternative use of the house's endowments in

1146: 2381:

continuation, offering to pay substantial fines. Many such cases were accepted, so that only around 330 were referred to suppression commissions, and only 243 houses were actually dissolved at this time. The choice of a £200 threshold as the criterion for general dissolution under the legislation was suspect, as the preamble refers to numbers rather than income. Adopting a financial criterion was likely determined pragmatically; the Valor Ecclesiasticus data being both more reliable and more complete than those of Cromwell's visitors.

2980: 1276: 2126:, Gustav gained large estates, as well as loyal supporters among the nobility who reclaimed donations given by their families to the convents. The Swedish monasteries and convents were simultaneously deprived of their livelihoods. They were banned from accepting new novices, and forbidden to prevent their existing members from leaving. However, the former monks and nuns were allowed to reside in the convent buildings for life on state allowance, and many communities survived the Reformation for decades. The last of them was 199: 2755:

Franciscans, by the 16th century the friars' income from donations had collapsed, their numbers had shrunk to less than 1,000 and their buildings were often ruinous or leased out commercially. No longer self-sufficient in food and with their cloistered spaces invaded by secular tenants, almost all friars were now living in rented lodgings outside their friaries and meeting for divine service in the friary church. Many friars now supported themselves through paid employment and held personal property.

1302:, and the Bridgettine nuns and monks—had long ceased to play a leading role in the spiritual life of the country. Other than in these three orders, observance of strict monastic rules was partial at best. The exceptional spiritual discipline of the Carthusian, Observant Franciscan and Bridgettine orders had, over the previous century, resulted in their being singled out for royal favour, in particular with houses benefitting from endowments confiscated by the Crown from the suppressed alien priories. 3244:

the principle that only the glebe and 'greater tithes' of grain, hay and wood could be appropriated by monastic patrons in this manner; the 'lesser tithes' had to remain within the parochial benefice, the incumbent of which carried the title of 'vicar'. By 1535, of 8,838 rectories, 3,307 had thus been appropriated with vicarages, but at this late date, a small sub-set of vicarages in monastic ownership were not being served by beneficed clergy at all. These were parish churches owned by houses of

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together, but no cases where an entire community did so, and there is no indication that any continued to pray the Divine Office. The dissolution Acts were concerned solely with the disposal of endowed property, and never explicitly forbade the continuance of a regular life. Given Henry's attitude to those religious who resumed their houses during the Pilgrimage of Grace, it would have been seen as unwise for any former community to maintain covert monastic observance.

2538: 5897: 3029: 2433: 825: 32: 2896: 3220: 1787: 3134: 3452:

being the exception), as well as six completely new bishoprics (Bristol, Chester, Gloucester, Oxford, Peterborough, Westminster) with their associated cathedrals, chapters, choirs, and grammar schools; refounding monastic institutions at Brecon, Thornton, and Burton on Trent as secular colleges; endowing five Regius Professorships at the universities of Oxford and Cambridge; the endowment of the colleges of

3441: 134: 3149:, undertaking many ambitious building schemes, and maintaining a regular conventual and spiritual life. Friaries constituted around half of the total number of religious houses. Irish monasteries, by contrast, had experienced a catastrophic decline in numbers, such that by the 16th century only a minority maintained the daily observance of the Divine Office. Henry's direct authority, as 2775:

remaining in each house at surrender so that Cromwell could provide them with legal permission to pursue careers as a secular priests. Furthermore, Yngworth had no discretion to maintain friary churches, even though many had continued to attract congregations. They were disposed of rapidly by the Court of Augmentations. Of all the friary churches in England and Wales, only

1320:. In most larger houses, the full observance of the Canonical Hours had become the task of a sub-group of 'Cloister Monks', such that the majority of inhabitants were freed to conduct their business and live much of their lives in the secular world. Extensive monastic complexes dominated English towns of any size, but most were less than half full. 2374:("Dissolution of the Lesser Monasteries Act") in early 1535, relying on the reports of "impropriety" Cromwell had received, establishing the power of the King to dissolve religious houses that were failing to maintain a religious life, consequently providing for the King to compulsorily dissolve monasteries with annual incomes declared in the 2025:

bishops found they faced opposition when urging the heads of religious houses to enforce their monastic rules, especially those requiring monks and nuns to remain within their cloisters. Monks and nuns in almost all late medieval English religious communities, although theoretically living in religious poverty, were paid an annual cash wage (

1324:

to pay for armies, ships and fortifications. Many had already resorted to plundering monastic wealth. Protestant princes would justify this by claiming divine authority; Catholic princes would obtain the agreement of the papacy. Monastic wealth, regarded everywhere as excessive, offered a standing temptation for cash-strapped authorities.

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obtained other employment. If the pensioner accepted a royal appointment or benefice of greater annual value than their pension, the pension would be extinguished. In 1538, £5 compared with the annual wages of a skilled worker—and although the real value of such a fixed income would suffer through inflation—it remained a significant sum.

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their local community. Many other parishes bought and installed former monastic woodwork, choir stalls and stained-glass windows. As it was commonly the case by the late medieval period that the abbot's lodging had been expanded, these properties were frequently converted into country houses by lay purchasers. In other cases, such as

3015:, by Henry's son Edward VI, their property being absorbed into the Court of Augmentations and their members being added to the pensions list. Since many former monks had found employment as chantry priests, the consequence for these clerics was a double experience of dissolution, perhaps mitigated by the promise of a double pension. 3232:

predominant centres for learning and the arts. Nevertheless, particularly in rural areas, the abbeys, convents and priories were centres of hospitality and learning, and everywhere they remained a source of charity for the old and infirm. The removal of over eight hundred such institutions left great gaps in the social fabric.

3206:, and systematically sought out and destroyed former monastic houses. Subsequently, sympathetic landowners housed monks or friars close to several ruined religious houses, allowing them a continued covert existence during the 17th and 18th centuries, subject to the dangers of discovery and legal ejection or imprisonment. 1137:

expensively deployed on an unceasing round of services by men and women in theory set apart from the world be better spent on endowing grammar schools and university colleges to train men who would then serve the laity as parish priests, and on reforming the antiquated structures of over-large dioceses such as that of

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all its monastic property. The wording of the First Suppression Act had been clear that reform, not outright abolition of monastic life, was being presented as the objective of the government. There has been continuing academic debate as to whether a universal dissolution was being covertly prepared at this point.

1114:. Across much of continental Europe, the seizure of monastic property was associated with mass discontent among the common people and the lower levels of clergy and civil society against powerful and wealthy ecclesiastical institutions. Such popular hostility against the church was rare in England before 1558; the 2807: 2203:, the commendators often being lay courtiers or royal servants; around half the income of French monasteries was diverted into the hands of the Crown, or of royal supporters, all with the Popes' blessing. Where the French kings led, the Scots kings followed. In Scotland, where the proportion of parish 3436:

were newly founded with the express purpose of educating a Protestant parish clergy. One unintended long-term consequence of the dissolution was the transformation of the parish clergy in England and Wales into an educated professional class of secure, beneficed incumbents of distinctly higher social

3427:

In the knowledge that alternative arrangements for sponsorship and title would now need to be made, the dissolution legislation provided that the lay and ecclesiastical successors of the monks in former monastic endowments could provide valid title for ordinands. These new arrangements appear to have

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No great host of beggars was suddenly thrown on the roads for monastic charity had had only marginal significance and, even had the abbeys been allowed to remain, could scarcely have coped with the problems of unemployment and poverty created by the population and inflationary pressures of the middle

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canons, orders whose rules required them to provide parochial worship within their conventual churches. From the mid-fourteenth century onwards, the canons had been able to exploit their hybrid status to justify petitions for papal privileges of appropriation, allowing them to fill vicarages in their

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The surrender of monastic endowments was recognised automatically as terminating all regular religious observance by its members, except in the case of a few communities, such as Syon, who went into exile. There are several recorded instances where groups of former members of a house set up residence

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priory in November 1537 when the monks were not accorded the option of transfer to another house, but with the additional motivation that from then on, ordinary monks were offered life pensions if they co-operated. Abbots and priors came under pressure from their communities to petition for voluntary

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in Northumberland, attempted to resist the commissioners by force, actions which Henry interpreted as treason. He wrote personally to demand the brutal punishment of those responsible. The prior and canons of Norton were imprisoned for several months and were fortunate to escape with their lives; the

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house were imprisoned, where many died from ill-treatment. The Carthusians eventually submitted, other than the monks of the London house which was suppressed; some of the monks were executed for high treason in 1535, and others starved to death in prison. Also opposing the Supremacy and consequently

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The medieval understanding of religious houses as institutions associated monasteries and nunneries with their property: their endowments of land and income, and not their current personnel of monks and nuns. If the property with which a house had been endowed by its founder were to be confiscated or

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Even while it had been stated that King's increased riches would make it possible to build or better fund religious, philanthropic, and educational institutions, only around 15% of the monastic money was used this way. This included refounding eight out of nine previous monastic cathedrals (Coventry

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survived (and mostly still remain) in use for parochial worship, in addition to the fourteen former monastic churches that survived in their entirety as cathedrals. In around a dozen instances, wealthy benefactors purchased a complete former monastic church from the commissioners and presented it to

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Yngworth had no authority to dispose of lands and property and could not negotiate pensions. Therefore, the friars appear to have been released and dismissed with a gratuity of around 40 shillings each. Yngworth took this payout from whatever cash resources were in hand. He listed by name the friars

2279:, the English clergy and religious orders subscribed to the proposition that the King was, and had always been, the Supreme Head of the Church in England. Consequently, in Henry's view, any act of monastic resistance to royal authority would not only be treasonable, but also a breach of the monastic 2178:

had become widespread. Since the 12th century, it had become universal in Western Europe for the household expenses of abbots and conventual priors to be separated, typically appropriating more than half the house's income. With papal approval, these funds might be diverted on a vacancy to support a

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in their programmes of monastic reform; but even so, progress was painfully slow, especially where religious orders had been exempted from episcopal oversight by papal authority. It was also never certain that juries would find in favour of the Crown in disposing of the property of dissolved houses;

2002:

of prayer required a minimum of twelve professed religious, but by the 1530s, few communities in England could provide this. Most observers were in agreement that a systematic reform of the English church must involve the drastic concentration of monks and nuns into fewer, larger houses, potentially

1327:

Almost all official action in the English dissolution was directed at the monasteries. The closing of the monasteries aroused popular opposition, but resistors became the targets of royal hostility. The surrender of the friaries, from an official perspective, arose almost as an afterthought, once it

1323:

From 1534 onwards, Cromwell and King Henry wanted to redirect ecclesiastical income to the Crown—they justified this by contending that they were reclaiming what was theirs. Renaissance princes throughout Europe were facing severe financial difficulties due to sharply rising expenditures, especially

3243:

and taking an annual rental payment. Over the medieval period, monasteries and priories continually sought papal exemptions, so as to personally use the glebe and tithe income of rectoral benefices in their possession. From the 13th century onwards, English diocesan bishops successfully established

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As 1538 proceeded, applications for surrender flooded in. Cromwell appointed a local commissioner in each case to ensure rapid compliance with the King's wishes, to supervise the orderly sale of monastic goods and buildings, to dispose of monastic endowments, and to ensure that the former monks and

2587:

Although Henry continued to maintain that his sole objective was monastic reform, in 1537 it became clear that official policy was the general extinction of monasticism in England and Wales. This extinction was now expected to be achieved through individual applications from superiors for voluntary

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provided that the property of those convicted of treason would automatically revert to the Crown, clauses that Cromwell had drafted with the intention of effecting the dissolution of religious houses, arguing that the superior of the house (abbot, abbess, prior or prioress) was the legal "owner" of

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In the autumn of 1535, the visiting commissioners were sending back to Cromwell their written reports, enclosing with them bundles of purported miraculous wimples, girdles and mantles that monks and nuns had been lending out for cash to the sick, or to mothers in labour. The commissioners appear to

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obtained from the Pope approval to appoint his illegitimate infant sons (of which he eventually acquired nine) as commendators to abbacies in Scotland. Other Scots aristocratic families stuck similar deals, and consequently over £40,000 (Scots) per annum was diverted from monasteries into the royal

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rules for those who disliked them. Religious superiors met their bishops' pressure with the response that the cloistered ideal was only acceptable to a tiny minority of regular clergy, and that any attempt to enforce their order's stricter rules could be overturned in counter-actions in the secular

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authorising some limited reforms in the English Church as early as 1518, but reformers (both conservative and radical) had become increasingly frustrated at their lack of progress. In November 1529, Parliament passed Acts reforming apparent abuses in the English Church. They set a cap on fees, both

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laws in January 1555. When Mary died in 1558 and was succeeded by her half-sister, Elizabeth I, five of the six revived communities left again to exile in continental Europe. An Act of Elizabeth's first parliament dissolved the refounded houses. But although Elizabeth offered to allow the monks in

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at high stipends, but against pressure to ensure that well-paid posts would continue, his protests had no effect. On the other hand, Cranmer ensured that the new grammar schools attached both to 'New Foundation' and 'Old Foundation' cathedrals should be well funded, and accessible to boys from all

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by choristers and vicars choral, now undertaken as public worship, which had not been the case before the dissolution. The deans and prebends of the six new cathedrals were overwhelmingly former heads of religious houses. The secularised former monks and friars commonly looked for re-employment as

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being an example which still survives). Nevertheless, it has been estimated that only in 1580 did overall levels of charitable giving in England return to those before the dissolution. On the eve of the overthrow, the various monasteries owned approximately 2,000,000 acres (8,100 km), over 16

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The abbeys of England, Wales, and Ireland had been among the greatest landowners and the largest institutions in the kingdoms, although by the early 16th century, religious donors tended to favour parish churches, collegiate churches, university colleges and grammar schools, and these were now the

2990:

The dissolution did not greatly affect English parish church activity. Parishes that had formerly paid their tithes to a religious house now paid them to a lay impropriator, but rectors, vicars, and other incumbents remained in place. Congregations that had shared monastic churches continued to do

2622:

Pensions granted to nuns were less generous, averaging £3 per annum. During Henry's reign, former nuns, like monks, continued to be forbidden to marry, therefore it is more possible that genuine hardship resulted, especially as former nuns had little access to opportunities for gainful employment.

