6730:
bidirectional, as a history of amphetamine administration facilitates sexual behavior and enhances the associated increase in NAc DA ... As described for food reward, sexual experience can also lead to activation of plasticity-related signaling cascades. The transcription factor delta FosB is increased in the NAc, PFC, dorsal striatum, and VTA following repeated sexual behavior (Wallace et al., 2008; Pitchers et al., 2010b). This natural increase in delta FosB or viral overexpression of delta FosB within the NAc modulates sexual performance, and NAc blockade of delta FosB attenuates this behavior (Hedges et al, 2009; Pitchers et al., 2010b). Further, viral overexpression of delta FosB enhances the conditioned place preference for an environment paired with sexual experience (Hedges et al., 2009). ... In some people, there is a transition from "normal" to compulsive engagement in natural rewards (such as food or sex), a condition that some have termed behavioral or non-drug addictions (Holden, 2001; Grant et al., 2006a). ... In humans, the role of dopamine signaling in incentive-sensitization processes has recently been highlighted by the observation of a dopamine dysregulation syndrome in some people taking dopaminergic drugs. This syndrome is characterized by a medication-induced increase in (or compulsive) engagement in non-drug rewards such as gambling, shopping, or sex (Evans et al, 2006; Aiken, 2007; Lader, 2008)."
11132:
and putamen, but not the medial preoptic nucleus. Next, the induction of c-Fos, a downstream (repressed) target of DeltaFosB, was measured in sexually experienced and naive animals. The number of mating-induced c-Fos-IR cells was significantly decreased in sexually experienced animals compared to sexually naive controls. Finally, DeltaFosB levels and its activity in the NAc were manipulated using viral-mediated gene transfer to study its potential role in mediating sexual experience and experience-induced facilitation of sexual performance. Animals with DeltaFosB overexpression displayed enhanced facilitation of sexual performance with sexual experience relative to controls. In contrast, the expression of DeltaJunD, a dominant-negative binding partner of DeltaFosB, attenuated sexual experience-induced facilitation of sexual performance, and stunted long-term maintenance of facilitation compared to DeltaFosB overexpressing group. Together, these findings support a critical role for DeltaFosB expression in the NAc in the reinforcing effects of sexual behavior and sexual experience-induced facilitation of sexual performance. ... both drug addiction and sexual addiction represent pathological forms of neuroplasticity along with the emergence of aberrant behaviors involving a cascade of neurochemical changes mainly in the brain's rewarding circuitry.
4535:
of identity, enabled by interpersonal interactions and collective influences. Personal narratives of self-transition were connected to larger narratives of social transitions. The personal narratives of self-initiation and transition are contextualized and understood in terms of political (social) narratives within the core concept of the 'transitional society'. Another study examined the narratives of 'initiators': people who help people who inject drugs (PWID) with their first injection. Through their accounts, respondents described initiation events as meaningful transitions to a life characterized by predictable downfalls of homelessness, infections, and social stigma. Initiators used examples from their own personal experience to explain the process of initiation and assistance, attributing personal agency and predicting specific injection-related harms for initiates. They distinguished between two forms of harm: potentially avoidable proximal harm caused by risky injection practices (e.g. overdose, HIV) and perceived inevitable distal harm caused by long-term injection (e.g. socioeconomic decline). In this way, these narratives reflect a balance of individual agency, harm reduction intentions, and accepted notions of 'life after initiation' interact with the narrative experiences and intentions of PWIDs.
7149:
cellular mechanisms of plasticity that control vulnerability to drug addiction, and that this increased vulnerability is mediated by ΔFosB and its downstream transcriptional targets. ... Sexual behavior is highly rewarding (Tenk et al., 2009), and sexual experience causes sensitized drug-related behaviors, including cross-sensitization to amphetamine (Amph)-induced locomotor activity (Bradley and Meisel, 2001; Pitchers et al., 2010a) and enhanced Amph reward (Pitchers et al., 2010a). Moreover, sexual experience induces neural plasticity in the NAc similar to that induced by psychostimulant exposure, including increased dendritic spine density (Meisel and
Mullins, 2006; Pitchers et al., 2010a), altered glutamate receptor trafficking, and decreased synaptic strength in prefrontal cortex-responding NAc shell neurons (Pitchers et al., 2012). Finally, periods of abstinence from sexual experience were found to be critical for enhanced Amph reward, NAc spinogenesis (Pitchers et al., 2010a), and glutamate receptor trafficking (Pitchers et al., 2012). These findings suggest that natural and drug reward experiences share common mechanisms of neural plasticity
12663:
rewarding or reinforcing effect of drugs of abuse. ... At present, no pharmacological therapy has been approved by the FDA to treat psychostimulant addiction. Many drugs have been tested, but none have shown conclusive efficacy with tolerable side effects in humans. ... A new emphasis on larger-scale biomarker, genetic, and epigenetic research focused on the molecular targets of mental disorders has been recently advocated. In addition, the integration of cognitive and behavioral modification of circuit-wide neuroplasticity (i.e., computer-based training to enhance executive function) may prove to be an effective adjunct-treatment approach for addiction, particularly when combined with cognitive enhancers. Furthermore, in order to be effective, all pharmacological or biologically based treatments for addiction need to be integrated into other established forms of addiction rehabilitation, such as CBT, individual and group psychotherapy, behavior-modification strategies, twelve-step programs, and residential treatment facilities.
7085:
the
Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders. ... Existing prevalence rates of sexual addiction-related disorders range from 3% to 6%. Sexual addiction/hypersexual disorder is used as an umbrella construct to encompass various types of problematic behaviors, including excessive masturbation, cybersex, pornography use, sexual behavior with consenting adults, telephone sex, strip club visitation, and other behaviors. The adverse consequences of sexual addiction are similar to the consequences of other addictive disorders. Addictive, somatic and psychiatric disorders coexist with sexual addiction. In recent years, research on sexual addiction has proliferated, and screening instruments have increasingly been developed to diagnose or quantify sexual addiction disorders. In our systematic review of the existing measures, 22 questionnaires were identified. As with other behavioral addictions, the appropriate treatment of sexual addiction should combine pharmacological and psychological approaches.
8882:
2009, Voss et al. 2011) ... Inhibitory control (one of the core EFs) involves being able to control one's attention, behavior, thoughts, and/or emotions to override a strong internal predisposition or external lure, and instead do what's more appropriate or needed. Without inhibitory control we would be at the mercy of impulses, old habits of thought or action (conditioned responses), and/or stimuli in the environment that pull us this way or that. Thus, inhibitory control makes it possible for us to change and for us to choose how we react and how we behave rather than being unthinking creatures of habit. It doesn't make it easy. Indeed, we usually are creatures of habit and our behavior is under the control of environmental stimuli far more than we usually realize, but having the ability to exercise inhibitory control creates the possibility of change and choice. ... The subthalamic nucleus appears to play a critical role in preventing such impulsive or premature responding (Frank 2006).
8921:
conceptualized as a disorder of executive function; specifically, ADHD is characterized by reduced ability to exert and maintain cognitive control of behavior. Compared with healthy individuals, those with ADHD have diminished ability to suppress inappropriate prepotent responses to stimuli (impaired response inhibition) and diminished ability to inhibit responses to irrelevant stimuli (impaired interference suppression). ... Functional neuroimaging in humans demonstrates activation of the prefrontal cortex and caudate nucleus (part of the striatum) in tasks that demand inhibitory control of behavior. Subjects with ADHD exhibit less activation of the medial prefrontal cortex than healthy controls even when they succeed in such tasks and utilize different circuits. ... Early results with structural MRI show thinning of the cerebral cortex in ADHD subjects compared with age-matched controls in prefrontal cortex and posterior parietal cortex, areas involved in working memory and attention.
1743:
physical or emotional neglect, witnessing violence in the household, or a parent being incarcerated or having a mental illness. As a result, the child's cognitive functioning or ability to cope with negative or disruptive emotions may be impaired. Over time, the child may adopt substance use as a coping mechanism or as a result of reduced impulse control, particularly during adolescence. Vast amounts of children who experienced abuse have gone on to have some form of addiction in their adolescence or adult life. This pathway towards addiction that is opened through stressful experiences during childhood can be avoided by a change in environmental factors throughout an individual's life and opportunities of professional help. If one has friends or peers who engage in drug use favorably, the chances of them developing an addiction increases. Family conflict and home management is a cause for one to become engaged in drug use.
3773:, conceptualizes diagnosis somewhat differently. ICD-11 first distinguishes between problems with psychoactive substance use ("Disorders due to substance use") and behavioral addictions ("Disorders due to addictive behaviours"). With regard to psychoactive substances, ICD-11 explains that the included substances initially produce "pleasant or appealing psychoactive effects that are rewarding and reinforcing with repeated use, with continued use, many of the included substances have the capacity to produce dependence. They have the potential to cause numerous forms of harm, both to mental and physical health." Instead of the DSM-5 approach of one diagnosis ("Substance Use Disorder") covering all types of problematic substance use, ICD-11 offers three diagnostic possibilities: 1) Episode of Harmful Psychoactive Substance Use, 2) Harmful Pattern of Psychoactive Substance Use, and 3) Substance Dependence.
10397:ΔFosB is an essential transcription factor implicated in the molecular and behavioral pathways of addiction following repeated drug exposure. The formation of ΔFosB in multiple brain regions, and the molecular pathway leading to the formation of AP-1 complexes is well understood. The establishment of a functional purpose for ΔFosB has allowed further determination as to some of the key aspects of its molecular cascadesAs a consequence of our improved understanding of ΔFosB in addiction, it is possible to evaluate the addictive potential of current medications (119), as well as use it as a biomarker for assessing the efficacy of therapeutic interventions (121,122,124). Some of these proposed interventions have limitations (125) or are in their infancy (75). However, it is hoped that some of these preliminary findings may lead to innovative treatments, which are much needed in addiction.
8879:
disproportionately, if something is not right in your life. They suffer first, and most, if you are stressed (Arnsten 1998, Liston et al. 2009, Oaten & Cheng 2005), sad (Hirt et al. 2008, von Hecker & Meiser 2005), lonely (Baumeister et al. 2002, Cacioppo & Patrick 2008, Campbell et al. 2006, Tun et al. 2012), sleep deprived (Barnes et al. 2012, Huang et al. 2007), or not physically fit (Best 2010, Chaddock et al. 2011, Hillman et al. 2008). Any of these can cause you to appear to have a disorder of EFs, such as ADHD, when you do not. You can see the deleterious effects of stress, sadness, loneliness, and lack of physical health or fitness at the physiological and neuroanatomical level in prefrontal cortex and at the behavioral level in worse EFs (poorer reasoning and problem solving, forgetting things, and impaired ability to exercise discipline and self-control). ...
635:(DSM or DSM-5) and is based on subjective experiences similar to substance use disorders. Food addiction may be found in those with eating disorders, though not all people with eating disorders have food addiction and not all of those with food addiction have a diagnosed eating disorder. Long-term frequent and excessive consumption of foods high in fat, salt, or sugar, such as chocolate, can produce an addiction similar to drugs since they trigger the brain's reward system, such that the individual may desire the same foods to an increasing degree over time. The signals sent when consuming highly palatable foods have the ability to counteract the body's signals for fullness and persistent cravings will result. Those who show signs of food addiction may develop food tolerances, in which they eat more, despite the food becoming less satisfactory.
4454:
found to be particularly effective at distinguishing the drawings of those with SUDs from those without: Person, Realism, and
Developmental. The Person element assesses the degree to which a human features are depicted realistically, the Realism element assesses the overall complexity of the artwork, and the Developmental element assesses "developmental age" of the artwork in relation to standardized drawings from children and adolescents. By using the FEATS assessment tool, clinicians can gain valuable insight into the drawings of individuals with SUDs, and can compare them to those of the control group. Formal assessments such as FEATS provide healthcare providers with a means to quantify, standardize, and communicate abstract and visceral characteristics of SUDs to provide more accurate diagnoses and informed treatment decisions.
11879:
can vary independently of learning. Neurobiological state changes can produce unlearned fluctuations or even reversals in the ability of a previously learned reward cue to trigger motivation. Such fluctuations in cue-triggered motivation can dramatically depart from all previously learned values about the associated reward outcome. ... Associative learning and prediction are important contributors to motivation for rewards. Learning gives incentive value to arbitrary cues such as a
Pavlovian conditioned stimulus (CS) that is associated with a reward (unconditioned stimulus or UCS). Learned cues for reward are often potent triggers of desires. For example, learned cues can trigger normal appetites in everyone, and can sometimes trigger compulsive urges and relapse in individuals with addictions.
5052:. The male but not female offspring of these cocaine-exposed rats inherited both epigenetic marks (i.e., di-acetylation of lysine residues 9 and 14 on histone 3) within mPFC neurons, the corresponding increase in BDNF expression within mPFC neurons, and the behavioral phenotype associated with these effects (i.e., a reduction in cocaine reward, resulting in reduced cocaine-seeking by these male offspring). Consequently, the transmission of these two cocaine-induced epigenetic alterations (i.e., H3K9ac2 and H3K14ac2) in rats from male fathers to male offspring served to reduce the offspring's risk of developing an addiction to cocaine. As of 2018, neither the heritability of these epigenetic marks in humans nor the behavioral effects of the marks within human mPFC neurons has been established.
13125:
including stigma against treating people with addictions and institutional barriers to providing or funding addiction treatment. ... A major milestone was reached on March 14, 2016, when the
American Board of Medical Specialties (ABMS) formally announced recognition of the field of Addiction Medicine as a medical subspecialty. ... In a statement issued to mark this milestone, ABAM President Robert J. Sokol summed up its significance: 'This landmark event, more than any other, recognizes addiction as a preventable and treatable disease, helping to shed the stigma that has long plagued it. It sends a strong message to the public that American medicine is committed to providing expert care for this disease and services designed to prevent the risky substance use that precedes it.'
5337:
that define a state of addiction. ... A large body of literature has demonstrated that such ΔFosB induction in D1-type neurons increases an animal's sensitivity to drug as well as natural rewards and promotes drug self-administration, presumably through a process of positive reinforcement ... Another ΔFosB target is cFos: as ΔFosB accumulates with repeated drug exposure it represses c-Fos and contributes to the molecular switch whereby ΔFosB is selectively induced in the chronic drug-treated state. ... Moreover, there is increasing evidence that, despite a range of genetic risks for addiction across the population, exposure to sufficiently high doses of a drug for long periods of time can transform someone who has relatively lower genetic loading into an addict.
4557:
6812:ΔFosB has been linked directly to several addiction-related behaviors ... Importantly, genetic or viral overexpression of ΔJunD, a dominant negative mutant of JunD which antagonizes ΔFosB- and other AP-1-mediated transcriptional activity, in the NAc or OFC blocks these key effects of drug exposure. This indicates that ΔFosB is both necessary and sufficient for many of the changes wrought in the brain by chronic drug exposure. ΔFosB is induced in D1-type NAc MSNs by chronic consumption of several natural rewards, including sucrose, high fat food, sex, wheel running, where it promotes that consumption. This implicates ΔFosB in the regulation of natural rewards under normal conditions and perhaps during pathological addictive-like states.
11072:
expression (Maze et al., 2010; Sun et al., 2012a). ... Also, G9a is induced in NAc upon prolonged HDAC inhibition, which explains the paradoxical attenuation of cocaine's behavioral effects seen under these conditions, as noted above (Kennedy et al., 2013). GABAA receptor subunit genes are among those that are controlled by this feedback loop. Thus, chronic cocaine, or prolonged HDAC inhibition, induces several GABAA receptor subunits in NAc, which is associated with increased frequency of inhibitory postsynaptic currents (IPSCs). In striking contrast, combined exposure to cocaine and HDAC inhibition, which triggers the induction of G9a and increased global levels of H3K9me2, leads to blockade of GABAA receptor and IPSC regulation.
883:
Others argue that internet addiction should be considered a symptom of an underlying mental health condition and not a disorder in itself. Internet addiction has been described as "a psychological dependence on the
Internet, regardless of the type of activity once logged on." Problematic internet use may include a preoccupation with the internet and/or digital media, excessive time spent using the internet despite resultant distress in the individual, increase in the amount of internet use required to achieve the same desired emotional response, loss of control over one's internet use habits, withdrawal symptoms, and continued problematic internet use despite negative consequences to one's work, social, academic, or personal life.
11926:
motoric responses to stimuli that satisfy internal homeostatic needs. The shell of the NAc appears to be particularly important to initial drug actions within reward circuitry; addictive drugs appear to have a greater effect on dopamine release in the shell than in the core of the NAc. ... If motivational drive is described in terms of wanting, and hedonic evaluation in terms of liking, it appears that wanting can be dissociated from liking and that dopamine may influence these phenomena differently. Differences between wanting and liking are confirmed in reports by humans with addictions, who state that their desire for drugs (wanting) increases with continued use even when pleasure (liking) decreases because of tolerance.
555:, is a chronic and relapsing brain disorder that features drug seeking and drug abuse, despite their harmful effects. This form of addiction changes brain circuitry such that the brain's reward system is compromised, causing functional consequences for stress management and self-control. Damage to the functions of the organs involved can persist throughout a lifetime and cause death if untreated. Substances involved with drug addiction include alcohol, nicotine, marijuana, opioids, cocaine, amphetamines, and even foods with high fat and sugar content. Addictions can begin experimentally in social contexts and can arise from the use of prescribed medications or a variety of other measures.
4531:
addiction in an empowering manner, and thus serves as a viable therapeutic tool in applied gerontology. When treating substance abuse in older adults, it is essential to ensure that the client is respected and comfortable disclosing information. This should be done at the outset of treatment when the therapist and older adult are developing the therapeutic relationship. The social breakdown model is an important tool that can consider the compounded effects of ageism, physical changes, social changes, and substance abuse. The narrative approach integrates the social breakdown model with substance abuse challenges and can be an effective way to address addiction in this population.
11920:
terminal fields, dopamine confers motivational salience ("wanting") on the reward itself or associated cues (nucleus accumbens shell region), updates the value placed on different goals in light of this new experience (orbital prefrontal cortex), helps consolidate multiple forms of memory (amygdala and hippocampus), and encodes new motor programs that will facilitate obtaining this reward in the future (nucleus accumbens core region and dorsal striatum). In this example, dopamine modulates the processing of sensorimotor information in diverse neural circuits to maximize the ability of the organism to obtain future rewards. ...
71:
10563:
demonstrated how dopamine modulates this integrative process. For example, high frequency stimulation potentiates hippocampal inputs to the NAc while simultaneously depressing PFC synapses (Goto and Grace, 2005). The converse was also shown to be true; stimulation at PFC potentiates PFC–NAc synapses but depresses hippocampal–NAc synapses. In light of the new functional evidence of midbrain dopamine/glutamate co-transmission (references above), new experiments of NAc function will have to test whether midbrain glutamatergic inputs bias or filter either limbic or cortical inputs to guide goal-directed behavior.
4395:
healthy ways. The arts can be used as an assessment tool to identify underlying issues that may be contributing to a person's substance use disorder. Through art, individuals can gain insights into their own motivations and behaviors that can be helpful in determining a course of treatment. Finally, the arts can be used to advocate for those suffering from a substance use disorder by raising awareness of the issue and promoting understanding and compassion. Through art, individuals can share their stories, increase awareness, and offer support and hope to those struggling with substance use disorders.
11069:
potentiates behavioral responses to cocaine and opiates, whereas increasing G9a function exerts the opposite effect (Maze et al., 2010; Sun et al., 2012a). Such drug-induced downregulation of G9a and H3K9me2 also sensitizes animals to the deleterious effects of subsequent chronic stress (Covington et al., 2011). Downregulation of G9a increases the dendritic arborization of NAc neurons, and is associated with increased expression of numerous proteins implicated in synaptic function, which directly connects altered G9a/H3K9me2 in the synaptic plasticity associated with addiction (Maze et al., 2010).
4527:
analysis: optimistic, overly optimistic, pessimistic, overly pessimistic, "tough life," troubled/confused, and balanced. Narratives tended to express a basic level of emotionality in early stages of treatment ("optimistic", "pessimistic" narrative). Over time, as clients progressed through the program, their stories became more complex and detailed, including their drug abuse and recovery efforts, more skeptical positions towards treatment began to emerge. Clients began to distinguish between the positive and negative aspects of treatment, creating more "balanced" narratives in the process.
3797:
of drugs. When looking at abuse liability there are a number of determining factors in whether the drug is abused. These factors are: the chemical makeup of the drug, the effects on the brain, and the age, vulnerability, and the health (mental and physical) of the population being studied. There are a few drugs with a specific chemical makeup that leads to a high abuse liability. These are: cocaine, heroin, inhalants, marijuana, MDMA (ecstasy), methamphetamine, PCP, synthetic cannabinoids, synthetic cathinones (bath salts), nicotine (e.g. tobacco), and alcohol.
1622:. Dopamine is responsible for producing pleasurable feelings, as well driving us to perform important life activities. Addictive drugs cause a significant increase in this reward system, causing a large increase in dopamine signaling as well as increase in reward-seeking behavior, in turn motivating drug use. This promotes the development of a maladaptive drug to stimulus relationship. Early drug use leads to these maladaptive associations, later affecting cognitive processes used for coping, which are needed to successfully abstain from them.
4437:
and comparing artwork created at different times, art therapists can be helpful in identifying and diagnosing issues, as well as charting the extent or direction of improvement as a person detoxifies. Where increasing adherence to treatment regimes and maintaining abstinence is the target; art therapists can aid by customizing treatment directives (encourage the client to create collages that compare pros and cons, pictures that compare past and present and future, and drawings that depict what happened when a client went off medication).
4441:
based on the 12 step
Minnesota Model endorsed by the Alcoholics Anonymous found that 66% of participants expressed the usefulness of art therapy as a part of treatment. Within the weekly art therapy session, clients were able to reflect and process the intense emotions and cognitions evoked by the programme. In turn, the art therapy component of the programme fostered stronger self-awareness, exploration, and externalization of repressed and unconscious emotions of clients, promoting the development of a more integrated 'authentic self'.
1685:. Knestler hypothesized in 1964 that a gene or group of genes might contribute to predisposition to addiction in several ways. For example, altered levels of a normal protein due to environmental factors may change the structure or functioning of specific brain neurons during development. These altered brain neurons could affect the susceptibility of an individual to an initial drug use experience. In support of this hypothesis, animal studies have shown that environmental factors such as stress can affect an animal's genetic expression.
1722:(NIDA) and studies cite lack of parental supervision, the prevalence of peer substance use, substance availability, and poverty as risk factors for substance use among children and adolescents. The brain disease model of addiction posits that an individual's exposure to an addictive drug is the most significant environmental risk factor for addiction. Many researchers, including neuroscientists, indicate that the brain disease model presents a misleading, incomplete, and potentially detrimental explanation of addiction.
11978:
specific case of drug addiction, cues and contexts that are intimately and repeatedly associated with drug use will themselves become reinforcing ... A fundamental piece of
Robinson and Berridge's incentive-sensitization theory of addiction posits that the incentive value or attractive nature of such secondary reinforcement processes, in addition to the primary reinforcers themselves, may persist and even become sensitized over time in league with the development of drug addiction (Robinson and Berridge, 1993).
2628:
4404:
communication difficulties, and a perceived lack of control. In a similar vein, people suffering from substance use disorders tend to be highly sensitive, creative, and as such, are likely able to express themselves meaningfully in creative arts such as dancing, painting, writing, music, and acting. Further evidenced by Waller and Mahony (2002) and
Kaufman (1981), the creative arts therapies can be a suitable treatment option for this population especially when verbal communication is ineffective.
2384:
2140:
16585:
3718:– and therefore physical withdrawal symptoms occur on cessation of use. Tolerance is the process by which the body continually adapts to the substance and requires increasingly larger amounts to achieve the original effects. Withdrawal refers to physical and psychological symptoms experienced when reducing or discontinuing a substance that the body has become dependent on. Symptoms of withdrawal generally include but are not limited to body aches,
1681:) factors, have been established as significant contributors to addiction vulnerability. Studies done on 350 hospitalized drug-dependent patients showed that over half met the criteria for alcohol abuse, with a role of familial factors being prevalent. Genetic factors account for 40–60% of the risk factors for alcoholism. Similar rates of heritability for other types of drug addiction have been indicated, specifically in genes that encode the
1877:, certain addiction-induced epigenetic alterations in rats can be transmitted from parent to offspring and produce behavioral phenotypes that decrease the offspring's risk of developing an addiction. More generally, the heritable behavioral phenotypes that are derived from addiction-induced epigenetic alterations and transmitted from parent to offspring may serve to either increase or decrease the offspring's risk of developing an addiction.
19136:
1637:
individuals with a relatively low genetic risk, exposure to sufficiently high doses of an addictive drug for a long period of time (e.g., weeks–months) can result in an addiction. Adverse childhood events are associated with negative health outcomes, such as substance use disorder. Childhood abuse or exposure to violent crime is related to developing a mood or anxiety disorder, as well as a substance dependence risk.
4514:
nurses with knowledge of mainstream systems, aesthetic knowing, feminism and substance use organized weekly gatherings, wherein women with histories of substance use and addiction worked alongside a nurse to create artistic expressions. Creations were presented at several venues, including an
International Conference on Drug Related Harm, a Nursing Conference and a local gallery to positive community response.
1139:
addictions among adolescents. This tool uses a set of questions for different scenarios. In the case of a specific combination of answers, different question sets can be used to yield a more accurate answer. After the questions, the DSM-5 criteria are used to identify the likelihood of the person having substance use disorder. After these tests are done, the clinician is to give the "5 RS" of brief counseling.
19124:
4688:, Heath proposed the 'cultural model', suggesting that 'problems' associated with heavy drinking, such as alcoholism – a recognised form addiction – were cultural: that is, that alcoholism is determined by cultural beliefs, and therefore varies among cultures. Heath's findings challenged the notion that 'continued use is inexorably addictive and damaging to the consumer's health'.
13085:
injuries, overdose deaths, suicides, homicides, domestic discord, the highest incarceration rate in the world and many other costly social consequences. The economic cost to society is greater than the cost of diabetes and all cancers combined. Despite these startling statistics on the prevalence and costs of addiction, few physicians have been trained to prevent or treat it.
13082:
people in the United States needed treatment for addiction involving alcohol or drugs other than nicotine, but only 11.6 percent received any form of inpatient, residential, or outpatient treatment. Of those who do receive treatment, few receive evidence-based care. (There is no information available on how many individuals receive treatment for addiction involving nicotine.)
19112:
10506:) where it recruits HDAC1 as a corepressor. ... Chronic exposure to psychostimulants increases glutamatergic from the prefrontal cortex to the NAc. Glutamatergic signaling elevates Ca2+ levels in NAc postsynaptic elements where it activates CaMK (calcium/calmodulin protein kinases) signaling, which, in addition to phosphorylating CREB, also phosphorylates HDAC5.
1819:. The epigenetic state of chromatin may pose as a risk for the development of substance addictions. It has been found that emotional stressors, as well as social adversities may lead to an initial epigenetic response, which causes an alteration to the reward-signalling pathways. This change may predispose one to experience a positive response to drug use.
9106:
al., 1972). The environment plays a large role in the development of addiction as evidenced by great societal variability in drug use patterns between countries and across time (UNODC, 2012). Therefore, both genetics and the environment contribute to an individual's vulnerability to become addicted following an initial exposure to drugs of abuse. ...
958:, negatively affected relationships, increased risk of illegal behavior, and suicide attempts. Shopping addiction occurs worldwide and has shown a 5.8% prevalence in the United States. Similar to other behavioral addictions, CBD can be linked to mood disorders, substance use disorders, eating disorders, and other disorders involving a lack of control.
10440:ΔFosB is considered a primary and causative transcription factor in creating new neural connections in the reward centre, prefrontal cortex, and other regions of the limbic system. This is reflected in the increased, stable and long-lasting level of sensitivity to cocaine and other drugs, and tendency to relapse even after long periods of abstinence.
1767:
behavioral decision-making process. Therefore, adolescents are increasingly likely to act on their impulses and engage in risky, potentially addicting behavior before considering the consequences. Not only are adolescents more likely to initiate and maintain drug use, but once addicted they are more resistant to treatment and more liable to relapse.
1704:(GWAS) are used to examine genetic associations with dependence, addiction, and drug use. These studies rarely identify genes from proteins previously described via animal knockout models and candidate gene analysis. Instead, large percentages of genes involved in processes such as cell adhesion are commonly identified. The important effects of
4673:, the habitual heavy consumption of alcohol, was encouraged and valued, enforcing social bonds in the Camba community. Despite frequent intoxication, "even to the point of unconsciousness", the Camba held no concept of alcoholism (a form of addiction), and no visible social problems associated with drunkenness, or addiction, were apparent.
8826:
determined, and that many responses are relatively automatic, unattended, contention-scheduled, and habitual. Indeed, the cognitive flexibility, response inhibition, and self-regulation that appear to be hallmarks of cognitive control are noteworthy only in contrast to responses that are relatively rigid, associative, and involuntary.
4506:
recorded to measure engagement, and the student artists were interviewed, which revealed a change in perspective and understanding, as well as greater appreciation of diverse experiences. Ultimately, the project found that art was an effective medium for empowering both the artist creating the work and the person interacting with it.
887:
universally accepted diagnostic criteria, a lack of diagnostic instruments demonstrating cross-cultural validity and reliability, and existing controversy surrounding the validity of labeling problematic internet use as an addictive disorder. The most common scale used to measure addiction is the Internet Addiction Test developed by
5112:" for a reward, is a "desire" or "want" attribute, which includes a motivational component, that the brain assigns to a rewarding stimulus. As a consequence, incentive salience acts as a motivational "magnet" for a rewarding stimulus that commands attention, induces approach, and causes the rewarding stimulus to be sought out.
11888:
incentive salience are often visible that can be used in neuroscience experiments: (i) UCS-directed 'wanting' – CS-triggered pulses of intensified 'wanting' for the UCS reward; and (ii) CS-directed 'wanting' – motivated attraction to the Pavlovian cue, which makes the arbitrary CS stimulus into a motivational magnet.
10703:ΔFosB serves as one of the master control proteins governing this structural plasticity. ... ΔFosB also represses G9a expression, leading to reduced repressive histone methylation at the cdk5 gene. The net result is gene activation and increased CDK5 expression. ... In contrast, ΔFosB binds to the
11808:
Recent evidence has shown that ΔFosB also represses the c-fos gene that helps create the molecular switch – from the induction of several short-lived Fos family proteins after acute drug exposure to the predominant accumulation of ΔFosB after chronic drug exposure – cited earlier (Renthal et al.
10592:
Most addictive drugs increase extracellular concentrations of dopamine (DA) in nucleus accumbens (NAc) and medial prefrontal cortex (mPFC), projection areas of mesocorticolimbic DA neurons and key components of the "brain reward circuit". Amphetamine achieves this elevation in extracellular levels of
6729:
et al, 2004), playing video games (Koepp et al, 1998; Hoeft et al, 2008) and the sight of appetizing food (Wang et al, 2004a) activate many of the same brain regions (i.e., the mesocorticolimbic system and extended amygdala) as drugs of abuse (Volkow et al, 2004). ... Cross-sensitization is also
4478:
Artists who have personally lived with addiction and/or undergone recovery may use art to depict their experiences in a manner that uncovers the "human face of addiction". By bringing experiences of addiction and recovery to a personal level and breaking down the "us and them", the viewer may be more
754:
does not recognize sexual addiction as a clinical diagnosis. Hypersexuality disorder and internet addiction disorder were among proposed addictions to the DSM-5, but were later rejected due to the insufficient evidence available in support of the existence of these disorders as discrete mental health
13124:
Only about 10 percent of the 21 million Americans who meet the need for care for an alcohol or drug use disorder receive any form of treatment, and much of the treatment available does not meet standards for evidence-based care. There are many attitudinal and systemic reasons for this treatment gap,
11977:
An important dimension of reinforcement highly relevant to the addiction process (and particularly relapse) is secondary reinforcement (Stewart, 1992). Secondary reinforcers (in many cases also considered conditioned reinforcers) likely drive the majority of reinforcement processes in humans. In the
11371:
Although the ΔFosB signal is relatively long-lived, it is not permanent. ΔFosB degrades gradually and can no longer be detected in brain after 1–2 months of drug withdrawal ... Indeed, ΔFosB is the longest-lived adaptation known to occur in adult brain, not only in response to drugs of abuse,
10774:
The 35-37 kD ΔFosB isoforms accumulate with chronic drug exposure due to their extraordinarily long half-lives. ... As a result of its stability, the ΔFosB protein persists in neurons for at least several weeks after cessation of drug exposure. ... ΔFosB overexpression in nucleus accumbens
10497:
increase cAMP levels in striatum, which activates protein kinase A (PKA) and leads to phosphorylation of its targets. This includes the cAMP response element binding protein (CREB), the phosphorylation of which induces its association with the histone acetyltransferase, CREB binding protein (CBP) to
6170:
Addiction: A term used to indicate the most severe, chronic stage of substance-use disorder, in which there is a substantial loss of self-control, as indicated by compulsive drug taking despite the desire to stop taking the drug. In the DSM-5, the term addiction is synonymous with the classification
6167:
Substance-use disorder: A diagnostic term in the fifth edition of the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM-5) referring to recurrent use of alcohol or other drugs that causes clinically and functionally significant impairment, such as health problems, disability, and failure to
4902:
from methamphetamine use), the loss of productivity and associated welfare costs, fatal and non-fatal accidents (e.g., traffic collisions), suicides, homicides, and incarceration, among others. The US National Institute on Drug Abuse has found that overdose deaths in the US have almost tripled among
4885:
The transtheoretical model can be helpful in guiding development of tailored behavioral interventions that can promote lasting change. Progression through these stages may not always follow a linear path, as individuals may move back and forth between stages. Resistance to change is recognized as an
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and others, who felt anthropologists could "downgrade the severity of the problem". Merrill Singer found it notable that the ethnographers working within the prominence of the cultural model were part of the 'wet generation': while not blind to the 'disruptive, dysfunctional and debilitating effects
4505:
The Temple University College of Public Health department conducted a project to promote awareness around opioid use and reduce associated stigma by asking students to create art pieces that were displayed on a website they created and promoted via social media. Quantitative and qualitative data was
4500:
The use of visual arts can help bring attention to the lack of adequate substance use treatment, prevention, and education programs and services in a healthcare system. Messages can encourage policymakers to allocate more resources to addiction treatment and prevention from federal, state, and local
4103:
Estimates of lifetime prevalence rates in the US are 1–2% for compulsive gambling, 5% for sexual addiction, 2.8% for food addiction, and 5–6% for compulsive shopping. The time-invariant prevalence rate for sexual addiction and related compulsive sexual behavior (e.g., compulsive masturbation with or
4044:
In 2015, the estimated prevalence among the adult population was 18.4% for heavy episodic alcohol use (in the past 30 days); 15.2% for daily tobacco smoking; and 3.8% for cannabis use, 0.77% for amphetamine use, 0.37% for opioid use, and 0.35% for cocaine use in 2017. The mortality rates for alcohol
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Abuse or addiction liability is the tendency to use drugs in a non-medical situation. This is typically for euphoria, mood changing, or sedation. Abuse liability is used when the person using the drugs wants something that they otherwise can not obtain. The only way to obtain this is through the use
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as a form of defense against feelings of hopelessness and helplessness as well as a symptom of failure to regulate powerful emotions related to adverse childhood experiences (ACEs), various forms of maltreatment and dysfunction experienced in childhood. In this case, the addictive substance provides
1692:
The data implicating specific genes in the development of drug addiction is mixed for most genes. Many addiction studies that aim to identify specific genes focus on common variants with an allele frequency of greater than 5% in the general population. When associated with disease, these only confer
1688:
In humans, twin studies into addiction have provided some of the highest-quality evidence of this link, with results finding that if one twin is affected by addiction, the other twin is likely to be as well, and to the same substance. Further evidence of a genetic component is research findings from
1176:
The Alcohol, Smoking, and Substance Involvement Test (ASSIST) is an interview-based questionnaire consisting of eight questions developed by the WHO. The questions ask about lifetime use; frequency of use; urge to use; frequency of health, financial, social, or legal problems related to use; failure
864:
Gambling addiction has been associated with some personality traits, including: harm avoidance, low self direction, decision making and planning insufficiencies, impulsivity, as well as sensation seeking individuals. Although some personality traits can be linked with gambling addiction, there is no
13081:
Sixteen percent of the non-institutionalized U.S. population age 12 and over – more than 40 million Americans – meets medical criteria for addiction involving nicotine, alcohol or other drugs. This is more than the number of Americans with cancer, diabetes or heart conditions. In 2014, 22.5 million
11878:
Here I discuss how mesocorticolimbic mechanisms generate the motivation component of incentive salience. Incentive salience takes Pavlovian learning and memory as one input and as an equally important input takes neurobiological state factors (e.g. drug states, appetite states, satiety states) that
11131:
It has been found that deltaFosB gene in the NAc is critical for reinforcing effects of sexual reward. Pitchers and colleagues (2010) reported that sexual experience was shown to cause DeltaFosB accumulation in several limbic brain regions including the NAc, medial pre-frontal cortex, VTA, caudate,
7148:
Drugs of abuse induce neuroplasticity in the natural reward pathway, specifically the nucleus accumbens (NAc), thereby causing development and expression of addictive behavior. ... Together, these findings demonstrate that drugs of abuse and natural reward behaviors act on common molecular and
7084:
Sexual addiction, which is also known as hypersexual disorder, has largely been ignored by psychiatrists, even though the condition causes serious psychosocial problems for many people. A lack of empirical evidence on sexual addiction is the result of the disease's complete absence from versions of
4973:
In other words, a person cannot control the neurobiological processes that occur in the body in response to using an addictive drug. A person can make a voluntary choice to, for example, start using a drug (or not), or to seek help after becoming addicted, although resisting the urge to use drug(s)
4534:
A study conducted in 2009 in the Republic of Moldova looked into the social dynamics of initiating injection drug usage by examining 42 audio-recorded, semi-structured interviews with present and former injectors. A thematic analysis suggested that self-injection was viewed as a symbolic transition
4522:
The narrative medicine to addiction focuses on recognizing, absorbing, and interpreting the stories of those suffering from addiction, allowing for better understanding of their experiences with narrative analysis being used to study the discourse of those with addiction. This knowledge can be used
4457:
Other artistic assessment methods include the Bird's Nest Drawing: a useful tool for visualizing a client's attachment security. This assessment method looks at the amount of color used in the drawing, with a lack of color indicating an 'insecure attachment', a factor that the client's therapist or
4444:
Despite the large number of randomized control trials, clinical control trials, and anecdotal evidence supporting the effectiveness of art therapies for use in addiction treatment, a systematic review conducted in 2018 could not find enough evidence on visual art, drama, dance and movement therapy,
4172:
report, although South America produced 3% of the world's morphine and heroin and 0.01% of its opium, prevalence of use is uneven. According to the Inter-American Commission on Drug Abuse Control, consumption of heroin is low in most Latin American countries, although Colombia is the area's largest
11922:
The brain reward circuitry that is targeted by addictive drugs normally mediates the pleasure and strengthening of behaviors associated with natural reinforcers, such as food, water, and sexual contact. Dopamine neurons in the VTA are activated by food and water, and dopamine release in the NAc is
8881:
EFs can be improved (Diamond & Lee 2011, Klingberg 2010). ... At any age across the life cycle EFs can be improved, including in the elderly and in infants. There has been much work with excellent results on improving EFs in the elderly by improving physical fitness (Erickson & Kramer
4808:
The three models developed here – the cultural model, the subcultural model, and the Critical Medical Anthropology Model – display how addiction is not an experience to be considered only biomedically. Through consideration of addiction alongside the biological, psychological, social, cultural and
4513:
A project known as "Voice" was a collection of art, poetry and narratives created by women living with a history of addiction to explore women's understanding of harm reduction, challenge the effects of stigma and give voice to those who have historically been silenced or devalued. In the project,
4436:
Art therapy is an effective method of dealing with substance abuse in comprehensive treatment models. When included in psychoeducational programs, art therapy in a group setting can help clients internalize taught concepts in a more personalized manner. During the course of treatment, by examining
710:
Addiction can exist in the absence of psychotropic drugs, which was popularized by Peele. These are termed behavioral addictions. Such addictions may be passive or active, but they commonly contain reinforcing features, which are found in most addictions. Sexual behavior, eating, gambling, playing
350:" is also a polyseme denoting either neuropsychological symptoms or mental disorders. In the DSM-5, dependences differ from addictions and can even normally happen without addictions; besides, substance-use dependences are severe stages of substance-use addictions (i.e. mental disorders) involving
9105:
However, the components that are responsible for the heritability of characteristics that make an individual more susceptible to drug addiction in humans remain largely unknown given that patterns of inheritance cannot be explained by simple genetic mechanisms (Cloninger et al., 1981; Schuckit et
8917:
These diverse inputs and back projections to both cortical and subcortical structures put the prefrontal cortex in a position to exert what is called "top-down" control or cognitive control of behavior. ... The prefrontal cortex receives inputs not only from other cortical regions, including
5336:
Despite the importance of numerous psychosocial factors, at its core, drug addiction involves a biological process: the ability of repeated exposure to a drug of abuse to induce changes in a vulnerable brain that drive the compulsive seeking and taking of drugs, and loss of control over drug use,
4509:
Another author critically examined works by contemporary Canadian artists that deal with addiction via the metaphor of a cultural landscape to "unmap" and "remap" ideologies related to Indigenous communities and addiction to demonstrate how colonial violence in Canada has drastically impacted the
4461:
Art therapists working with children of parents suffering from alcoholism can use the Kinetic Family Drawings assessment tool to shed light on family dynamics and help children express and understand their family experiences. The KFD can be used in family sessions to allow children to share their
4440:
Art therapy can function as a complementary therapy used in conjunction with more conventional therapies and can can integrate with harm reduction protocols to minimize the negative effects of drug use. An evaluation of art therapy incorporation within a pre-existing Addiction Treatment Programme
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at (or adjacent to) particular genes, and (3) epigenetic downregulation or upregulation of microRNAs which have particular target genes. As an example, while hundreds of genes in the cells of the nucleus accumbens (NAc) exhibit histone modifications following drug exposure – particularly, altered
1898:, is a critical component and common factor in the development of virtually all forms of behavioral and drug addictions. Two decades of research into ΔFosB's role in addiction have demonstrated that addiction arises, and the associated compulsive behavior intensifies or attenuates, along with the
1613:
Cognitive control is the intentional selection of thoughts, behaviors, and emotions, based on our environment. It has been shown that drugs alter the way our brains function, and its structure. Cognitive functions such as learning, memory, and impulse control, are affected by drugs. These effects
1138:
The CRAFFT (Car-Relax-Alone-Forget-Family and Friends-Trouble) is a screening tool that is used in medical centers. The CRAFFT is in version 2.1 and has a version for nicotine and tobacco use called the CRAFFT 2.1+N. This tool is used to identify substance use, substance related driving risk, and
1129:
This is a screening and assessment tool in one, assessing commonly used substances. This tool allows for a simple diagnosis, eliminating the need for several screening and assessment tools, as it includes both TAPS-1 and TAPS-2, screening and assessment tools respectively. The screening component
661:
on the hypothesis that foods high in fat, sugar, and salt have addictive-like effects which contribute to problematic eating habits. The YFAS is designed to address 11 substance-related and addictive disorders (SRADs) using a 25-item self-report questionnaire, based on the diagnostic criteria for
12196:
The official diagnosis of drug addiction by the Diagnostic and Statistic Manual of Mental Disorders (2013), which uses the term substance use disorder, is flawed. Criteria used to make the diagnosis of substance use disorders include tolerance and somatic dependence/withdrawal, even though these
11919:
VTA DA neurons play a critical role in motivation, reward-related behavior (Chapter 15), attention, and multiple forms of memory. This organization of the DA system, wide projection from a limited number of cell bodies, permits coordinated responses to potent new rewards. Thus, acting in diverse
11071:
G9a appears to be a critical control point for epigenetic regulation in NAc, as we know it functions in two negative feedback loops. It opposes the induction of ΔFosB, a long-lasting transcription factor important for drug addiction (Robison and Nestler, 2011), while ΔFosB in turn suppresses G9a
4881:
Recognizing that relapse is a common part of the change process, this stage focuses on identifying and addressing factors that may lead to a return to old behaviors. Relapse is viewed as an opportunity for learning and strategy adjustment, with the ultimate goal of eliminating or terminating the
4490:
A powerful educational tool for increasing awareness and understanding of addiction as a medical illness. Exhibitions featuring personal stories and images can help to create lasting impressions on diverse audiences (including addiction scientists/researchers, family/friends of those affected by
4453:
The Formal Elements Art Therapy Scale (FEATS) is an assessment tool used to evaluate drawings created by people suffering from substance use disorders by comparing them to drawings of a control group (consisting of individuals without SUDs). FEATS consists of twelve elements, three of which were
4025:
conducted a national drug survey that quantified drug use for various types of drugs and demographics. The national found that in 2019, 11% of people over 14 years old smoke daily; that 9.9% of those who drink alcohol, which equates to 7.5% of the total population age 14 or older, may qualify as
1742:
between ACEs and numerous health, social, and behavioral problems throughout a person's lifespan, including substance use disorder. Children's neurological development can be permanently disrupted when they are chronically exposed to stressful events such as physical, emotional, or sexual abuse,
1717:
Environmental risk factors for addiction are the experiences of an individual during their lifetime that interact with the individual's genetic composition to increase or decrease his or her vulnerability to addiction. For example, after the nationwide outbreak of COVID-19, more people quit (vs.
882:
does not have any standardized definition, yet there is widespread agreement that this problem exists. Debate over the classification of problematic internet use considers whether it should be thought of as a behavioral addiction, an impulse control disorder, or an obsessive-compulsive disorder.
11925:
The NAc and VTA are central components of the circuitry underlying reward and memory of reward. As previously mentioned, the activity of dopaminergic neurons in the VTA appears to be linked to reward prediction. The NAc is involved in learning associated with reinforcement and the modulation of
4889:
Addiction causes an "astoundingly high financial and human toll" on individuals and society as a whole. In the United States, the total economic cost to society is greater than that of all types of diabetes and all cancers combined. These costs arise from the direct adverse effects of drugs and
4394:
The arts can be used in a variety of ways to address issues related to addiction. Art can be used as a form of therapy in the treatment of substance use disorders. Creative activities like painting, sculpting, music, and writing can help people express their feelings and experiences in safe and
4086:
As of 2021, 43.7 million people aged 12 or older surveyed by the National Survey on Drug Use and Health in the United States needed treatment for an addiction to alcohol, nicotine, or other drugs. The groups with the highest number of people were 18–25 years (25.1%) and "American Indian or
1770:
Most individuals are exposed to and use addictive drugs for the first time during their teenage years. In the United States, there were just over 2.8 million new users of illicit drugs in 2013 (7,800 new users per day); among them, 54.1% were under 18 years of age. In 2011, there were
1766:
Adolescence represents a period of increased vulnerability for developing an addiction. In adolescence, the incentive-rewards systems in the brain mature well before the cognitive control center. This consequentially grants the incentive-rewards systems a disproportionate amount of power in the
11887:
When a Pavlovian CS+ is attributed with incentive salience it not only triggers 'wanting' for its UCS, but often the cue itself becomes highly attractive – even to an irrational degree. This cue attraction is another signature feature of incentive salience ... Two recognizable features of
8878:
Core EFs are inhibition , working memory, and cognitive flexibility (including creatively thinking "outside the box," seeing anything from different perspectives, and quickly and flexibly adapting to changed circumstances). ... EFs and prefrontal cortex are the first to suffer, and suffer
4828:
Albert Bandura's 1977 social learning theory posits that individuals acquire addictive behaviors by observing and imitating models in their social environment. The likelihood of engaging in and sustaining similar addictive behaviors is influenced by the reinforcement and punishment observed in
4530:
Due to higher medication consumption, social isolation, financial worries, and other factors, older adults are particularly vulnerable to substance use problems. Incidence of addiction among this population is inaccurately reported. Narrative therapy can provide an avenue to unearth stories of
2563:
of ΔFosB in the nucleus accumbens, and chronic acquisition of these rewards can result in a similar pathological addictive state through ΔFosB overexpression. Consequently, ΔFosB is the key transcription factor involved in addictions to natural rewards (i.e., behavioral addictions) as well; in
9108:
The evidence presented here demonstrates that rapid environmental adaptation occurs following exposure to a number of stimuli. Epigenetic mechanisms represent the key components by which the environment can influence genetics, and they provide the missing link between genetic heritability and
4526:
A narrative study demonstrated and studied cognitive and emotional tendencies among substance abusers during treatment periods to learn more about motivation and ambivalence inherent in recovery over the course of a residential treatment program. Seven narrative types emerged from the overall
4403:
Addiction treatment is complex and not always effective due to engagement and service availability concerns, so researchers prioritize efforts to improve treatment retention and decrease relapse rates. Characteristics of substance abuse may include feelings of isolation, a lack of confidence,
3008:
increases. Reward sensitization normally occurs following chronically high levels of exposure to the stimulus. ΔFosB expression in D1-type medium spiny neurons in the nucleus accumbens has been shown to directly and positively regulate reward sensitization involving drugs and natural rewards.
2806:
Dopamine is the primary neurotransmitter of the reward system in the brain. It plays a role in regulating movement, emotion, cognition, motivation, and feelings of pleasure. Natural rewards, like eating, as well as recreational drug use cause a release of dopamine, and are associated with the
2573:
effects that are mediated through ΔFosB. This phenomenon is notable since, in humans, a dopamine dysregulation syndrome, characterized by drug-induced compulsive engagement in natural rewards (specifically, sexual activity, shopping, and gambling), has been observed in some individuals taking
13084:
Risky substance use and untreated addiction account for one-third of inpatient hospital costs and 20 percent of all deaths in the United States each year, and cause or contribute to more than 100 other conditions requiring medical care, as well as vehicular crashes, other fatal and non-fatal
12662:
Initial drug use can be attributed to the ability of the drug to act as a reward (ie, a pleasurable emotional state or positive reinforcer), which can lead to repeated drug use and dependence. A great deal of research has focused on the molecular and neuroanatomical mechanisms of the initial
11068:
Short-term increases in histone acetylation generally promote behavioral responses to the drugs, while sustained increases oppose cocaine's effects, based on the actions of systemic or intra-NAc administration of HDAC inhibitors. ... Genetic or pharmacological blockade of G9a in the NAc
8825:
Today, arguably more than at any time in history, the constructs of attention, executive functioning, and cognitive control seem to be pervasive and preeminent in research and theory. Even within the cognitive framework, however, there has long been an understanding that behavior is multiply
4726:
of 1960s and 1970s drug subcultures. The seminal publication "Taking care of business", by Edward Preble and John J. Casey, documented the daily lives of New York street-based intravenous heroin users in rich detail, providing unique insight into the dynamic social worlds and activities that
4155:
between 2009 and 2017, outpatient visits for mental health and addiction increased from 52.6 to 57.2 per 100 people, emergency department visits increased from 13.5 to 19.7 per 1000 people and the number of hospitalizations increased from 4.5 to 5.5 per 1000 people. Prevalence of care needed
1167:
The Drug Abuse Screening Test (DAST) is a self-reporting tool that measures problematic substance use. Responses to this test are recorded as yes or no answers, and scored as a number between zero and 28. Drug abuse or dependence, are indicated by a cut off score of 6. Three versions of this
10562:
Coincident and convergent input often induces plasticity on a postsynaptic neuron. The NAc integrates processed information about the environment from basolateral amygdala, hippocampus, and prefrontal cortex (PFC), as well as projections from midbrain dopamine neurons. Previous studies have
4804:
market politics. Social suffering, "the misery among those on the weaker end of power relations in terms of physical health, mental health and lived experience", is used by anthropologists to analyze how individuals may have personal problems caused by political and economic power. From the
4139:
Survey in 2012 found the lifetime prevalence and 12-month prevalence of substance use disorders were 21.6%, and 4.4% in those 15 and older. Alcohol abuse or dependence reported a lifetime prevalence of 18.1% and a 12-month prevalence of 3.2%. Cannabis abuse or dependence reported a lifetime
1636:
A number of genetic and environmental risk factors exist for developing an addiction. Genetic and environmental risk factors each account for roughly half of an individual's risk for developing an addiction; the contribution from epigenetic risk factors to the total risk is unknown. Even in
3012:"Cue-induced wanting" or "cue-triggered wanting", a form of craving that occurs in addiction, is responsible for most of the compulsive behavior that people with addictions exhibit. During the development of an addiction, the repeated association of otherwise neutral and even non-rewarding
886:
Studies conducted in India, United States, Asia, and Europe have identified Internet addiction prevalence rates ranging in value from 1% to 19%, with the adolescent population having high rates compared to other age groups. Prevalence rates have been difficult to establish due to a lack of
8920:
In conditions in which prepotent responses tend to dominate behavior, such as in drug addiction, where drug cues can elicit drug seeking (Chapter 15), or in attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD; described below), significant negative consequences can result. ... ADHD can be
3620:
Altered epigenetic regulation of gene expression within the brain's reward system plays a significant and complex role in the development of drug addiction. Addictive drugs are associated with three types of epigenetic modifications within neurons. These are (1) histone modifications, (2)
2776:
cortices, is another VTA output in the mesocorticolimbic pathway; it is important for the integration of information which helps determine whether a behavior will be elicited. It is critical for forming associations between the rewarding experience of drug use and cues in the environment.
917:
in the 11th edition of the International Classification of Diseases. Video game addiction has been shown to be more prevalent in males than females, higher by 2.9 times. It has been suggested that people of younger ages are more prone to become addicted to video games. People with certain
4486:
Addiction art exhibitions can come from a variety of sources, but the underlying message of these works is the same: to communicate through emotions without relying on intellectually demanding/gatekept facts and figures. These exhibitions can either stand alone, reinforce, or challenge
4760:
Emerging in the early 1980s, the critical medical anthropology model was introduced, and as Merrill Singer offers 'was applied quickly to the analysis of drug use'. Where the cultural model of the 1950s looked at the social body, the critical medical anthropology model revealed the
4664:
followed was typically undertaken socially, during festivals. Having returned in 1989, Heath observed that while much had changed, 'drinking parties' remained, as per his initial observations, and 'there appear to be no harmful consequences to anyone'. Heath's observations and
2568:
effects of sexual reward. Research on the interaction between natural and drug rewards suggests that dopaminergic psychostimulants (e.g., amphetamine) and sexual behavior act on similar biomolecular mechanisms to induce ΔFosB in the nucleus accumbens and possess bidirectional
4829:
others. The principle of reciprocal determinism suggests that the functional relationships between personal, environmental, and behavioral factors act as determinants of addictive behavior. Thus, effective treatment targets each dynamic facet of the biopsychosocial disorder.
4445:
or 'arts in health' methodologies to confirm their effectiveness as interventions for reducing substance misuse. Music therapy was identified to have potentially strong beneficial effects in aiding contemplation and preparing those diagnosed with substance use for treatment.
1121:. Executive functioning consists of processes that would be disrupted in addiction. In the context of addiction, incentive salience determines how one perceives the addictive substance. Increased negative emotional responses have been found with individuals with addictions.
4474:
Artists attempt to change the societal perception of addiction from a punishable moral offense to instead a chronic illness necessitating treatment. This form of advocacy can help to relocate the fight of addiction from a judicial perspective to the public health system.
2556:-mediated gene transfer) or G9a expression (via pharmacological means) reduces, or with a large increase can even block, many of the neural and behavioral alterations that result from chronic high-dose use of addictive drugs (i.e., the alterations mediated by ΔFosB).
4045:
and illicit drugs were highest in Eastern Europe. Data shows a downward trend of alcohol use among children 15 years old in most European countries between 2002 and 2014. First-time alcohol use before the age of 13 was recorded for 28% of European children in 2014.
1889:
and epigenetic mechanisms as a result of chronically high levels of exposure to an addictive stimulus (e.g., eating food, the use of cocaine, engagement in sexual activity, participation in high-thrill cultural activities such as gambling, etc.) over extended time.
894:
People with internet addiction are likely to have a comorbid psychiatric disorder. Comorbid diagnoses identified alongside internet addiction include affective mood disorders, anxiety disorders, substance use disorders, and attention deficit hyperactivity disorder.
4470:
Stigma can lead to feelings of shame that can prevent people with substance use disorders from seeking help and interfere with provision of harm reduction services. It can influence healthcare policy, making it difficult for these individuals to access treatment.
1215:
demonstrates that psychological profiles of drug users and non-users have significant differences and the psychological predisposition to using different drugs may be different. Models of addiction risk that have been proposed in psychology literature include: an
3816:
to attack and consume or otherwise disable the molecules of such substances that cause a reaction in the brain, thus preventing the addict from being able to realize the effect of the drug. Addictions that have been floated as targets for such treatment include
2810:
Excessive intake of many types of addictive drugs results in repeated release of high amounts of dopamine, which in turn affects the reward pathway directly through heightened dopamine receptor activation. Prolonged and abnormally high levels of dopamine in the
1590:
In operant conditioning, behavior is influenced by outside stimulus, such as a drug. The operant conditioning theory of learning is useful in understanding why the mood-altering or stimulating consequences of drug use can reinforce continued use (an example of
1757:
According to Travis Hirschi's social control theory, adolescents with stronger attachments to family, religious, academic, and other social institutions are less likely to engage in delinquent and maladaptive behavior such as drug use leading to addiction.
4026:
alcohol dependent; that 17.5% of the 2.4 million people who used cannabis in the last year may have hazardous use or a dependence problem; and that 63.5% of about 300000 recent users of meth and amphetamines were at risk for developing problem use.
12087:
Studies investigating general HDAC inhibition on behavioral outcomes have produced varying results but it seems that the effects are specific to the timing of exposure (either before, during or after exposure to drugs of abuse) as well as the length of
3035:
Research on the interaction between natural and drug rewards suggests that dopaminergic psychostimulants (e.g., amphetamine) and sexual behavior act on similar biomolecular mechanisms to induce ΔFosB in the nucleus accumbens and possess a bidirectional
15525:
Drug abuse and addiction exact an astoundingly high financial and human toll on society through direct adverse effects, such as lung cancer and hepatic cirrhosis, and indirect adverse effects –for example, accidents and AIDS – on health and
1718:
started) smoking; and smokers, on average, reduced the quantity of cigarettes they consumed. More generally, a number of different environmental factors have been implicated as risk factors for addiction, including various psychosocial stressors. The
1852:
which arise through chronic exposure to addictive stimuli during an addiction can be transmitted across generations, in turn affecting the behavior of one's children (e.g., the child's behavioral responses to addictive drugs and natural rewards).