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in Lancashire. The abbot, fearful of a treason charge, petitioned to make a voluntary surrender of his house, which Cromwell happily approved. From then on, all dissolutions that were not a consequence of convictions for treason were legally "voluntary" – a principle that was taken a stage further

1270:

Suffice it to say that English monasticism was a huge and urgent problem; that radical action, though of precisely what kind was another matter, was both necessary and inevitable, and that a purge of the religious orders was probably regarded as the most obvious task of the new regime—as the first

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who satirized monasteries as lax, as comfortably worldly, as wasteful of scarce resources, and as superstitious; he also thought it would be better if monks were brought more directly under the authority of bishops. At that time, quite a few bishops across Europe had come to believe that resources

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friars and Bridgettine monks and nuns. Great efforts were made to cajole, bribe, trick and threaten these houses into formal compliance, with those religious who continued in their resistance being liable to imprisonment until they submitted or if they persisted, to execution for treason. All the

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made a similar act in 1528, confiscating 15 of the houses of the wealthiest monasteries and convents. Further laws by his successor in the 1530s banned the friars and forced monks and nuns to transfer title to their houses to the Crown, which passed them out to supportive nobles who soon acquired

1862:

The founders of the alien priories had been foreign monasteries refusing allegiance to the English Crown. These property rights were therefore automatically forfeited to the Crown when their English dependencies were dissolved, but their example prompted questions as to what action might be taken

1310:

were falling, although the monasteries continued to attract recruits right up to the end. Only a few monks and nuns lived in conspicuous luxury, but most were comfortably fed and housed by the standards of the time, and few orders demanded ascetic piety or religious observance. Only a minority of

2024:

This apparent consensus often faced strong resistance in practice. Members of religious houses proposed for dissolution might resist relocation; the houses invited to receive them might refuse to co-operate; and local notables might resist the disruption in their networks of influence. Reforming

3380:

for older scholars, these were commonly refounded with enhanced endowments; some by royal command in connection with the newly re-established cathedral churches, others by private initiative. Monastic orders had maintained, for the education of their members, six colleges at the universities of

3295:

had 600 books at the time of the dissolution. Only six of them are known to have survived intact to the present day. At the abbey of the Augustinian Friars at York, a library of 646 volumes was destroyed, leaving only three known survivors. Some books were destroyed for their precious bindings,

2971:

Once the new and re-founded cathedrals and other endowments had been provided for, the Crown became richer to the extent of around £150,000 (equivalent to £122,072,900 in 2023), per year, although around £50,000 (equivalent to £40,691,000 in 2023) of this was initially committed to fund

2618:

were transferred to the Court of Augmentations, who would pay out life pensions and fees at the agreed rate. Pensions averaged around £5 per annum before tax for monks, with those for superiors typically assessed at 10% of the net annual income of the house and were not reduced if the pensioner

2395:

The smaller houses identified for suppression were visited during 1536 by more local commissions, one for each county, charged with creating an inventory of assets and valuables, and empowered to obtain co-operation from monastic superiors by granting pensions or bribes. In practice, few houses

1819:

Alien priories with functioning communities were forced to pay large sums to the king, while mere estates were confiscated and run by royal officers, the proceeds going to the king's pocket. Such estates were a valuable source of income for the Crown in its French wars. Most of the larger alien

1208:

The verdict of unprejudiced historians at the present day would probably be—abstracting from all ideological considerations for or against monasticism—that there were far too many religious houses in existence in view of the widespread decline of the fervent monastic vocation, and that in every

2572:

The remaining monasteries required funds, partly to pay fines for exemption. During 1537 and 1538, there was a large increase in monastic lands and endowments being leased out, and in the offer of fee-paying offices and annuities in return for cash. By establishing long-term liabilities, these

2247:

and had ridiculed such monastic practices as repetitive formal religion, superstitious pilgrimages for the veneration of relics, and the accumulation of monastic wealth. Henry appears to have shared these views, never having endowed a religious house and only once having undertaken a religious

3144:

The dissolutions in Ireland followed a very different course from those in England and Wales. There were around 400 religious houses in Ireland in 1530—many more, relative to population and material wealth, than in England and Wales. In Ireland, the houses of friars had flourished in the 15th

2709:

King Henry's enthusiasm for creating new bishoprics was second to his passion for building fortifications. When an apparent alliance of France and the Holy Roman Empire against England was agreed at Toledo in January 1539, this precipitated a major invasion scare. Even though by midsummer the

1222:

continued until forcibly suppressed in England in 1538 by order of Henry VIII, but the dissolution resulted in few modifications to England's parish churches. The English religious reforms of the 1530s corresponded little with the movement by Protestant Reformers, and encountered much popular

2754:

None of the same legislation and visitation had applied to the houses of the friars. At the beginning of the 14th century there had been around 5,000 friars in England, occupying extensive complexes. There were still around 200 friaries in England at the dissolution. Except for the Observant

1179:

notwithstanding exceptional communities of genuine austere life and exemplary charity, the overwhelming majority of abbeys and priories were havens for idle drones, concerned only for their own existence, reserving for themselves an excessive share of the commonwealth's religious assets, and

2822:

retrospectively legalising acts of voluntary surrender and assuring tenants of their continued rights, but by then the vast majority of monasteries in England and Wales had already been dissolved or marked out for a future as a collegiate foundation. Some still resisted, and that autumn the

2252:

in 1511. From 1518, Thomas More was increasingly influential as a royal servant and counsellor, in the course of which his correspondence included strong condemnations of the idleness and vice in monastic life, alongside his equally vituperative attacks on Luther. Henry himself corresponded

2568:

The predominant academic opinion is that the extensive care taken to provide for monks and nuns from the suppressed houses to transfer demonstrates that monastic reform was still, at least in the mind of the King, the guiding principle. Further large-scale action against substandard richer

2559:

of 1536. This turn led to Henry increasingly associating monasticism with betrayal, as some of the spared religious houses in northern England (more or less willingly) sided with the rebels, while former monks resumed religious life in several of the suppressed houses. Clauses within the

2380:

of less than £200 (of which there were potentially 419) but also giving the King the discretion to exempt any of these houses from dissolution at his pleasure. All property of the dissolved house would revert to the Crown. Many monasteries falling below the threshold forwarded a case for

2086:), a treatise which declared that the monastic life had no scriptural basis, was pointless and also actively immoral, incompatible with the true spirit of Christianity. Luther also declared that monastic vows were meaningless and that no one should feel bound by them. Luther, a one-time 3264:, they had to maintain the fabric of the parish chancel. The existing rectors and vicars serving parish churches (formerly monastic property) were unaffected. However, in unclaimed canons' parish churches and chapels, the lay rector (as patron) was obliged to establish a stipend for a 1258:

for criminals; and reduced to two the number of church benefices that could in the future be held by one man. These Acts were meant to demonstrate that royal jurisdiction over the Church would ensure progress in "religious reformation" where papal authority had been insufficient.

3514:

There were rumors that the King would tax livestock and calves in addition to stripping parish churches. The rebels demanded that Cromwell be removed and that the monasteries remain untouched. Henry used promises to calm the unrest before swiftly beheading some of the leaders.

2670:. This change corresponded with ideas of a reformed future for monastic communities that had been a subject of debate and speculation amongst leading Benedictine abbots for decades, and sympathetic voices were being heard from a number of quarters in the late summer of 1538. 2705:

was presented to Parliament in May 1539, it was accompanied by an Act giving the King authority to establish new bishoprics and collegiate cathedral foundations. While the principle had been established, the numbers of successor colleges and cathedrals remained unspecified.

2689:, making extensive preparations to adopt statutes similar to those from Stoke-by-Clare, and expending substantial sums into moving shrines, relics and architectural fittings from the dissolved Castle Acre Priory into Thetford priory church. Cromwell himself proposed 3342:

Monasteries had also supplied free food and alms for the poor and destitute, and it has been argued that the removal of this and other charitable resources, amounting to about 5 per cent of net monastic income, was one of the factors in the creation of the army of

2333:, including those like the Cistercians previously exempted from episcopal oversight by papal dispensation, to instruct them in their duty to obey the King and reject papal authority. Cromwell delegated his visitation authority to hand-picked commissioners, chiefly 3509:

The Lincolnshire rising lasted less than a week but before its end their cause was carried across the county's northern border. Now, there were copycat musterings passing up through Yorkshire as far as Northumberland, and to the west as far as the gateway into

2730:, were re-founded as non-cathedral colleges. To the intense displeasure of Thomas Howard, Thetford was not spared, and was amongst the last houses to be dissolved in February 1540, while the Duke was out of the country on a hastily arranged embassy to France. 2283:. Under heavy threats, almost all religious houses joined the rest of the Church in acceding to the Royal Supremacy; and in swearing to uphold the validity of the King's divorce and remarriage. Opposition was concentrated in the houses of Carthusian monks, 1994:

to dissolve 20 other monasteries to provide an endowment for his new college. The remaining friars, monks and nuns were absorbed into other houses of their respective orders. Juries found the property of the houses to have reverted to the Crown as founder.

2634:, there was a second secular cathedral church in the same diocese, and both surrendered in 1539; but the other eight would necessarily need to continue in some form. It remained to determine what that form might be. A possible model was presented by the 2733:

Even late in 1538, Cromwell himself appears to have hoped that a select group of nunneries might be spared, where they were able to demonstrate both a high quality of regular observance and a commitment to the principles of religious reform. One was

3398:

It has been argued that the suppression of the English monasteries and nunneries contributed to the spreading decline of a contemplative spirituality which once thrived in Europe, with the occasional exception found only in groups such as the

3381:

Oxford or Cambridge, of which five survived as refoundations. Hospitals too were frequently to be re-endowed by private benefactors; and many new almshouses and charities were to be founded by the Elizabethan gentry and professional classes (

1305:

Donations and legacies had tended to go instead towards parish churches, university colleges, grammar schools and collegiate churches, which suggests greater public approbation. Levels of monastic debt were increasing, and average numbers of

1195:

tokens. The cult of relics was by no means specific to monasteries, but Erasmus was scandalised by the extent to which well-educated and highly regarded monks and nuns would participate in fraud (as he thought it) against gullible lay

2056:, facing financial and legal difficulties, petitioned the King as founder for assistance, only to find themselves dissolved arbitrarily. Rather than risk empanelling a jury, and with papal participation no longer being welcome, the 1839:; others were used for educational purposes. All these suppressions enjoyed papal approval but successive 15th-century popes continued to press for assurances that the confiscated monastic income would revert to religious uses. 2955:

where the local government agent was so determined that the monasteries should never be restored that he razed as many as he could to the ground. More often, the buildings have simply suffered from unroofing and neglect, or by

1315:

of the Divine Office. Even in houses with adequate numbers, the regular obligations of communal eating and shared living had not been fully enforced for centuries, as communities tended to sub-divide into a number of distinct

2661:

surrendered, adopting new collegiate statutes as secular priests along similar lines. The new foundation in Norwich provided for around half the number of clergies as had been monks in the former monastery, with a dean, five

972:, 142 nunneries and 183 friaries; some 12,000 people in total, 4,000 monks, 3,000 canons, 3,000 friars and 2,000 nuns. If the adult male population was 500,000, that meant that one adult man in fifty was in religious orders. 2758:

By early 1538, suppression of the friaries was widely being anticipated. In some houses, all friars save the prior had already left, and assets (standing timber, chalices, vestments) were being sold off. Cromwell deputed

2153:

pressured nuns to leave their monasteries and marry and followed up the next year by dissolving all monasteries in its territory, under the pretext of using their revenues to fund education and help the poor. The city of

1870:

The royal transfer of alien monastic estates to educational foundations inspired bishops and, as the 15th century waned, this practice was common. The subjects of these dissolutions were usually small, poor, and indebted

2121:

secured an edict of the Diet allowing him to confiscate any monastic lands he deemed necessary to increase royal revenues, and to allow the return of donated properties to the descendants of the donors. By the following

2274:

eliminated the right of clergy to appeal to "foreign tribunals" (Rome) over the King's head in any matter. All ecclesiastical charges and levies that had previously been payable to Rome would now go to the King. By the

908:

Though the policy was originally envisioned as a way to increase the regular income of the Crown, much former monastic property was sold off to fund Henry's military campaigns in the 1540s. Henry did this under the

1118:

and Ireland was directed from the king and high society. These changes were initially met with popular suspicion; on some occasions and in particular localities, there was active resistance to the royal programme.

947:

of England, is often considered the leader of the dissolution, he merely oversaw the project—he had hoped for reform, not eliminating the practice. The dissolution project was created by England's Lord Chancellor,

1127:

Dissatisfaction with regular religious life, and with the gross extent of monastic wealth, was near universal amongst late medieval secular and ecclesiastical rulers in the Latin West. Bernard says there was:

3547:, all refused and dispersed unpensioned. In less than 20 years, the monastic impulse had effectively been extinguished in England; and was only revived, even amongst Catholics, in the very different form of 3423:

falling vacant through the death of the incumbent priest. Consequently most newly ordained parish clergy could only expect to succeed to a benefice after many years as a Mass priest of low social standing.

3338:

in London (which still exists, though it took a different name between 1546 and 1948), were exempted by special royal dispensation but most closed, their residents being discharged with small pensions.

3333:

also provided for the suppression of religious hospitals, which had constituted in England a distinct class of institution, endowed for the purpose of caring for older people. Very few of these, such as

967:

The dissolution of the monasteries in the late 1530s was one of the most revolutionary events in English history. There were nearly 900 religious houses in England, around 260 for monks, 300 for regular

1859:

and some other circumstances the status of 'founder' would revert to the Crown—a procedure that many houses actively sought, as it might be advantageous in their legal dealings in the King's courts.

2349:, for the purposes of ascertaining the quality of religious life being maintained in religious houses, of assessing the prevalence of 'superstitious' religious observances such as the veneration of 2313:

In 1534, Cromwell undertook, on behalf of the King, an inventory of the endowments, liabilities and income of the entire ecclesiastical estate of England and Wales, including the monasteries (see

2907: 2886: 452: 2253:

continually with Erasmus, prompting him to be more explicit in his public rejection of the key tenets of Lutheranism and offering him church preferment should he wish to return to England.