741:
Sexual addiction involves an engagement in excessive, compulsive, or otherwise problematic sexual behavior that persists despite negative physiological, psychological, social, and occupational consequences. Sexual addiction may be referred to as
2822:
Drug seeking behavior is induced by glutamatergic projections from the prefrontal cortex to the nucleus accumbens. This idea is supported with data from experiments showing that drug seeking behavior can be prevented following the inhibition of
18073:
4903:
male and females from 2002 to 2017, with 72,306 overdose deaths reported in 2017 in the US. 2020 marked the year with highest number of overdose deaths over a 12-month period, with 81,000 overdose deaths, exceeding the records set in 2017.
4747:
meaning, and socially constructed purpose that they may feel is unattainable through conventional means. The subcultural model demonstrates the complexities of addiction, highlighting the need for an integrated approach. It contends that a
3028:). As conditioned positive reinforcers of drug use, these previously neutral stimuli are assigned incentive salience (which manifests as a craving) – sometimes at pathologically high levels due to reward sensitization – which can
3004:) that is assigned by the brain to a rewarding stimulus (e.g., a drug). In simple terms, when reward sensitization to a specific stimulus (e.g., a drug) occurs, an individual's "wanting" or desire for the stimulus itself and its associated
342:
classifies addiction the most severe stage of substance use disorder, due to significant loss of control and the presence of compulsive behaviours despite the desire to stop. It is a definition that many scientific papers and reports use.
13160:
12197:
processes are not integral to addiction as noted. It is ironic and unfortunate that the manual still avoids use of the term addiction as an official diagnosis, even though addiction provides the best description of the clinical syndrome.
2796:
is involved in drug addiction, because of its role in learning and memory. Much of this evidence stems from investigations showing that manipulating cells in the hippocampus alters DA levels in NAcc and firing rates of VTA dopaminergic
1689:
family studies which suggest that if one family member has a history of addiction, the chances of a relative or close family developing those same habits are much higher than one who has not been introduced to addiction at a young age.
9665:
Addictive activities are determined neither solely by brain changes nor solely by social conditions ... the narrowing seen in addiction takes place within the behavioral repertoire, the social surround, and the brain — all at the same
1795:
found that there is a "definite connection between mental illness and the use of addictive substances" and a majority of mental health patients participate in the use of these substances: 38% alcohol, 44% cocaine, and 40% cigarettes.
9579:
1130:
asks about the frequency of use of the specific substance (tobacco, alcohol, prescription medication, and other). If an individual screens positive, the second component will begin. This dictates the risk level of the substance.
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Weicker NP, Whaley S, Urquhart G, Park JN, Sherman SG, Owczarzak J (October 2021). ""I Know It Is Going to Ruin Their Life:" Fortune-Telling, Agency, and Harm Reduction in Narratives Concerning Injection Initiation Assistance".
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of 1.1–1.3 percent; this has led to the development the rare variant hypothesis, which states that genes with low frequencies in the population (<1%) confer much greater additional risk in the development of the disease.
7170:
Beloate LN, Weems PW, Casey GR, Webb IC, Coolen LM (February 2016). "Nucleus accumbens NMDA receptor activation regulates amphetamine cross-sensitization and deltaFosB expression following sexual experience in male rats".
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After successfully implementing a change, individuals enter the maintenance stage, where they work to sustain the new behavior and prevent relapse. This stage is characterized by ongoing effort and consolidation of gains.
4244:. This furthered the understanding of addiction being a medical condition. It was not until the 19th century that addiction was seen and acknowledged in the Western world as a disease, being both a physical condition and
1872:
epigenetic alterations that arise from various forms of addiction in humans and the corresponding behavioral phenotypes from these epigenetic alterations that occur in human offspring. Based on preclinical evidence from
8918:
association cortex, but also, via the thalamus, inputs from subcortical structures subserving emotion and motivation, such as the amygdala (Chapter 14) and ventral striatum (or nucleus accumbens; Chapter 15). ...
5077:
allows ΔFosB to more rapidly accumulate within the D1-type medium spiny neurons of the nucleus accumbens because it is selectively induced in this state. Before c-Fos repression, all Fos family proteins (e.g., c-Fos,
4222:. "Addiction" at the time meant "to attach" to something, giving it both positive and negative connotations. The object of this attachment could be characterized as "good or bad". The meaning of addiction during the
13655:
Appel PW, Ellison AA, Jansky HK, Oldak R (2004). "Barriers to enrollment in drug abuse treatment and suggestions for reducing them: opinions of drug injecting street outreach clients and other system stakeholders".
9934:
Catalano RF, Hawkins JD, Wells EA, Miller J, Brewer D (1990). "Evaluation of the effectiveness of adolescent drug abuse treatment, assessment of risks for relapse, and promising approaches for relapse prevention".
4095:
hospital costs and 20% of all deaths in the US every year are the result of untreated addictions and risky substance use. In spite of the massive overall economic cost to society, which is greater than the cost of
10593:
DA by promoting efflux from synaptic terminals. ... Chronic exposure to amphetamine induces a unique transcription factor delta FosB, which plays an essential role in long-term adaptive changes in the brain.
15821:
5459:
compulsive eating, shopping, gambling, and sex – so-called "natural addictions" – Indeed, addiction to both drugs and behavioral rewards may arise from similar dysregulation of the mesolimbic dopamine
1708:
are typically not capable of being captured by these methods. Genes identified in GWAS for drug addiction may be involved either in adjusting brain behavior before drug experiences, subsequent to them, or both.
5252:
pre-existing vulnerabilities and persistent drug use lead to a vicious circle of substantive disruptions in the brain that impair and undermine choice capacities for adaptive behavior, but do not annihilate
638:
Chocolate's sweet flavor and pharmacological ingredients are known to create a strong craving or feel 'addictive' by the consumer. A person who has a strong liking for chocolate may refer to themselves as a
4855:
is the stage in which individuals become aware of the problems caused by their addiction and are considering change. Although they may not fully commit, they weigh the costs and benefits of making a shift.
4543:
From a philosophy perspective, the behavior of many with addiction that is not explained by executive dysfunction or biological reasons can be explained by folk psychology – specifically the
4268:
that can be added to a subject to denote an addiction to it. It was extracted from the word alcoholism (one of the first addictions to be widely identified both medically and socially) (correctly the root
3829:. Vaccines have been identified as potentially being more effective than other anti-addiction treatments, due to "the long duration of action, the certainty of administration and a potential reduction of
2584:
The release of dopamine in the nucleus accumbens plays a role in the reinforcing qualities of many forms of stimuli, including naturally reinforcing stimuli like palatable food and sex. Altered dopamine
1771:
approximately 20.6 million people in the United States over the age of 12 with an addiction. Over 90% of those with an addiction began drinking, smoking or using illicit drugs before the age of 18.
3713:
and the associated withdrawal syndrome to identify an addictive state. Physical dependence occurs when the body has adjusted by incorporating the substance into its "normal" functioning – i.e., attains
10835:
gene that helps create the molecular switch—from the induction of several short-lived Fos family proteins after acute drug exposure to the predominant accumulation of ΔFosB after chronic drug exposure
913:(WHO) as excessive gaming behavior, potentially prioritized over other interests, despite the negative consequences that may arise, for a period of at least 12 months. In May 2019, the WHO introduced
14438:
8486:
Ali R, Meena S, Eastwood B, Richards I, Marsden J (September 2013). "Ultra-rapid screening for substance-use disorders: the Alcohol, Smoking and Substance Involvement Screening Test (ASSIST-Lite)".
7752:
Tang J, Yu Y, Du Y, Ma Y, Zhang D, Wang J (March 2014). "Prevalence of internet addiction and its association with stressful life events and psychological symptoms among adolescent internet users".
4462:
experiences and needs with parents who may be in recovery from alcohol use disorder. Depiction of isolation of self and isolation of other family members may be an indicator of parental alcoholism.
711:
video games, and shopping are all associated with compulsive behaviors in humans and have been shown to activate the mesolimbic pathway and other parts of the reward system. Based on this evidence,
1266:, represent opposite processes (i.e., internal vs external or environmental, respectively) that compete over the control of an individual's elicited behaviors. Cognitive control, and particularly
9681:
2454: months, slowly accumulates following repeated high-dose exposure to stimulants through this process. ΔFosB functions as "one of the master control proteins" that produces addiction-related
699:– which is a behavior that is inherently rewarding (i.e., desirable or appealing) – despite adverse consequences. Preclinical evidence has demonstrated that marked increases in the expression of
7050:
Karila L, Wéry A, Weinstein A, Cottencin O, Petit A, Reynaud M, et al. (2014). "Sexual addiction or hypersexual disorder: different terms for the same problem? A review of the literature".
12100:
Petry NM, Rehbein F, Gentile DA, Lemmens JS, Rumpf HJ, Mößle T, et al. (September 2014). "An international consensus for assessing internet gaming disorder using the new DSM-5 approach".
4862:
Individuals in this stage are getting ready to change. They might have taken preliminary steps, like gathering information or making small commitments, in preparation for behavioral change.
12346:
10075:
5613:
5099:
According to two medical reviews, ΔFosB has been implicated in causing both increases and decreases in dynorphin expression in different studies; this table entry reflects only a decrease.
4494:
A way to destigmatize substance use disorders and shift public perception from viewing them as a moral failing to understanding them as a chronic medical condition which requires treatment.
3966:
can be used to determine when treatment can begin and which method will be most effective. If treatment begins too early, it can cause a person to become defensive and resistant to change.
1836:
genes and their products (e.g., proteins) are the key components through which environmental influences can affect the genes of an individual: they serve as the mechanism responsible for
10291:
Yuan TF, Li A, Sun X, Ouyang H, Campos C, Rocha NB, et al. (2015). "Transgenerational Inheritance of Paternal Neurobehavioral Phenotypes: Stress, Addiction, Ageing and Metabolism".
9583:
8915: • Working memory is a short-term, capacity-limited cognitive buffer that stores information and permits its manipulation to guide decision-making and behavior. ...
4120:
stated that "America's largest drug companies flooded the country with pain pills from 2006 through 2012, even when it became apparent that they were fueling addiction and overdoses."
4606:
considerations of addiction. A biopsychosocial–cultural–spiritual approach considers, for example, how physical environments influence experiences, habits, and patterns of addiction.
4849:
This initial stage precedes individuals considering a change in their behavior. They might be oblivious to or in denial of their addiction, failing to recognize the need for change.
5121:
In simplest terms, this means that when either amphetamine or sex is perceived as more alluring or desirable through reward sensitization, this effect occurs with the other as well.
10502:
in response to psychostimulant exposure. ΔFosB is also upregulated by chronic psychostimulant treatments, and is known to activate certain genes (eg, cdk5) and repress others (eg,
4075:
of addictions to alcohol and illicit drugs has been estimated to be approximately 8% and 2–3% respectively. Based on representative samples of the US adult population in 2011, the
3847:
intended to reduce or eliminate physical dependence on nicotine. This proprietary vaccine is being developed by Nabi Biopharmaceuticals of Rockville, MD. with the support from the
2753:(MSNs). The NAcc is associated with acquiring and eliciting conditioned behaviors, and is involved in the increased sensitivity to drugs as addiction progresses. Overexpression of
2692:
Understanding the pathways in which drugs act and how drugs can alter those pathways is key when examining the biological basis of drug addiction. The reward pathway, known as the
354:. In the ICD-11, "substance-use dependence" is a synonym of "substance-use addiction" (i.e. neuropsychological symptoms) that can but do not necessarily involve withdrawal issues.
14803:
Rhodes T, Bivol S, Scutelniciuc O, Hunt N, Bernays S, Busza J (November 2011). "Narrating the social relations of initiating injecting drug use: Transitions in self and society".
11883:
A brief CS encounter (or brief UCS encounter) often primes a pulse of elevated motivation to obtain and consume more reward UCS. This is a signature feature of incentive salience.
6042:
Additionally, the diagnosis of dependence caused much confusion. Most people link dependence with "addiction" when in fact dependence can be a normal body response to a substance.
4007:
Internet addiction disorder is highest in the Philippines, according to both the IAT (Internet Addiction Test) – 5% and the CIAS-R (Revised Chen Internet Addiction Scale) – 21%.
1787:
disorders such as depression, anxiety, attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) or post-traumatic stress disorder are more likely to develop substance use disorders. The
12773:
Mak KK, Lai CM, Watanabe H, Kim DI, Bahar N, Ramos M, et al. (November 2014). "Epidemiology of internet behaviors and addiction among adolescents in six Asian countries".
64:
Addictive behaviour (e.g. substance-use addiction, sexual addiction), dependence, addictive disorder, addiction disorder (e.g. severe substance-use disorder, gambling disorder)
8913: • Executive function, the cognitive control of behavior, depends on the prefrontal cortex, which is highly developed in higher primates and especially humans.
13138:
4004:
The prevalence of alcohol dependence is not as high as is seen in other regions. In Asia, not only socioeconomic factors but biological factors influence drinking behavior.
4890:
associated healthcare costs (e.g., emergency medical services and outpatient and inpatient care), long-term complications (e.g., lung cancer from smoking tobacco products,
4868:
involves actively modifying behavior by making specific, observable changes to address the addictive behavior. The action stage requires significant effort and commitment.
409:– psychoactive substances that with repeated use are associated with significantly higher rates of substance use disorders, due in large part to the drug's effect on brain
13103:
6945:"The Modified Yale Food Addiction Scale 2.0: Validation Among Non-Clinical and Clinical French-Speaking Samples and Comparison With the Full Yale Food Addiction Scale 2.0"
2176:
13297:
2488:). ΔFosB is the most significant biomolecular mechanism in addiction because the overexpression of ΔFosB in the D1-type medium spiny neurons in the nucleus accumbens is
4218:
throughout history has been misunderstood and has taken on various meanings associated with the word. An example is the usage of the word in the religious landscape of
828:
have been found in rat and human models, showing a correlation with the severity of the gambling behavior. This in turn was linked with greater dopamine release in the
662:
SRADs as per DSM-5. A potential food addiction diagnosis is predicted by the presence of at least two out of 11 SRADs and a significant impairment to daily activities.
5571:
755:
conditions. Reviews of both clinical research in humans and preclinical studies involving ΔFosB have identified compulsive sexual activity – specifically, any form of
14322:
Ashford RD, Brown AM, Curtis B (August 2018). "Systemic barriers in substance use disorder treatment: A prospective qualitative study of professionals in the field".
12586:
5508:
2559:ΔFosB plays an important role in regulating behavioral responses to natural rewards, such as palatable food, sex, and exercise. Natural rewards, like drugs of abuse,
18093:
10779:
gene occurs in concert with the recruitment of a histone deacetylase and presumably several other repressive proteins such as a repressive histone methyltransferase
3808:
for addiction have been investigated as a possibility since the early 2000s. The general theory of a vaccine intended to "immunize" against drug addiction or other
2731:). These cells respond when stimuli indicative of a reward are present. The VTA supports learning and sensitization development and releases dopamine (DA) into the
657:(YFAS), version 2.0, is the current standard measure for assessing whether an individual exhibits signs and symptoms of food addiction. It was developed in 2009 at
3757:
Medical researchers who actively study addiction have criticized the DSM classification of addiction for being flawed and involving arbitrary diagnostic criteria.
14241:
Ball SA, Legow NE (November 1996). "Attachment theory as a working model for the therapist transitioning from early to later recovery substance abuse treatment".
2450:
acts as a molecular switch that enables the accumulation of ΔFosB in the neuron. A highly stable (phosphorylated) form of ΔFosB, one that persists in neurons for
295:. A common use of "addiction" in medicine is for neuropsychological symptoms denoting pervasive/excessive and intense urges to engage in a category of behavioral
3702:
The DSM-5 introduced a new diagnostic category for behavioral addictions. Problem gambling is the only condition included in this category in the fifth edition.
2081:
2807:
reinforcing nature of these stimuli. Nearly all addictive drugs, directly or indirectly, act on the brain's reward system by heightening dopaminergic activity.
17661:
12834:
3691:
to indicate the extent of disordered use. These specifiers are determined by the number of diagnostic criteria present in a given case. In the DSM-5, the term
2589:
is frequently observed following the development of an addictive state. In humans and lab animals that have developed an addiction, alterations in dopamine or
12445:, Rennard S, Jorenby D, Fiore M, Koopmeiners J, de Vos A, et al. (2005). "Safety and immunogenicity of a nicotine conjugate vaccine in current smokers".
4612:
engagements and developments in fields of knowledge have contributed to biopsychosocial–cultural–spiritual understandings of addiction, including the work of
3044:
transcriptional activity decreases user's sensitivity to the rewarding effects of the substance. CREB transcription in the nucleus accumbens is implicated in
954:(CBD), is the excessive urge to shop or spend, potentially resulting in unwanted consequences. These consequences can have serious impacts, such as increased
10101:
5653:
632:
14903:
Rau BL (September 2014). "The Oxford Handbook of Evidence-Based Management, Rousseau DM 2012. 432 pages, hardcover. New York, NY: Oxford University Press".
14440:
Implementation of the Provision of the Comprehensive Addiction and Recovery Act of 2016 Relating to the Dispensing of Narcotic Drugs for Opioid Use Disorder
4256:. The understanding of addiction has changed throughout history, which has impacted and continues to impact the ways it is medically treated and diagnosed.
16323:
8037:
Hyun GJ, Han DH, Lee YS, Kang KD, Yoo SK, Chung US, et al. (1 July 2015). "Risk factors associated with online game addiction: A hierarchical model".
2302:
4140:
prevalence of 6.8% and a 12-month prevalence of 3.2%. Other drug abuse or dependence has a lifetime prevalence of 4.0% and a 12-month prevalence of 0.7%.
1248:
of change (TTM) can point to how someone may be conceptualizing their addiction and the thoughts around it, including not being aware of their addiction.
809:
is involved in learning, motivation, as well as the reward system. The exact role of dopamine in gambling addiction has been debated. Suggested roles for
19051:
14066:
Matto H, Corcoran J, Fassler, A (January 2003). "Integrating solution-focused and art therapies for substance abuse treatment: guidelines for practice".
12442:
10607:"Transcriptional and epigenetic substrates of methamphetamine addiction and withdrawal: evidence from a long-access self-administration model in the rat"
9689:
6019:
2127:
14530:
Skelly J (2015). "Alternative Paths: Mapping Addiction in Contemporary Art by Landon Mackenzie, Rebecca Belmore, Manasie Akpaliapik, and Ron Noganosh".
18829:
2664:
Bottom: this illustrates the progressive increase in ΔFosB expression in the nucleus accumbens following repeated twice daily drug binges, where these
4715:
of their condition. As reports of drug use rapidly increased, the cultural model found application in anthropological research exploring western drug
18343:
16343:
4995:
1650:
13054:
7417:"Problem gambling, associations with comorbid health conditions, substance use, and behavioural addictions: Opportunities for pathways to treatment"
4497:
Provide those who are struggling with addiction assurance and encouragement of healing, and let them know that they are not alone in their struggle.
4087:
Alaska Native" (28.7%). Only about 10%, or a little over 2 million, receive any form of treatments, and those that do generally do not receive
861:
Risk factors for gambling addictions include antisocial behavior, impulsive personality, male sex, sensation seeking, substance use, and young age.
18088:
12813:
11169:
Salamone JD (1992). "Complex motor and sensorimotor functions of striatal and accumbens dopamine: involvement in instrumental behavior processes".
10079:
6168:
meet major responsibilities at work, school, or home. Depending on the level of severity, this disorder is classified as mild, moderate, or severe.
1614:
promote drug use, as well as hinder the ability to abstain from it. The increase in dopamine release is prominent in drug use, specifically in the
5064:
A decrease in aversion sensitivity, in simpler terms, means that an individual's behavior is less likely to be influenced by undesirable outcomes.
4739:. The prevailing culture can have a greater influence on drug taking behaviors than the physical and psychological effects of the drug itself. To
18083:
12606:
7345:
5130:
The lifetime prevalence of an addiction is the percentage of individuals in a population that developed an addiction at some point in their life.
4548:. According to this model, a person acquires and uses a substance or does an addictive activity in belief that it will help them achieve a goal.
126:
or engage in a behavior that produces natural reward, despite substantial harm and other negative consequences. Repetitive drug use often alters
4805:
perspective of critical medical anthropology heavy drug use and addiction is a consequence of such larger scale unequal distributions of power.
19076:
19056:
18834:
17641:
14646:
3988:
Due to cultural variations, the proportion of individuals who develop a drug or behavioral addiction within a specified time period (i.e., the
15538:
4482:
According to Santora the main purposes in using art as a form of advocacy in the education and prevention of substance use disorders include:
18654:
5972:
Ko C, Yen J, Yen C, Chen C, ChenC (2020). "The association between Internet addiction and psychiatric disorder: A review of the literature".
3950:
To be effective, treatment for addiction that is pharmacological or biologically based need to be accompanied by other interventions such as
1856:
The general classes of epigenetic alterations that have been implicated in transgenerational epigenetic inheritance include DNA methylation,
11425:
Eisch AJ, Harburg GC (2006). "Opiates, psychostimulants, and adult hippocampal neurogenesis: Insights for addiction and stem cell biology".
9763:
4628:
in the United States. Prior models that have informed the prevailing biopsychosocial–cultural–spiritual consideration of addiction include:
18614:
14663:
Flora, K. (July 2012). "Recovery From Substance Abuse: A Narrative Approach to Understanding the Motivation and Ambivalence About Change".
3103:
2757:
in the nucleus accumbens is a necessary common factor in essentially all known forms of addiction; ΔFosB is a strong positive modulator of
2295:
530:
8002:
Peters CS, Malesky LA (August 2008). "Problematic usage among highly-engaged players of massively multiplayer online role playing games".
6832:
18774:
13599:
11811:
Examples of validated targets for ΔFosB in nucleus accumbens ... GluR2 ... dynorphin ... Cdk5 ... NFκB ... c-Fos
4479:
inclined to show compassion, forego stereotypes and stigma of addiction, and label addiction as a social rather than individual problem.
2323:
2074:
1844:
of their offspring (e.g., behavioral responses to environmental stimuli). In addiction, epigenetic mechanisms play a central role in the
14415:
12402:
4809:
spiritual (biopsychosocial–spiritual) elements which influence its experience, a holistic and comprehensive understanding can be built.
18369:
8677:
Kimbrel NA, Nelson-Gray RO, Mitchell JT (April 2007). "Reinforcement sensitivity and maternal style as predictors of psychopathology".
5354:
5018:
4022:
2777:
Importantly, these cues are strong mediators of drug-seeking behavior and can trigger relapse even after months or years of abstinence.
2508:. ΔFosB has been implicated in mediating addictions to many different drugs and drug classes, including alcohol, amphetamine and other
1735:
14144:
Rockwell P, Dunham M (January 2006). "The Utility of the Formal Elements Art Therapy Scale in Assessment for Substance Use Disorder".
12488:
Martell BA, Mitchell E, Poling J, Gonsai K, Kosten TR (July 2005). "Vaccine pharmacotherapy for the treatment of cocaine dependence".
8897:
Malenka RC, Nestler EJ, Hyman SE (2009). "Chapter 13: Higher Cognitive Function and Behavioral Control". In Sydor A, Brown RY (eds.).
8402:
Yudko E, Lozhkina O, Fouts A (March 2007). "A comprehensive review of the psychometric properties of the Drug Abuse Screening Test".
5014:
4843:
The transtheoretical model of change suggests that overcoming an addiction is a stepwise process that occurs through several stages.
4111:, almost half of US adults know a family member or close friend who has struggled with a drug addiction at some point in their life.
464:– dependence socially seen as being extremely mild compared to physical dependence (e.g., with enough willpower it could be overcome)
10707:
gene and recruits several co-repressors, including HDAC1 (histone deacetylase 1) and SIRT 1 (sirtuin 1). ... The net result is
2593:
neurotransmission in the nucleus accumbens and other parts of the striatum are evident. Use of certain drugs (e.g., cocaine) affect
2496:) seen in drug addiction. ΔFosB expression in nucleus accumbens D1-type medium spiny neurons directly and positively regulates drug
19081:
18260:
6082:
4169:
3766:
2581:ΔFosB inhibitors (drugs or treatments that oppose its action) may be an effective treatment for addiction and addictive disorders.
1837:
1828:
1271:
12559:
6725:
Functional neuroimaging studies in humans have shown that gambling (Breiter et al, 2001), shopping (Knutson et al, 2007), orgasm (
6191:
3996:(e.g., by age group, socioeconomic status, etc.). Where addiction is viewed as unacceptable, there will be fewer people addicted.
2552:, both oppose the function of ΔFosB and inhibit increases in its expression. Increases in nucleus accumbens ΔJunD expression (via
18839:
18379:
18058:
17631:
15781:
13022:
Key substance use and mental health indicators in the United States: Results from the 2021 National Survey on Drug Use and Health
10510:
5669:"Association of DSM-5 betel-quid use disorder with oral potentially malignant disorder in 6 betel-quid endemic Asian populations"
5388:
Henden E (2017). "Addiction, Compulsion, and Weakness of the Will: A Dual-Process Perspective.". In Heather N, Gabriel S (eds.).
2120:
1682:
13111:
11737:
10131:
7897:
7629:"Diagnostic Stability of Internet Addiction in Obsessive-compulsive Disorder: Data from a Naturalistic One-year Treatment Study"
2492:
for many of the neural adaptations and behavioral effects (e.g., expression-dependent increases in drug self-administration and
19069:
18739:
18270:
11583:
Floresco SB, Ghods-Sharifi S (February 2007). "Amygdala-prefrontal cortical circuitry regulates effort-based decision making".
5766:"International Classification of Diseases 11th revision – ICD-11. Disorders due to substance use or addictive behaviours"
3275:
2067:
420:– an adaptive state associated with a withdrawal syndrome upon cessation of repeated exposure to a stimulus (e.g., drug intake)
8223:
Koob GF, Powell P, White A (November 2020). "Addiction as a Coping Response: Hyperkatifeia, Deaths of Despair, and COVID-19".
2627:
2392:
that are induced by chronic high-dose exposure to psychostimulants that increase the concentration of synaptic dopamine, like
1168:
screening tool are in use: DAST-28, DAST-20, and DAST-10. Each of these instruments are copyrighted by Dr. Harvey A. Skinner.
18749:
18068:
17611:
16264:
15725:
15562:
15554:
15518:
15494:
15430:
15257:
Heath DB (January 1995). "Changes in Drinking Patterns in Bolivian Cultures: A Cautionary Tale About Historical Approaches".
15133:
15055:
14622:
14476:
13956:
13918:
13868:
13800:
13499:
13335:
13269:
12189:
11962:
11912:
11477:
11153:
8906:
8775:
8548:
8168:
8077:"Treatments for compulsive buying: A systematic review of the quality, effectiveness and progression of the outcome evidence"
7321:
6866:
6397:
6259:
6108:
6063:
5554:
5450:
4193:
3945:
3848:
3305:
2481:
1109:
The Addictions Neuroclinical Assessment is used to diagnose addiction disorders. This tool measures three different domains:
14023:
Dickson C (June 2007). "An evaluation study of art therapy provision in a residential Addiction Treatment Programme (ATP)".
12309:
8634:
Genovese JE, Wallace D (December 2007). "Reward sensitivity and substance abuse in middle school and high school students".
1811:
changes that do not involve alterations in the DNA sequence. Illicit drug use has been found to cause epigenetic changes in
19171:
18348:
17263:
11144:
Malenka RC, Nestler EJ, Hyman SE (2009). "Chapter 15: Reinforcement and addictive disorders". In Sydor A, Brown RY (eds.).
10850:
Hyman SE, Malenka RC, Nestler EJ (2006). "Neural mechanisms of addiction: the role of reward-related learning and memory".
6099:
Malenka RC, Nestler EJ, Hyman SE (2009). "Chapter 15: Reinforcement and Addictive Disorders". In Sydor A, Brown RY (eds.).
5520:
5441:
Malenka RC, Nestler EJ, Hyman SE (2009). "Chapter 15: Reinforcement and Addictive Disorders". In Sydor A, Brown RY (eds.).
4062:
1792:
15509:
Malenka RC, Nestler EJ, Hyman SE (2009). "Chapter 1: Basic Principles of Neuropharmacology". In Sydor A, Brown RY (eds.).
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16536:
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15865:
15545:
11945:
Edwards S (2016). "Reinforcement principles for addiction medicine; from recreational drug use to psychiatric disorder".
4933:
4058:
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747:
14755:
Morgan ML, Brosi WA, Brosi MW (10 December 2011). "Restorying Older Adults' Narratives About Self and Substance Abuse".
13024:(Report). Center for Behavioral Health Statistics and Quality, Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration
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16621:
16398:
14503:
Dingman DA, Zibalese-Crawford, M (April 2021). "Reducing Substance Use Related Stigma through Expressions of Artwork".
11809:
in press). The mechanism responsible for ΔFosB repression of c-fos expression is complex and is covered below. ...
5943:
2113:
78:
11093:"Sex, drugs, and rock 'n' roll: hypothesizing common mesolimbic activation as a function of reward gene polymorphisms"
8198:
7804:"Prevalence of internet addiction among college students in the Indian setting: a systematic review and meta-analysis"
4765:, considering drug use and addiction within the context of macro level structures including larger political systems,
4556:
1599:). Stimulus control is using the absence of the stimulus or presence of a reward to influence the resulting behavior.
966:
Signs and symptoms of addiction can vary depending on the type of addiction. Symptoms of drug addictions may include:
18809:
18794:
18764:
18619:
18529:
18215:
18180:
17532:
17283:
16720:
15445:, 2455 Teller Road, Thousand Oaks California 91320 United States: SAGE Publications, Inc., 2010, retrieved 2023-11-09
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Megranahan K, Lynskey MT (February 2018). "Do creative arts therapies reduce substance misuse? A systematic review".
13699:
Megranahan K, Lynskey MT (February 2018). "Do creative arts therapies reduce substance misuse? A systematic review".
4660:
and became intoxicated for several contiguous days at least twice a month'. This frequent, heavy drinking from which
4598:(biopsychosocial–cultural–spiritual) elements. A biopsychosocial–cultural–spiritual approach fosters the crossing of
1196:
1191:
232:
9605:
9123:"Adverse childhood events as risk factors for substance dependence: partial mediation by mood and anxiety disorders"
4680:, Heath's findings, when considered alongside subsequent cross-cultural experiences, challenged the perception that
4100:
and all forms of cancer combined, most doctors in the US lack the training to effectively address a drug addiction.
1177:
to perform duties; if anyone has raised concerns over use; attempts to limit or moderate use; and use by injection.
498:– a condition in which the use of substances leads to clinically and functionally significant impairment or distress
18779:
18684:
18599:
18544:
18353:
18185:
18173:
16461:
16328:
15770:
14367:"Stigma, discrimination, treatment effectiveness, and policy: public views about drug addiction and mental illness"
13491:
13322:
12241:
9519:"How the COVID-19 pandemic impacts tobacco addiction: Changes in smoking behavior and associations with well-being"
9244:
Mirin SM, Weiss RD, Griffin ML, Michael JL (1 January 1991). "Psychopathology in drug abusers and their families".
5366:
4123:
The National Epidemiologic Survey on Alcohol and Related Conditions found that from 2012 to 2013 the prevalence of
3975:
1719:
1646:
1225:
631:
The diagnostic criteria for food or eating addiction has not been categorized or defined in references such as the
523:
15585:
10109:
8704:
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According to a review of experimental animal models that examined the transgenerational epigenetic inheritance of
4523:
to develop better care plans with the potential to increase patient compliance and make treatment more effective.
19018:
18942:
18844:
18539:
18503:
18338:
18245:
17606:
16541:
16531:
9421:"Low frequency genetic variants in the μ-opioid receptor (OPRM1) affect risk for addiction to heroin and cocaine"
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6480:"Investigating the relationship between reward sensitivity, impulsivity, and food addiction: A systematic review"
5457:
The defining feature of addiction is compulsive, out-of-control drug use, despite negative consequences. ...
4943:
4240:
has led to a better understanding of the disease with research on the topic dating back to 1875, specifically on
4205:
3029:
1861:
768:
16563:
13243:
7955:"Prevalence and Predictors of Video Game Addiction: A Study Based on a National Representative Sample of Gamers"
7309:
1114:
19064:
18819:
18804:
18784:
18759:
18744:
18704:
18644:
18594:
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addiction etc.), highlighting the humanity of the problem and in turn encouraging compassion and understanding.
4079:
of alcohol and illicit drug addictions were estimated at 12% and 2–3% respectively. The lifetime prevalence of
2477:
2272:
2263:
1840:, a phenomenon in which environmental influences on the genes of a parent can affect the associated traits and
1739:
15607:
14279:
Holt ES, Kaiser DH (January 2001). "Indicators of Familial Alcoholism in Children's Kinetic Family Drawings".
14189:"Representations of Attachment Security in the Bird's Nest Drawings of Clients with Substance Abuse Disorders"
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6026:
767:
and sexual activity, meaning that exposure to one increases the desire for both, has been shown to occur as a
19161:
18998:
18947:
18719:
18714:
18709:
18634:
18629:
18624:
18564:
18275:
17120:
16164:
15774:
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4016:
1909:
of the nucleus accumbens. Due to the causal relationship between ΔFosB expression and addictions, it is used
1701:
15115:
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11545:
Kalivas PW, Volkow ND (August 2005). "The neural basis of addiction: a pathology of motivation and choice".
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18699:
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16366:
16306:
12180:
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10498:
acetylate histones and facilitate gene activation. This is known to occur on many genes including fosB and
4054:
3951:
3248:
2473:
673:
subscales of Negative Urgency and Lack of Perseverance have been shown to have relation to food addiction.
327:(i.e. limit subjects' social/family and occupational activities); the two categories of such disorders are
323:
are mental disorders involving high intensities of addictions (as neuropsychological symptoms) that induce
15925:
12364:
18920:
18856:
18799:
18674:
18669:
18664:
18649:
18639:
18589:
18584:
18574:
18554:
18534:
18493:
17944:
15991:
13637:
13586:
Bettinardi-Angres K, Angres DH (July 2010). Alexander M (ed.). "Understanding the Disease of Addiction".
13065:
7112:
4561:
4252:
that negatively impacts those who are affected by it, most commonly associated with the use of drugs and
4226:
was mostly associated with positivity and goodness; during this early modern and highly religious era of
3646:
879:
874:
666:
516:
292:
224:
17:
10887:"Addiction-related gene regulation: risks of exposure to cognitive enhancers vs. other psychostimulants"
9470:"Implications of genome wide association studies for addiction: are our a priori assumptions all wrong?"
7219:"Behavioral Addiction versus Substance Addiction: Correspondence of Psychiatric and Psychological Views"
4173:
opium producer. Mexico, because of its border with the United States, has the highest incidence of use.
19102:
19028:
19003:
18729:
18689:
18659:
18604:
17018:
16426:
15961:
13021:
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4656:
from June 1956 to August 1957. Heath observed that adult members of society drank 'large quantities of
4426:
Providing an alternative to verbal communication (via use of symbols) and conventional forms of therapy
1977:
951:
945:
775:
is required for this cross-sensitization effect, which intensifies with the level of ΔFosB expression.
670:
559:
552:
482:– stimuli that the brain interprets as intrinsically positive and desirable or as something to approach
373:
35:
31:
11723:
4021:
The prevalence of substance use disorder among Australians was reported at 5.1% in 2009. In 2019 the
3634:
3535:
1274:. Stimulus-driven behavioral responses (i.e., stimulus control) that are associated with a particular
703:
through repetitive and excessive exposure to a natural reward induces the same behavioral effects and
19033:
18280:
18014:
17959:
17092:
16703:
16491:
16421:
16373:
16333:
16213:
16067:
14576:
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14188:
13898:
11923:
stimulated by the presence of natural reinforcers, such as food, water, or a sexual partner. ...
6078:
5040:
of cocaine-addicted male rats. These epigenetic alterations in the rat mPFC result in increased BDNF
4545:
3983:
3910:. The vaccine does not affect the user's "desire" for cocaine—only the physical effects of the drug.
3907:
2697:
2549:
2416:
1973:– a protein that binds to DNA and regulates gene expression by promoting or suppressing transcription
1668:
910:
654:
15843:
12347:"To fight opioid crisis, UW researchers take new shot at developing vaccine against addictive drugs"
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In 2019, opioid addiction was acknowledged as a national crisis in the United States. An article in
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19166:
17651:
16174:
12267:
11815:
9394:
5362:
5029:
4913:
4895:
3703:
3110:
3045:
3021:
2509:
2489:
1950:
1917:. ΔFosB expression in these neurons directly and positively regulates drug self-administration and
460:
42:
12383:
10715:
10049:
7108:"Natural and drug rewards act on common neural plasticity mechanisms with ΔFosB as a key mediator"
5953:. US Department of Health and Human Services. November 2016. pp. 35–37, 45, 63, 155, 317, 338
5760:
5758:
5756:
4168:
in Latin America may be deceptive if observations are limited to epidemiological findings. In the
4104:
without pornography, compulsive cybersex, etc.) within the US ranges from 3–6% of the population.
18333:
18300:
18290:
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1393:
1311:
18323:
15474:
4699:
of alcohol consumption', they were products 'socialized to view alcohol consumption as normal'.
1985:
the rate of gene transcription for example by helping or hindering RNA polymerase binding to DNA
18414:
17850:
17845:
17581:
17382:
17186:
17115:
16614:
16496:
16316:
16283:
16208:
16203:
15996:
12144:
11592:
9849:
6571:"Disentangling binge eating disorder and food addiction: a systematic review and meta-analysis"
5753:
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4838:
4823:
4681:
4617:
3857:
3751:
3622:
2739:. Virtually all drugs causing drug addiction increase the DA release in the mesolimbic pathway.
2485:
2459:
2424:
2316:
2041:
2029:
1596:
1592:
1263:
1245:
567:
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4938:
4923:
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4068:
4035:
3955:
3786:
3650:
3071:
2758:
2746:(NAcc) is one output of the VTA projections. The nucleus accumbens itself consists mainly of
2435:
phosphorylation. Phosphorylated CREB increases levels of ΔFosB, which in turn represses the
2372:
2309:
1752:
1678:
1595:) and why the addicted person seeks to avoid withdrawal through continued use (an example of
855:
192:
188:
13479:
13189:"Prevalence of Marijuana Use Disorders in the United States Between 2001–2002 and 2012–2013"
13139:"Nearly half of Americans have a family member or close friend who's been addicted to drugs"
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19023:
18915:
18328:
18285:
18225:
18153:
18126:
17646:
17621:
17591:
17586:
17412:
17213:
16481:
16338:
16149:
16026:
16003:
15945:
15920:
15882:
15798:
15793:
15788:
14989:"Are We Ready for a True Biopsychosocial-Spiritual Model? The Many Meanings of "Spiritual""
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5006:
4953:
4793:
4732:
4661:
4253:
4227:
4039:
3727:
3615:
3130:
3017:
2786:
2773:
2680:
2229:
2222:
2215:
2208:
2201:
1969:
1914:
1910:
1895:
1857:
1841:
1816:
1297:
1259:
1221:
1217:
904:
843:
818:
814:
810:
793:
Gambling provides a natural reward that is associated with compulsive behavior. Functional
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682:
563:
416:
236:
200:
131:
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are common and may be profound. This phenomenon originated the idiom "kicking the habit".
3473:
3467:
3461:
3456:
3450:
2892:
8:
18993:
18930:
18498:
18434:
18168:
17870:
17792:
17239:
17223:
17169:
17053:
16405:
16288:
16238:
16233:
16223:
16218:
16169:
15935:
13531:
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environmental influences on the behavioral and physiological phenotypes of the offspring.
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6423:
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4766:
4599:
4407:
Primary advantages of art therapy in the treatment of addiction have been identified as:
4223:
4219:
4197:
4165:
4116:
4108:
4072:
3959:
3710:
3538:
3220:
3040:
effect that is mediated through ΔFosB. In contrast to ΔFosB's reward-sensitizing effect,
2750:
2497:
1906:
1660:
1656:
1110:
692:
506:– the diminishing effect of a drug resulting from repeated administration at a given dose
444:
296:
204:
161:
99:
17689:
11774:
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19156:
18937:
18524:
18143:
17999:
17954:
17934:
17893:
17011:
16879:
16831:
16681:
16588:
16551:
16526:
16516:
16311:
16248:
16228:
15930:
15851:
15751:
15714:
15695:
15670:
15399:
15374:
15313:
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15015:
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14964:
14939:
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14780:
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14640:
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13188:
12997:
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12897:
12755:
12712:
12648:
12621:
12600:
12563:
12513:
12470:
12073:
12048:
12019:
11994:
11864:
11839:
11794:
11769:
11654:
11629:
11519:
11494:
11450:
11295:
11262:
11243:
11194:
11117:
11092:
11054:
11029:
10996:
10961:
10911:
10886:
10817:
10792:
10760:
10735:
10689:
10664:
10635:
10606:
10548:
10523:
10483:
10474:
10458:
10388:
10326:
10263:
10238:
10207:
10182:
9996:
9971:
9911:
9894:
9875:
9822:
9740:
9715:
9656:
9558:
9545:
9518:
9494:
9469:
9445:
9420:
9305:
9280:
9226:
9213:
9174:
9147:
9122:
9091:
9082:
9066:
9011:
8986:
8962:
8945:
8864:
8839:
8781:
8729:
8659:
8554:
8526:
8463:
8438:
8299:
8274:
8248:
8145:
8128:
8101:
8076:
7979:
7954:
7879:
7828:
7803:
7694:
7669:
7645:
7628:
7604:
7577:
7558:
7507:
7480:
7451:
7416:
7392:
7367:
7339:
7287:
7262:
7235:
7218:
7196:
7134:
7107:
7075:
7025:
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6944:
6798:
6773:
6711:
6686:
6595:
6570:
6515:
6374:
6349:
6281:
6153:
6128:
5997:
5917:
5892:
5868:
5843:
5819:
5792:
5742:
5693:
5668:
5635:
5322:
5305:
5238:
5205:
5090:, and ΔFosB) are induced together, with ΔFosB expression increasing to a lesser extent.
4666:
4237:
4201:
3098:
3001:
2819:
dopamine receptors can result in a decrease in the sensitivity to natural reinforcers.
2769:
2736:
2597:
that innervate the reward system, in turn affecting dopamine signaling in this region.
2594:
2389:
1664:
1275:
1267:
1204:
941:
802:
756:
724:
716:
280:
216:
212:
119:
107:
15686:
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6439:
4722:
The approach evolved from the ethnographic exploration into the lived experiences and
3924:
As of September 2023, it was further reported that a vaccine "has been tested against
70:
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17855:
17367:
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16773:
16607:
16546:
16388:
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15721:
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15558:
15514:
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15352:
15317:
15293:
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15020:
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14772:
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13611:
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13495:
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13002:
12953:
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8544:
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7292:
7240:
7217:
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6443:
6379:
6285:
6273:
6265:
6255:
6158:
6104:
6059:
5989:
5922:
5908:
5873:
5824:
5746:
5698:
5684:
5639:
5594:
5550:
5489:
5446:
5420:
5327:
5243:
5225:
4928:
4613:
4136:
4080:
4076:
3844:
3669:
to refer to a spectrum of drug use-related disorders. The DSM-5 eliminates the terms
3380:
3124:
2912:
2765:
2743:
2705:
2693:
2639:
2586:
2476:. The most important transcription factors that produce these alterations are ΔFosB,
2428:
2105:
2101:
1619:
1608:
1251:
1208:
821:
424:
196:
150:
90:
15743:
14738:
14351:
14052:
14009:
13685:
13459:
12901:
12759:
12716:
12517:
11454:
11247:
11198:
10902:
10392:
10330:
9879:
8733:
8717:
7883:
7200:
7079:
5416:
4792:
These three key points highlight how drugs may come to be used to self-medicate the
2634:
Top: this depicts the initial effects of high dose exposure to an addictive drug on
1118:
82:
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15956:
15910:
15690:
15682:
15647:
15463:
15394:
15386:
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15010:
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13906:
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13708:
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13603:
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12879:
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12501:
12497:
12474:
12454:
12313:
12154:
12109:
12068:
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12014:
12006:
11950:
11907:(second ed.). New York: McGraw-Hill Medical. pp. 147–48, 366–67, 375–76.
11859:
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10804:
10755:
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10684:
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10622:
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9983:
9944:
9906:
9859:
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9481:
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9292:
9253:
9208:
9198:
9142:
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8011:
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7059:
7007:
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6917:
6793:
6785:
6706:
6698:
6590:
6582:
6491:
6435:
6369:
6361:
6299:
6247:
6148:
6140:
6001:
5981:
5912:
5904:
5863:
5855:
5814:
5804:
5732:
5688:
5680:
5625:
5586:
5481:
5412:
5355:"Drugs, Brains, and Behavior: The Science of Addiction – Drug Misuse and Addiction"
5317:
5233:
5217:
4749:
4740:
4566:
3611:
2458:, and upon sufficient accumulation, with the help of its downstream targets (e.g.,
2420:
2281:
2256:
2246:
2236:
2162:
2053:
1615:
1585:
1255:
835:
825:
788:
736:
712:
453:
240:
15092:
14865:
13540:
13519:
12857:
11263:"Cholinergic interneurons control local circuit activity and cocaine conditioning"
11091:
Blum K, Werner T, Carnes S, Carnes P, Bowirrat A, Giordano J, et al. (2012).
9173:
Saunders GR, Wang X, Chen F, Jang SK, Liu M, Wang C, et al. (December 2022).
7165:
7163:
7161:
7159:
7157:
4974:
becomes increasingly difficult as addiction worsens. See for detailed discussion.
19128:
19013:
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18900:
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18374:
18220:
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17830:
17601:
17596:
17479:
17417:
17394:
17038:
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16570:
16454:
16179:
14816:
14768:
14676:
14589:
12832:
12010:
11108:
10376:
9535:
9436:
9186:
9138:
7867:
7765:
7441:
7383:
7063:
6726:
5985:
5074:
5041:
4891:
4776:
4670:
4641:
4583:
3979:
3809:
3574:
3442:
3313:
3066:
3053:
2923:
2851:
2635:
2533:
2521:
2455:
2447:
2397:
2169:
1935:
1886:
1874:
1845:
1812:
914:
847:
772:
704:
658:
436:
394:
369:
351:
300:
276:
180:(short-term reward), coupled with delayed deleterious effects (long-term costs).
139:
15830:
12858:"Global statistics on alcohol, tobacco and illicit drug use: 2017 status report"
12531:
12295:
Vaccines and Immunotherapies to Control Addiction in Minors: The Legal Framework
11700:
11683:
11558:
9810:
8326:"Tobacco, Alcohol, Prescription medication, and other Substance use (TAPS) Tool"
7101:
7099:
7097:
7095:
7093:
5630:
3894:, which destroy the molecule. This also prevents the cocaine from crossing the
2836:
Neural and behavioral effects of validated ΔFosB transcriptional targets in the
2716:
176:
and patterns associated with addiction are typically characterized by immediate
157:(and thus involuntary) factors that are implicated in addiction's development.
19140:
18910:
18876:
18851:
18441:
18158:
17984:
17974:
17888:
17797:
17737:
17681:
17434:
17389:
17289:
16676:
16666:
16436:
15968:
15905:
15332:
14955:
13910:
13369:
12692:
12458:
12064:
11954:
11400:
10419:
9367:
9203:
8690:
8647:
8620:
8454:
8415:
7819:
7685:
7154:
6586:
6239:
5221:
4918:
4677:
4645:
4334:
4249:
4245:
4092:
3782:
3739:
3489:
3005:
2812:
2735:. These neurons project and release DA into the nucleus accumbens, through the
2665:
2560:
2412:
2401:
2009:
1963:
1899:
1868:. With respect to addiction, more research is needed to determine the specific
888:
743:
696:
626:
571:
502:
473:– stimuli that increase the probability of repeating behaviors paired with them
398:
308:
208:
146:
15467:
15390:
15348:
15270:
15235:
14382:
14254:
14117:
14079:
14036:
13712:
12988:
12939:
12743:
10751:
10626:
10304:
9948:
9731:
9716:"The role of early life stress as a predictor for alcohol and drug dependence"
8767:
8585:
8540:
8050:
7970:
7546:
7368:"Gambling disorder and other behavioral addictions: recognition and treatment"
7316:(5th ed.). Arlington, VA: American Psychiatric Association. p. 481.
7012:
6995:
6961:
6365:
6269:
5891:
Koob G, Buck G, Cohen A, Edwards S, Park P, Schlosburg J, et al. (2014).
5737:
5720:
172:
with substances or behavior, and continued use despite negative consequences.
19150:
18983:
18957:
18952:
18866:
18429:
18389:
18009:
17989:
17898:
17825:
17752:
17747:
17732:
17528:
17328:
17311:
17279:
17058:
16999:
16864:
16796:
16778:
16749:
16716:
16698:
16449:
15874:
15758:
15356:
15278:
15180:
Singer M (October 2012). "Anthropology and addiction: an historical review".
15125:
15100:
15005:
14924:
14873:
14824:
14776:
14730:
14722:
14684:
14632:
14551:
14516:
14486:
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14212:
14165:
14125:
14087:
14044:
13948:
13755:
13720:
13615:
13549:
12809:
12730:
Chen CC, Yin SJ (October 2008). "Alcohol abuse and related factors in Asia".
12700:
12587:"UW researcher explains new vaccine in the works to prevent opioid overdoses"
11988:
11986:
9818:
8058:
7594:
7554:
7481:"An overview of gambling disorder: from treatment approaches to risk factors"
7331:
7090:
6503:
6348:
Skylstad V, Babirye JN, Kiguli J, Solheim Skar AM, et al. (March 2022).
5809:
5229:
5045:
5025:
4708:
3899:
3813:
2952:
2606:
2570:
2194:
2187:
1955:
1784:
1705:
1376:
1229:
1212:
955:
798:
486:
477:
468:
410:
304:
284:
177:
165:
17727:
13433:
13404:"Historical and cultural aspects of man's relationship with addictive drugs"
13298:"Mental Health and Addictions System Performance in Ontario: 2021 Scorecard"
12786:
11833:
11831:
11829:
11827:
11825:
11823:
11606:
11286:
10986:
10157:"The Connection Between Mental Illness and Substance Abuse | Dual Diagnosis"
8092:
7578:"Challenges in Internet Addiction Disorder: Is a Diagnosis Feasible or Not?"
7278:
6251:
6246:. Wellcome Trust–Funded Monographs and Book Chapters. Oxon (UK): Routledge.
4772:
Highly relevant to addiction, the three issues emphasized in the model are:
3000:
is a process that causes an increase in the amount of reward (specifically,
2815:
can induce receptor downregulation in the neural pathway. Downregulation of
2505:
1171:
490:– an amplified response to a stimulus resulting from repeated exposure to it
18871:
18419:
18121:
17807:
17626:
17561:
17506:
17454:
17333:
17299:
17251:
17147:
16965:
16821:
16734:
15704:
15661:
15408:
15243:
15201:
15024:
14973:
14916:
14881:
14832:
14597:
14400:
14343:
14001:
13677:
13487:
13451:
13388:
13222:
13006:
12957:
12893:
12794:
12751:
12708:
12657:
12509:
12466:
12166:
12121:
12082:
12028:
11972:
11873:
11803:
11785:
11709:
11663:
11614:
11566:
11528:
11446:
11408:
11366:
11347:
11304:
11239:
11126:
11063:
11005:
10960:
Kim Y, Teylan MA, Baron M, Sands A, Nairn AC, Greengard P (February 2009).
10920:
10871:
10826:
10808:
10769:
10698:
10644:
10557:
10492:
10435:
10417:
10384:
10322:
10272:
10216:
10198:
10005:
9920:
9871:
9749:
9652:
9554:
9503:
9454:
9314:
9222:
9156:
9100:
9020:
8971:
8873:
8820:
8725:
8655:
8593:
8507:
8472:
8423:
8308:
8244:
8154:
8110:
8023:
7988:
7875:
7837:
7783:
7738:
7703:
7654:
7613:
7516:
7460:
7401:
7296:
7244:
7192:
7143:
7071:
7045:
7043:
7041:
7039:
7021:
6980:
6929:
6807:
6720:
6604:
6511:
6447:
6383:
6277:
6162:
5993:
5926:
5877:
5828:
5702:
5598:
5424:
5331:
5247:
4762:
4723:
4637:
4595:
4278:
4274:
3993:
3723:
2709:
2575:
2553:
2155:
2045:– a protein (or a small molecule) that works with transcription factors to
2033:– a protein (or a small molecule) that works with transcription factors to
1989:
794:
154:
135:
15652:
15635:
15047:
14612:
14466:
14262:
13860:
13837:
13792:
13669:
12814:"The Mental Health of Australians 2: Substance Use Disorders in Australia"
12381:
12135:
Torres G, Horowitz JM (1999). "Drugs of abuse and brain gene expression".
11983:
11190:
10539:
9956:
9644:
9352:
9344:
9265:
8015:
7311:
6144:
5859:
5570:
Gowing L, Ali R, Allsop S, Marsden J, Turf E, West E, et al. (2015).
5493:
4727:
surrounded their drug use. These findings challenge popular narratives of
4510:
relationship between Indigenous peoples, their land, and substance abuse.
4270:
4259:
3032:(e.g., the use of an addictive drug) with which it was originally paired.
1921:
through positive reinforcement, while decreasing sensitivity to aversion.
449:
18318:
18265:
18111:
17949:
17817:
17772:
17694:
17671:
17404:
17362:
17070:
16933:
16859:
16814:
16661:
15766:
15308:
14543:
11820:
10515:
10313:
9067:"Mechanisms of transgenerational inheritance of addictive-like behaviors"
8762:(2nd ed.). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. pp. 147–169.
8521:
Fehrman E, Egan V, Gorban AN, Levesley J, Mirkes EM, Muhammad AK (2019).
7478:
5155:
4621:
4609:
4579:
4357:
3715:
3013:
2793:
2565:
2513:
2440:
2393:
1804:
1125:
Tobacco, Alcohol, Prescription Medication, and Other Substance Use (TAPS)
839:
764:
598:
593:
142:
16599:
15079:
Weakland JH (October 1961). "The Essence of Anthropological Education".
13768:
12884:
10775:
induces NFκB ... In contrast, the ability of ΔFosB to repress the
9296:
9002:
7036:
5445:(second ed.). New York: McGraw-Hill Medical. pp. 364–65, 375.
2472:
Chronic addictive drug use causes alterations in gene expression in the
1885:
Addiction is a disorder of the brain's reward system developing through
1791:
cites early aggressive behavior as a risk factor for substance use. The
18394:
18131:
17865:
17757:
17230:
17075:
17023:
16653:
16521:
16361:
16198:
14417:
Philly Council bill to block supervised injection sites advances - WHYY
14274:
14272:
13353:"World opioid and substance use epidemic: a Latin American perspective"
12842:
12638:
11438:
11182:
10102:"Infographic – Risk Factors of Addiction | Recovery Research Institute"
8350:
7923:"International Classification of Diseases 11th revision – ICD-11"
7774:
6921:
5164:
4899:
4752:
approach is required to achieve a holistic understanding of addiction.
4736:
4728:
4716:
4695:
4640:
understanding of the emergence of drug use and abuse, was developed by
4625:
4375:
4353:
4349:
4329:
4306:
4282:
3989:
3891:
3879:
3861:
3671:
3512:
3500:
2936:
2816:
2669:
2288:
1833:
1694:
1200:
851:
647:
640:
324:
312:
184:
103:
95:
15222:
Heath DB (September 1958). "Drinking patterns of the Bolivian Camba".
12874:
12113:
11645:
10797:
Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences
10254:
5793:"Addiction, anhedonia, and comorbid mood disorder. A narrative review"
5590:
1848:
of the disease; it has been noted that some of the alterations to the
127:
18861:
18409:
18404:
17979:
17964:
17939:
17787:
17782:
17767:
17762:
17722:
17699:
17636:
17493:
17466:
17350:
17208:
17191:
17164:
17080:
17043:
17033:
17006:
16977:
16938:
16925:
16903:
16874:
16671:
15873:
13161:"We were addicted to their pill, but they were addicted to the money"
11372:
but to any other perturbation (that doesn't involve lesions) as well.
8812:
8439:"Prevention and Screening of Unhealthy Substance Use by Older Adults"
8376:
6568:
6495:
5547:
Addiction reimagined: challenging views of an enduring social problem
5010:
4797:
4712:
4692:
4685:
4420:
Facilitating the expression of suppressed and/or complicated emotions
4211:
3933:
3874:
developed by the Xenova Group which is used to negate the effects of
3750:, and seizures. During acute physical opioid withdrawal, symptoms of
3743:
3731:
3526:
3520:
3506:
3495:
3049:
3025:
2956:
2882:
2789:
projects into the NAcc and is thought to be important for motivation.
2732:
2720:
2700:, is characterized by the interaction of several areas of the brain.
2409:
2365:
1891:
1849:
1808:
574:
model. However, no one model completely illustrates substance abuse.
251:
only recognize gambling addictions as behavioral addictions, but the
15813:
14940:"Family and social aspects of substance use disorders and treatment"
14269:
11770:"Review. Transcriptional mechanisms of addiction: role of DeltaFosB"
11230:
11213:
10680:
10598:
10237:
Nielsen DA, Utrankar A, Reyes JA, Simons DD, Kosten TR (July 2012).
9175:"Genetic diversity fuels gene discovery for tobacco and alcohol use"
6789:
5436:
5434:
3886:
toxin. It works in much the same way as a regular vaccine. A large
2827:
glutamate receptors and glutamate release in the nucleus accumbens.
19135:
17908:
17802:
17704:
17427:
17358:
17316:
17306:
17274:
17269:
17234:
17048:
16955:
16915:
16891:
16844:
16739:
16708:
15511:
Molecular Neuropharmacology: A Foundation for Clinical Neuroscience
13939:
Schmanke L (2019). "Art Therapy Applications and Substance Abuse".