3300:

was commissioned by the King to rescue items of particular interest (especially manuscript sources of Old English history), and other collections were made by private individuals, notably

1808:, conditional on all confiscated monastic property being redirected into other religious uses. The king's officers first sequestrated the assets of the alien priories in 1295–1303 under 3175:, An Augustinian priory founded in the 13th century, suppressed in 1603 and burned in 1653; but continually re-occupied and used for Catholic services, and re-roofed in the 20th century 2304:

All but a very few took it without demur. They were, after all, Englishmen, and shared the common prejudice of their contemporaries against the pretensions of foreign Italian prelates.

3003:, and these were unaffected. In addition, there remained over a hundred collegiate churches in England, whose endowments maintained regular choral worship through a corporate body of 1071:

The dissolution of the monasteries took place in the political context of other attacks on the ecclesiastical institutions of Western Catholicism. Many of these were related to the

2701:, and of "two or three in every shire of such remedy". By early 1539, the continuation of select great monasteries as collegiate refoundations had become an expectation. When the 3183:

to legalise the closure of monasteries. The process faced considerable opposition, and only sixteen houses were suppressed. Henry remained resolute, and from 1541 as part of the

5673: 3187:

he continued to press for more. For the most part, this involved making deals with local lords, under which monastic property was granted away in exchange for allegiance to the

1045:

in England, disposed of about half of all ecclesiastical income, and owned around a quarter of the nation's landed wealth. An English medieval proverb said that if the abbot of

2090:, found some comfort when these views had a dramatic effect: a special meeting of the German province of his order held the same year voted that henceforth every member of the 2906:

The local commissioners were instructed to ensure that, where portions of abbey churches were also used by local parishes or congregations, this use should continue. Parts of

148: 1753:

By the time Henry VIII turned to monastery reform, royal action to suppress religious houses had a history of more than 200 years. The first case was that of the so-called '

2169:

In France and Scotland, by contrast, royal action to seize monastic income proceeded along entirely different lines. In both countries, the practice of nominating abbacies

2722:. The scale of the proposed new foundations was drastically cut back. In the end, six abbeys were raised to be cathedrals of new dioceses, and only two more major abbeys, 2297:. The Syon nuns, being strictly enclosed, escaped sanction at this stage, the personal compliance of the abbess being taken as sufficient for the government's purposes. 1734: 445: 5562: 2939:, which had flourished as pilgrimage sites for many centuries, were soon reduced to ruins. However, the tales of widespread mob action resulting in destruction and 1041:

from parish churches under the founder's patronage. As a consequence, religious houses in the 16th century controlled appointment to about two-fifths of all parish

4659: 1783:, successive English governments objected to money going overseas to France. They also objected to foreign prelates having jurisdiction over English monasteries. 198: 5869: 5864: 3584: 2052:

any action that impinged on monasteries with substantial assets might be expected to be contested by a range of influential claimants. In 1532, the priory of

1867:. This, with royal agreement claiming 'foundership', would be presented to an 'empanelled jury' for consent to use of the property of the house in civil law. 1459: 438: 1831:

The properties were taken over by the Crown; some were kept, some were given or sold to Henry's supporters, others were assigned to his new monasteries of

1396: 1132:

widespread concern in the later 15th and early 16th centuries about the condition of the monasteries. A leading figure here is the scholar and theologian

5213: 4693: 3271:

It is unlikely that the monastic system could have been broken simply by royal action, had there not been the overwhelming bait of enhanced status for

1209:

country the monks possessed too much of wealth and of the sources of production both for their own well-being and for the material good of the economy.

981: 659: 2361: 5588: 3194:

By the time of Henry's death (1547) around half of the Irish houses had been suppressed, but many continued to resist dissolution until the reign of

1087:

confessions of faith (Ireland being the only major exception). They continued in states that remained Catholic, and new community orders such as the

5663: 1294:'s visitors to the monasteries may have been exaggerated but the religious houses of England and Wales—with the notable exceptions of those of the 365: 3050: 2454: 49: 1141:. Pastoral care was seen as much more important and vital than the monastic focus on contemplation, prayer and performance of the daily office. 1019:. The overwhelming majority of the 625 monastic communities dissolved by Henry VIII had developed in the wave of monastic enthusiasm that swept 4353: 4185: 1727: 2321:), for the purpose of assessing the Church's taxable value, through local commissioners who reported in May 1535. At the same time, Henry had 1068:, were supported financially by donations from the faithful, while ideally being self-sufficient and raising extensive urban kitchen gardens. 4973: 4700: 3101: 2555:

The first round of suppressions initially aroused popular discontent, especially in Lincolnshire and Yorkshire where many contributed to the

2505: 779: 96: 1879:

communities (especially those of women) with few powerful friends; the great abbeys and orders exempt from diocesan supervision such as the

4652: 3073: 2588:

surrender rather than through a systematic statutory dissolution. One Abbey whose monks had been implicated in the Pilgrimage of Grace was

2477: 1612: 68: 3390:

percent of England, with tens of thousands of tenant farmers working those lands, some of whom had family ties to a particular monastery.

3279:

was a familiar feature of late medieval Europe, producing its own strain of satiric literature that was aimed at a literate middle class.

5947: 5246: 4739: 152: 4596: 5628: 4927: 3477:

The dissolution and destruction of the monasteries and shrines was very unpopular in many areas. In the north of England, centering on

1554: 3080: 2484: 75: 19:

This article is about the specific act by King Henry VIII of England. For the general phenomenon, in various countries and times, see

5942: 2674: 2061: 1720: 1509: 1340: 1064:, for the most part, were concentrated in urban areas. Unlike monasteries, friaries had no income-bearing endowments; the friars, as 949: 3256:

On the dissolution these spiritual income streams were sold off on the same basis as landed endowments, creating a new class of lay

1768:, agricultural estates with a single foreign monk in residence to supervise; others were rich foundations in their own right (e.g., 5381: 3330: 2853:, the abbey endowments were transferred alongside him directly into those of the bishops. The last two abbeys to be dissolved were 2819: 2702: 2422: 2371: 1311:

houses could now support the twelve or thirteen professed religious usually regarded as the minimum necessary to maintain the full

933: 929: 759: 4506: 3239:(right to appoint) a benefice with the legal obligation to maintain the cure of souls in the parish, originally by nominating the 1079:. By the end of the 16th century, monasticism had almost entirely disappeared from those European states whose rulers had adopted 391: 5922: 4645: 299: 3087: 2491: 386: 381: 82: 5075: 5017: 2195:

authority to nominate almost all abbots and conventual priors in France. Around 80 per cent of French abbacies came to be held

230: 2849:

in Norfolk was the only abbey in England which escaped formal dissolution. As the last abbot had been appointed to the see of

4474: 4438: 4241: 4161: 3447:, first chancellor of the Court of Augmentations, established to manage the endowments of former monasteries and pay pensions 2267: 1700: 918: 853: 2101:

News spread among Protestant-minded rulers across Europe, and some, particularly in Scandinavia, moved very quickly. In the

5932: 5927: 4885: 4781: 3069: 2473: 2158:

followed suit in 1529, and Geneva adopted the same policy in 1530. An attempt was also made in 1530 to dissolve the famous

1597: 225: 64: 5747: 5645: 5532: 4622: 4573:

Barbara Harvey; a detailed survey of the dissolution process at Westminster, in the context of overall government policy.

3308:

A great nombre of them whych purchased those supertycyous mansyons, resrved of those lybrarye bokes, some to serve theyr

3304:. Nevertheless, much was lost, especially manuscript books of English church music, none of which had then been printed. 2266:

On famously failing to receive from the Pope a declaration of nullity regarding his marriage, Henry had himself declared

2183:; and although such arrangements were nominally temporary, commendatory abbacies often continued long-term. Then, by the 1549: 1391: 1224: 1008: 767: 289: 3179:

Henry was determined to carry through a policy of dissolution in Ireland—and in 1537 he introduced legislation into the

2270:

in February 1531, and instigated a programme of legislation to establish this Royal Supremacy in law. In April 1533, an

5937: 5785: 5087: 4838: 2682: 1917: 1890: 1254:

for the probate of wills and mortuary expenses for burial in hallowed ground; tightened regulations covering rights of

813: 756: 2391:

in Oxfordshire; a smaller house with a net income below £200-year, dissolved in 1536 and purchased for a parish church

4917: 4419: 4379: 4316: 3437:

standing. Through intermarriage of one another's children, this social group became substantially self-perpetuating.

3120: 2631: 2524: 1705: 1632: 748: 569: 520: 294: 174: 115: 3833: 3058: 2462: 5688: 5168: 5058: 1812:, and the pattern repeated for long periods over the course of the 14th century, most particularly in the reign of 1478: 1348: 775: 3543:

Westminster to remain in place with restored pensions if they took the Oath of Supremacy and conformed to the new

3235:

About a quarter of net monastic wealth consisted of "spiritual" income arising where the religious house held the

1183:

the monasteries, almost without exception, were deeply involved in promoting and profiting from the veneration of

1023:

in the 11th and 12th centuries. Few had been founded later than the end of the 13th century; the youngest was the

309: 5183: 5107: 4727: 4705: 3335: 3203: 2123: 1975: 1955:

in 1506) to fund her works at Oxford and Cambridge. She was advised in this action by the staunch traditionalist

1169: 633: 156: 3312:, some to scoure candelstyckes, and some to rubbe their bootes. Some they solde to the grossers and soapsellers. 5041: 4688: 4680: 4668: 4601: 3595: 3403:("Quakers"). This may be set against the retained and newly established cathedrals of the daily singing of the 3054: 2828: 2811: 2742:, whose abbess, Lady Katherine Bulkeley, was one whom Cromwell had personally promoted. Godstow was invaded by 2458: 1423: 1418: 1092: 53: 3710: 5717: 5296: 5271: 4880: 4527: 2776: 1886: 771: 554: 4607: 3347:" that plagued late Tudor England, part of the social instability that led to the Edwardian and Elizabethan 3094: 3012: 2498: 1007:

At the time of their suppression, only some English and Welsh religious houses could trace their origins to

89: 5757: 5276: 5266: 4722: 4591: 4512: 3400: 2220: 1647: 1569: 1486: 1446: 1433: 1386: 797: 5722: 5092: 4865: 4306: 3433: 2960: 2836: 2796: 2271: 426: 416: 2288:

houses of the Observant Friars were handed over to the mainstream Franciscan order; the friars from the

2064:, recommended that dissolution should be legalised retrospectively through a special act of Parliament. 1824:), on payment of heavy fines and bribes, but for around 90 smaller houses, their fates were sealed when 1761:, some French religious orders held substantial property through their daughter monasteries in England. 905:; seized their wealth; disposed of their assets; and provided for their former personnel and functions. 5731: 4756: 4580: 3579: 3522:, succeeded to the throne in 1553, her hopes for a revival of English religious life proved a failure. 3453: 2991:

so, with former monastic parts now walled off and derelict. Most parish churches had been endowed with

2788: 2583:

in Cumbria; dissolved in 1537 and the first of the larger houses to be dissolved by voluntary surrender

1176:; and elevated man-made monastic rules for religious life above the God-given teachings of the Gospels; 1034:

Typically, 11th and 12th-century founders endowed monastic houses with revenue from landed estates and

345: 20: 3670: 3011:

or priests. All these survived the reign of Henry VIII largely intact, only to be dissolved under the

2094:

should be free to renounce their vows, resign their offices, and marry. At Luther's home monastery in

5790: 5492: 4803: 3184: 1979: 1524: 1000: 846: 727: 2869:

in Norfolk (dissolved 16 February 1540). It was not until April 1540 that the cathedral priories of

1168:

in withdrawing from the world into their own communal life, they elevated man-made monastic vows of

5623: 5198: 4715: 3165:. Outside this area, he could only proceed by tactical agreement with clan chiefs and local lords. 3039: 2443: 2276: 2011: 1937: 1921: 1894: 1800:

After 1378, French monasteries (and alien priories dependent on them) maintained allegiance to the

1695: 1564: 1381: 1153: 996: 752: 594: 532: 314: 304: 3538:

allowing the new owners to retain the former monastic lands, and in return Parliament enacted the

2697:, the evangelical bishop of Worcester, wrote to Cromwell in 1538 to plead for the continuation of 2223:. Henry appears to have been much more influenced by the opinions on monasticism of the humanists 2219:, who had been employed by Wolsey in his monastic suppressions, and who would become Henry VIII's 2215:

It is inconceivable that these moves went unnoticed by the English government and particularly by

5241: 5097: 4824: 4389: 3297: 3261: 3240: 3043: 2447: 2365:

Altarpiece fragments (late 1300 – early 1400) destroyed during the dissolution, mid-16th century.

2338: 2149:

In Switzerland, too, monasteries were under threat. In 1523, the government of the city-state of

2003:

making monastic income available for more productive religious, educational and social purposes.

1201: 651: 411: 247: 237: 42: 3198:, and some houses in the West of Ireland remained active until the early 17th century. In 1649, 143:

may contain an excessive amount of intricate detail that may interest only a particular audience

5712: 5598: 5311: 2397: 2142: 1944: 1844: 1529: 1239:; but any momentum towards Protestantism stalled when Henry VIII expressed his support for the 1115: 910: 273: 4570: 3260:, who became entitled to patronage, and the income from tithes and glebe lands. Though as lay 2967:

in Wiltshire, an Augustinian nunnery converted into an aristocratic mansion and country estate

2006: 1060:

in England and Wales constituted a second distinct wave of monastic zeal in the 13th century.