13595:
12613:
12536:
12182:
Molecular Neuropharmacology: A Foundation for Clinical Neuroscience
11905:
Molecular Neuropharmacology: A Foundation for Clinical Neuroscience
11903:
Malenka RC, Nestler EJ, Hyman SE (2009). Sydor A, Brown RY (eds.).
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Jones S, Bonci A (2005). "Synaptic plasticity and drug addiction".
11146:
Molecular Neuropharmacology: A Foundation for Clinical Neuroscience
8899:
Molecular Neuropharmacology: A Foundation for Clinical Neuroscience
8531:
6479:
6101:
Molecular Neuropharmacology: A Foundation for Clinical Neuroscience
6056:
Molecular Neuropharmacology: A Foundation for Clinical Neuroscience
5443:
Molecular Neuropharmacology: A Foundation for Clinical Neuroscience
4241:
4097:
3929:
3917:
3903:
3830:
3826:
3818:
3626:
3546:
3377:
3345:
2837:
2537:
2525:
2405:
1869:
1865:
1780:
1023:
Decreased attendance and performance in workplace or school setting
829:
806:
784:
272:
220:
16058:
15038:
Farmer P, Kleinman A, Kim J, Basilico M, eds. (31 December 2019).
13020:
Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration (2022).
12441:
10078:. Substance Abuse and Mental Health Administration. Archived from
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Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, and Allied Disciplines
8273:
Kwako LE, Momenan R, Litten RZ, Koob GF, Goldman D (August 2016).
7313:
Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders : DSM-5
6129:"Neurobiologic Advances from the Brain Disease Model of Addiction"
5844:"Neurobiologic advances from the brain disease model of addiction"
4832:
3119:
2903:
2754:
2651:
2541:
2333:
700:
85:
in a healthy individual and an individual with a cocaine addiction
18019:
17538:
17521:
17516:
17501:
17449:
17439:
17422:
17294:
17135:
17130:
17063:
16989:
16809:
16729:
16032:
14365:
Barry CL, McGinty EE, Pescosolido BA, Goldman HH (October 2014).
11740:. National Institute on Drug Abuse. November 2012. Archived from
10845:
10843:
10413:
10411:
10409:
10407:
10405:
6347:
6103:(2nd ed.). New York: McGraw-Hill Medical. pp. 364–375.
5431:
4653:
4591:
4587:
4231:
4152:
3887:
3883:
3875:
3871:
3805:
3800:
3719:
3706:
is listed as a "condition requiring further study" in the DSM-5.
3631:
3127:
2712:
2677:
2673:
2529:
2517:
2057:– a specific sequence of DNA that a transcription factor binds to
1944:
1903:
122:
disorder characterized by a persistent and intense urge to use a
14511:(1). American Alcohol & Drug Information Foundation: 29–39.
12265:
11148:(2nd ed.). New York: McGraw-Hill Medical. pp. 384–85.
10716:
Figure 4: Epigenetic basis of drug regulation of gene expression
8901:(2nd ed.). New York: McGraw-Hill Medical. pp. 313–21.
7626:
7575:
6017:
3024:
of addictive drug use (i.e., these stimuli start to function as
2383:
1943:
is used in the synthesis of a functional gene product such as a
17969:
17903:
17372:
17218:
17198:
16960:
16884:
16849:
16788:
16120:
15825:
15762:
14436:
13270:"Drug addiction (substance use disorder) – Symptoms and causes"
12591:
8169:"Drug addiction (substance use disorder) – Symptoms and causes"
7717:
Block JJ (March 2008). "Issues for DSM-V: internet addiction".
7105:
6942:
6680:
6678:
6676:
6674:
6672:
6670:
6668:
6666:
6664:
6662:
6660:
6658:
6656:
6654:
6652:
6650:
6648:
6646:
6644:
6642:
6640:
6638:
6636:
6634:
6398:"Drug addiction (substance use disorder) – Symptoms and causes"
6025:. American Psychiatric Publishing. pp. 1–2. Archived from
5572:"Global statistics on addictive behaviours: 2014 status report"
5033:
5003:
4744:
4603:
4265:
4248:. Today, addiction is understood both as a biopsychosocial and
3925:
3913:
3855:
3'-aminomethylnicotine which has been conjugated (attached) to
3852:
3840:
3822:
3770:
3747:
3735:
3020:
process that causes these previously neutral stimuli to act as
2781:
Other brain structures that are involved in addiction include:
2590:
2564:
particular, ΔFosB in the nucleus accumbens is critical for the
2504:
through positive reinforcement while decreasing sensitivity to
1674:
1211:) with an individual's proclivity for developing an addiction.
1091:
Use of substance despite consequences to personal relationships
252:
248:
15671:"Laterality of Brain Activation for Risk Factors of Addiction"
15454:
Smith, Mark A. (2021-02-01). "Social Learning and Addiction".
15333:"Taking Care of Business—The Heroin User's Life on the Street"
14364:
12382:
American Addiction Centers Editorial Staff (4 January 2022) .
12310:"'Heavy' heroin vaccine provides hope for addiction treatment"
11940:
11938:
11936:
11934:
10840:
10402:
10183:"Epigenetics: definition, mechanisms and clinical perspective"
8325:
7952:
7670:"Internet Addiction: A Brief Summary of Research and Practice"
6632:
6630:
6628:
6626:
6624:
6622:
6620:
6618:
6616:
6614:
5721:"Sexual Addiction Disorder—a review with recent updates"
3637:– most other genes in the NAc cells do not show such changes.
970:
Continuation of drug use despite the knowledge of consequences
17105:
16943:
16896:
16759:
16130:
16125:
16115:
16110:
16105:
16099:
16092:
16085:
16053:
16038:
12807:
11949:. Progress in Brain Research. Vol. 223. pp. 63–76.
10604:
9969:
8523:
Personality Traits and Drug Consumption. A Story Told by Data
7216:
6244:
The Routledge handbook of philosophy and science of addiction
5938:
5936:
5037:
4743:
individuals, drug subcultures can provide social connection,
4649:
3890:
molecule attaches to cocaine, which stimulates response from
3867:
3306:
2975:
2943:
2864:
2728:
2724:
2643:
2545:
2432:
2354:
1730:
brief but total relief and positive feelings of control. The
982:
Needing more of the drug over time to achieve similar effects
973:
Disregarding financial status when it comes to drug purchases
751:
646:
Risk factors for developing food addiction include excessive
397:
disorder characterized by persistent use of drugs (including
339:
288:
244:
173:
15487:
Changing the Self: Philosophies, Techniques, and Experiences
14658:
14656:
12812:, Whiteford H, Burgess P, Pirkis J, et al. (May 2009).
12047:
Walker DM, Cates HM, Heller EA, Nestler EJ (February 2015).
11682:
Volkow ND, Fowler JS, Wang GJ, Swanson JM, Telang F (2007).
11023:
11021:
11019:
11017:
11015:
10452:
10450:
10448:
10050:"Addiction Statistics – Facts on Drug and Alcohol Addiction"
7049:
3679:
from diagnostic categories, instead using the specifiers of
918:
personalities may be more susceptible to gaming addictions.
17994:
17511:
17125:
16994:
16982:
16950:
16768:
16691:
16686:
16048:
16043:
14802:
13816:
Kaufman GH (1 July 1981). "Art therapy with the addicted".
13573:
Pathways of Addiction: Opportunities in Drug Abuse Research
13097:
13095:
13093:
12487:
12179:
11931:
6687:"Natural rewards, neuroplasticity, and non-drug addictions"
6611:
6053:
5203:
5087:
5083:
5079:
5022:
3432:
3426:
3418:
3414:
3410:
3404:
3400:
3396:
3390:
3386:
3041:
2966:
2824:
2747:
2659:
2655:
2647:
2344:
1940:
1822:
1029:
Frequently engaging in conflicts (fights, illegal activity)
123:
15610:. Centers For Disease Control Prevention. 18 December 2020
15513:(2nd ed.). New York: McGraw-Hill Medical. p. 4.
13853:
Treatment of Addiction: Current Issues for Arts Therapists
13785:
Treatment of Addiction: Current Issues for Arts Therapists
13186:
12855:
12833:
Australian Institute of Health and Welfare (AIHW) (2020).
12099:
11492:
10236:
9970:
Perepletchikova F, Krystal JH, Kaufman J (November 2008).
9933:
8676:
7801:
5933:
5471:
4769:, and the institutional power held over social processes.
18094:
Council of the European Union decisions on designer drugs
17777:
17203:
16970:
16073:
15037:
14850:
14653:
14502:
14464:
11628:
Perry CJ, Zbukvic I, Kim JH, Lawrence AJ (October 2014).
11012:
10445:
9120:
8520:
7922:
7627:
Bipeta R, Yerramilli SS, Karredla AR, Gopinath S (2015).
5714:
5712:
4657:
4234:, it was seen as a way of "devoting oneself to another".
1959:
1172:
Alcohol, Smoking, and Substance Involvement Test (ASSIST)
865:
general description of individuals addicted to gambling.
440:– symptoms that occur upon cessation of repeated drug use
145:
function – has led to an understanding of addiction as a
13090:
12046:
10831:
Recent evidence has shown that ΔFosB also represses the
10793:"Transcriptional mechanisms of addiction: Role of ΔFosB"
10665:"Transcriptional and epigenetic mechanisms of addiction"
9418:
9330:
9243:
8892:
8890:
8571:
8485:
8199:"Mental Health and Substance Use Co-Occurring Disorders"
7263:"Compulsive sexual behavior: a review of the literature"
6774:"Transcriptional and epigenetic mechanisms of addiction"
6240:"Chapter 5 Addiction: The belief oscillation hypothesis"
5790:
5392:. Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press. pp. 116–132.
4624:
highlights correlations between drug use and structural
3963:
1788:
1082:
Changes to financial status (unexplained need for money)
15485:
Brinthaupt, Thomas M.; Lipka, Richard P. (1994-10-11).
13654:
13585:
13330:. United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime. June 2012.
11724:"Drugs, Brains, and Behavior: The Science of Addiction"
11681:
11627:
11323:"DeltaFosB: a sustained molecular switch for addiction"
11260:
10568:
10459:"Chromatin regulation in drug addiction and depression"
10239:"Epigenetics of drug abuse: predisposition or response"
6996:"Food addiction, eating addiction and eating disorders"
6907:
5402:
4411:
Assess and characterize a client's substance use issues
1232:
and behavioral inhibition, and an impulsivity model of
979:
Experiencing withdrawal symptoms when stopping the drug
12428:
12328:"Experimental Opioid Vaccine Being Tested at Columbia"
12236:
12234:
12207:
12205:
11540:
11538:
11090:
10662:
10605:
Cadet JL, Brannock C, Jayanthi S, Krasnova IN (2015).
9278:
8272:
6086:
5709:
5569:
4755:
4414:
Bypassing a client's resistances, defenses, and denial
4156:
increased the most among the 14–17 age group overall.
1162:
1104:
19100:
14986:
14460:
14458:
14456:
14065:
13941:
Art and Expressive Therapies within the Medical Model
13570:
13292:
13290:
12970:
12291:
11630:"Role of cues and contexts on drug-seeking behaviour"
11582:
11420:
11418:
10933:
10574:
10456:
9468:
Hall FS, Drgonova J, Jain S, Uhl GR (December 2013).
9395:"The Genetics of Addiction – Is Addiction a Disease?"
8887:
7668:
Cash H, Rae CD, Steel AH, Winkler A (November 2012).
7169:
6478:
Maxwell AL, Gardiner E, Loxton NJ (9 February 2020).
6477:
6350:"Are we overlooking alcohol use by younger children?"
5784:
5509:"Gaming Addiction in ICD-11: Issues and Implications"
4573:
2922: • NF-κB inflammatory response in the
2917: • NF-κB inflammatory response in the
633:
Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders
16324:
Community reinforcement approach and family training
15803:
13979:
13238:
13236:
13234:
13232:
12042:
12040:
12038:
11493:
Kourrich S, Rothwell PE, Klug JR, Thomas MJ (2007).
9172:
9064:
8792:
7959:
International Journal of Mental Health and Addiction
5890:
5835:
5563:
4684:
is socially 'inherently disruptive'. Following this
3992:) varies over time, by country, and across national
3920:
in the human body so that it is no longer effective.
3836:
Specific addiction vaccines in development include:
2615:
2094:
1026:
Fearful, paranoid and anxious without probable cause
15508:
14186:
14099:
14097:
12292:Harwood HJ, Myers TG, Addiction NR (23 July 2004).
12266:National Institute on Drug Abuse (20 August 2020).
12231:
12202:
11992:
11902:
11535:
11382:
11380:
11143:
10959:
10878:
10849:
10358:
10356:
10354:
10352:
10350:
10348:
10346:
10344:
10342:
10340:
10180:
10044:
10042:
10019:
10017:
10015:
9892:
9467:
8896:
8831:
8193:
8191:
8189:
7667:
6098:
5540:
5538:
5440:
5199:
5197:
5060:
5058:
4517:
401:) despite substantial harm and adverse consequences
15744:"The Science of Addiction: Genetics and the Brain"
15713:
15547:International Narcotics Control Board Report: 2013
15372:
14453:
14321:
13513:
13511:
13287:
13013:
12405:. National Institute on Drug Abuse. Archived from
12049:"Regulation of chromatin states by drugs of abuse"
11415:
10511:Figure 2: Psychostimulant-induced signaling events
10181:Dupont C, Armant DR, Brenner CA (September 2009).
9582:. National Institute on Drug Abuse. Archived from
8401:
7532:
7256:
7254:
6889:. Department of Psychology, University of Michigan
6126:
6092:
5884:
5841:
1032:Frequent or sudden changes in mood and temperament
15588:. National Institute on Drug Abuse. 9 August 2018
15504:
15502:
14987:Saad M, de Medeiros R, Mosini AC (October 2017).
14665:Journal of Social Work Practice in the Addictions
14571:
14569:
14139:
14137:
14135:
14103:
13934:
13932:
13930:
13892:
13890:
13888:
13886:
13884:
13882:
13880:
13769:North American Drama Therapy Association (2016),
13698:
13229:
12921:
12772:
12584:
12035:
11898:
11896:
11472:. Edinburgh: Churchill Livingstone. p. 596.
11320:
10927:
10784:
7853:
7849:
7847:
6831:Goodman B (3 September 2022). Casarella J (ed.).
6564:
6562:
6560:
6558:
6556:
5660:
5652:: CS1 maint: DOI inactive as of September 2024 (
5390:Addiction and Choice: Rethinking the Relationship
5299:
5297:
5295:
5293:
5291:
5289:
5287:
5285:
5283:
5281:
4707:Historically, addiction has been viewed from the
2801:
2683:of the nucleus accumbens for up to 2 months.
2388:This diagram depicts the signaling events in the
1651:Molecular and epigenetic mechanisms of alcoholism
1278:tend to dominate one's behavior in an addiction.
19148:
15175:
15173:
15171:
15169:
15167:
15165:
15117:In Search of Respect: Selling Crack in El Barrio
14846:
14844:
14842:
14754:
14704:
14702:
14538:(2). University of Toronto Press: 268–295, 356.
14498:
14496:
14187:Francis D, Kaiser D, Deaver SP (22 April 2011).
14094:
13905:. John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. pp. 361–374.
13520:"The etymology and early history of 'addiction'"
12971:Manubay JM, Muchow C, Sullivan MA (March 2011).
12619:
11763:
11761:
11759:
11377:
11321:Nestler EJ, Barrot M, Self DW (September 2001).
11316:
11314:
11137:
11086:
11084:
11082:
11080:
10337:
10286:
10284:
10282:
10232:
10230:
10228:
10226:
10039:
10012:
9281:"Genetic factors influencing alcohol dependence"
9279:Mayfield RD, Harris RA, Schuckit MA (May 2008).
8186:
8074:
6993:
6554:
6552:
6550:
6548:
6546:
6544:
6542:
6540:
6538:
6536:
6343:
6341:
6127:Volkow ND, Koob GF, McLellan AT (January 2016).
6122:
6120:
5965:
5535:
5279:
5277:
5275:
5273:
5271:
5269:
5267:
5265:
5263:
5261:
5194:
5055:
4277:it into "alco" and "-holism". There are correct
1602:
30:"Addictive" redirects here. For other uses, see
15163:
15161:
15159:
15157:
15155:
15153:
15151:
15149:
15147:
15145:
14798:
14796:
14794:
14750:
14748:
14465:Henningfield JE, Dowell ML, Santora PB (2010).
13508:
13110:. National Institutes of Health. Archived from
12775:Cyberpsychology, Behavior and Social Networking
12620:Taylor SB, Lewis CR, Olive MF (February 2013).
12403:"Nicotine Vaccine Moves Toward Clinical Trials"
12184:(3rd ed.). New York: McGraw-Hill Medical.
10884:
10290:
9893:Hammond CJ, Mayes LC, Potenza MN (April 2014).
9612:. National Institute on Drug Abuse. 6 June 2018
9580:"What are risk factors and protective factors?"
8633:
8222:
7474:
7472:
7470:
7260:
7251:
6826:
6824:
6822:
6820:
6339:
6337:
6335:
6333:
6331:
6329:
6327:
6325:
6323:
6321:
6058:(3rd ed.). New York: McGraw-Hill Medical.
5791:Destoop M, Morrens M, Coppens V, Dom G (2019).
5718:
5618:Journal of Psychiatry and Psychiatric Disorders
4833:Transtheoretical model (stages of change model)
4176:
1579:
921:Risk factors for video game addiction include:
581:Aggressive behavior (particularly in childhood)
448:– dependence that involves persistent physical–
134:, and weakens (but does not completely negate)
17642:Legal history of cannabis in the United States
15608:"Overdose Deaths Accelerating During Covid-19"
15499:
15368:
15366:
15217:
15215:
15213:
15211:
14905:Academy of Management Learning & Education
14566:
14243:The American Journal of Drug and Alcohol Abuse
14143:
14132:
13927:
13877:
13658:The American Journal of Drug and Alcohol Abuse
13517:
13484:Addiction and Devotion in Early Modern England
13480:"Introduction: Addiction in (Early) Modernity"
13473:
13471:
13469:
13244:"Mental and substance use disorders in Canada"
12134:
11893:
10736:"Transcriptional mechanisms of drug addiction"
9676:
9674:
9168:
9166:
8987:"The neurocircuitry of addiction: an overview"
8984:
8036:
7948:
7946:
7944:
7856:The American Journal of Drug and Alcohol Abuse
7844:
6887:Food and Addiction Science & Treatment Lab
6771:
6473:
6471:
6469:
6467:
6465:
6463:
6461:
6459:
6457:
6424:"Theories of drug craving, ancient and modern"
6198:. U.S. Department of Health and Human Services
4735:, conceptualizing substance abuse as a social
3801:Potential vaccines for addiction to substances
16615:
15859:
15423:The War System: An Interdisciplinary Approach
14839:
14699:
14493:
14471:. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press.
13943:(1st ed.). Routledge. pp. 177–187.
13104:"A Major Step Forward for Addiction Medicine"
12828:
12826:
12481:
12400:
12394:
12128:
11756:
11544:
11311:
11077:
10279:
10223:
10027:. National Institute on Drug Abuse. June 2015
9709:
9707:
8939:
8937:
8935:
8933:
8931:
8929:
8565:
8397:
8395:
8393:
8371:
8369:
8367:
8268:
8266:
8264:
8262:
8122:
8120:
8075:Hague B, Hall J, Kellett S (September 2016).
8070:
8068:
8001:
7797:
7795:
7793:
7414:
7212:
7210:
6533:
6117:
6013:
6011:
5605:
5258:
4264:In contemporary modern English "-holic" is a
3916:, used to create human antibodies to destroy
3902:effect of cocaine caused from stimulation of
3605:
3311:Tooltip cAMP response element-binding protein
2121:
2075:
1155:RESPONSE: elicit self-motivational statements
995:Signs and symptoms of addiction may include:
985:Social and work life impacted due to drug use
909:Video game addiction is characterized by the
524:
16642:
15421:Falk, Richard; Kim, Samuel S. (2019-08-15).
15375:"Subcultural evolution and illicit drug use"
15142:
14791:
14745:
14708:
14575:
13851:Waller D, Mahony J, eds. (9 December 1998).
13850:
13783:Waller D, Mahony J, eds. (9 December 1998).
13782:
12835:National Drug Strategy Household Survey 2019
12819:. Department of Health and Ageing, Canberra.
12421:
11716:
11578:
11576:
11424:
11211:
10740:Clinical Psychopharmacology and Neuroscience
10729:
10727:
10725:
10723:
10658:
10656:
10654:
9412:
9326:
9324:
8670:
8627:
8606:
8600:
7528:
7526:
7467:
7223:International Journal of Preventive Medicine
6994:Hauck C, Cook B, Ellrott T (February 2020).
6817:
6318:
6233:
6185:
6183:
6181:
6179:
5971:
4644:. Heath undertook ethnographic research and
4273:" plus the suffix "-ism") by misdividing or
3962:, and residential treatment facilities. The
3131:
2611:
2423:trigger internal signaling events through a
759:– as an addiction (i.e., sexual addiction).
15441:"Bandura, Albert: Social Learning Theory",
15363:
15330:
15208:
13600:National Council of State Boards of Nursing
13466:
13402:Crocq MA (December 2007). Thibaut F (ed.).
13395:
12605:: CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (
10524:"Co-transmission of dopamine and glutamate"
10132:"Drug addiction Risk factors – Mayo Clinic"
9937:The International Journal of the Addictions
9671:
9163:
8753:
8751:
8749:
8747:
8745:
8743:
7941:
7361:
7359:
7357:
7355:
7344:: CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (
6861:. Boca Raton: CRC Press. pp. 203–218.
6767:
6765:
6763:
6454:
6231:
6229:
6227:
6225:
6223:
6221:
6219:
6217:
6215:
6213:
6020:"Substance-Related and Addictive Disorders"
5396:
4586:disorder, addiction is multi-layered, with
4551:
4458:recovery framework must take into account.
3954:(CBT), individual and group psychotherapy,
3939:
3665:The fifth edition of the DSM uses the term
1099:
797:evidence shows that gambling activates the
27:Disorder resulting in compulsive behaviours
18370:Arguments for and against drug prohibition
16622:
16608:
15866:
15852:
15531:
15373:Golub A, Johnson BD, Dunlap E (May 2005).
15040:Reimagining Global Health: An Introduction
14645:: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (
14278:
13357:Psychiatric Research and Clinical Practice
12917:
12915:
12913:
12911:
12823:
12560:"CelticPharma: TA-NIC Nicotine Dependence"
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10953:
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10733:
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6745:
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6008:
5465:
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5347:
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5303:
5044:within the mPFC, which in turn blunts the
4107:According to a 2017 poll conducted by the
4023:Australian Institute of Health and Welfare
3932:and is on its way to being tested against
2622:ΔFosB accumulation from excessive drug use
2149:Note: colored text contains article links.
2128:
2114:
2082:
2068:
1939:– the process by which information from a
1736:Centers for Disease Control and Prevention
1693:a small amount of additional risk with an
1142:The five Rs of brief counseling includes:
1044:Using substances in inappropriate settings
531:
517:
69:
16629:
15711:
15694:
15651:
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15307:
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15004:
14963:
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14390:
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13771:Drama therapy with addictions populations
13539:
13441:
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13378:
13368:
13250:. Government of Canada. 18 September 2013
13212:
12996:
12947:
12924:"Epidemiology of Substance Use Disorders"
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12637:
12435:
12332:Columbia University Irving Medical Center
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11030:"Epigenetic mechanisms of drug addiction"
10995:
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10910:
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10759:
10720:
10688:
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10634:
10575:Kanehisa Laboratories (10 October 2014).
10547:
10521:
10482:
10420:"Epigenetic regulation in drug addiction"
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9010:
8961:
8950:Addiction Science & Clinical Practice
8863:
8530:
8462:
8298:
8144:
8100:
7978:
7827:
7773:
7693:
7644:
7603:
7593:
7523:
7506:
7496:
7450:
7440:
7408:
7391:
7286:
7234:
7133:
7011:
6970:
6960:
6797:
6710:
6594:
6373:
6300:"Food addiction: Symptoms and management"
6176:
6152:
6018:American Psychiatric Association (2013).
5916:
5867:
5818:
5808:
5736:
5692:
5666:
5629:
5544:
5321:
5237:
4817:
4812:
4691:The cultural model did face criticism by
4429:Providing clients with a sense of control
3191:
2981:
2918:
2108:that results in psychostimulant addiction
1085:Legal problems related to substance abuse
928:Psychopathologies (e.g. ADHD or MDD), and
760:
669:, specifically the BIS-11 scale, and the
558:Drug addiction has been shown to work in
18344:Psilocybin decriminalization in the U.S.
18041:
15291:
15113:
15078:
14671:(3). Taylor & Francis Ltd: 302–315.
14578:The International Journal on Drug Policy
14437:Drug Enforcement Administration (2018),
13938:
13896:
13136:
13049:
13047:
13045:
13043:
13041:
13039:
12677:"Ethical Issues in Addiction Counseling"
12447:Clinical Pharmacology & Therapeutics
11993:Berridge KC, Kringelbach ML (May 2015).
11837:
11738:"Understanding Drug Abuse and Addiction"
11677:
11675:
11673:
11168:
10663:Robison AJ, Nestler EJ (November 2011).
10457:Renthal W, Nestler EJ (September 2009).
9795:"Control Theory and Adolescent Drug Use"
9574:
9572:
8798:
8740:
8436:
8216:
8129:"A review of compulsive buying disorder"
7352:
7000:The Proceedings of the Nutrition Society
6772:Robison AJ, Nestler EJ (November 2011).
6421:
6210:
6085:, eleventh revision – ICD-11. Geneva –
6083:International Classification of Diseases
5893:"Addiction as a stress surfeit disorder"
5306:"Cellular basis of memory for addiction"
4998:that occur in addiction, alterations in
4711:perspective, defining users through the
4555:
4448:
4181:
4170:United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime
4071:of the US youth population in 2011, the
3767:International Classification of Diseases
3060:Summary of addiction-related plasticity
2961: • Increased drug reward
2898: • Increased drug reward
2370:
2363:
2352:
2314:
2307:
2286:
1838:transgenerational epigenetic inheritance
1829:Transgenerational epigenetic inheritance
1823:Transgenerational epigenetic inheritance
1746:
1725:The psychoanalytic theory model defines
1712:
1272:attention deficit hyperactivity disorder
1088:Sudden changes in friends and associates
1035:Hiding or in denial of certain behaviors
183:Examples of substance addiction include
18380:Capital punishment for drug trafficking
17435:Neocannabinoid / synthetic cannabinoids
15782:Kyoto Encyclopedia of Genes and Genomes
15633:
15337:International Journal of the Addictions
15224:Quarterly Journal of Studies on Alcohol
14505:Journal of Alcohol & Drug Education
14413:
14022:
13815:
13575:. Washington: National Academies Press.
12922:Merikangas KR, McClair VL (June 2012).
12908:
12729:
12585:KIRO 7 News Staff (19 September 2023).
12384:"Why Don't We Have Addiction Vaccines?"
12344:
11944:
11767:
11730:
11254:
11027:
10934:Kanehisa Laboratories (2 August 2013).
8837:
8320:
8318:
7898:"Addictive behaviours: Gaming disorder"
7415:Ford M, Håkansson A (10 January 2020).
6830:
6740:
5342:
3647:Substance use disorder § Diagnosis
2933: • Increased drug reward
2924:
2830:
2642:for various Fos family proteins (i.e.,
1683:Alpha5 Nicotinic Acetylcholine Receptor
1185:
676:
452:withdrawal symptoms (e.g., fatigue and
315:, drugs, sex, gambling, video gaming).
14:
19149:
18271:Office of National Drug Control Policy
18059:International drug control conventions
15668:
15489:. State University of New York Press.
15179:
14610:
14529:
13733:
13518:Rosenthal R, Faris S (February 2019).
13101:
11885:Cue as attractive motivational magnets
11212:Kauer JA, Malenka RC (November 2007).
11205:
10885:Steiner H, Van Waes V (January 2013).
10864:10.1146/annurev.neuro.29.051605.113009
10362:
9842:Neuroscience and Biobehavioral Reviews
9606:"Understanding Drug Use and Addiction"
9516:
8679:Personality and Individual Differences
8609:Personality and Individual Differences
6856:
6072:
5611:
5387:
5028:– have been shown to occur within the
4898:from chronic alcohol consumption, and
3630:acetylation and methylation states of
3276:Reinstatement of drug-seeking behavior
2341:
2330:
2321:
2300:
2279:
2270:
2254:
2244:
2234:
2167:
2160:
2153:
988:Unsuccessful attempts to stop drug use
357:
18462:
18040:
17612:List of cannabis rights organizations
17559:
16641:
16603:
15847:
15784:(KEGG) signal transduction pathways:
15555:International Narcotics Control Board
15539:"Economic consequences of drug abuse"
15443:Encyclopedia of Criminological Theory
15256:
15221:
14937:
13477:
13401:
13036:
12674:
11670:
11461:
9839:
9713:
9630:
9569:
8943:
8126:
7716:
7261:Derbyshire KL, Grant JE (June 2015).
6859:Coffee, tea, chocolate, and the brain
6833:"Food Addiction Signs and Treatments"
6684:
5842:Volkow N, Koob G, McLellan T (2016).