5608: 5593: 5306: 5163: 5070: 4870: 4853: 4766: 4710: 4335: 3574: 3544: 3429: 3360: 3180: 2932: 2792: 2715: 2384: 2322: 2114: 1987: 1851:, and could consequently be bought and sold, in which case the purchaser would be called the 1680: 1514: 1504: 928:

the previous year. The monasteries were dissolved by two Acts of Parliament, those being the

914: 809: 805: 618: 598: 585: 563: 550: 512: 421: 401: 396: 252: 5658: 3489:, that threatened the Crown for some weeks. In 1536, there were major, popular uprisings in 3415:

or other institutions dedicated to training men as parish clergy. An aspiring candidate for

3287:

Along with the destruction of the monasteries, some centuries old, the destruction of their

5840: 5835: 5830: 5825: 5820: 5815: 5810: 5805: 5800: 5767: 5694: 5537: 5497: 5316: 5218: 5193: 5132: 4937: 4912: 4848: 4531: 3569: 3404: 3253:

possession either from among their own number, or from secular priests removable at will.

3168: 2870: 2858: 2784: 2743: 2710:

immediate danger had passed, Henry still demanded from Cromwell unprecedented sums for the

2698: 2678: 2326: 2316: 2284: 2207:

appropriated by higher ecclesiastical institutions exceeded 85 per cent, in 1532 the young

2184: 2053: 1999: 1929: 1909: 1905: 1637: 1494: 1299: 1107: 839: 801: 707: 663: 508: 485: 469: 406: 360: 340: 242: 2576: 268: 8: 5889: 5613: 5603: 5552: 5410: 5396: 5256: 4998: 4761: 3548: 3486: 3386: 3382: 3292: 3146: 2874: 2846: 2843:, their houses being dissolved and their monks receiving a basic pension of £4 per year. 2556: 2549: 2410: 2192: 2134:, from which the last nuns emigrated in 1595, about half a century after the Reduction. 1960: 1685: 1499: 1410: 1307: 1240: 1038: 1020: 1012: 829: 671: 647: 528: 2243:(1516). Erasmus and More promoted ecclesiastical reform while remaining faithful to the 1145: 5901: 5678: 5447: 5371: 5339: 5158: 5127: 4964: 4952: 4813: 4751: 4347: 4268: 4179: 3976: 3589: 3535: 3188: 3172: 2541: 2239: 2233: 2138: 2118: 1825: 1821: 1577: 1559: 1454: 1441: 1356: 1149: 1138: 1133: 1076: 902: 898: 763: 743: 558: 500: 220: 5467: 4151: 3351:. This argument has been disputed, for example, by G. W. O. Woodward, who summarises: 1164:

Erasmus had made a threefold criticism of the monks and nuns of his day, saying that:

5847: 5752: 5527: 5513: 5487: 5472: 5376: 5361: 5291: 5281: 5150: 5082: 4983: 4947: 4843: 4597:

Dissolution of the Monasteries and historical records of some of the abbeys dissolved

4543: 4470: 4444: 4434: 4415: 4375: 4312: 4272: 4237: 4215: 4167: 4157: 3523: 3348: 3249: 2936: 2928: 2780: 2690: 2658: 2635: 2561: 2163: 2159: 2087: 1952: 1925: 1901: 1050: 1046: 960: 723: 683: 546: 504: 495: 355: 204: 4251:

Carley, James P. (December 1997). "Marks in Books and the Libraries of Henry VIII".

3665: 2979: 874:, was the set of administrative and legal processes between 1536 and 1541, by which 5737: 5542: 5522: 5442: 5427: 5326: 5228: 5102: 4942: 4900: 4895: 4875: 4858: 4771: 4493: 4260: 4211: 3276: 3265: 2924: 2760: 2388: 2280: 1983: 1790: 1660: 1642: 1602: 1290:

The stories of monastic impropriety, vice, and excess that were to be collected by

1263: 715: 629: 625: 524: 516: 350: 5795: 5762: 5706: 5700: 5557: 5462: 5366: 5178: 4672: 4637: 3982: 3224: 3199: 3154: 3150: 2943:

partly confuses the looting spree of the 1530s with the vandalism wrought by the

2920: 2866: 2768: 2764: 2686: 2651: 2350: 2346: 2244: 2216: 2057: 1967: 1933: 1765: 1758: 1690: 1312: 1291: 1279: 1246: 1184: 1016: 940: 925: 879: 732: 2626:

The future of the ten monastic cathedrals came into question. For two of these,

1998:

The conventional wisdom of the time was that the proper daily observance of the

5858: 5683: 5477: 5452: 5416: 5356: 5349: 5344: 5334: 5188: 5173: 5112: 4988: 4978: 4734: 4264: 3987: 3983:"The Annual RPI and Average Earnings for Britain, 1209 to Present (New Series)" 3461: 3377: 3301: 3245: 3004: 3000: 2973: 2727: 2643: 2334: 2131: 2091: 1805: 1801: 1655: 1519: 1428: 1271:

function of a Supreme Head empowered by statute "to visit, extirp and redress".

969: 783: 719: 703: 699: 695: 675: 621: 5051: 4631: 4171: 5916: 5742: 5668: 5634: 5618: 5578: 5261: 5236: 5012: 4922: 4907: 4829: 4613: 4448: 4289: 3527: 3457: 3344: 3257: 2862: 2832: 2639: 2580: 2401: 2110: 2073: 1913: 1848: 1464: 1275: 1232: 573: 4576: 2861:, on 23 March 1540, and several priories also survived into 1540, including 155:

any relevant information, and removing excessive detail that may be against

5852: 5727: 5583: 5547: 5286: 5208: 5052: 4798: 4793: 4788: 4776: 3531: 3490: 3482: 3444: 2983: 2964: 2952: 2912: 2800: 2723: 2711: 2694: 2663: 2405: 2342: 2198: 2048: 1971: 1948: 1876: 1836: 1794: 1769: 1754: 1748: 1228: 953: 711: 613: 602: 589: 3464:

objected to the provision of the new cathedrals with complete chapters of

3291:

was perhaps the greatest cultural loss caused by the English Reformation.

5653: 5482: 5457: 5432: 5405: 5392: 5301: 5203: 4890: 4301: 3195: 2947:

in the next century against the Anglican privileges. Woodward concludes:

2916: 2902:

in Yorkshire, Benedictine abbey, purchased by the town as a parish church

2899: 2806: 2667: 2330: 2228: 2127: 1956: 1880: 1872: 1780: 1773: 1236: 1188: 1180:

contributing little or nothing to the spiritual needs of ordinary people;

1072: 1024: 691: 577: 477: 335: 2887:

List of English abbeys, priories and friaries serving as parish churches

5437: 5022: 4363:

The Last Days of the Lancashire Monasteries and the Pilgrimage of Grace

3564: 3416: 3140:, a Franciscan Friary built in the 15th century and suppressed in 1541 3137: 2940: 2854: 2803:). Almost all other friaries have disappeared with few visible traces. 2627: 2294: 2249: 2188: 2095: 2041: 1991: 1832: 1813: 1607: 1295: 1286:

in Spirituals; created the administrative machinery for the dissolution

1283: 1250: 1065: 1028: 986: 944: 875: 667: 581: 3275:, and the convictions of the small but determined Protestant faction. 4202:

Bernard, G. W. (October 2011). "The Dissolution of the Monasteries".

3494: 3478: 3420: 3376:

and sometimes other younger scholars. Where monasteries had provided

2992: 2719: 2545: 2289: 2173: 2166:

in its own right, but this failed, and St. Gall survived until 1798.

1864: 1856: 1365: 1255: 1099: 1084: 882: 687: 3372:

members, which in the later medieval period had tended to extend to

3191:. Henry acquired little (if any) of the wealth of the Irish houses. 3028: 2537: 2432: 2179:

non-monastic ecclesiastic, commonly a bishop or member of the Papal

2150: 1098:

The religious and political changes in England under Henry VIII and

31: 5896: 5251: 5005: 4993: 4225:

The Dissolution of the Religious Orders in Ireland under Henry VIII

3412: 3309: 3236: 3158: 2944: 2895: 2409:

canons of Hexham, who made the mistake of becoming involved in the

2036: 2032: 1809: 1156:; Renaissance humanist and influential critic of religious orders. 1080: 1061: 1042: 894: 3796: 3219: 3133: 1786: 5508: 5122: 4744: 4045: 3552: 3498: 3465: 3288: 3008: 2996: 2850: 2840: 2735: 2647: 2589: 2224: 2208: 2104: 1192: 1173: 1103: 1088: 890: 824: 2986:

in Yorkshire, surviving parochial nave and ruined monastic choir

5674:

Pope Pius XII 1942 consecration to the Immaculate Heart of Mary

5117: 5027: 4932: 3539: 3519: 3369: 3272: 3162: 2739: 2611: 1852: 1219: 1157: 1111: 1102:

were of a different nature from those taking place in Germany,

1035: 886: 4365:. Manchester: Manchester University Press for Chetham Society. 3440: 1793:

in Somerset. An alien priory dissolved in 1414 and granted to

1779:

Owing to frequent wars between England and France in the late

1200:

Summarising the state of monastic life across Western Europe,

4118: 3373: 2824: 2615: 2594: 2204: 2180: 2155: 1966:

In 1522, Fisher himself dissolved the women's monasteries of

1057: 4431:

Heretics and Believers: A History of the English Reformation

3880: 3878: 2927:

was not spared. Great abbeys and priories like Glastonbury,

1053:, their heir would have more land than the king of England. 3813: 655: 4048:'s Pardoner and other Chaucerian anticlerical satire, see 3740: 2646:, had recast the college statutes away from the saying of 2610:

The endowments of landed property and appropriated parish

16:

1536–1541 disbanding of religious residences by Henry VIII

5563:

Dechristianization of France during the French Revolution

4586: 3926: 3914: 3890: 3875: 3863: 3456:, and Christ Church, Oxford; and the maritime charity of 2814:, with the execution of the abbot shown in the background 4634:(1763–1835), Letter VI. Confiscation of the Monasteries. 4632:

The Protestant Reformation in England by William Cobbett

4106: 4082: 3691: 3681: 3679: 3613: 3611: 207:, dissolved in 1539 following the execution of the abbot 4533:

The Dissolution of the Monasteries in England and Wales

2976:(1603–1625), more than 60 years after the dissolution. 2040:

courts, if aggrieved monks and nuns obtained a writ of

4094: 4026: 4014: 4002: 3952: 3902: 3851: 3585:

List of monasteries dissolved by Henry VIII of England

3296:

others were sold off by the cartload. The antiquarian

2951:

There was no general policy of destruction, except in

5594:

Dogma of the Immaculate Conception of the Virgin Mary

4282:

Wealth and Society in Early Sixteenth-Century England

4143:

Reliker och mirakel. Den heliga Birgitta och Vadstena

3776: 3764: 3752: 3676: 3623: 3608: 4253:

The Papers of the Bibliographical Society of America

4195:

English Monks and the Suppression of the Monasteries

4058: 3635: 3592:, a children's rhyme allegedly based on the episode. 2261: 4624:

Dissolution of the monasteries in England 1536–1541

4234:

Early Modern England 1485–1714: a narrative history

4145:(in Swedish). Stockholm: Wahlström & Widstrand. 3728: 2791:remain standing (although the London church of the 1282:by Hans Holbein: Chief Minister for Henry VIII and 1231:, containing some terminology and ideas drawn from 56:. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. 4667: 4542: 4070: 2877:were transformed into secular cathedral chapters. 2356: 1243:, which remained in effect until after his death. 4486:English Monasteries on the Eve of the Dissolution 4372:Studies in the Early History of Shaftesbury Abbey 4311:. New Haven, Connecticut: Yale University Press. 4153:The Dissolution of the Monasteries: A New History 2693:(once purged of its "superstitious" shrine), and 2657:In May 1538, the monastic cathedral community of 5914: 5664:Persecutions of the Catholic Church and Pius XII 4197:. New Haven, Connecticut: Yale University Press. 4052:Complaint and Satire in Early English Literature 2650:masses and towards preaching, observance of the 2642:, where, in 1535 the evangelically minded Dean, 2416: 2308: 1776:and answered to the abbot of the French house). 4140: 3971: 3969: 3967: 3819: 3647: 3485:, the suppression led to a popular rising, the 3368:Monasteries had undertaken schooling for their 2923:destroyed or dispersed. Even the crypt of King 2601: 2047:The King actively supported Wolsey, Fisher and 1804:. Their suppression was supported by the rival 1331: 3801:. Melchior Lotter d.J. / World Digital Library 2031:) and received other regular cash rewards and 4653: 4236:(2nd ed.). Chichester: Wiley-Blackwell. 2865:in Yorkshire (dissolved 29 January 1540) and 2102: 1828:dissolved them by act of Parliament in 1414. 1728: 847: 446: 4571:The Dissolution and Westminster Abbey (2007) 4508:Extents of Irish Monastic possessions 1540–1 4405:. Vol. III. Cambridge University Press. 4309:: Traditional Religion in England, 1400–1580 3964: 1978:. That same year, Cardinal Wolsey dissolved 1613:History of the Puritans under King Charles I 4492: 4396:. Vol. II. Cambridge University Press. 4192: 3746: 3057:. Unsourced material may be challenged and 2544:in Yorkshire; dissolved in 1537 due to the 2461:. Unsourced material may be challenged and 2375: 2314: 2196: 2170: 2077: 2026: 5679:Dogma of the Assumption of the Virgin Mary 5629:Prayer of Consecration to the Sacred Heart 4660: 4646: 4409: 4352:: CS1 maint: location missing publisher ( 4328:Reading and Writing During the Dissolution 4231: 4184:: CS1 maint: location missing publisher ( 4141:Andersson, Erika; Jörälv, Lennart (2003). 4124: 3932: 3920: 3896: 3884: 3869: 3501:the following year. James Clark claims in 3411:In the medieval church, there had been no 3364:Lost monastic houses in the City of London 3356:and latter parts of the sixteenth century. 3293:Worcester Priory (now Worcester Cathedral) 1820:priories became naturalised (for instance 1735: 1721: 1555:History of the Puritans under King James I 1355: 854: 840: 453: 439: 3979:inflation figures are based on data from 3943: 3941: 3121:Learn how and when to remove this message 2880: 2525:Learn how and when to remove this message 2067: 1510:History of the Puritans under Elizabeth I 1266:remarked in his biography of Henry VIII: 175:Learn how and when to remove this message 116:Learn how and when to remove this message 4540: 4526: 4428: 4284:. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. 4279: 4222: 4100: 3958: 3857: 3834:"Erasmus and the Second Vatican Council" 3831: 3794: 3734: 3697: 3439: 3359: 3331:Suppression of Religious Houses Act 1539 3218: 3167: 3145:century, attracting popular support and 3132: 2978: 2959: 2894: 2805: 2575: 2536: 2423:Suppression of Religious Houses Act 1535 2383: 2372:Suppression of Religious Houses Act 1535 2360: 2231:, especially as found in Erasmus's work 2130:, where the last nuns died in 1582, and 2005: 1900:The resources were transferred often to 1885: 1785: 1274: 1172:above the God-given vows of sacramental 1144: 980: 4554: 4400: 4388: 4334: 4296:(2nd ed.). London: B. T. Batsford. 4288: 4201: 4032: 4020: 4008: 3782: 3770: 3758: 3685: 3641: 3629: 3617: 3324: 2548:of the prior for treason following the 2293:imprisoned were Bridgettine monks from 1893:; dissolved in 1496 and converted into 300:Christianisation of Anglo-Saxon England 5915: 4483: 4464: 4455: 4340:Henry VIII and the English Monasteries 4250: 4076: 4064: 3947: 3938: 3798:On Monastic Vows – De votis monasticis 3214: 4641: 4504: 4374:. Dorchester: Dorset County Council. 4360: 4325: 4300: 4227:. London: Cambridge University Press. 4149: 4112: 4088: 4049: 3980: 3908: 3518:When Henry VIII's Catholic daughter, 2749: 2268:Supreme Head of the Church of England 4433:. New Haven: Yale University Press. 4369: 3832:Cummings, Thomas (17 October 2016). 3653: 3055:adding citations to reliable sources 3022: 2459:adding citations to reliable sources 2426: 1908:colleges: instances of this include 1598:Arminianism in the Church of England 1095:emerged alongside the older orders. 422:Disestablishment of the Welsh Church 402:Disestablishment of the Irish Church 226:Catholic Church in England and Wales 127: 54:adding citations to reliable sources 25: 5533:Suppression of the Society of Jesus 4458:The Library: An Illustrated History 3282: 3268:effectively from their own income. 2818:In April 1539, Parliament passed a 1855:. Like any other real property, in 1392:Convocations of Canterbury and York 1262:The monasteries were next in line. 1227:adopted and Parliament enacted the 952:, and Court of Augmentations head, 13: 5948:History of Christianity in Ireland 5088:Archbasilica of Saint John Lateran 4619:Suppression of English Monasteries 4557:The Dissolution of the Monasteries 4551:Concentrates on England and Wales. 4545:The Dissolution of the Monasteries 3503:The Dissolution of the Monasteries 2683:Thomas Howard, 3rd Duke of Norfolk 2300:G. W. O. Woodward concluded that: 2098:all the friars, save one, did so. 1223:hostility when they did. In 1536, 870:, occasionally referred to as the 814:North American Anglican Conference 14: 5959: 4564: 4500:. University of California Press. 2262:Declaration as Head of the Church 1951:(whose religious had all died of 1706:History of the Anglican Communion 1633:History of the Puritans from 1649 295:Christianity in Medieval Scotland 5943:Christian monasteries in Ireland 5895: 5883: 5214:Fourth Council of Constantinople 5169:Second Council of Constantinople 4549:. London: Pitkin Pictorials Ltd. 4536:. Sheffield: Equinox Publishing. 4232:Bucholz, R. O.; Key, N. (2009). 4216:10.1111/j.1468-229X.2011.00526.x 3070:"Dissolution of the monasteries" 3027: 2679:Colchester and St Osyth's Priory 2593:with the voluntary surrender of 2474:"Dissolution of the monasteries" 2431: 2014:, founded in 1155 and destroyed 1349:History of the Church of England 823: 484: 197: 132: 65:"Dissolution of the monasteries" 30: 5184:Third Council of Constantinople 5108:First Council of Constantinople 4469:. Malvern: Folly Publications. 4403:The Religious Orders in England 4394:The Religious Orders in England 4134: 4038: 3825: 3788: 3209: 3157:, only extended to the area of 2357:Reports and further visitations 2124:Reduction of Gustav I of Sweden 1918:St Radegund's Priory, Cambridge 1891:St Radegund's Priory, Cambridge 1170:poverty, chastity and obedience 660:Medieval cathedral architecture 634:First seven ecumenical councils 290:Early Christian Ireland 400–800 41:needs additional citations for 5923:Dissolution of the Monasteries 5423:Dissolution of the monasteries 4689:History of the Catholic Church 4592:Dissolution of the Monasteries 4577:Dissolution of the Monasteries 4488:. Oxford: The Clarendon Press. 4193:Baskerville, Geoffrey (1937). 3703: 3659: 3596:Religion in the United Kingdom 2681:as a possible future college. 1479:Elizabethan Church (1558–1603) 1424:Dissolution of the Monasteries 872:suppression of the monasteries 868:dissolution of the monasteries 680:Dissolution of the monasteries 407:Religion in Scotland - present 387:19th century Church of England 382:18th century Church of England 366:Puritanism and the Restoration 331:Dissolution of the monasteries 1: 5297:Fourth Council of the Lateran 5272:Second Council of the Lateran 4881:Apostles in the New Testament 4410:MacCulloch, Diarmaid (2018). 4330:. Cambridge University Press. 3601: 2767:and former Provincial of the 2654:, and children's education. 2417:Initial round of suppressions 2309:Visitation of the monasteries 2015: 1122: 989: 772:Anglican Consultative Council 521:Chicago–Lambeth Quadrilateral 374:Eighteenth century to present 269:Christianity in Roman Britain 5411:Catholic Counter-Reformation 5277:Third Council of the Lateran 5267:First Council of the Lateran 4723:Catholic ecumenical councils 4628:on website The History Notes 4513:Irish Manuscripts Commission 3336:Saint Bartholomew's Hospital 3202:led a Parliamentary army to 2685:and Lord Treasurer proposed 2602:Second round of dissolutions 1976:St John's College, Cambridge 1550:James I and religious issues 1387:Religion in Medieval England 1332:Precedents for confiscations 924:. He had broken from Rome's 798:Continuing Anglican movement 794:Other Anglican Denominations 757:Anglican Communion Primates' 157:Knowledge's inclusion policy 7: 5933:Anti-Catholicism in Ireland 5928:Anti-Catholicism in England 4361:Haigh, Christopher (1969). 4307:The Stripping of the Altars 3820:Andersson & Jörälv 2003 3795:Lutherus, Martinus (1521). 3558: 3472: 3434:Emmanuel College, Cambridge 3393: 2837:hanged, drawn and quartered 2812:St John's Abbey, Colchester 2272:Act in Restraint of Appeals 2162:, which was a state of the 1986:) to form the basis of his 1916:dissolving the Benedictine 1591:Caroline period (1625–1649) 1543:Jacobean period (1603–1625) 427:Church of Scotland Act 1921 274:Legend of Christ in Britain 10: 5964: 4757:History of the Roman Curia 4559:. London: Allen and Unwin. 4505:White, Newport B. (1943). 4484:Savine, Alexander (1909). 4265:10.1086/pbsa.91.4.24304797 4223:Bradshaw, Brendan (1974). 4054:. Oxford: Clarendon Press. 3580:Dissolution (Sansom novel) 3454:Trinity College, Cambridge 3018: 2884: 2789:Greyfriars Church, Reading 2777:St. Andrew's Hall, Norwich 2420: 2256: 2010:A portion of the ruins of 1943:In the following century, 1746: 1213: 976: 749:Anglican Communion history 392:Church of England (recent) 346:Wars of the Three Kingdoms 21:Suppression of monasteries 18: 5938:Anti-Catholicism in Wales 5878: 5778: 5644: 5571: 5506: 5493:European wars of religion 5390: 5325: 5227: 5149: 5040: 4963: 4823: 4812: 4804:Eastern Catholic Churches 4679: 4541:Woodward, G.W.O. (1974). 4467:Medieval English Friaries 4280:Cornwall, J.C.K. (1988). 3185:Tudor conquest of Ireland 1947:obtained the property of 1936:in Hampshire in 1484 for 1001:Thyssen-Bornemisza Museum 5624:Mary of the Divine Heart 5247:Clash against the empire 5199:Second Council of Nicaea 5093:Old St. Peter's Basilica 4429:Marshall, Peter (2017). 4150:Clark, James G. (2021). 