5515:. Psychiatric Times Vol 36, Issue 9.
4194:Evolutionary models of human drug use
3946:Treatment and management of addiction
3849:U.S. National Institute on Drug Abuse
3534:
3299:
3161:
3081:
3075:
3064:
2872:Molecular switch enabling the chronic
2293:
2261:
2227:
2220:
2213:
2206:
2199:
2192:
1774:
1565:
1563:
1554:
1552:
1550:
1516:
1514:
1512:
1499:
1497:
1488:
1486:
1481:
1479:
1470:
1424:
1422:
1404:
1391:
1389:
1387:
1385:
1383:
1374:
1372:
1370:
1324:
1322:
1320:
1309:
1307:
1305:
1303:
1301:
1296:
1294:
1292:
1290:
1288:
1286:
1284:
961:
601:(attentional, motor, or non-planning)
14805:International Journal of Drug Policy
14249:(4). Taylor & Francis: 533–547.
14025:International Journal of Art Therapy
13824:(4). Taylor & Francis: 353–360.
13062:American Board of Addiction Medicine
12375:
11467:
10577:"Amphetamine – Homo sapiens (human)"
9065:Vassoler FM, Sadri-Vakili G (2014).
8697:
8404:Journal of Substance Abuse Treatment
8315:
7633:Innovations in Clinical Neuroscience
6237:
6189:
4702:
4289:; other examples are in this table:
4144:is a term used interchangeably with
4063:Opioid epidemic in the United States
2891: • Downregulation of
2431:that ultimately result in increased
2185:
2174:
2146:
1793:National Bureau of Economic Research
1270:, is impaired in both addiction and
1017:Changes to eating or sleeping habits
976:Ensuring a stable supply of the drug
577:Risk factors for addiction include:
211:. Behavioral addictions may include
16537:Discrimination against drug addicts
15331:Preble E, Casey JJ (January 1969).
14902:
12532:"Cocaine vaccine 'stops addiction'"
11881:Cue-triggered 'wanting' for the UCS
11726:. National Institute on Drug Abuse.
11214:"Synaptic plasticity and addiction"
10936:"Alcoholism – Homo sapiens (human)"
9633:The New England Journal of Medicine
9392:
8985:Feltenstein MW, See RE (May 2008).
8856:10.1146/annurev-psych-113011-143750
5848:The New England Journal of Medicine
5486:10.1146/annurev.ps.39.020188.001255
4934:Discrimination against drug addicts
4756:Critical medical anthropology model
4260:The suffixes "-holic" and "-holism"
4059:Crack epidemic in the United States
1732:Adverse Childhood Experiences Study
1657:Alcoholism § Genetic variation
1163:Drug Abuse Screening Test (DAST-10)
1105:Addictions Neuroclinical Assessment
1020:Changes to personality and attitude
748:compulsive sexual behavior disorder
255:also recognizes gaming addictions.
160:Classic signs of addiction include
24:
18164:Law Enforcement Action Partnership
16399:Tobacco cessation clinics in India
15794:KEGG – human amphetamine addiction
15626:
15042:. University of California Press.
14757:American Journal of Family Therapy
13408:Dialogues in Clinical Neuroscience
12732:International Review of Psychiatry
12681:Rehabilitation Counseling Bulletin
11547:The American Journal of Psychiatry
10463:Dialogues in Clinical Neuroscience
10073:
9333:The American Journal of Psychiatry
9083:10.1016/j.neuroscience.2013.07.064
8437:Han BH, Moore AA (February 2018).
7719:The American Journal of Psychiatry
5506:
5310:Dialogues in Clinical Neuroscience
5002:– specifically, di-acetylation of
4781:The social production of suffering
4620:with street-level drug dealers in
4574:Biopsychosocial–cultural–spiritual
4560:Acute confusional state caused by
3791:
3030:transfer to the primary reinforcer
3016:with drug consumption triggers an
2501:
2493:
2480:response element binding protein (
1918:
1640:
1239:
1233:
79:Brain positron emission tomography
25:
19183:
18181:Students for Sensible Drug Policy
15736:
15687:10.2174/1874473709666151217121309
15299:Open Encyclopedia of Anthropology
14944:Journal of Food and Drug Analysis
13903:The Wiley Handbook of Art Therapy
13899:"Art Therapy and Substance Abuse"
12429:"Nabi Biopharmaceuticals Website"
10528:The Journal of General Physiology
10187:Seminars in Reproductive Medicine
9372:Alcohol Health and Research World
9365:
6910:Psychology of Addictive Behaviors
6440:10.1046/j.1360-0443.2001.961333.x
6242:. In Pickard H, Ahmed SH (eds.).
6171:of severe substance-use disorder.
4796:of socio-political disparity and
4631:
4423:Highlighting a client's strengths
3898:, negating the euphoric high and
3655:
3651:Problem gambling § Diagnosis
2462:), it induces an addictive state.
1197:Personality theories of addiction
1192:Personality theories of addiction
824:, as well as D3 receptors in the
620:
543:
381:Addiction and dependence glossary
19134:
19122:
19110:
18186:Transform Drug Policy Foundation
18080:Other treaties addressing drugs
17560:
16584:
16583:
16462:Low-threshold treatment programs
16329:Motivational enhancement therapy
15771:National Institute on Drug Abuse
15600:
15578:
15479:
15448:
15435:
15415:
15324:
15285:
15250:
15194:10.1111/j.1360-0443.2012.03879.x
15107:
15072:
15031:
14980:
14931:
14896:
14604:
14523:
14430:
14407:
14358:
14336:10.1016/j.drugalcdep.2018.04.033
14315:
14234:
14180:
14059:
14016:
13973:
13844:
13809:
13776:
13762:
13727:
13692:
13648:
13630:
13579:
13564:
13492:University of Pennsylvania Press
13344:
13315:
13262:
13205:10.1001/jamapsychiatry.2015.1858
13180:
13153:
13130:
13108:National Institute on Drug Abuse
12964:
12849:
12801:
12766:
12723:
12668:
12578:
12552:
12524:
12357:
12338:
12320:
12302:
12285:
12272:National Institute on Drug Abuse
12259:
12173:
12159:10.1097/00006842-199909000-00007
12093:
11856:10.1111/j.1460-9568.2012.07990.x
11621:
11046:10.1016/j.neuropharm.2013.04.004
10475:10.31887/DCNS.2009.11.3/wrenthal
10174:
10149:
10124:
10094:
10067:
9988:10.1111/j.1469-7610.2008.01934.x
9963:
9927:
9886:
9833:
9793:Marcos AC, Bahr SJ (June 1988).
9786:
9756:
9624:
9598:
9486:10.1016/j.pharmthera.2013.07.006
8760:Seminars in addiction psychiatry
8500:10.1016/j.drugalcdep.2013.03.001
8081:Journal of Behavioral Addictions
7267:Journal of Behavioral Addictions
7185:10.1016/j.neuropharm.2015.09.023
6703:10.1016/j.neuropharm.2011.03.010
6484:European Eating Disorders Review
6196:National Institute of Drug Abuse
5909:10.1016/j.neuropharm.2013.05.024
5685:10.1001/jamapsychiatry.2017.4307
5367:National Institute on Drug Abuse
5144:
5124:
5115:
5102:
5093:
5067:
4988:
4518:Narrative Approach and Addiction
4164:The realities of opioid use and
4159:
4048:
3976:Countries by alcohol consumption
3022:conditioned positive reinforcers
2978:synaptic protein phosphorylation
2626:
2600:
2382:
2138:
1720:National Institute on Drug Abuse
1647:Epigenetics of cocaine addiction
1570:Behavior avoids noxious stimulus
1268:inhibitory control over behavior
1226:reinforcement sensitivity theory
805:in particular. It is known that
551:, which belongs to the class of
19019:Regulation of therapeutic goods
18943:Fetal alcohol spectrum disorder
18504:Opium production in Afghanistan
16542:Dopamine dysregulation syndrome
16532:Category:Vaccines against drugs
15759:Why do our brains get addicted?
15379:Addiction Research & Theory
15114:Bourgois P (23 December 2002).
13524:Addiction Research & Theory
13064:. 14 March 2016. Archived from
11995:"Pleasure systems in the brain"
11634:British Journal of Pharmacology
11389:Current Opinion in Pharmacology
10903:10.1016/j.pneurobio.2012.10.001
9682:"Adverse Childhood Experiences"
9510:
9474:Pharmacology & Therapeutics
9461:
9386:
9285:British Journal of Pharmacology
9272:
9237:
9114:
8991:British Journal of Pharmacology
8978:
8718:10.1016/j.neubiorev.2004.03.007
8514:
8479:
8430:
8343:
8161:
8030:
7995:
7915:
7745:
7710:
7661:
7620:
7569:
7303:
6987:
6936:
6901:
6875:
6850:
6415:
6390:
6292:
6133:New England Journal of Medicine
6047:
5417:10.1016/j.disamonth.2008.07.002
5048:of cocaine and reduces cocaine
4944:Pavlovian-instrumental transfer
4879:Termination/relapse prevention:
4206:Substance abuse in Ancient Rome
3969:
3812:is that it would condition the
2980: • Expansion of
2911: • Expansion of
2484:), and nuclear factor kappa B (
2456:structural changes in the brain
1702:Genome-wide association studies
1625:
1220:model of positive and negative
769:dopamine dysregulation syndrome
707:as occurs in a drug addiction.
18967:of tobacco or other substances
15799:KEGG – human cocaine addiction
15789:KEGG – human alcohol addiction
14711:Journal of Applied Gerontology
14293:10.1080/07421656.2001.10129751
14205:10.1080/07421656.2003.10129571
14158:10.1080/07421656.2006.10129625
13994:10.1016/j.psychres.2019.03.025
13830:10.1080/02791072.1981.10471892
13571:Institute of Medicine (1996).
13425:10.31887/DCNS.2007.9.4/macrocq
13137:Gramlich J (26 October 2017).
12502:10.1016/j.biopsych.2005.04.032
12401:Barbara Shine (October 2000).
11511:10.1523/JNEUROSCI.1859-07.2007
8291:10.1016/j.biopsych.2015.10.024
8237:10.1176/appi.ajp.2020.20091375
8004:Cyberpsychology & Behavior
7731:10.1176/appi.ajp.2007.07101556
7498:10.12688/f1000research.12784.1
7126:10.1523/JNEUROSCI.4881-12.2013
5725:Journal of Psychosexual Health
5719:Sahithya B, Kashyap R (2020).
5634:(inactive 15 September 2024).
5500:
5381:
4967:
4886:expected part of the process.
4432:Tackling feelings of isolation
3050:lack of pleasure or motivation
2802:Role of dopamine and glutamate
2544:, a transcription factor, and
2049:the rate of gene transcription
2037:the rate of gene transcription
2025:the rate of gene transcription
2005:the rate of gene transcription
1862:downregulation or upregulation
1152:RIDING/DRIVING risk counseling
898:
258:
13:
1:
18999:Needle and syringe programmes
18948:Long-term effects of cannabis
18349:Psilocybin mushrooms legality
18276:School district drug policies
16165:Adverse childhood experiences
15093:10.1525/aa.1961.63.5.02a00130
14866:10.1080/10826084.2021.1958854
14811:(6). Elsevier B.V.: 445–454.
13818:Journal of Psychoactive Drugs
13608:10.1016/S2155-8256(15)30348-3
13588:Journal of Nursing Regulation
13541:10.1080/16066359.2018.1543412
12365:"A Vaccine Against Addiction"
11097:Journal of Psychoactive Drugs
10522:Broussard JI (January 2012).
10076:"Risk and Protective Factors"
9864:10.1016/s0149-7634(00)00014-2
8443:Clinics in Geriatric Medicine
7535:Educational Psychology Review
5951:Office of the Surgeon General
5549:. Vernon Press. p. 206.
5187:
4538:
4398:
4285:is the medico-legal term for
4017:Alcoholism in rural Australia
3878:. It is created by combining
3776:
3765:The eleventh revision of the
3697:severe substance use disorder
1927:Transcription factor glossary
1880:
1799:
1603:Cognitive control of behavior
570:), cognitive models, and the
233:obsessive–compulsive disorder
18069:1971 Psychotropic Substances
16394:Nicotine replacement therapy
16379:Intensive outpatient program
16367:Residential treatment center
16307:Cognitive behavioral therapy
14817:10.1016/j.drugpo.2011.07.012
14769:10.1080/01926187.2011.560784
14677:10.1080/1533256X.2012.702630
14590:10.1016/j.drugpo.2008.02.011
13748:10.1016/0197-4556(83)90026-6
12345:Furfaro H (5 January 2022).
12268:"Commonly Used Drugs Charts"
12011:10.1016/j.neuron.2015.02.018
11327:Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A
11218:Nature Reviews. Neuroscience
11109:10.1080/02791072.2012.662112
10734:Nestler EJ (December 2012).
10377:10.3109/00952990.2014.933840
9764:"Environmental Risk Factors"
9536:10.1016/j.addbeh.2021.106917
9517:Yang H, Ma J (August 2021).
9437:10.1016/j.neulet.2013.02.018
9258:10.1016/0010-440X(91)90068-N
9139:10.1016/j.addbeh.2009.07.004
7868:10.3109/00952990.2010.491880
7766:10.1016/j.addbeh.2013.12.010
7442:10.1371/journal.pone.0227644
7384:10.1097/HRP.0000000000000051
7372:Harvard Review of Psychiatry
7064:10.2174/13816128113199990619
5986:10.1016/j.eurpsy.2010.04.011
5667:Lee C, Ko A, Yang F (2018).
5304:Nestler EJ (December 2013).
4669:reflected that this form of
4238:Modern research on addiction
4177:Addiction and the humanities
4055:Cocaine in the United States
4010:
3952:cognitive behavioral therapy
3640:
3249:conditioned place preference
3136:Tooltip medium spiny neurons
2951: • Decreased
2474:mesocorticolimbic projection
1673:Genetic factors, along with
1580:Stimulus control of behavior
1207:or modes of thinking (i.e.,
727:are classified accordingly.
604:Lack of parental supervision
7:
19172:Substance-related disorders
18857:Pharmaceutical distribution
18494:Coca production in Colombia
17945:Counterculture of the 1960s
15992:Internet addiction disorder
15292:Burraway J (October 2020).
14532:Journal of Canadian Studies
14324:Drug and Alcohol Dependence
13642:Online Etymology Dictionary
13486:. Haney Foundation Series.
11768:Nestler EJ (October 2008).
11701:10.1001/archneur.64.11.1575
11559:10.1176/appi.ajp.162.8.1403
11028:Nestler EJ (January 2014).
10791:Nestler EJ (October 2008).
10669:Nature Reviews Neuroscience
9811:10.1177/0044118X88019004003
8488:Drug and Alcohol Dependence
8351:"About the CRAFFT – CRAFFT"
8039:Computers in Human Behavior
7366:Yau YH, Potenza MN (2015).
7113:The Journal of Neuroscience
6883:"Yale Food Addiction Scale"
6575:Eating and Weight Disorders
6192:"Drug Misuse and Addiction"
5631:10.26502/jppd.2572-519X0043
4960:
4906:
4465:
4281:terms for such addictions:
4083:addictions is around 4.7%.
1258:, which is associated with
1060:Impaired motor coordination
935:
875:Internet addiction disorder
868:
778:
667:Barratt Impulsiveness Scale
616:Usage of substance in youth
607:Lack of peer refusal skills
553:substance-related disorders
10:
19188:
19029:Substance abuse prevention
19004:Opioid replacement therapy
16427:List of twelve-step groups
15675:Current Drug Abuse Reviews
15636:"Food Addiction in Humans"
15456:Behavioural Brain Research
14956:10.1016/j.jfda.2013.09.038
14938:Daley DC (December 2013).
14854:Substance Use & Misuse
13911:10.1002/9781118306543.ch35
13370:10.1176/appi.prcp.20180009
13102:Volkow N (31 March 2016).
12693:10.1177/003435520004300405
12459:10.1016/j.clpt.2005.08.007
12065:10.1016/j.conb.2014.11.002
11955:10.1016/bs.pbr.2015.07.005
11838:Berridge KC (April 2012).
11401:10.1016/j.coph.2004.08.011
10966:Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA
9204:10.1038/s41586-022-05477-4
8944:Gould TJ (December 2010).
8691:10.1016/j.paid.2006.06.028
8648:10.3200/GNTP.168.4.465-469
8621:10.1016/j.paid.2005.12.005
8455:10.1016/j.cger.2017.08.005
8416:10.1016/j.jsat.2006.08.002
8127:Black DW (February 2007).
7820:10.1136/gpsych-2021-100496
7686:10.2174/157340012803520513
7674:Current Psychiatry Reviews
6685:Olsen CM (December 2011).
6587:10.1007/s40519-021-01354-7
6422:Drummond DC (3 May 2002).
5222:10.1038/s41386-020-00950-y
4836:
4821:
4191:
4185:
4052:
4033:
4014:
3973:
3943:
3780:
3769:, commonly referred to as
3644:
3609:
3606:Neuroepigenetic mechanisms
3038:reward cross-sensitization
2604:
2415:by such psychostimulants,
1978:transcriptional regulation
1826:
1750:
1740:dose–response relationship
1654:
1644:
1629:
1606:
1583:
1561:following correct behavior
1504:Remove appetitive stimulus
1477:following correct behavior
1189:
991:Urge to use drug regularly
952:compulsive buying disorder
946:Compulsive buying disorder
939:
902:
872:
782:
761:Reward cross-sensitization
734:
680:
624:
374:Substance-related disorder
367:
361:
149:with a complex variety of
138:. This phenomenon – drugs
40:
36:Addictive (disambiguation)
32:Addiction (disambiguation)
29:
19042:
19034:Supervised injection site
18976:
18891:
18517:
18484:
18473:
18469:
18463:
18458:
18362:
18324:Anabolic steroid legality
18311:
18196:
18104:
18089:Convention Against Doping
18084:Law of the Sea Convention
18051:
18047:
18036:
18015:Urban legends about drugs
17927:
17879:
17816:
17713:
17680:
17572:
17568:
17555:
17492:
17465:
17403:
17349:
17250:
17155:
17146:
17091:
16924:
16787:
16652:
16648:
16637:
16579:
16509:
16492:Supervised injection site
16435:
16422:Addiction recovery groups
16414:
16374:Heroin-assisted treatment
16352:
16334:Motivational interviewing
16297:
16276:
16263:
16188:
16157:
16148:
16017:
15944:
15898:
15889:
15807:
15634:Pelchat ML (March 2009).
15468:10.1016/j.bbr.2020.112954
15391:10.1080/16066350500053497
15349:10.3109/10826086909061998
15271:10.3109/16066359509005215
15236:10.15288/qjsa.1958.19.491
14383:10.1176/appi.ps.201400140
14255:10.3109/00952999609001679
14199:(3). Routledge: 125–137.
14118:10.1016/j.aip.2017.10.005
14106:The Arts in Psychotherapy
14080:10.1016/j.aip.2003.08.003
14068:The Arts in Psychotherapy
14037:10.1080/17454830701265220
13736:The Arts in Psychotherapy
13713:10.1016/j.aip.2017.10.005
13701:The Arts in Psychotherapy
12989:10.1016/j.pop.2010.11.006
12940:10.1007/s00439-012-1168-0
12744:10.1080/09540260802344075
12217:World Health Organization
10752:10.9758/cpn.2012.10.3.136
10627:10.1007/s12035-014-8776-8
10365:Am. J. Drug Alcohol Abuse
10305:10.1007/s12035-015-9526-2
9949:10.3109/10826089109081039
9732:10.1007/s00213-010-1916-6
8946:"Addiction and cognition"
8768:10.1017/9781911623199.009
8586:10.1016/j.cpr.2010.04.005
8541:10.1007/978-3-030-10442-9
8377:"Use the CRAFFT – CRAFFT"
8051:10.1016/j.chb.2015.02.008
7971:10.1007/s11469-015-9592-8
7547:10.1007/s10648-005-8138-1
7013:10.1017/S0029665119001162
6962:10.3389/fpsyt.2020.480671
6366:10.1136/bmjpo-2021-001242
6079:World Health Organization
5770:World Health Organization
5738:10.1177/26318318221081080
5108:Incentive salience, the "
4602:boundaries, and promotes
4590:, psychological, social,
4417:Containing shame or anger
4130:
4127:in U.S. adults was 2.9%.
4029:
3984:Prevalence of tobacco use
3908:mesolimbic reward pathway
3851:. NicVAX consists of the
3760:
3573:
3544:
3487:
3440:
3375:
3343:
3304:
3300:Neurochemical plasticity
3274:
3245:
3217:
3188:
3166:
3118:
3109:
3102:
3097:
3094:
3091:
3088:
3048:and symptoms involving a
2965:
2942:
2902:
2881:
2863:
2858:
2855:
2848:
2843:
2704:The projections from the
2698:mesocorticolimbic pathway
2612:Mesocorticolimbic pathway
2550:histone methyltransferase
2429:calcium-dependent pathway
2063:
1931:
1926:
1669:Prevalence of tobacco use
1544:
1542:
1540:
1532:
1528:
1522:
1464:
1462:
1460:
1452:
1450:
1448:
1440:
1436:
1430:
1420:
1416:
1410:
1364:
1362:
1360:
1358:
1356:
1354:
1346:
1342:
1340:
1334:
1332:
1330:
1180:
1133:
911:World Health Organization
730:
671:UPPS-P Impulsive Behavior
655:Yale Food Addiction Scale
613:Method substance is taken
587:Community economic status
584:Availability of substance
512:
385:
380:
89:
77:
68:
60:
55:
18830:Turks and Caicos Islands
18339:Methamphetamine legality
17652:Marijuana Policy Project
16643:Major recreational drugs
16175:Psychological dependence
16009:Digital media addictions
15669:Gordon HW (April 2016).
15640:The Journal of Nutrition
15553:. United Nations –
15126:10.1017/cbo9780511808562
15006:10.3390/medicines4040079
14723:10.1177/0733464808330822
13949:10.4324/9780429400087-16
10424:Ann. Agric. Environ. Med
9399:I Want to Change My Life
9368:"Genetics of alcoholism"
9246:Comprehensive Psychiatry
7595:10.3389/fpsyg.2016.00842
6304:www.medicalnewstoday.com
5810:10.3389/fpsyt.2019.00311
5507:ME (12 September 2019).
5363:North Bethesda, Maryland
5030:medial prefrontal cortex
4981:
4914:Autonomic nervous system
4552:Social scientific models
4254:excessive use of alcohol
3940:Treatment and management
3709:Past editions have used
3704:Internet gaming disorder
3660:
3046:psychological dependence
2696:, or its extension, the
2510:substituted amphetamines
2490:necessary and sufficient
2404:. Following presynaptic
1954:– the process of making
1146:REVIEW screening results
1100:Screening and assessment
1072:Sudden changes in weight
1066:Poor physical appearance
461:psychological dependence
329:substance-use addictions
279:, of neuropsychological
130:in ways that perpetuate
43:Psychological dependence
41:Not to be confused with
17607:Cannabis rights leaders
16477:Needle exchange program
16467:Managed alcohol program
16445:Category:Harm reduction
15748:learn.genetics.utah.edu
15081:American Anthropologist
12787:10.1089/cyber.2014.0139
11287:10.1126/science.1193771
10987:10.1073/pnas.0813179106
10106:www.recoveryanswers.org
9768:learn.genetics.utah.edu
9714:Enoch MA (March 2011).
8093:10.1556/2006.5.2016.064
7582:Frontiers in Psychology
7279:10.1556/2006.4.2015.003
6949:Frontiers in Psychiatry
6252:10.4324/9781315689197-6
5797:Frontiers in Psychiatry
5210:Neuropsychopharmacology
4786:Licit and Illicit Drugs
4784:The political economy (
4636:The cultural model, an
4389:
3999:
3994:population demographics
3095:High fat or sugar food
2937:Locomotor sensitization
2929:Tooltip caudate putamen
2708:(VTA) are a network of
1807:is the study of stable
1632:Addiction vulnerability
1559:Remove noxious stimulus
1475:Add appetitive stimulus
1158:REINFORCE self-efficacy
950:Shopping addiction, or
844:mental health disorders
325:functional disabilities
275:denoting a category of
18415:Politics of drug abuse
17383:Mandragora officinarum
16497:Tobacco harm reduction
16317:Contingency management
16284:Alcohol detoxification
15997:Internet sex addiction
15769:, the director of the
15720:. St. Martin's Press.
15586:"Overdose Death Rates"
14917:10.5465/amle.2013.0309
13324:World Drug Report 2012
12675:Scott CG (July 2000).
12242:"Drug abuse liability"
11786:10.1098/rstb.2008.0067
11348:10.1073/pnas.191352698
10809:10.1098/rstb.2008.0067
10611:Molecular Neurobiology
10199:10.1055/s-0029-1237423
5073:In other words, c-Fos
5021:) in association with
4949:Philosophy of medicine
4839:Transtheoretical model
4824:Social learning theory
4818:Social learning theory
4813:Social learning models
4802:licit and illicit drug
4570:
4142:Substance use disorder
4069:representative samples
3858:Pseudomonas aeruginosa
3833:to important organs".
3752:restless legs syndrome
3667:substance use disorder
3623:epigenetic methylation
3162:Behavioral plasticity
2706:ventral tegmental area
2561:induce gene expression
2460:nuclear factor kappa B
2439:gene with the help of
2425:cAMP-dependent pathway
2417:postsynaptic receptors
1761:
1677:-environmental (e.g.,
1597:negative reinforcement
1593:positive reinforcement
1483:Negative reinforcement
1472:Positive reinforcement
1264:classical conditioning
1246:transtheoretical model
1041:Periodic hyperactivity
495:substance use disorder
364:Substance use disorder
229:social media addiction
18775:Saint Kitts and Nevis
18074:1988 Drug Trafficking
17667:Cannabis and religion
16631:Recreational drug use
16559:Motivational salience
16487:Stimulant maintenance
16472:Moderation Management
16384:Methadone maintenance
15653:10.3945/jn.108.097816
15048:10.1525/9780520954632
13861:10.4324/9780203132395
13793:10.4324/9780203132395
13670:10.1081/ada-120029870
13141:. Pew Research Center
12808:Slade T, Johnston A,
12053:Curr. Opin. Neurobiol
11607:10.1093/cercor/bhj143
10540:10.1085/jgp.201110659
9645:10.1056/NEJMra1602872
9345:10.1176/ajp.151.5.707
8840:"Executive functions"
8706:Neurosci Biobehav Rev
8279:Biological Psychiatry
8016:10.1089/cpb.2007.0140
6190:NIDA (13 July 2020).
6145:10.1056/NEJMra1511480
5860:10.1056/NEJMra1511480
5178:Transcription factors
5110:motivational salience
4939:Dopaminergic pathways
4924:Binge eating disorder
4767:economic inequalities
4564:, otherwise known as
4559:
4449:As an assessment tool
4250:neurological disorder
4192:Further information:
4188:Recreational drug use
4182:History and etymology
4125:Cannabis use disorder
4053:Further information:
4036:Alcoholism in Ireland
4034:Further information:
4015:Further information:
3974:Further information:
3956:behavior modification
3787:Preventive healthcare
3645:Further information:
3610:Further information:
3167:Escalation of intake
3072:behavioral plasticity
2987:Decreased drug reward
2759:positively reinforced
2390:brain's reward center
1858:histone modifications
1842:behavioral phenotypes
1783:(i.e., co-occurring)
1753:Social control theory
1747:Social control theory
1713:Environmental factors
1655:Further information:
1630:Further information:
1222:psychological affects
1119:negative emotionality
856:personality disorders
368:Further information:
333:behavioral addictions
193:amphetamine addiction
19162:Behavioral addiction
19024:Responsible drug use
18835:United Arab Emirates
18154:Drug Policy Alliance
18042:Legality of drug use
17647:Legality of cannabis
17622:Cannabis Social Club
17592:Cannabis cultivation
17587:Cannabis consumption
17418:Cannabis (Marijuana)
17240:Psilocybin mushrooms
16482:Responsible drug use
16339:Motivational therapy
16004:Video game addiction
15712:Szalavitz M (2016).
15309:10.29164/20addiction
14544:10.3138/jcs.49.2.268
14371:Psychiatric Services
13532:Taylor & Francis
13416:Laboratoires Servier
12626:Subst. Abuse Rehabil
9943:(9A–10A): 1085–140.
9774:on 17 September 2018
9425:Neuroscience Letters
6354:BMJ Paediatrics Open
5046:rewarding properties
4954:Substance dependence
4800:, intertwining with
4794:psychological trauma
4232:Pietistic tendencies
4228:Christian revivalism
4040:Alcoholism in Russia
3960:twelve-step programs
3616:Chromatin remodeling
3488:Changes in striatal
3018:associative learning
2998:Reward sensitization
2831:Reward sensitization
2787:basolateral amygdala
2751:medium spiny neurons
2681:medium spiny neurons
2502:reward sensitization
2494:reward sensitization
1970:transcription factor
1919:reward sensitization
1907:medium spiny neurons
1896:transcription factor
1817:chromatin remodeling
1493:Add noxious stimulus
1298:Operant conditioning
1234:reward sensitization
1218:affect dysregulation
1201:psychological models
1186:Personality theories
1149:RECOMMEND to not use
905:Video game addiction
852:alcohol use disorder
721:video game addiction
689:behavioral addiction
683:Behavioral addiction
677:Behavioral addiction
237:video game addiction
81:images that compare
19082:Tobacco consumption
19052:Alcohol consumption
18994:Drug rehabilitation
18931:Effects of cannabis
18655:Indian Ocean region
18435:Philippine drug war
18064:1961 Narcotic Drugs
16745:nail polish remover
16406:Twelve-step program
16289:Drug detoxification
16170:Physical dependence
15750:. Learn.Genetics –
13982:Psychiatry Research
13897:Schmanke L (2015).