3497:and a further rising in 2795:continued in use by the 2277:Submission of the Clergy 2113:in 1527, initiating the 1990:; in 1524, he secured a 1938:Magdalen College, Oxford 1922:Jesus College, Cambridge 1895:Jesus College, Cambridge 1696:Disestablishmentarianism 1565:Hampton Court Conference 1382:Anglo-Saxon Christianity 1218:Pilgrimages to monastic 997:Hans Holbein the Younger 922:of the Church in England 917:in 1534, which made him 753:Archbishop of Canterbury 315:Hiberno-Scottish mission 305:Anglo-Saxon Christianity 5890:Vatican City portal 5242:Investiture Controversy 5098:First Council of Nicaea 4456:Murray, Stuart (2009). 4412:Thomas Cromwell: A Life 4401:Knowles, David (1959). 4370:Keen, Laurence (1999). 4342:(8th ed.). London. 4326:Erler, Mary.C. (2013). 4294:The English Reformation 3981:Clark, Gregory (2017). 3671:Encyclopædia Britannica 2857:, in January 1540, and 2799:until destroyed in the 2640:Stoke-by-Clare, Suffolk 2325:authorise Cromwell to " 2146:former monastic lands. 1835:and the Carthusians at 1411:Reformation (1509–1559) 1397:Development of dioceses 1015:foundations before the 830:Christianity portal 652:Augustine of Canterbury 417:1904–1905 Welsh Revival 412:Welsh Methodist revival 190:History of Christianity 5902:Catholicism portal 5713:Second Vatican Council 5599:Our Lady of La Salette 5406:Protestant Reformation 5393:Protestant Reformation 5312:Second Council of Lyon 4701:Ecclesiastical history 4460:. Skyhorse Publishing. 4125:Bucholz & Key 2009 3512: 3448: 3365: 3358: 3320: 3228: 3176: 3141: 2987: 2968: 2958: 2908:117 former monasteries 2903: 2881:Effects on public life 2815: 2703:Second Suppression Act 2584: 2552: 2398:Court of Augmentations 2392: 2376: 2366: 2315: 2306: 2197: 2171: 2103: 2078: 2068:Continental precedents 2027: 2021: 1980:St Frideswide's Priory 1945:Lady Margaret Beaufort 1897: 1797: 1757:'. As a result of the 1530:Marprelate Controversy 1525:Foxe's Book of Martyrs 1419:Reformation Parliament 1375:Middle Ages (597–1500) 1287: 1273: 1211: 1161: 1143: 1116:Reformation in England 1049:married the abbess of 1004: 974: 934:Second Suppression Act 644:Background and history 5609:First Vatican Council 5307:First Council of Lyon 5071:Constantine the Great 4767:Christian monasticism 4615:Catholic Encyclopedia 3575:Compendium Competorum 3545:Book of Common Prayer 3507: 3443: 3430:Jesus College, Oxford 3363: 3353: 3306: 3222: 3171: 3136: 2995:, each maintaining a 2982: 2963: 2949: 2898: 2809: 2712:coastal defence works 2673:The Lord Chancellor, 2579: 2540: 2387: 2364: 2302: 2115:Reformation in Sweden 2012:St Mary's Abbey, York 2009: 1988:Christ Church, Oxford 1889: 1789: 1681:Bangorian Controversy 1649:Book of Common Prayer 1571:Book of Common Prayer 1515:Vestments controversy 1505:The Books of Homilies 1488:Book of Common Prayer 1448:Book of Common Prayer 1435:Book of Common Prayer 1300:Observant Franciscans 1278: 1268: 1206: 1148: 1130: 984: 965: 930:First Suppression Act 810:Congress of St. Louis 806:Bartonville Agreement 564:Book of Common Prayer 397:Catholic emancipation 5786:Sexual abuse scandal 5695:Mit brennender Sorge 5538:Age of Enlightenment 5317:Bernard of Clairvaux 5194:Byzantine Iconoclasm 5133:Council of Chalcedon 4913:Council of Jerusalem 4782:Role in civilization 4762:Religious institutes 4694:By country or region 4555:Youings, J. (1971). 4050:Peter, John (1956). 3570:Charter of Liberties 3551:orders, such as the 3325:Health and education 3147:financial endowments 3051:improve this section 2785:Chichester Guildhall 2783:(Warwickshire), the 2699:Great Malvern Priory 2455:improve this section 2377:Valor Ecclesiasticus 2317:Valor Ecclesiasticus 2285:Observant Franciscan 2185:Concordat of Bologna 2084:On the monastic vows 2054:Christchurch Aldgate 1930:Bishop of Winchester 1906:Cambridge University 1638:Westminster Assembly 1495:Thirty-nine Articles 1241:Six Articles of 1539 943:, vicar-general and 802:Anglican realignment 664:Apostolic succession 543:Ministry and worship 509:Thirty-nine Articles 361:Book of Common Order 341:Scottish Reformation 243:Religion in Scotland 192:in the British Isles 50:improve this article 5614:Papal infallibility 5604:Our Lady of Lourdes 5553:Shimabara Rebellion 5397:Counter-Reformation 4610:English Reformation 4465:Salter, M. (2010). 4127:, pp. 110–111. 4115:, pp. 284–285. 4091:, pp. 440–441. 3838:Church Life Journal 3666:Counter-Reformation 3549:Counter-Reformation 3487:Pilgrimage of Grace 3387:Charterhouse School 3383:London Charterhouse 3215:Social and economic 3161:immediately around 3153:and, from 1541, as 2831:, Glastonbury, and 2810:The suppression of 2557:Pilgrimage of Grace 2550:Pilgrimage of Grace 2411:Pilgrimage of Grace 2079:De votis monasticis 1961:Bishop of Rochester 1764:Some of these were 1686:Evangelical Revival 1500:Convocation of 1563 1308:professed religious 1056:200 more houses of 1031:, founded in 1415. 1021:western Christendom 780:Ordination of women 672:English Reformation 648:Celtic Christianity 248:Celtic Christianity 238:Religion in Ireland 233:(Church of England) 193: 5659:Our Lady of Fátima 5448:Ignatius of Loyola 5372:Catherine of Siena 5340:Pope Boniface VIII 5159:Benedict of Nursia 5128:Council of Ephesus 4965:Ante-Nicene period 4918:Split with Judaism 4752:Crusading movement 4494:Scarisbrick, J. J. 4044:For background on 3977:Retail Price Index 3590:Little Jack Horner 3536:papal dispensation 3449: 3401:Society of Friends 3366: 3229: 3177: 3173:Ballintubber Abbey 3142: 3013:Chantries Act 1547 2988: 2969: 2904: 2816: 2750:Later dissolutions 2716:St Michael's Mount 2585: 2553: 2542:Bridlington Priory 2393: 2367: 2237:(1511) and More's 2234:In Praise of Folly 2225:Desiderius Erasmus 2022: 1898: 1822:Castle Acre Priory 1798: 1772:was a daughter of 1701:Prayer Book Crisis 1578:King James Version 1560:Millenary Petition 1455:Forty-two Articles 1442:Edwardine Ordinals 1288: 1162: 1150:Desiderius Erasmus 1134:Desiderius Erasmus 1077:Continental Europe 1005: 764:Lambeth Conference 744:Anglican Communion 559:King James Version 501:Christian theology 231:Calendar of saints 221:Anglican Communion 189: 5910: 5909: 5870:COVID-19 pandemic 5848:Pope Benedict XVI 5753:Pope John Paul II 5528:Pope Benedict XIV 5514:French Revolution 5498:Thirty Years' War 5488:Robert Bellarmine 5473:John of the Cross 5377:Pope Alexander VI 5362:Council of Vienne 5292:Francis of Assisi 5282:Pope Innocent III 5151:Early Middle Ages 5145: 5144: 5141: 5140: 5083:Arian controversy 5036: 5035: 4984:Apostolic Fathers 4476:978-1-871731-87-3 4440:978-0-300-17062-7 4243:978-1-4051-6275-3 4163:978-0-300-26418-0 3911:, pp. 60–72. 3700:, pp. 29–30. 3524:Westminster Abbey 3250:Premonstratensian 3131: 3130: 3123: 3105: 2781:Atherstone Priory 2691:Little Walsingham 2636:collegiate church 2562:Treasons Act 1534 2535: 2534: 2527: 2509: 2413:, were executed. 2164:Holy Roman Empire 2160:Abbey of St. Gall 2088:Augustinian friar 2035:, which softened 1953:sweating sickness 1926:William Waynflete 1902:Oxford University 1883:were unaffected. 1745: 1744: 1362:Westminster Abbey 1264:J. J. Scarisbrick 1187:, in the form of 961:George W. Bernard 864: 863: 724:Anglo-Catholicism 684:Church of England 513:Books of Homilies 505:Anglican doctrine 463: 462: 356:English Civil War 253:Religion in Wales 205:Glastonbury Abbey 185: 184: 177: 126: 125: 118: 100: 5955: 5900: 5899: 5888: 5887: 5886: 5865:Patriarch Kirill 5738:Pope John Paul I 5543:Anti-clericalism 5523:Pope Innocent XI 5443:Society of Jesus 5428:Council of Trent 5382:Age of Discovery 5327:Late Middle Ages 5229:High Middle Ages 5219:East–West Schism 5103:Pope Sylvester I 5049: 5048: 5038: 5037: 4948:General epistles 4943:Pauline epistles 4876:John the Baptist 4859:Great Commission 4821: 4820: 4772:Catholic culture 4662: 4655: 4648: 4639: 4638: 4560: 4550: 4548: 4537: 4523: 4521: 4519: 4501: 4489: 4480: 4461: 4452: 4425: 4406: 4397: 4385: 4366: 4357: 4351: 4343: 4331: 4322: 4297: 4285: 4276: 4247: 4228: 4219: 4210:(324): 390–409. 4198: 4189: 4183: 4175: 4146: 4128: 4122: 4116: 4110: 4104: 4098: 4092: 4086: 4080: 4074: 4068: 4062: 4056: 4055: 4042: 4036: 4030: 4024: 4018: 4012: 4006: 4000: 3999: 3997: 3995: 3973: 3962: 3956: 3950: 3945: 3936: 3930: 3924: 3918: 3912: 3906: 3900: 3894: 3888: 3882: 3873: 3867: 3861: 3855: 3849: 3848: 3846: 3844: 3829: 3823: 3817: 3811: 3810: 3808: 3806: 3792: 3786: 3780: 3774: 3768: 3762: 3756: 3750: 3747:Scarisbrick 1968 3744: 3738: 3732: 3726: 3725: 3723: 3721: 3715:Oxford Reference 3707: 3701: 3695: 3689: 3683: 3674: 3663: 3657: 3651: 3645: 3639: 3633: 3627: 3621: 3615: 3318: 3283:Arts and culture 3277:Anti-clericalism 3266:perpetual curate 3181:Irish Parliament 3126: 3119: 3115: 3112: 3106: 3104: 3063: 3031: 3023: 2925:Alfred the Great 2847:St Benet's Abbey 2761:Richard Yngworth 2530: 2523: 2519: 2516: 2510: 2508: 2467: 2435: 2427: 2404:in Cheshire and 2389:Dorchester Abbey 2379: 2320: 2281:vow of obedience 2221:King's Secretary 2202: 2177: 2108: 2081: 2030: 2020: 2017: 1984:Oxford Cathedral 1791:Stogursey Priory 1737: 1730: 1723: 1661:Nonjuring schism 1643:Savoy Conference 1603:Caroline Divines 1359: 1336: 1335: 994: 991: 932:in 1535 and the 911:Act of Supremacy 856: 849: 842: 828: 827: 716:Nonjuring schism 630:Christian Church 525:Episcopal polity 517:Caroline Divines 488: 465: 464: 455: 448: 441: 201: 194: 188: 180: 173: 169: 166: 160: 136: 135: 128: 121: 114: 110: 107: 101: 99: 58: 34: 26: 5963: 5962: 5958: 5957: 5956: 5954: 5953: 5952: 5913: 5912: 5911: 5906: 5894: 5884: 5882: 5874: 5796:World Youth Day 5774: 5763:World Youth Day 5707:Pacem in terris 5701:Pope John XXIII 5640: 5567: 5558:Edict of Nantes 5516: 5512: 5502: 5468:Teresa of Ávila 5463:Tridentine Mass 5399: 5395: 5386: 5367:Knights Templar 5321: 5223: 5179:Gregorian chant 5137: 5063: 5060: 5057: 5055: 5044: 5032: 4959: 4828: 4816: 4808: 4675: 4673:Catholic Church 4666: 4567: 4517: 4515: 4477: 4441: 4422: 4382: 4345: 4344: 4319: 4244: 4177: 4176: 4164: 4137: 4132: 4131: 4123: 4119: 4111: 4107: 4099: 4095: 4087: 4083: 4075: 4071: 4063: 4059: 4043: 4039: 4031: 4027: 4019: 4015: 4007: 4003: 3993: 3991: 3974: 3965: 3957: 3953: 3946: 3939: 3933:MacCulloch 2018 3931: 3927: 3921:MacCulloch 2018 3919: 3915: 3907: 3903: 3897:MacCulloch 2018 3895: 3891: 3885:MacCulloch 2018 3883: 3876: 3870:MacCulloch 2018 3868: 3864: 3856: 3852: 3842: 3840: 3830: 3826: 3818: 3814: 3804: 3802: 3793: 3789: 3781: 3777: 3769: 3765: 3757: 3753: 3745: 3741: 3733: 3729: 3719: 3717: 3709: 3708: 3704: 3696: 3692: 3684: 3677: 3664: 3660: 3652: 3648: 3640: 3636: 3628: 3624: 3616: 3609: 3604: 3561: 3534:, negotiated a 3475: 3396: 3378:grammar schools 3327: 3319: 3317:John Bale, 1549 3316: 3285: 3225:Fountains Abbey 3217: 3212: 3204:conquer Ireland 3200:Oliver Cromwell 3189:new Irish Crown 3155:King of Ireland 3151:Lord of Ireland 3127: 3116: 3110: 3107: 3064: 3062: 3048: 3032: 3021: 2933:Bury St Edmunds 2889: 2883: 2867:Thetford Priory 2765:Bishop of Dover 2752: 2724:Burton-on-Trent 2687:Thetford Priory 2604: 2531: 2520: 2514: 2511: 2468: 2466: 2452: 2436: 2425: 2419: 2359: 2347:John Tregonwell 2311: 2264: 2259: 2248:pilgrimage, to 2217:Thomas Cromwell 2070: 2058:Lord Chancellor 2018: 1934:Selborne Priory 1759:Norman Conquest 1751: 1741: 1712: 1711: 1710: 1691:Oxford Movement 1675: 1667: 1666: 1665: 1627: 1619: 1618: 1617: 1592: 1584: 1583: 1582: 1544: 