13166:The Washington Post
12246:Cambridge Cognition
11339:2001PNAS...9811042N
11279:2010Sci...330.1677W
10978:2009PNAS..106.2915K
10852:Annu. Rev. Neurosci
10803:(1507): 3245–3255.
10112:on 17 December 2016
10025:"Nationwide Trends"
9899:Adolescent Medicine
9799:Youth & Society
9523:Addictive Behaviors
9297:10.1038/bjp.2008.88
9195:2022Natur.612..720S
9127:Addictive Behaviors
9003:10.1038/bjp.2008.51
7754:Addictive Behaviors
7433:2020PLoSO..1527644F
5974:European Psychiatry
5519:(9). Archived from
5176: (Text color)
5050:self-administration
5000:histone acetylation
4882:targeted behavior.
4546:belief–desire model
4224:early modern period
4220:early modern Europe
4198:History of drinking
4166:opioid use disorder
4117:The Washington Post
4109:Pew Research Center
4089:evidence-based care
4077:12-month prevalence
4073:lifetime prevalence
3896:blood–brain barrier
3730:for the substance,
3711:physical dependence
3695:is synonymous with
3539:synaptic plasticity
3221:self-administration
3192:cross-sensitization
3061:
2984:dendritic processes
2915:dendritic processes
2859:Behavioral effects
2840:
2595:cholinergic neurons
2498:self-administration
1738:has shown a strong
1661:History of drinking
1501:Negative punishment
1490:Positive punishment
1236:and impulsiveness.
1051:Abnormal pupil size
1014:Angry and irritable
1001:Behavioral Changes
836:Gambling addictions
445:physical dependence
358:Substance addiction
321:addiction disorders
317:Addictive disorders
269:addictive behaviour
100:clinical psychology
18938:Drug-related crime
18615:Dominican Republic
18525:Illegal drug trade
18000:Religion and drugs
17955:Drug paraphernalia
17935:Chasing the dragon
17894:Fashion cigarettes
17475:Calea zacatechichi
17170:Psychoactive toads
16880:Mitragyna speciosa
16832:Dextropropoxyphene
16774:Nonbenzodiazepines
16682:Alcoholic beverage
16564:Incentive salience
16552:Inhibitory control
16527:Category:Addiction
16517:Addiction medicine
16312:Relapse prevention
16249:Tanning dependence
15752:University of Utah
15259:Addiction Research
14611:Marini MM (2016).
14414:Feldman N (2020),
12843:10.25816/E42P-A447
12639:10.2147/SAR.S39684
12566:on 6 December 2009
12371:. 12 January 2022.
11439:10.1002/hipo.20161
11183:10.1007/bf02245133
11171:Psychopharmacology
10136:www.mayoclinic.org
10082:on 8 December 2016
9720:Psychopharmacology
8838:Diamond A (2013).
8525:. Springer, Cham.
7808:General Psychiatry
6922:10.1037/adb0000136
6778:Nat. Rev. Neurosci
6306:. 17 February 2020
5545:Steverson (2020).
4584:neuropsychological
4571:
4562:alcohol withdrawal
4301:Medico-legal term
4242:morphine addiction
4202:History of smoking
3474:μ-opioid receptors
3468:μ-opioid receptors
3462:κ-opioid receptors
3457:μ-opioid receptors
3451:μ-opioid receptors
3381:dopamine signaling
3099:Sexual intercourse
3059:
3002:incentive salience
2974: •
2935: •
2874:induction of ΔFosB
2835:
2770:anterior cingulate
2737:mesolimbic pathway
2694:mesolimbic pathway
1775:Comorbid disorders
1665:History of smoking
1506:following behavior
1495:following behavior
1276:rewarding stimulus
1205:personality traits
1115:incentive salience
1111:executive function
1079:Changes in hobbies
1038:Lack of motivation
962:Signs and symptoms
942:Shopping addiction
880:Internet addiction
822:dopamine receptors
803:mesolimbic pathway
757:sexual intercourse
725:shopping addiction
717:gambling addiction
425:drug sensitization
225:internet addiction
217:shopping addiction
213:gambling addiction
201:nicotine addiction
189:cannabis addiction
120:neuropsychological
108:addiction medicine
19098:
19097:
19094:
19093:
19090:
19089:
19009:Pharmacovigilance
18989:Drug legalization
18887:
18886:
18454:
18453:
18450:
18449:
18385:Cognitive liberty
18329:Cannabis legality
18117:Decriminalization
18032:
18031:
18028:
18027:
17914:Smoking fetishism
17551:
17550:
17547:
17546:
17488:
17487:
17368:Atropa belladonna
16735:contact adhesives
16677:Ethanol (alcohol)
16597:
16596:
16547:Cognitive control
16505:
16504:
16389:Smoking cessation
16344:Physical exercise
16259:
16258:
16245:Non-drug stimuli
16144:
16143:
15988:Internet-related
15841:
15840:
15727:978-1-250-05582-8
15564:978-92-1-148274-4
15520:978-0-07-148127-4
15495:978-0-7914-9754-8
15431:978-1-000-23507-4
15188:(10): 1747–1755.
15135:978-0-521-01711-4
15057:978-0-520-95463-2
14860:(12): 1860–1868.
14624:978-3-319-22090-1
14478:978-1-4214-0023-5
14468:Addiction and art
14377:(10): 1269–1272.
13958:978-0-367-02340-9
13920:978-1-118-30654-3
13870:978-0-203-13239-5
13802:978-0-203-13239-5
13598:on behalf of the
13501:978-0-8122-4996-5
13494:. pp. 1–23.
13337:978-92-1-148267-6
13248:Statistics Canada
13199:(12): 1235–1242.
12875:10.1111/add.14234
12868:(10): 1905–1926.
12409:on 10 August 2006
12351:The Seattle Times
12191:978-0-07-182770-6
12114:10.1111/add.12457
11964:978-0-444-63545-7
11914:978-0-07-148127-4
11780:(1507): 3245–55.
11744:on 16 August 2011
11646:10.1111/bph.12735
11479:978-0-443-07145-4
11273:(6011): 1677–81.
11155:978-0-07-148127-4
11034:Neuropharmacology
10255:10.2217/pgs.12.94
10249:(10): 1149–1160.
9692:on 9 October 2016
9639:(16): 1551–1560.
9610:www.drugabuse.gov
8908:978-0-07-148127-4
8777:978-1-911623-19-9
8550:978-3-030-10441-2
8231:(11): 1031–1037.
7323:978-0-89042-554-1
7173:Neuropharmacology
6868:978-0-429-21192-8
6857:Nehlig A (2004).
6691:Neuropharmacology
6261:978-1-138-90928-1
6110:978-0-07-148127-4
6065:978-0-07-182770-6
6032:on 15 August 2015
5897:Neuropharmacology
5591:10.1111/add.12899
5556:978-1-62273-953-0
5513:Psychiatric Times
5452:978-0-07-148127-4
5359:www.drugabuse.gov
5216:(10): 1715–1723.
4929:Cognitive liberty
4847:Precontemplation:
4703:Subcultural model
4614:Philippe Bourgois
4387:
4386:
4137:Statistics Canada
4081:prescription drug
3882:with inactivated
3845:conjugate vaccine
3603:
3602:
3581:nucleus accumbens
3551:nucleus accumbens
3536:Mesocorticolimbic
3441:Altered striatal
3352:nucleus accumbens
3319:nucleus accumbens
3125:nucleus accumbens
3104:Physical exercise
3092:Psychostimulants
3084:
2995:
2994:
2991:
2766:prefrontal cortex
2744:nucleus accumbens
2690:
2689:
2640:nucleus accumbens
2587:neurotransmission
2469:
2468:
2421:neurotransmitters
2106:nucleus accumbens
2102:Signaling cascade
2092:
2091:
1779:Individuals with
1620:nucleus accumbens
1609:Cognitive control
1576:
1575:
1398:Decrease behavior
1381:Increase behavior
1252:Cognitive control
1097:
1096:
1004:Physical Changes
650:and impulsivity.
541:
540:
430:reverse tolerance
352:withdrawal issues
197:cocaine addiction
113:
112:
50:Medical condition
16:(Redirected from
19179:
19139:
19138:
19127:
19126:
19125:
19115:
19114:
19113:
19106:
18926:Drug harmfulness
18921:Driving impaired
18740:Papua New Guinea
18509:Rolling meth lab
18482:
18481:
18471:
18470:
18460:
18459:
18425:Mexican drug war
18334:Cocaine legality
18319:Alcohol legality
18149:Demand reduction
18137:Supply reduction
18049:
18048:
18038:
18037:
17715:Drinking culture
17657:Medical cannabis
17617:Cannabis smoking
17574:Cannabis culture
17570:
17569:
17557:
17556:
17533:recreational use
17378:Hyoscyamus niger
17339:Salvia divinorum
17322:Amanita muscaria
17284:recreational use
17264:recreational use
17153:
17152:
16721:recreational use
16650:
16649:
16639:
16638:
16624:
16617:
16610:
16601:
16600:
16587:
16586:
16274:
16273:
16155:
16154:
16080:G9a-like protein
15896:
15895:
15868:
15861:
15854:
15845:
15844:
15805:
15804:
15755:
15731:
15719:
15708:
15698:
15665:
15655:
15620:
15619:
15617:
15615:
15604:
15598:
15597:
15595:
15593:
15582:
15576:
15575:
15573:
15571:
15552:
15543:
15535:
15529:
15528:
15506:
15497:
15483:
15477:
15452:
15446:
15439:
15433:
15419:
15413:
15412:
15402:
15370:
15361:
15360:
15328:
15322:
15321:
15311:
15289:
15283:
15282:
15254:
15248:
15247:
15219:
15206:
15205:
15177:
15140:
15139:
15111:
15105:
15104:
15087:(5): 1094–1097.
15076:
15070:
15069:
15035:
15029:
15028:
15018:
15008:
14984:
14978:
14977:
14967:
14935:
14929:
14928:
14900:
14894:
14893:
14848:
14837:
14836:
14800:
14789:
14788:
14752:
14743:
14742:
14706:
14697:
14696:
14660:
14651:
14650:
14644:
14636:
14608:
14602:
14601:
14573:
14564:
14563:
14527:
14521:
14520:
14500:
14491:
14490:
14462:
14451:
14450:
14449:
14447:
14434:
14428:
14427:
14426:
14424:
14411:
14405:
14404:
14394:
14362:
14356:
14355:
14319:
14313:
14312:
14276:
14267:
14266:
14238:
14232:
14231:
14229:
14227:
14184:
14178:
14177:
14141:
14130:
14129:
14101:
14092:
14091:
14063:
14057:
14056:
14020:
14014:
14013:
13977:
13971:
13970:
13936:
13925:
13924:
13894:
13875:
13874:
13848:
13842:
13841:
13813:
13807:
13806:
13780:
13774:
13773:
13766:
13760:
13759:
13731:
13725:
13724:
13696:
13690:
13689:
13652:
13646:
13645:
13634:
13628:
13627:
13583:
13577:
13576:
13568:
13562:
13561:
13543:
13515:
13506:
13505:
13478:Lemon R (2018).
13475:
13464:
13463:
13445:
13427:
13399:
13393:
13392:
13382:
13372:
13348:
13342:
13341:
13329:
13319:
13313:
13312:
13310:
13308:
13294:
13285:
13284:
13282:
13280:
13266:
13260:
13259:
13257:
13255:
13240:
13227:
13226:
13216:
13184:
13178:
13177:
13175:
13173:
13157:
13151:
13150:
13148:
13146:
13134:
13128:
13127:
13121:
13119:
13099:
13088:
13087:
13078:
13076:
13071:on 21 March 2021
13070:
13059:
13051:
13034:
13033:
13031:
13029:
13017:
13011:
13010:
13000:
12968:
12962:
12961:
12951:
12919:
12906:
12905:
12887:
12877:
12853:
12847:
12846:
12830:
12821:
12820:
12818:
12805:
12799:
12798:
12770:
12764:
12763:
12727:
12721:
12720:
12672:
12666:
12665:
12651:
12641:
12617:
12611:
12610:
12604:
12596:
12582:
12576:
12575:
12573:
12571:
12562:. Archived from
12556:
12550:
12549:
12547:
12545:
12528:
12522:
12521:
12490:Biol. Psychiatry
12485:
12479:
12478:
12439:
12433:
12432:
12425:
12419:
12418:
12416:
12414:
12398:
12392:
12391:
12379:
12373:
12372:
12369:Addiction Center
12361:
12355:
12354:
12342:
12336:
12335:
12324:
12318:
12317:
12314:Scripps Research
12306:
12300:
12299:
12289:
12283:
12282:
12280:
12278:
12263:
12257:
12256:
12254:
12252:
12238:
12229:
12228:
12226:
12224:
12209:
12200:
12199:
12177:
12171:
12170:
12152:
12132:
12126:
12125:
12097:
12091:
12090:
12076:
12044:
12033:
12032:
12022:
11990:
11981:
11980:
11942:
11929:
11928:
11900:
11891:
11890:
11867:
11844:Eur. J. Neurosci
11835:
11818:
11813:
11797:
11765:
11754:
11753:
11751:
11749:
11734:
11728:
11727:
11720:
11714:
11713:
11703:
11679:
11668:
11667:
11657:
11625:
11619:
11618:
11600:
11580:
11571:
11570:
11542:
11533:
11532:
11522:
11490:
11484:
11483:
11468:Rang HP (2003).
11465:
11459:
11458:
11422:
11413:
11412:
11384:
11375:
11374:
11360:
11350:
11333:(20): 11042–46.
11318:
11309:
11308:
11298:
11258:
11252:
11251:
11233:
11209:
11203:
11202:
11166:
11160:
11159:
11141:
11135:
11134:
11120:
11088:
11075:
11074:
11057:
11040:(Pt B): 259–68.
11025:
11010:
11009:
10999:
10989:
10957:
10951:
10950:
10948:
10946:
10931:
10925:
10924:
10914:
10882:
10876:
10875:
10847:
10838:
10837:
10834:
10820:
10788:
10782:
10781:
10778:
10763:
10731:
10718:
10713:
10711:gene repression.
10710:
10706:
10692:
10660:
10649:
10648:
10638:
10602:
10596:
10595:
10589:
10587:
10572:
10566:
10565:
10551:
10519:
10513:
10508:
10505:
10501:
10486:
10454:
10443:
10442:
10415:
10400:
10399:
10360:
10335:
10334:
10316:
10288:
10277:
10276:
10266:
10243:Pharmacogenomics
10234:
10221:
10220:
10210:
10178:
10172:
10171:
10169:
10167:
10153:
10147:
10146:
10144:
10142:
10128:
10122:
10121:
10119:
10117:
10108:. Archived from
10098:
10092:
10091:
10089:
10087:
10071:
10065:
10064:
10062:
10060:
10046:
10037:
10036:
10034:
10032:
10021:
10010:
10009:
9999:
9967:
9961:
9960:
9931:
9925:
9924:
9914:
9890:
9884:
9883:
9857:
9837:
9831:
9830:
9790:
9784:
9783:
9781:
9779:
9770:. Archived from
9760:
9754:
9753:
9743:
9711:
9702:
9701:
9699:
9697:
9678:
9669:
9668:
9628:
9622:
9621:
9619:
9617:
9602:
9596:
9595:
9593:
9591:
9586:on 30 April 2020
9576:
9567:
9566:
9548:
9538:
9514:
9508:
9507:
9497:
9465:
9459:
9458:
9448:
9416:
9410:
9409:
9407:
9405:
9390:
9384:
9383:
9381:
9379:
9363:
9357:
9356:
9328:
9319:
9318:
9308:
9276:
9270:
9269:
9241:
9235:
9234:
9216:
9206:
9170:
9161:
9160:
9150:
9118:
9112:
9111:
9094:
9062:
9025:
9024:
9014:
8982:
8976:
8975:
8965:
8941:
8924:
8923:
8894:
8885:
8884:
8867:
8844:Annu Rev Psychol
8835:
8829:
8828:
8813:10.1002/jeab.194
8801:J Exp Anal Behav
8796:
8790:
8789:
8755:
8738:
8737:
8701:
8695:
8694:
8674:
8668:
8667:
8631:
8625:
8624:
8604:
8598:
8597:
8574:Clin Psychol Rev
8569:
8563:
8562:
8534:
8518:
8512:
8511:
8494:(1–2): 352–361.
8483:
8477:
8476:
8466:
8434:
8428:
8427:
8399:
8388:
8387:
8385:
8383:
8373:
8362:
8361:
8359:
8357:
8347:
8341:
8340:
8338:
8336:
8322:
8313:
8312:
8302:
8270:
8257:
8256:
8220:
8214:
8213:
8211:
8209:
8203:MentalHealth.gov
8195:
8184:
8183:
8181:
8179:
8165:
8159:
8158:
8148:
8133:World Psychiatry
8124:
8115:
8114:
8104:
8072:
8063:
8062:
8034:
8028:
8027:
7999:
7993:
7992:
7982:
7950:
7939:
7938:
7936:
7934:
7919:
7913:
7912:
7910:
7908:
7894:
7888:
7887:
7851:
7842:
7841:
7831:
7799:
7788:
7787:
7777:
7749:
7743:
7742:
7714:
7708:
7707:
7697:
7665:
7659:
7658:
7648:
7624:
7618:
7617:
7607:
7597:
7573:
7567:
7566:
7530:
7521:
7520:
7510:
7500:
7476:
7465:
7464:
7454:
7444:
7412:
7406:
7405:
7395:
7363:
7350:
7349:
7343:
7335:
7307:
7301:
7300:
7290:
7258:
7249:
7248:
7238:
7214:
7205:
7204:
7167:
7152:
7151:
7137:
7103:
7088:
7087:
7052:Curr. Pharm. Des
7047:
7034:
7033:
7015:
6991:
6985:
6984:
6974:
6964:
6940:
6934:
6933:
6905:
6899:
6898:
6896:
6894:
6879:
6873:
6872:
6854:
6848:
6847:
6845:
6843:
6828:
6815:
6814:
6801:
6769:
6738:
6732:
6714:
6682:
6609:
6608:
6598:
6581:(6): 1963–1970.
6566:
6531:
6530:
6528:
6526:
6496:10.1002/erv.2732
6475:
6452:
6451:
6419:
6413:
6412:
6410:
6408:
6394:
6388:
6387:
6377:
6345:
6316:
6315:
6313:
6311:
6296:
6290:
6289:
6235:
6208:
6207:
6205:
6203:
6187:
6174:
6173:
6156:
6124:
6115:
6114:
6096:
6090:
6076:
6070:
6069:
6051:
6045:
6044:
6039:
6037:
6031:
6024:
6015:
6006:
6005:
5969:
5963:
5962:
5960:
5958:
5948:
5940:
5931:
5930:
5920:
5888:
5882:
5881:
5871:
5839:
5833:
5832:
5822:
5812:
5788:
5782:
5781:
5779:
5777:
5762:
5751:
5750:
5740:
5716:
5707:
5706:
5696:
5664:
5658:
5657:
5651:
5643:
5633:
5609:
5603:
5602:
5576:
5567:
5561:
5560:
5542:
5533:
5532:
5530:
5528:
5504:
5498:
5497:
5474:Annu Rev Psychol
5469:
5463:
5462:
5438:
5429:
5428:
5400:
5394:
5393:
5385:
5379:
5378:
5376:
5374:
5351:
5340:
5339:
5325:
5301:
5256:
5255:
5241:
5201:
5181:
5175:
5169:linked receptors
5162:
5153:
5148:
5131:
5128:
5122:
5119:
5113:
5106:
5100:
5097:
5091:
5071:
5065:
5062:
5053:
4996:epigenetic marks
4992:
4975:
4971:
4567:delirium tremens
4295:Colloquial term
4292:
4291:
4146:a drug addiction
3965:
3612:Neuroepigenetics
3582:
3552:
3443:opioid signaling
3353:
3320:
3312:
3308:
3137:
3133:
3082:
3062:
3058:
2989:
2983:
2930:
2926:
2920:
2841:
2834:
2768:, including the
2630:
2616:
2540:, among others.
2453:
2446:
2438:
2434:
2386:
2385:
2375:
2368:
2361:
2359:
2358:
2350:
2347:
2339:
2336:
2328:
2326:
2319:
2312:
2305:
2298:
2291:
2284:
2277:
2268:
2259:
2252:
2242:
2232:
2225:
2218:
2211:
2204:
2197:
2190:
2183:
2172:
2165:
2163:Nuclear membrane
2158:
2151:
2142:
2130:
2123:
2116:
2095:
2084:
2077:
2070:
2054:response element
1924:
1923:
1913:as an addiction
1902:of ΔFosB in the
1894:(ΔFosB), a gene
1790:
1616:ventral striatum
1586:Stimulus control
1567:Active avoidance
1282:
1281:
1256:stimulus control
1209:affective states
1063:Periodic tremors
998:
997:
838:are linked with
826:substantia nigra
789:Problem gambling
737:Sexual addiction
713:sexual addiction
610:Mental disorders
562:, conditioning (
560:phenomenological
533:
526:
519:
454:delirium tremens
378:
377:
303:towards sensory
277:mental disorders
241:sexual addiction
207:, and eating or
205:opioid addiction
83:brain metabolism
73:
53:
52:
21:
19187:
19186:
19182:
19181:
19180:
19178:
19177:
19176:
19167:Brain disorders
19147:
19146:
19145:
19133:
19123:
19121:
19111:
19109:
19101:
19099:
19086:
19044:
19038:
19014:Reagent testing
18972:
18963:Passive smoking
18893:
18883:
18513:
18499:Drug precursors
18486:
18477:
18475:
18465:
18446:
18400:Drug possession
18375:Cannabis rights
18358:
18354:Salvia legality
18307:
18198:
18192:
18100:
18043:
18024:
18005:Self-medication
17923:
17919:Tobacco smoking
17881:Smoking culture
17875:
17812:
17709:
17676:
17632:Cannabis vaping
17602:Cannabis rights
17597:Cannabis edible
17564:
17543:
17484:
17480:Silene capensis
17461:
17399:
17395:Diphenhydramine
17345:
17246:
17142:
17087:
17039:Methylphenidate
17029:Methamphetamine
16920:
16783:
16667:Benzodiazepines
16644:
16633:
16628:
16598:
16593:
16575:
16571:Sober companion
16501:
16455:Reagent testing
16431:
16410:
16354:
16348:
16299:
16293:
16268:
16266:
16255:
16184:
16140:
16027:Transcriptional
16019:
16013:
15940:
15926:Methylphenidate
15921:Methamphetamine
15885:
15872:
15842:
15837:
15836:
15816:
15742:
15739:
15734:
15728:
15629:
15627:Further reading
15624:
15623:
15613:
15611:
15606:
15605:
15601:
15591:
15589:
15584:
15583:
15579:
15569:
15567:
15565:
15550:
15541:
15537:
15536:
15532:
15521:
15507:
15500:
15484:
15480:
15453:
15449:
15440:
15436:
15420:
15416:
15371:
15364:
15329:
15325:
15290:
15286:
15255:
15251:
15220:
15209:
15178:
15143:
15136:
15112:
15108:
15077:
15073:
15058:
15036:
15032:
14985:
14981:
14936:
14932:
14901:
14897:
14849:
14840:
14801:
14792:
14753:
14746:
14707:
14700:
14661:
14654:
14638:
14637:
14625:
14609:
14605:
14574:
14567:
14528:
14524:
14501:
14494:
14479:
14463:
14454:
14445:
14443:
14435:
14431:
14422:
14420:
14412:
14408:
14363:
14359:
14320:
14316:
14277:
14270:
14239:
14235:
14225:
14223:
14185:
14181:
14142:
14133:
14102:
14095:
14064:
14060:
14021:
14017:
13978:
13974:
13959:
13937:
13928:
13921:
13895:
13878:
13871:
13849:
13845:
13814:
13810:
13803:
13781:
13777:
13767:
13763:
13732:
13728:
13697:
13693:
13653:
13649:
13636:
13635:
13631:
13584:
13580:
13569:
13565:
13516:
13509:
13502:
13476:
13467:
13400:
13396:
13349:
13345:
13338:
13327:
13321:
13320:
13316:
13306:
13304:
13296:
13295:
13288:
13278:
13276:
13268:
13267:
13263:
13253:
13251:
13242:
13241:
13230:
13193:JAMA Psychiatry
13185:
13181:
13171:
13169:
13159:
13158:
13154:
13144:
13142:
13135:
13131:
13117:
13115:
13114:on 5 April 2016
13100:
13091:
13083:
13074:
13072:
13068:
13057:
13053:
13052:
13037:
13027:
13025:
13018:
13014:
12969:
12965:
12920:
12909:
12854:
12850:
12831:
12824:
12816:
12806:
12802:
12781:(11): 720–728.
12771:
12767:
12728:
12724:
12673:
12669:
12618:
12614:
12598:
12597:
12583:
12579:
12569:
12567:
12558:
12557:
12553:
12543:
12541:
12530:
12529:
12525:
12486:
12482:
12440:
12436:
12427:
12426:
12422:
12412:
12410:
12399:
12395:
12380:
12376:
12363:
12362:
12358:
12343:
12339:
12326:
12325:
12321:
12316:. 30 July 2020.
12308:
12307:
12303:
12290:
12286:
12276:
12274:
12264:
12260:
12250:
12248:
12240:
12239:
12232:
12222:
12220:
12211:
12210:
12203:
12192:
12178:
12174:
12150:10.1.1.326.4903
12133:
12129:
12108:(9): 1399–406.
12098:
12094:
12045:
12036:
11991:
11984:
11965:
11943:
11932:
11924:
11921:
11915:
11901:
11894:
11886:
11884:
11882:
11880:
11836:
11821:
11814:
11810:
11766:
11757:
11747:
11745:
11736:
11735:
11731:
11722:
11721:
11717:
11694:(11): 1575–79.
11680:
11671:
11640:(20): 4636–72.
11626:
11622:
11598:10.1.1.335.4681
11585:Cerebral Cortex
11581:
11574:
11543:
11536:
11505:(30): 7921–28.
11491:
11487:
11480:
11466:
11462:
11423:
11416:
11385:
11378:
11319:
11312:
11259:
11255:
11231:10.1038/nrn2234
11210:
11206:
11177:(2–3): 160–74.
11167:
11163:
11156:
11142:
11138:
11089:
11078:
11070:
11026:
11013:
10958:
10954:
10944:
10942:
10932:
10928:
10891:Prog. Neurobiol
10883:
10879:
10848:
10841:
10832:
10789:
10785:
10776:
10732:
10721:
10714:
10708:
10704:
10681:10.1038/nrn3111
10675:(11): 623–637.
10661:
10652:
10603:
10599:
10585:
10583:
10573:
10569:
10520:
10516:
10509:
10503:
10499:
10455:
10446:
10416:
10403:
10361:
10338:
10289:
10280:
10235:
10224:
10179:
10175:
10165:
10163:
10155:
10154:
10150:
10140:
10138:
10130:
10129:
10125:
10115:
10113:
10100:
10099:
10095:
10085:
10083:
10072:
10068:
10058:
10056:
10054:AddictionCenter
10048:
10047:
10040:
10030:
10028:
10023:
10022:
10013:
9982:(11): 1131–54.
9968:
9964:
9932:
9928:
9891:
9887:
9855:10.1.1.461.3295
9838:
9834:
9791:
9787:
9777:
9775:
9762:
9761:
9757:
9712:
9705:
9695:
9693:
9680:
9679:
9672:
9629:
9625:
9615:
9613:
9604:
9603:
9599:
9589:
9587:
9578:
9577:
9570:
9515:
9511:
9466:
9462:
9417:
9413:
9403:
9401:
9391:
9387:
9377:
9375:
9364:
9360:
9329:
9322:
9277:
9273:
9242:
9238:
9187:Nature Research
9171:
9164:
9119:
9115:
9107:
9063:
9028:
8983:
8979:
8942:
8927:
8919:
8916:
8914:
8909:
8895:
8888:
8880:
8836:
8832:
8797:
8793:
8778:
8756:
8741:
8702:
8698:
8675:
8671:
8636:J Genet Psychol
8632:
8628:
8615:(7): 1497–503.
8605:
8601:
8570:
8566:
8551:
8519:
8515:
8484:
8480:
8435:
8431:
8400:
8391:
8381:
8379:
8375:
8374:
8365:
8355:
8353:
8349:
8348:
8344:
8334:
8332:
8324:
8323:
8316:
8271:
8260:
8225:Am J Psychiatry
8221:
8217:
8207:
8205:
8197:
8196:
8187:
8177:
8175:
8167:
8166:
8162:
8125:
8118:
8073:
8066:
8035:
8031:
8000:
7996:
7951:
7942:
7932:
7930:
7921:
7920:
7916:
7906:
7904:
7896:
7895:
7891:
7852:
7845:
7800:
7791:
7750:
7746:
7715:
7711:
7666:
7662:
7625:
7621:
7574:
7570:
7531:
7524:
7477:
7468:
7427:(1): e0227644.