1536: 1535: 1534: 1481: 1471: 1470: 1469: 1413: 1403: 1402: 1401: 1376: 1368: 1334: 1313:canonical hours 1292:Thomas Cromwell 1280:Thomas Cromwell 1249:had obtained a 1247:Cardinal Wolsey 1216: 1125: 1017:Norman Conquest 992: 979: 941:Thomas Cromwell 926:papal authority 860: 822: 817: 816: 812: 808: 804: 800: 795: 787: 786: 782: 778: 774: 770: 766: 762: 755: 751: 746: 736: 735: 733:Oxford Movement 731: 722: 718: 714: 710: 706: 702: 698: 694: 690: 686: 682: 678: 674: 670: 666: 662: 658: 654: 650: 645: 637: 636: 632: 628: 624: 616: 606: 605: 601: 597: 593: 572: 570:Liturgical year 568: 557: 553: 549: 544: 536: 535: 531: 527: 523: 519: 515: 511: 507: 503: 498: 459: 232: 208: 191: 181: 170: 164: 161: 147:Please help by 146: 137: 133: 122: 111: 105: 102: 59: 57: 47: 35: 24: 17: 12: 11: 5: 5961: 5951: 5950: 5945: 5940: 5935: 5930: 5925: 5908: 5907: 5905: 5904: 5892: 5879: 5876: 5875: 5873: 5872: 5867: 5862: 5855: 5850: 5845: 5844: 5843: 5838: 5833: 5828: 5823: 5818: 5813: 5808: 5803: 5793: 5788: 5782: 5780: 5776: 5775: 5773: 5772: 5771: 5770: 5760: 5755: 5750: 5745: 5740: 5735: 5725: 5720: 5715: 5710: 5703: 5698: 5691: 5686: 5684:Lateran Treaty 5681: 5676: 5671: 5666: 5661: 5656: 5650: 5648: 5642: 5641: 5639: 5638: 5631: 5626: 5621: 5616: 5611: 5606: 5601: 5596: 5591: 5586: 5581: 5575: 5573: 5569: 5568: 5566: 5565: 5560: 5555: 5550: 5545: 5540: 5535: 5530: 5525: 5519: 5517: 5509:Baroque period 5507: 5504: 5503: 5501: 5500: 5495: 5490: 5485: 5480: 5478:Peter Canisius 5475: 5470: 5465: 5460: 5455: 5453:Francis Xavier 5450: 5445: 5440: 5435: 5430: 5425: 5420: 5417:Exsurge Domine 5413: 5408: 5402: 5400: 5391: 5388: 5387: 5385: 5384: 5379: 5374: 5369: 5364: 5359: 5357:Pope Clement V 5354: 5353: 5352: 5350:Avignon Papacy 5345:Western Schism 5342: 5337: 5335:Thomas Aquinas 5331: 5329: 5323: 5322: 5320: 5319: 5314: 5309: 5304: 5299: 5294: 5289: 5284: 5279: 5274: 5269: 5264: 5259: 5254: 5249: 5244: 5239: 5233: 5231: 5225: 5224: 5222: 5221: 5216: 5211: 5206: 5201: 5196: 5191: 5189:Saint Boniface 5186: 5181: 5176: 5174:Pope Gregory I 5171: 5166: 5161: 5155: 5153: 5147: 5146: 5143: 5142: 5139: 5138: 5136: 5135: 5130: 5125: 5120: 5115: 5113:Biblical canon 5110: 5105: 5100: 5095: 5090: 5085: 5080: 5079: 5078: 5067: 5065: 5046: 5042:Late antiquity 5034: 5033: 5031: 5030: 5025: 5020: 5015: 5010: 5009: 5008: 5003: 5002: 5001: 4996: 4991: 4989:Pope Clement I 4979:Church Fathers 4976: 4970: 4968: 4961: 4960: 4958: 4957: 4956: 4955: 4950: 4945: 4940: 4935: 4930: 4920: 4915: 4910: 4905: 4904: 4903: 4898: 4893: 4888: 4878: 4873: 4868: 4863: 4862: 4861: 4856: 4851: 4846: 4835: 4833: 4818: 4810: 4809: 4807: 4806: 4801: 4796: 4791: 4786: 4785: 4784: 4779: 4769: 4764: 4759: 4754: 4749: 4748: 4747: 4742: 4740:Biblical canon 4735:Catholic Bible 4732: 4731: 4730: 4720: 4719: 4718: 4708: 4703: 4698: 4697: 4696: 4685: 4683: 4677: 4676: 4665: 4664: 4657: 4650: 4642: 4636: 4635: 4629: 4620: 4611: 4605: 4599: 4594: 4589: 4574: 4566: 4565:External links 4563: 4562: 4561: 4552: 4538: 4528:Willmott, Hugh 4524: 4502: 4490: 4481: 4475: 4462: 4453: 4439: 4426: 4420: 4414:. Allen Lane. 4407: 4398: 4390:Knowles, David 4386: 4380: 4367: 4358: 4336:Gasquet, F. A. 4332: 4323: 4317: 4298: 4290:Dickens, A. G. 4286: 4277: 4259:(4): 583–606. 4248: 4242: 4229: 4220: 4199: 4190: 4162: 4147: 4136: 4133: 4130: 4129: 4117: 4105: 4093: 4081: 4069: 4057: 4037: 4035:, p. 292. 4025: 4023:, p. 291. 4013: 4011:, p. 290. 4001: 3988:MeasuringWorth 3963: 3951: 3937: 3935:, p. 491. 3925: 3923:, p. 463. 3913: 3901: 3899:, p. 511. 3889: 3887:, p. 490. 3874: 3872:, p. 489. 3862: 3850: 3824: 3812: 3787: 3775: 3763: 3751: 3749:, p. 337. 3739: 3727: 3711:"Six Articles" 3702: 3690: 3688:, p. 150. 3675: 3658: 3646: 3634: 3632:, p. 175. 3622: 3620:, p. 390. 3606: 3605: 3603: 3600: 3599: 3598: 3593: 3587: 3582: 3577: 3572: 3567: 3560: 3557: 3474: 3471: 3462:Thomas Cranmer 3395: 3392: 3345:sturdy beggars 3326: 3323: 3314: 3302:Matthew Parker 3284: 3281: 3216: 3213: 3211: 3208: 3129: 3128: 3035: 3033: 3026: 3020: 3017: 2999:priest to say 2885:Main article: 2882: 2879: 2751: 2748: 2744:Dr John London 2644:Matthew Parker 2603: 2600: 2533: 2532: 2439: 2437: 2430: 2421:Main article: 2418: 2415: 2358: 2355: 2335:Richard Layton 2310: 2307: 2263: 2260: 2258: 2255: 2245:Church of Rome 2139:Denmark–Norway 2132:Vadstena Abbey 2092:regular clergy 2076:had published 2069: 2066: 1802:Avignon Papacy 1755:alien priories 1747:Main article: 1743: 1742: 1740: 1739: 1732: 1725: 1717: 1714: 1713: 1709: 1708: 1703: 1698: 1693: 1688: 1683: 1677: 1676: 1673: 1672: 1669: 1668: 1664: 1663: 1658: 1656:Great Ejection 1653: 1645: 1640: 1635: 1629: 1628: 1625: 1624: 1621: 1620: 1616: 1615: 1610: 1605: 1600: 1594: 1593: 1590: 1589: 1586: 1585: 1581: 1580: 1575: 1567: 1562: 1557: 1552: 1546: 1545: 1542: 1541: 1538: 1537: 1533: 1532: 1527: 1522: 1520:Richard Hooker 1517: 1512: 1507: 1502: 1497: 1492: 1483: 1482: 1477: 1476: 1473: 1472: 1468: 1467: 1462: 1457: 1452: 1444: 1439: 1431: 1429:Thomas Cranmer 1426: 1421: 1415: 1414: 1409: 1408: 1405: 1404: 1400: 1399: 1394: 1389: 1384: 1378: 1377: 1374: 1373: 1370: 1369: 1360: 1352: 1351: 1345: 1344: 1333: 1330: 1215: 1212: 1198: 1197: 1191:and purported 1181: 1177: 1124: 1121: 978: 975: 899:England, Wales 862: 861: 859: 858: 851: 844: 836: 833: 832: 819: 818: 796: 793: 792: 789: 788: 784:Windsor Report 747: 742: 741: 738: 737: 720:Latitudinarian 700:Richard Hooker 696:Matthew Parker 676:Thomas Cranmer 646: 643: 642: 639: 638: 617: 612: 611: 608: 607: 545: 542: 541: 538: 537: 499: 494: 493: 490: 489: 481: 480: 474: 473: 461: 460: 458: 457: 450: 443: 435: 432: 431: 430: 429: 424: 419: 414: 409: 404: 399: 394: 389: 384: 376: 375: 371: 370: 369: 368: 363: 358: 353: 348: 343: 338: 333: 325: 324: 320: 319: 318: 317: 312: 307: 302: 297: 292: 284: 283: 279: 278: 277: 276: 271: 263: 262: 258: 257: 256: 255: 250: 245: 240: 235: 228: 223: 215: 214: 210: 209: 202: 183: 182: 140: 138: 131: 124: 123: 38: 36: 29: 15: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 5960: 5949: 5946: 5944: 5941: 5939: 5936: 5934: 5931: 5929: 5926: 5924: 5921: 5920: 5918: 5903: 5898: 5893: 5891: 5881: 5880: 5877: 5871: 5868: 5866: 5863: 5861: 5860: 5856: 5854: 5851: 5849: 5846: 5842: 5839: 5837: 5834: 5832: 5829: 5827: 5824: 5822: 5819: 5817: 5814: 5812: 5809: 5807: 5804: 5802: 5799: 5798: 5797: 5794: 5792: 5789: 5787: 5784: 5783: 5781: 5777: 5769: 5766: 5765: 5764: 5761: 5759: 5756: 5754: 5751: 5749: 5746: 5744: 5743:Mother Teresa 5741: 5739: 5736: 5733: 5729: 5726: 5724: 5721: 5719: 5716: 5714: 5711: 5709: 5708: 5704: 5702: 5699: 5697: 5696: 5692: 5690: 5687: 5685: 5682: 5680: 5677: 5675: 5672: 5670: 5669:Pope Pius XII 5667: 5665: 5662: 5660: 5657: 5655: 5652: 5651: 5649: 5647: 5643: 5637: 5636: 5635:Rerum novarum 5632: 5630: 5627: 5625: 5622: 5620: 5619:Pope Leo XIII 5617: 5615: 5612: 5610: 5607: 5605: 5602: 5600: 5597: 5595: 5592: 5590: 5589:United States 5587: 5585: 5582: 5580: 5579:Pope Pius VII 5577: 5576: 5574: 5570: 5564: 5561: 5559: 5556: 5554: 5551: 5549: 5546: 5544: 5541: 5539: 5536: 5534: 5531: 5529: 5526: 5524: 5521: 5520: 5518: 5515: 5510: 5505: 5499: 5496: 5494: 5491: 5489: 5486: 5484: 5481: 5479: 5476: 5474: 5471: 5469: 5466: 5464: 5461: 5459: 5456: 5454: 5451: 5449: 5446: 5444: 5441: 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5004: 5000: 4997: 4995: 4992: 4990: 4987: 4986: 4985: 4982: 4981: 4980: 4977: 4975: 4972: 4971: 4969: 4966: 4962: 4954: 4951: 4949: 4946: 4944: 4941: 4939: 4936: 4934: 4931: 4929: 4926: 4925: 4924: 4923:New Testament 4921: 4919: 4916: 4914: 4911: 4909: 4906: 4902: 4899: 4897: 4894: 4892: 4889: 4887: 4886:Commissioning 4884: 4883: 4882: 4879: 4877: 4874: 4872: 4869: 4867: 4864: 4860: 4857: 4855: 4852: 4850: 4847: 4845: 4842: 4841: 4840: 4837: 4836: 4834: 4831: 4830:Apostolic Age 4826: 4822: 4819: 4815: 4811: 4805: 4802: 4800: 4797: 4795: 4792: 4790: 4787: 4783: 4780: 4778: 4775: 4774: 4773: 4770: 4768: 4765: 4763: 4760: 4758: 4755: 4753: 4750: 4746: 4743: 4741: 4738: 4737: 4736: 4733: 4729: 4726: 4725: 4724: 4721: 4717: 4716:Papal primacy 4714: 4713: 4712: 4709: 4707: 4704: 4702: 4699: 4695: 4692: 4691: 4690: 4687: 4686: 4684: 4682: 4678: 4674: 4670: 4663: 4658: 4656: 4651: 4649: 4644: 4643: 4640: 4633: 4630: 4627: 4625: 4621: 4618: 4616: 4612: 4609: 4606: 4603: 4602:BBC Timeline: 4600: 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3910: 3905: 3898: 3893: 3886: 3881: 3879: 3871: 3866: 3860:, p. 19. 3859: 3858:Woodward 1974 3854: 3839: 3835: 3828: 3821: 3816: 3800: 3799: 3791: 3785:, p. 77. 3784: 3779: 3773:, p. 74. 3772: 3767: 3761:, p. 79. 3760: 3755: 3748: 3743: 3736: 3735:Marshall 2017 3731: 3716: 3712: 3706: 3699: 3698:Marshall 2017 3694: 3687: 3682: 3680: 3673: 3672: 3667: 3662: 3655: 3650: 3644:, p. 75. 3643: 3638: 3631: 3626: 3619: 3614: 3612: 3607: 3597: 3594: 3591: 3588: 3586: 3583: 3581: 3578: 3576: 3573: 3571: 3568: 3566: 3563: 3562: 3556: 3554: 3550: 3546: 3541: 3537: 3533: 3529: 3528:Cardinal Pole 3525: 3521: 3516: 3511: 3506: 3504: 3500: 3496: 3492: 3488: 3484: 3480: 3470: 3467: 3463: 3459: 3458:Trinity House 3455: 3446: 3442: 3438: 3435: 3431: 3425: 3422: 3418: 3414: 3409: 3406: 3405:Divine Office 3402: 3391: 3388: 3384: 3379: 3375: 3371: 3362: 3357: 3352: 3350: 3346: 3340: 3337: 3332: 3322: 3313: 3311: 3305: 3303: 3299: 3294: 3290: 3280: 3278: 3274: 3269: 3267: 3263: 3259: 3258:impropriators 3254: 3251: 3247: 3242: 3238: 3233: 3226: 3221: 3207: 3205: 3201: 3197: 3192: 3190: 3186: 3182: 3174: 3170: 3166: 3164: 3160: 3156: 3152: 3148: 3139: 3135: 3125: 3122: 3114: 3103: 3100: 3096: 3093: 3089: 3086: 3082: 3079: 3075: 3072: – 3071: 3067: 3066:Find sources: 3060: 3056: 3052: 3046: 3045: 3041: 3036:This section 3034: 3030: 3025: 3024: 3016: 3014: 3010: 3006: 3002: 2998: 2994: 2985: 2981: 2977: 2975: 2966: 2962: 2957: 2954: 2948: 2946: 2942: 2938: 2934: 2930: 2926: 2922: 2918: 2914: 2909: 2901: 2897: 2893: 2888: 2878: 2876: 2872: 2868: 2864: 2863:Bolton Priory 2860: 2859:Waltham Abbey 2856: 2852: 2848: 2844: 2842: 2838: 2834: 2830: 2826: 2821: 2813: 2808: 2804: 2802: 2798: 2794: 2793:Austin Friars 2790: 2786: 2782: 2778: 2772: 2770: 2766: 2762: 2756: 2747: 2745: 2741: 2737: 2736:Godstow Abbey 2731: 2729: 2725: 2721: 2717: 2713: 2707: 2704: 2700: 2696: 2692: 2688: 2684: 2680: 2676: 2675:Thomas Audley 2671: 2669: 2665: 2660: 2655: 2653: 2649: 2645: 2641: 2637: 2633: 2629: 2624: 2620: 2617: 2613: 2608: 2599: 2596: 2591: 2582: 2581:Furness Abbey 2578: 2574: 2570: 2566: 2563: 2558: 2551: 2547: 2543: 2539: 2529: 2526: 2518: 2507: 2504: 2500: 2497: 2493: 2490: 2486: 2483: 2479: 2476: – 2475: 2471: 2470:Find sources: 2464: 2460: 2456: 2450: 2449: 2445: 2440:This section 2438: 2434: 2429: 2428: 2424: 2414: 2412: 2407: 2403: 2402:Norton Priory 2399: 2390: 2386: 2382: 2378: 2373: 2363: 2354: 2352: 2348: 2344: 2340: 2336: 2332: 2328: 2324: 2319: 2318: 2305: 2301: 2298: 2296: 2291: 2286: 2282: 2278: 2273: 2269: 2254: 2251: 2246: 2242: 2241: 2236: 2235: 2230: 2226: 2222: 2218: 2213: 2210: 2206: 2201: 2200: 2194: 2190: 2186: 2182: 2176: 2175: 2167: 2165: 2161: 2157: 2152: 2147: 2144: 2140: 2135: 2133: 2129: 2125: 2120: 2116: 2112: 2107: 2106: 2099: 2097: 2093: 2089: 2085: 2080: 2075: 2074:Martin Luther 2065: 2063: 2062:Thomas Audley 2059: 2055: 2050: 2045: 2043: 2038: 2034: 2029: 2013: 2008: 2004: 2001: 2000:Divine Office 1996: 1993: 1989: 1985: 1981: 1977: 1973: 1969: 1964: 1962: 1958: 1954: 1950: 1946: 1941: 1939: 1935: 1931: 1927: 1923: 1919: 1915: 1914:Bishop of Ely 1911: 1907: 1903: 1896: 1892: 1888: 1884: 1882: 1878: 1874: 1868: 1866: 1860: 1858: 1854: 1850: 1849:real property 1846: 1840: 1838: 1834: 1829: 1827: 1823: 1817: 1815: 1811: 1807: 1803: 1796: 1792: 1788: 1784: 1782: 1777: 1775: 1771: 1767: 1762: 1760: 1756: 1750: 1738: 1733: 1731: 1726: 1724: 1719: 1718: 1716: 1715: 1707: 1704: 1702: 1699: 1697: 1694: 1692: 1689: 1687: 1684: 1682: 1679: 1678: 1671: 1670: 1662: 1659: 1657: 1654: 1652: 1650: 1646: 1644: 1641: 1639: 1636: 1634: 1631: 1630: 1623: 1622: 1614: 1611: 1609: 1606: 1604: 1601: 1599: 1596: 1595: 1588: 1587: 1579: 1576: 1574: 1572: 1568: 1566: 1563: 1561: 1558: 1556: 1553: 1551: 1548: 1547: 1540: 1539: 1531: 1528: 1526: 1523: 1521: 1518: 1516: 1513: 1511: 1508: 1506: 1503: 1501: 1498: 1496: 1493: 1491: 1489: 1485: 1484: 1480: 1475: 1474: 1466: 1465:Marian exiles 1463: 1461: 1458: 1456: 1453: 1451: 1449: 1445: 1443: 1440: 1438: 1436: 1432: 1430: 1427: 1425: 1422: 1420: 1417: 1416: 1412: 1407: 1406: 1398: 1395: 1393: 1390: 1388: 1385: 1383: 1380: 1379: 1372: 1371: 1367: 1363: 1358: 1354: 1353: 1350: 1347: 1346: 1342: 1338: 1337: 1329: 1325: 1321: 1319: 1314: 1309: 1303: 1301: 1297: 1293: 1285: 1281: 1277: 1272: 1267: 1265: 1260: 1257: 1252: 1248: 1244: 1242: 1238: 1234: 1230: 1226: 1221: 1210: 1205: 1203: 1202:David Knowles 1194: 1190: 1186: 1182: 1178: 1175: 1171: 1167: 1166: 1165: 1159: 1155: 1151: 1147: 1142: 1140: 1135: 1129: 1120: 1117: 1113: 1109: 1105: 1101: 1096: 1094: 1090: 1086: 1082: 1078: 1074: 1069: 1067: 1063: 1059: 1054: 1052: 1048: 1044: 1040: 1037: 1032: 1030: 1026: 1022: 1018: 1014: 1010: 1002: 998: 988: 983: 973: 971: 964: 963:argues that: 962: 957: 955: 951: 950:Thomas Audley 946: 942: 937: 935: 931: 927: 923: 921: 916: 912: 906: 904: 900: 896: 892: 888: 884: 881: 877: 873: 869: 857: 852: 850: 845: 843: 838: 837: 835: 834: 831: 826: 821: 820: 815: 811: 807: 803: 799: 791: 790: 785: 781: 777: 773: 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150: 144: 141:This article 139: 130: 129: 120: 117: 109: 98: 95: 91: 88: 84: 81: 77: 74: 70: 67: – 66: 62: 61:Find sources: 55: 51: 45: 44: 39:This article 37: 33: 28: 27: 22: 5857: 5853:Pope Francis 5779:21st century 5728:Pope Paul VI 5705: 5693: 5646:20th century 5633: 5584:Pope Pius IX 5572:19th century 5548:Pope Pius VI 5422: 5415: 5287:Latin Empire 5257:Universities 5209:Pope Leo III 5076:Christianity 5061:state church 5053:Great Church 4854:Resurrection 4817:(30–325/476) 4814:Early Church 4799:Latin Church 4794:Papal States 4789:Vatican City 4623: 4614: 4608:BBC History: 4581: 4556: 4544: 4532: 4516:. Retrieved 4507: 4497: 4485: 4466: 4457: 4430: 4411: 4402: 4393: 4371: 4362: 4339: 4327: 4305: 4302:Duffy, Eamon 4293: 4281: 4256: 4252: 4233: 4224: 4207: 4203: 4194: 4152: 4142: 4135:Bibliography 4120: 4108: 4096: 4084: 4072: 4060: 4051: 4040: 4033:Knowles 1955 4028: 4021:Knowles 1955 4016: 4009:Knowles 1955 4004: 3992:. Retrieved 3986: 3954: 3928: 3916: 3904: 3892: 3865: 3853: 3841:. Retrieved 3837: 3827: 3815: 3803:. Retrieved 3797: 3790: 3783:Dickens 1989 3778: 3771:Dickens 1989 3766: 3759:Dickens 1989 3754: 3742: 3730: 3718:. Retrieved 3714: 3705: 3693: 3686:Knowles 1959 3669: 3661: 3649: 3642:Dickens 1989 3637: 3630:Dickens 1989 3625: 3618:Bernard 2011 3532:papal legate 3517: 3513: 3508: 3502: 3491:Lincolnshire 3483:Lincolnshire 3476: 3466:prebendaries 3450: 3445:Richard Rich 3426: 3410: 3397: 3367: 3354: 3341: 3328: 3321: 3307: 3286: 3270: 3255: 3234: 3230: 3210:Consequences 3193: 3178: 3143: 3117: 3108: 3098: 3091: 3084: 3077: 3065: 3049:Please help 3037: 2989: 2984:Bolton Abbey 2970: 2965:Lacock Abbey 2953:Lincolnshire 2950: 2913:Lacock Abbey 2905: 2890: 2845: 2817: 2801:London Blitz 2797:Dutch Church 2773: 2763:, suffragan 2757: 2753: 2732: 2708: 2695:Hugh Latimer 2672: 2668:minor canons 2666:and sixteen 2664:prebendaries 2656: 2625: 2621: 2609: 2605: 2586: 2571: 2567: 2554: 2521: 2512: 2502: 2495: 2488: 2481: 2469: 2453:Please help 2441: 2406:Hexham Abbey 2394: 2368: 2343:John ap Rice 2312: 2303: 2299: 2265: 2238: 2232: 2214: 2199:in commendam 2168: 2148: 2136: 2100: 2083: 2071: 2049:Richard Foxe 2046: 2023: 1997: 1965: 1949:Creake Abbey 1942: 1924:(1496), and 1899: 1869: 1861: 1841: 1837:Sheen Priory 1830: 1818: 1799: 1795:Eton College 1778: 1770:Lewes Priory 1763: 1752: 1749:Alien priory 1648: 1570: 1487: 1447: 1434: 1361: 1326: 1322: 1317: 1304: 1289: 1269: 1261: 1245: 1229:Ten Articles 1217: 1207: 1199: 1163: 1131: 1126: 1097: 1070: 1055: 1039:appropriated 1033: 1006: 966: 958: 954:Richard Rich 938: 920:Supreme Head 919: 913:, passed by 907: 871: 867: 865: 712:William Laud 679: 614:Christianity 603:Jesus Prayer 562: 330: 323:Early Modern 186: 171: 162: 149:spinning off 142: 112: 103: 93: 86: 79: 72: 60: 48:Please help 43:verification 40: 5859:Laudato si' 5654:Pope Pius X 5483:Philip Neri 5458:Pope Pius V 5433:Thomas More 5302:Inquisition 5204:Charlemagne 5164:Monasticism 4974:Persecution 4866:Holy Spirit 4849:Crucifixion 4728:First seven 4582:In Our Time 4077:Carley 1997 4065:Murray 2009 3948:Salter 2010 3298:John Leland 3246:Augustinian 3227:, Yorkshire 3196:Elizabeth I 2937:Shaftesbury 2917:Forde Abbey 2900:Selby Abbey 2677:, proposed 2339:Thomas Legh 2331:monasteries 2229:Thomas More 2191:granted to 2143:Frederick I 2128:Vreta Abbey 2119:Gustav Vasa 2019: 1539 1957:John Fisher 1910:John Alcock 1881:Cistercians 1877:Augustinian 1873:Benedictine 1806:Roman Popes 1781:Middle Ages 1296:Carthusians 1237:Melanchthon 1225:Convocation 1189:pilgrimages 1073:Reformation 1051:Shaftesbury 1047:Glastonbury 1027:nunnery of 1025:Bridgettine 1009:Anglo-Saxon 993: 1537 883:monasteries 692:Elizabeth I 595:Monasticism 478:Anglicanism 336:Welsh Bible 310:Celtic Rite 5917:Categories 5732:coronation 5438:Pope Leo X 5023:Tertullian 4953:Revelation 4928:Background 4511:. Dublin: 4498:Henry VIII 4172:1273001858 4156:. London. 4113:Clark 2021 4089:Clark 2021 3909:Erler 2013 3602:References 3565:Cestui que 3417:ordination 3413:seminaries 3374:choristers 3138:Quin Abbey 3081:newspapers 2956:quarrying. 2941:iconoclasm 2929:Walsingham 2871:Canterbury 2855:Shap Abbey 2829:Colchester 2769:Dominicans 2485:newspapers 2329:" all the 2323:Parliament 2295:Syon Abbey 2250:Walsingham 2189:Pope Leo X 2096:Wittenberg 2042:praemunire 1992:papal bull 1932:acquiring 1833:Syon Abbey 1814:Edward III 1608:Laudianism 1364:(1749) by 1284:Vicegerent 1251:papal bull 1196:believers. 1193:miraculous 1123:Complaints 1106:, France, 1066:mendicants 1029:Syon Abbey 987:Henry VIII 959:Historian 945:vicegerent 936:in 1539. 915:Parliament 878:disbanded 876:Henry VIII 668:Henry VIII 529:Sacraments 153:relocating 76:newspapers 5748:Communism 5718:Ecumenism 5064:(380–451) 5056:(180–451) 5045:(313–476) 4967:(100–325) 4449:961308356 4348:cite book 4273:164047873 4180:cite book 3654:Keen 1999 3495:Yorkshire 3479:Yorkshire 3421:benefices 3349:Poor Laws 3289:libraries 3223:Ruins of 3111:July 2020 3038:does not 2997:stipended 2993:chantries 2875:Rochester 2720:Lowestoft 2546:attainder 2515:July 2020 2442:does not 2290:Greenwich 2212:coffers. 2193:Francis I 2187:in 1516, 2174:commendam 2072:In 1521, 2037:claustral 2033:pittances 1920:to found 1865:canon law 1857:intestacy 1845:civil law 1674:1700–1950 1626:1649–1688 1366:Canaletto 1256:sanctuary 1100:Edward VI 1093:Capuchins 1043:benefices 1003:, Madrid. 776:Ecumenism 708:Charles I 688:Edward VI 555:Eucharist 165:June 2024 106:June 2024 5758:HIV/AIDS 5252:Crusades 5006:Irenaeus 4999:Ignatius 4994:Polycarp 4844:Ministry 4832:(30–100) 4706:Timeline 4530:(2020). 4496:(1968). 4392:(1955). 4338:(1925). 4304:(1992). 4292:(1989). 3720:19 April 3559:See also 3473:Politics 3394:Religion 3315:— 3237:advowson 3159:the Pale 3019:Ireland 3009:prebends 2945:Puritans 2728:Thornton 2632:Coventry 2111:Västerås 2028:peculium 1968:Bromhall 1810:Edward I 1341:a series 1339:Part of 1318:familiae 1160:, Paris. 1108:Scotland 1085:Reformed 1081:Lutheran 1062:Friaries 895:friaries 891:convents 887:priories 880:Catholic 760:Meetings 547:Ministry 496:Theology 470:a series 468:Part of 282:Medieval 5723:Judaism 5123:Vulgate 4933:Gospels 4908:Stephen 4825:Origins 4745:Vulgate 4681:General 4671:of the 4669:History 4585:at the 4204:History 4046:Chaucer 3805:1 March 3668:at the 3553:Jesuits 3499:Norfolk 3262:rectors 3095:scholar 3059:removed 3044:sources 2974:James I 2851:Norwich 2841:treason 2833:Reading 2820:new law 2659:Norwich 2648:chantry 2590:Furness 2499:scholar 2463:removed 2448:sources 2257:Process 2209:James V 2141:, King 2117:, King 2105:Riksdag 1974:to aid 1826:Henry V 1766:granges 1460:Martyrs 1220:shrines 1214:Reforms 1174:baptism 1154:Holbein 1139:Lincoln 1104:Bohemia 1089:Jesuits 977:Context 903:Ireland 768:Bishops 728:Liberal 704:James I 586:Central 213:General 90:scholar 5689:Nazism 5511:to the 5118:Jerome 5028:Origen 4711:Papacy 4604:Tudors 4518:19 May 4473: 4447: 4437: 4418: 4378: 4315: 4271: 4240: 4170: 4160: 3540:heresy 3520:Mary I 3510:Wales. 3370:novice 3273:gentry 3241:rector 3163:Dublin 3097: 3090: 3083: 3076: 3068: 3005:canons 2935:, and 2921:relics 2825:abbots 2787:, and 2740:Oxford 2652:office 2612:tithes 2501: 2494: 2487: 2480: 2472: 2351:relics 2240:Utopia 2205:tiends 2151:Zürich 1972:Higham 1853:patron 1847:to be 1651:(1662) 1573:(1604) 1490:(1559) 1450:(1552) 1437:(1549) 1343:on the 1298:, the 1233:Luther 1204:said, 1185:relics 1158:Louvre 1112:Geneva 1058:friars 1036:tithes 1013:Celtic 970:canons 939:While 901:, and 893:, and 622:Christ 599:Saints 92: 85: 78: 71: 63: 5791:Islam 5059:Roman 5018:Canon 4891:Peter 4839:Jesus 4269:S2CID 3994:7 May 3843:5 May 3310:jakes 3102:JSTOR 3088:books 2835:were 2738:near 2714:from 2616:glebe 2595:Lewes 2506:JSTOR 2492:books 2327:visit 2181:Curia 2156:Basel 1982:(now 1774:Cluny 985:King 619:Jesus 590:Broad 551:Music 261:Early 97:JSTOR 83:books 5841:2023 5836:2019 5831:2016 5826:2013 5821:2011 5816:2008 5811:2005 5806:2002 5801:2000 5768:1995 4938:Acts 4901:Paul 4896:John 4871:Mary 4520:2017 4471:ISBN 4445:OCLC 4435:ISBN 4416:ISBN 4376:ISBN 4354:link 4313:ISBN 4238:ISBN 4186:link 4168:OCLC 4158:ISBN 3996:2024 3845:2022 3807:2014 3722:2022 3530:the 3493:and 3481:and 3432:and 3329:The 3074:news 3042:any 3040:cite 3001:Mass 2915:and 2873:and 2839:for 2726:and 2630:and 2628:Bath 2614:and 2478:news 2446:any 2444:cite 2345:and 2227:and 1970:and 1904:and 1235:and 1110:and 1091:and 866:The 656:Bede 626:Paul 578:High 533:Mary 69:news 4827:and 4777:Art 4587:BBC 4579:on 4261:doi 4212:doi 3975:UK 3248:or 3053:by 2827:of 2718:to 2638:of 2457:by 2172:in 2137:In 2109:of 1875:or 1152:by 1083:or 1075:in 1011:or 995:by 897:in 582:Low 151:or 52:by 5919:: 4443:. 4350:}} 4346:{{ 4267:. 4257:91 4255:. 4208:96 4206:. 4182:}} 4178:{{ 4166:. 3985:. 3966:^ 3940:^ 3877:^ 3836:. 3713:. 3678:^ 3610:^ 3555:. 3505:: 3460:. 3007:, 2931:, 2779:, 2341:, 2337:, 2060:, 2044:. 2016:c. 1963:. 1959:, 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