7413:
7409:
7364:
7353:
7337:
7336:
7324:
7308:
7304:
7259:
7252:
7215:
7208:
7168:
7155:
7104:
7091:
7058:(25): 4012–20.
7048:
7037:
6992:
6988:
6941:
6937:
6906:
6902:
6892:
6890:
6881:
6880:
6876:
6869:
6855:
6851:
6841:
6839:
6829:
6818:
6790:10.1038/nrn3111
6770:
6741:
6733:
6683:
6612:
6567:
6534:
6524:
6522:
6476:
6455:
6420:
6416:
6406:
6404:
6396:
6395:
6391:
6346:
6319:
6309:
6307:
6298:
6297:
6293:
6262:
6238:Levy N (2019).
6236:
6211:
6201:
6199:
6188:
6177:
6169:
6125:
6118:
6111:
6097:
6093:
6077:
6073:
6066:
6052:
6048:
6035:
6033:
6029:
6022:
6016:
6009:
5970:
5966:
5956:
5954:
5946:
5942:
5941:
5934:
5889:
5885:
5840:
5836:
5789:
5785:
5775:
5773:
5764:
5763:
5754:
5717:
5710:
5673:JAMA Psychiatry
5665:
5661:
5645:
5644:
5612:Gilley (2018).
5610:
5606:
5574:
5568:
5564:
5557:
5543:
5536:
5526:
5524:
5523:on 3 March 2020
5505:
5501:
5470:
5466:
5458:
5453:
5439:
5432:
5411:(10): 696–721.
5405:Disease-a-Month
5401:
5397:
5386:
5382:
5372:
5370:
5353:
5352:
5343:
5302:
5259:
5202:
5195:
5190:
5185:
5184:
5180:
5173:
5171:
5160:
5158:
5151:
5149:
5145:
5135:
5134:
5129:
5125:
5120:
5116:
5107:
5103:
5098:
5094:
5072:
5068:
5063:
5056:
5042:gene expression
4993:
4989:
4984:
4979:
4978:
4972:
4968:
4963:
4958:
4909:
4892:liver cirrhosis
4841:
4835:
4826:
4820:
4815:
4777:Self-medication
4758:
4705:
4671:social behavior
4638:anthropological
4634:
4578:While regarded
4576:
4554:
4541:
4520:
4468:
4451:
4401:
4392:
4262:
4208:
4190:
4184:
4179:
4162:
4153:Ontario, Canada
4133:
4091:. One-third of
4065:
4051:
4042:
4032:
4019:
4013:
4002:
3986:
3980:Opioid epidemic
3972:
3948:
3942:
3906:release in the
3810:substance abuse
3803:
3794:
3792:Abuse liability
3789:
3781:Main articles:
3779:
3763:
3746:, cold sweats,
3663:
3658:
3653:
3643:
3618:
3608:
3580:
3578:
3575:Dendritic spine
3550:
3498:
3490:opioid peptides
3459:
3448:
3351:
3349:
3318:
3316:
3314:phosphorylation
3310:
3247:
3246:Psychostimulant
3219:
3218:Psychostimulant
3190:
3189:Psychostimulant
3135:
3123:
3112:
3105:
3069:
3067:neuroplasticity
3054:drug withdrawal
2988:
2979:
2934:
2928:
2921:
2916:
2888:
2873:
2856:Neural effects
2850:
2845:
2833:
2804:
2686:
2685:
2684:
2676:persist in the
2663:
2636:gene expression
2632:
2631:
2623:
2614:
2609:
2603:
2534:phenylcyclidine
2522:methylphenidate
2470:
2465:
2464:
2463:
2451:
2444:
2436:
2398:methamphetamine
2387:
2379:
2378:
2377:
2376:
2371:
2369:
2364:
2362:
2356:
2355:
2353:
2351:
2345:
2342:
2340:
2334:
2331:
2329:
2324:
2322:
2320:
2315:
2313:
2308:
2306:
2301:
2299:
2294:
2292:
2287:
2285:
2280:
2278:
2271:
2269:
2262:
2260:
2255:
2253:
2250:
2245:
2243:
2240:
2235:
2233:
2228:
2226:
2221:
2219:
2214:
2212:
2207:
2205:
2200:
2198:
2193:
2191:
2186:
2184:
2180:
2175:
2173:
2170:Plasma membrane
2168:
2166:
2161:
2159:
2154:
2152:
2147:
2143:
2135:
2134:
2109:
2088:
1936:gene expression
1887:transcriptional
1883:
1875:animal research
1846:pathophysiology
1831:
1825:
1813:DNA methylation
1802:
1777:
1764:
1755:
1749:
1715:
1671:
1653:
1645:Main articles:
1643:
1641:Genetic factors
1634:
1628:
1611:
1605:
1588:
1582:
1577:
1569:
1560:
1558:
1505:
1503:
1494:
1492:
1476:
1474:
1397:
1380:
1242:
1240:Neuropsychology
1203:that associate
1194:
1188:
1183:
1174:
1165:
1136:
1127:
1107:
1102:
1007:Social Changes
964:
948:
940:Main articles:
938:
931:Social anxiety.
915:gaming disorder
907:
901:
877:
871:
848:substance abuse
830:dorsal striatum
791:
783:Main articles:
781:
739:
733:
705:neuroplasticity
695:to engage in a
685:
679:
659:Yale University
629:
623:
590:Experimentation
546:
537:
437:drug withdrawal
395:biopsychosocial
376:
370:Substance abuse
366:
360:
283:, or of merely
261:
155:neurobiological
51:
46:
39:
28:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
19185:
19175:
19174:
19169:
19164:
19159:
19144:
19143:
19131:
19119:
19096:
19095:
19092:
19091:
19088:
19087:
19085:
19084:
19079:
19074:
19073:
19072:
19067:
19059:
19054:
19048:
19046:
19040:
19039:
19037:
19036:
19031:
19026:
19021:
19016:
19011:
19006:
19001:
18996:
18991:
18986:
18980:
18978:
18977:Harm reduction
18974:
18973:
18971:
18970:
18969:
18968:
18960:
18955:
18950:
18945:
18940:
18935:
18934:
18933:
18923:
18918:
18913:
18911:Date rape drug
18908:
18903:
18897:
18895:
18889:
18888:
18885:
18884:
18882:
18881:
18880:
18879:
18877:Liquor license
18874:
18869:
18864:
18854:
18852:Darknet market
18849:
18848:
18847:
18842:
18837:
18832:
18827:
18822:
18817:
18812:
18807:
18802:
18797:
18792:
18787:
18782:
18777:
18772:
18767:
18762:
18757:
18752:
18747:
18742:
18737:
18732:
18727:
18722:
18717:
18712:
18707:
18702:
18697:
18692:
18687:
18682:
18677:
18672:
18667:
18662:
18657:
18652:
18647:
18642:
18637:
18632:
18627:
18622:
18617:
18612:
18607:
18602:
18597:
18592:
18587:
18582:
18577:
18572:
18567:
18562:
18557:
18552:
18547:
18542:
18537:
18532:
18521:
18519:
18515:
18514:
18512:
18511:
18506:
18501:
18496:
18490:
18488:
18479:
18467:
18466:
18456:
18455:
18452:
18451:
18448:
18447:
18445:
18444:
18442:Zero tolerance
18439:
18438:
18437:
18432:
18427:
18417:
18412:
18407:
18402:
18397:
18392:
18387:
18382:
18377:
18372:
18366:
18364:
18360:
18359:
18357:
18356:
18351:
18346:
18341:
18336:
18331:
18326:
18321:
18315:
18313:
18309:
18308:
18306:
18305:
18304:
18303:
18298:
18293:
18288:
18283:
18278:
18273:
18268:
18258:
18253:
18248:
18243:
18238:
18233:
18228:
18223:
18218:
18216:Czech Republic
18213:
18208:
18202:
18200:
18194:
18193:
18191:
18190:
18189:
18188:
18183:
18178:
18177:
18176:
18169:Liberalization
18166:
18161:
18159:Harm reduction
18156:
18151:
18141:
18140:
18139:
18134:
18129:
18124:
18119:
18108:
18106:
18102:
18101:
18099:
18098:
18097:
18096:
18091:
18086:
18078:
18077:
18076:
18071:
18066:
18055:
18053:
18045:
18044:
18034:
18033:
18030:
18029:
18026:
18025:
18023:
18022:
18017:
18012:
18007:
18002:
17997:
17992:
17987:
17985:Party and play
17982:
17977:
17975:Needle sharing
17972:
17967:
17962:
17957:
17952:
17947:
17942:
17937:
17931:
17929:
17925:
17924:
17922:
17921:
17916:
17911:
17906:
17901:
17896:
17891:
17889:Cigarette card
17885:
17883:
17877:
17876:
17874:
17873:
17868:
17863:
17858:
17853:
17848:
17843:
17838:
17833:
17828:
17822:
17820:
17814:
17813:
17811:
17810:
17805:
17800:
17798:Tailgate party
17795:
17790:
17785:
17780:
17775:
17770:
17765:
17760:
17755:
17750:
17748:Drinking games
17745:
17740:
17738:Binge drinking
17735:
17730:
17725:
17719:
17717:
17711:
17710:
17708:
17707:
17702:
17697:
17692:
17686:
17684:
17682:Coffee culture
17678:
17677:
17675:
17674:
17669:
17664:
17659:
17654:
17649:
17644:
17639:
17634:
17629:
17624:
17619:
17614:
17609:
17604:
17599:
17594:
17589:
17584:
17578:
17576:
17566:
17565:
17553:
17552:
17549:
17548:
17545:
17544:
17542:
17541:
17536:
17526:
17525:
17524:
17519:
17509:
17504:
17498:
17496:
17490:
17489:
17486:
17485:
17483:
17482:
17477:
17471:
17469:
17463:
17462:
17460:
17459:
17458:
17457:
17452:
17447:
17442:
17432:
17431:
17430:
17425:
17420:
17409:
17407:
17401:
17400:
17398:
17397:
17392:
17390:Dimenhydrinate
17387:
17386:
17385:
17380:
17375:
17370:
17355:
17353:
17347:
17346:
17344:
17343:
17342:
17341:
17331:
17326:
17325:
17324:
17314:
17309:
17304:
17303:
17302:
17297:
17292:
17290:alkyl nitrites
17287:
17272:
17267:
17256:
17254:
17248:
17247:
17245:
17244:
17243:
17242:
17228:
17227:
17226:
17221:
17216:
17214:Peruvian torch
17206:
17201:
17196:
17195:
17194:
17184:
17183:
17182:
17177:
17172:
17161:
17159:
17150:
17144:
17143:
17141:
17140:
17139:
17138:
17133:
17123:
17118:
17113:
17112:
17111:
17103:
17097:
17095:
17089:
17088:
17086:
17085:
17084:
17083:
17078:
17068:
17067:
17066:
17061:
17056:
17046:
17041:
17036:
17031:
17026:
17021:
17016:
17015:
17014:
17004:
17003:
17002:
16997:
16987:
16986:
16985:
16975:
16974:
16973:
16968:
16963:
16953:
16948:
16947:
16946:
16936:
16930:
16928:
16922:
16921:
16919:
16918:
16913:
16912:
16911:
16901:
16900:
16899:
16889:
16888:
16887:
16877:
16872:
16871:
16870:
16862:
16857:
16856:
16855:
16847:
16842:
16841:
16840:
16837:
16829:
16828:
16827:
16819:
16818:
16817:
16807:
16806:
16805:
16802:
16793:
16791:
16785:
16784:
16782:
16781:
16779:Quinazolinones
16776:
16771:
16766:
16765:
16764:
16763:
16762:
16754:
16753:
16752:
16747:
16742:
16737:
16726:
16725:
16724:
16706:
16701:
16699:Gabapentinoids
16696:
16695:
16694:
16689:
16684:
16674:
16669:
16664:
16658:
16656:
16646:
16645:
16635:
16634:
16627:
16626:
16619:
16612:
16604:
16595:
16594:
16592:
16591:
16580:
16577:
16576:
16574:
16573:
16568:
16567:
16566:
16556:
16555:
16554:
16544:
16539:
16534:
16529:
16524:
16519:
16513:
16511:
16507:
16506:
16503:
16502:
16500:
16499:
16494:
16489:
16484:
16479:
16474:
16469:
16464:
16459:
16458:
16457:
16447:
16441:
16439:
16437:Harm reduction
16433:
16432:
16430:
16429:
16424:
16418:
16416:
16415:Support groups
16412:
16411:
16409:
16408:
16403:
16402:
16401:
16396:
16386:
16381:
16376:
16371:
16370:
16369:
16358:
16356:
16350:
16349:
16347:
16346:
16341:
16336:
16331:
16326:
16321:
16320:
16319:
16314:
16303:
16301:
16295:
16294:
16292:
16291:
16286:
16280:
16278:
16277:Detoxification
16271:
16261:
16260:
16257:
16256:
16254:
16253:
16252:
16251:
16243:
16242:
16241:
16236:
16231:
16226:
16221:
16216:
16214:Benzodiazepine
16211:
16206:
16201:
16192:
16190:
16186:
16185:
16183:
16182:
16177:
16172:
16167:
16161:
16159:
16152:
16146:
16145:
16142:
16141:
16139:
16138:
16137:
16136:
16133:
16128:
16123:
16118:
16113:
16108:
16103:
16096:
16089:
16082:
16077:
16064:
16063:
16062:
16061:
16056:
16051:
16046:
16041:
16036:
16023:
16021:
16015:
16014:
16012:
16011:
16006:
16001:
16000:
15999:
15994:
15986:
15985:
15984:
15979:
15971:
15969:Palatable food
15966:
15965:
15964:
15959:
15950:
15948:
15942:
15941:
15939:
15938:
15933:
15928:
15923:
15918:
15913:
15908:
15902:
15900:
15893:
15887:
15886:
15871:
15870:
15863:
15856:
15848:
15839:
15838:
15835:
15834:
15833:subdivision .2
15817:
15812:
15811:
15809:
15808:Classification
15802:
15801:
15796:
15791:
15779:
15778:
15756:
15738:
15737:External links
15735:
15733:
15732:
15726:
15716:Unbroken Brain
15709:
15666:
15646:(3): 620–622.
15630:
15628:
15625:
15622:
15621:
15599:
15577:
15563:
15530:
15519:
15498:
15478:
15447:
15434:
15414:
15385:(3): 217–229.
15362:
15323:
15284:
15265:(3): 307–318.
15249:
15230:(3): 491–508.
15207:
15141:
15134:
15106:
15071:
15056:
15030:
14979:
14950:(4): S73–S76.
14930:
14911:(3): 485–487.
14895:
14838:
14790:
14763:(5): 444–455.
14744:
14717:(5): 600–620.
14698:
14652:
14623:
14603:
14584:(3): 214–219.
14565:
14522:
14492:
14477:
14452:
14429:
14406:
14357:
14314:
14268:
14233:
14179:
14152:(3): 104–111.
14131:
14093:
14074:(5): 265–272.
14058:
14015:
13972:
13957:
13926:
13919:
13876:
13869:
13843:
13808:
13801:
13775:
13761:
13742:(4): 251–260.
13726:
13691:
13664:(1): 129–153.
13647:
13629:
13578:
13563:
13507:
13500:
13465:
13394:
13343:
13336:
13314:
13302:www.ices.on.ca
13286:
13261:
13228:
13179:
13152:
13129:
13089:
13035:
13012:
12963:
12907:
12848:
12822:
12800:
12765:
12738:(5): 425–433.
12722:
12687:(4): 209–214.
12667:
12612:
12577:
12551:
12540:. 14 June 2004
12523:
12480:
12453:(5): 456–467.
12434:
12420:
12393:
12374:
12356:
12337:
12334:. 1 July 2021.
12319:
12301:
12284:
12258:
12230:
12219:. Geneva. 2023
12201:
12190:
12172:
12127:
12092:
12034:
12005:(3): 646–664.
11982:
11963:
11930:
11913:
11892:
11850:(7): 1124–43.
11819:
11755:
11729:
11715:
11669:
11620:
11572:
11553:(8): 1403–13.
11534:
11485:
11478:
11460:
11414:
11376:
11310:
11253:
11224:(11): 844–58.
11204:
11161:
11154:
11136:
11076:
11011:
10972:(8): 2915–20.
10952:
10926:
10877:
10839:
10783:
10746:(3): 136–143.
10719:
10650:
10617:(2): 696–717 (
10597:
10567:
10514:
10469:(3): 257–268.
10444:
10401:
10336:
10299:(9): 6367–76.
10293:Mol. Neurobiol
10278:
10222:
10193:(5): 351–357.
10173:
10161:Dual Diagnosis
10148:
10123:
10093:
10066:
10038:
10011:
9962:
9926:
9885:
9832:
9805:(4): 395–425.
9785:
9755:
9703:
9670:
9623:
9597:
9568:
9509:
9460:
9411:
9385:
9358:
9339:(5): 707–715.
9320:
9291:(2): 275–287.
9271:
9236:
9162:
9113:
9026:
8997:(2): 261–274.
8977:
8925:
8907:
8886:
8830:
8791:
8776:
8739:
8696:
8685:(6): 1139–49.
8669:
8626:
8599:
8564:
8549:
8513:
8478:
8449:(1): 117–129.
8429:
8410:(2): 189–198.
8389:
8363:
8342:
8314:
8285:(3): 179–189.
8258:
8215:
8185:
8160:
8116:
8087:(3): 379–394.
8064:
8029:
8010:(4): 481–484.
7994:
7965:(5): 672–686.
7940:
7914:
7889:
7862:(5): 277–283.
7843:
7814:(4): e100496.
7789:
7760:(3): 744–747.
7744:
7725:(3): 306–307.
7709:
7680:(4): 292–298.
7660:
7639:(3–4): 14–23.
7619:
7568:
7541:(4): 363–388.
7522:
7466:
7407:
7378:(2): 134–146.
7351:
7322:
7302:
7250:
7229:(4): 290–294.
7206:
7153:
7120:(8): 3434–42.
7089:
7035:
7006:(1): 103–112.
6986:
6935:
6916:(1): 113–121.
6900:
6874:
6867:
6849:
6816:
6784:(11): 623–37.
6739:
6697:(7): 1109–22.
6610:
6532:
6490:(4): 368–384.
6453:
6414:
6389:
6360:(1): e001242.
6317:
6291:
6260:
6209:
6175:
6139:(4): 363–371.
6116:
6109:
6091:
6071:
6064:
6046:
6007:
5964:
5932:
5883:
5854:(4): 363–371.
5834:
5783:
5772:. Geneva. 2023
5752:
5708:
5679:(3): 261–269.
5659:
5604:
5585:(6): 904–919.
5562:
5555:
5534:
5499:
5464:
5451:
5430:
5395:
5380:
5369:. 13 July 2020
5341:
5316:(4): 431–443.
5257:
5192:
5191:
5189:
5186:
5183:
5182:
5172:
5159:
5150:
5142:
5141:
5140:
5139:
5133:
5132:
5123:
5114:
5101:
5092:
5066:
5054:
5026:gene promoters
4986:
4985:
4983:
4980:
4977:
4976:
4965:
4964:
4962:
4959:
4957:
4956:
4951:
4946:
4941:
4936:
4931:
4926:
4921:
4919:Binge drinking
4916:
4910:
4908:
4905:
4837:Main article:
4834:
4831:
4822:Main article:
4819:
4816:
4814:
4811:
4790:
4789:
4782:
4779:
4757:
4754:
4724:subjectivities
4704:
4701:
4678:Merrill Singer
4633:
4632:Cultural model
4630:
4575:
4572:
4553:
4550:
4540:
4537:
4519:
4516:
4503:
4502:
4498:
4495:
4492:
4488:
4467:
4464:
4450:
4447:
4434:
4433:
4430:
4427:
4424:
4421:
4418:
4415:
4412:
4400:
4397:
4391:
4388:
4385:
4384:
4381:
4378:
4372:
4371:
4370:saccharomania
4368:
4365:
4361:
4360:
4347:
4344:
4340:
4339:
4337:
4332:
4326:
4325:
4322:
4319:
4315:
4314:
4312:
4309:
4303:
4302:
4299:
4296:
4261:
4258:
4246:mental illness
4186:Main article:
4183:
4180:
4178:
4175:
4161:
4158:
4132:
4129:
4050:
4047:
4031:
4028:
4012:
4009:
4001:
3998:
3971:
3968:
3944:Main article:
3941:
3938:
3922:
3921:
3911:
3865:
3802:
3799:
3793:
3790:
3783:Harm reduction
3778:
3775:
3762:
3759:
3740:hallucinations
3693:drug addiction
3662:
3659:
3657:
3656:Classification
3654:
3642:
3639:
3607:
3604:
3601:
3600:
3598:
3596:
3594:
3591:
3589:
3586:
3583:
3571:
3570:
3568:
3566:
3564:
3561:
3559:
3556:
3553:
3542:
3541:
3532:
3531:
3529:
3523:
3517:
3515:
3509:
3503:
3492:
3485:
3484:
3482:
3479:
3476:
3470:
3464:
3453:
3445:
3438:
3437:
3435:
3429:
3423:
3421:
3407:
3393:
3383:
3373:
3372:
3370:
3368:
3366:
3363:
3360:
3357:
3354:
3341:
3340:
3338:
3335:
3332:
3330:
3327:
3324:
3321:
3302:
3301:
3297:
3296:
3294:
3291:
3288:
3286:
3284:
3281:
3278:
3272:
3271:
3269:
3266:
3263:
3260:
3257:
3254:
3251:
3243:
3242:
3240:
3237:
3234:
3232:
3229:
3226:
3223:
3215:
3214:
3212:
3209:
3206:
3203:
3200:
3199:Not applicable
3197:
3194:
3186:
3185:
3183:
3181:
3179:
3177:
3174:
3171:
3168:
3164:
3163:
3159:
3158:
3156:
3153:
3150:
3147:
3144:
3141:
3138:
3116:
3115:
3108:
3101:
3096:
3093:
3090:
3086:
3085:
3080:
3074:
2993:
2992:
2985:
2972:
2969:
2963:
2962:
2959:
2949:
2946:
2940:
2939:
2931:
2909:
2906:
2900:
2899:
2896:
2889:
2885:
2879:
2878:
2875:
2870:
2867:
2861:
2860:
2857:
2854:
2847:
2832:
2829:
2813:synaptic cleft
2803:
2800:
2799:
2798:
2790:
2779:
2778:
2762:
2740:
2688:
2687:
2666:phosphorylated
2633:
2625:
2624:
2621:
2620:
2619:
2613:
2610:
2605:Main article:
2602:
2599:
2467:
2466:
2402:phenethylamine
2381:
2380:
2248:
2238:
2178:
2145:
2144:
2137:
2136:
2133:
2132:
2125:
2118:
2110:
2100:
2099:
2098:
2093:
2090:
2089:
2087:
2086:
2079:
2072:
2064:
2061:
2060:
2059:
2058:
2050:
2038:
2026:
2010:downregulation
2006:
1986:
1974:
1966:
1964:RNA polymerase
1958:(mRNA) from a
1947:
1929:
1928:
1900:overexpression
1882:
1879:
1827:Main article:
1824:
1821:
1801:
1798:
1776:
1773:
1763:
1760:
1751:Main article:
1748:
1745:
1714:
1711:
1706:endophenotypes
1642:
1639:
1627:
1624:
1604:
1601:
1581:
1578:
1574:
1572:
1571:
1564:
1562:
1553:
1551:
1548:
1547:
1545:
1543:
1541:
1539:
1537:
1534:
1533:
1531:
1529:
1527:
1525:
1523:
1521:
1519:
1517:
1515:
1513:
1510:
1508:
1507:
1498:
1496:
1487:
1485:
1480:
1478:
1468:
1467:
1465:
1463:
1461:
1459:
1457:
1455:
1453:
1451:
1449:
1447:
1445:
1442:
1441:
1439:
1437:
1435:
1433:
1431:
1429:
1427:
1425:
1423:
1421:
1419:
1417:
1415:
1413:
1411:
1409:
1407:
1405:
1402:
1400:
1399:
1390:
1388:
1386:
1384:
1382:
1373:
1371:
1368:
1367:
1365:
1363:
1361:
1359:
1357:
1355:
1353:
1351:
1348:
1347:
1345:
1343:
1341:
1339:
1337:
1335:
1333:
1331:
1329:
1327:
1325:
1323:
1321:
1318:
1316:
1315:
1308:
1306:
1304:
1302:
1300:
1295:
1293:
1291:
1289:
1287:
1285:
1280:
1241:
1238:
1190:Main article:
1187:
1184:
1182:
1179:
1173:
1170:
1164:
1161:
1160:
1159:
1156:
1153:
1150:
1147:
1135:
1132:
1126:
1123:
1106:
1103:
1101:
1098:
1095:
1094:
1093:
1092:
1089:
1086:
1083:
1080:
1075:
1074:
1073:
1070:
1069:Slurred speech
1067:
1064:
1061:
1058:
1055:
1054:Bloodshot eyes
1052:
1047:
1046:
1045:
1042:
1039:
1036:
1033:
1030:
1027:
1024:
1021:
1018:
1015:
1009:
1008:
1005:
1002:
993:
992:
989:
986:
983:
980:
977:
974:
971:
963:
960:
937:
934:
933:
932:
929:
926:
903:Main article:
900:
897:
889:Kimberly Young
873:Main article:
870:
867:
780:
777:
744:hypersexuality
735:Main article:
732:
729:
697:natural reward
681:Main article:
678:
675:
627:Food addiction
625:Main article:
622:
621:Food addiction
619:
618:
617:
614:
611:
608:
605:
602:
596:
591:
588:
585:
582:
572:cue reactivity
549:Drug addiction
545:
544:Drug addiction
542:
539:
538:
536:
535:
528:
521:
513:
510:
509:
508:
507:
499:
491:
483:
474:
465:
457:
441:
433:
421:
413:
411:reward systems
406:addictive drug
402:
383:
382:
362:Main article:
359:
356:
260:
257:
209:food addiction
164:engagement in
147:brain disorder
128:brain function
111:
110:
93:
87:
86:
75:
74:
66:
65:
62:
58:
57:
49:
26:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
19184:
19173:
19170:
19168:
19165:
19163:
19160:
19158:
19155:
19154:
19152:
19142:
19137:
19132:
19130:
19120:
19118:
19108:
19107:
19104:
19083:
19080:
19078:
19075:
19071:
19068:
19066:
19063:
19062:
19060:
19058:
19055:
19053:
19050:
19049:
19047:
19043:Countries by
19041:
19035:
19032:
19030:
19027:
19025:
19022:
19020:
19017:
19015:
19012:
19010:
19007:
19005:
19002:
19000:
18997:
18995:
18992:
18990:
18987:
18985:
18984:Drug checking
18982:
18981:
18979:
18975:
18966:
18965:
18964:
18961:
18959:
18956:
18954:
18953:Neurotoxicity
18951:
18949:
18946:
18944:
18941:
18939:
18936:
18932:
18929:
18928:
18927:
18924:
18922:
18919:
18917:
18914:
18912:
18909:
18907:
18904:
18902:
18899:
18898:
18896:
18890:
18878:
18875:
18873:
18870:
18868:
18867:Cannabis shop
18865:
18863:
18860:
18859:
18858:
18855:
18853:
18850:
18846:
18843:
18841:
18840:United States
18838:
18836:
18833:
18831:
18828:
18826:
18823:
18821:
18818:
18816:
18813:
18811:
18808:
18806:
18803:
18801:
18798:
18796:
18793:
18791:
18788:
18786:
18783:
18781:
18778:
18776:
18773:
18771:
18768:
18766:
18763:
18761:
18758:
18756:
18753:
18751:
18748:
18746:
18743:
18741:
18738:
18736:
18733:
18731:
18728:
18726:
18723:
18721:
18718:
18716:
18713:
18711:
18708:
18706:
18703:
18701:
18698:
18696:
18695:Latin America
18693:
18691:
18688:
18686:
18683:
18681:
18678:
18676:
18673:
18671:
18668:
18666:
18663:
18661:
18658:
18656:
18653:
18651:
18648:
18646:
18643:
18641:
18638:
18636:
18633:
18631:
18628:
18626:
18623:
18621:
18618:
18616:
18613:
18611:
18608:
18606:
18603:
18601:
18598:
18596:
18593:
18591:
18588:
18586:
18583:
18581:
18578:
18576:
18573:
18571:
18568:
18566:
18563:
18561:
18558:
18556:
18553:
18551:
18548:
18546:
18543:
18541:
18538:
18536:
18533:
18531:
18528:
18527:
18526:
18523:
18522:
18520:
18516:
18510:
18507:
18505:
18502:
18500:
18497:
18495:
18492:
18491:
18489:
18483:
18480:
18472:
18468:
18461:
18457:
18443:
18440:
18436:
18433:
18431:
18430:Plan Colombia
18428:
18426:
18423:
18422:
18421:
18418:
18416:
18413:
18411:
18408:
18406:
18403:
18401:
18398:
18396:
18393:
18391:
18390:Designer drug
18388:
18386:
18383:
18381:
18378:
18376:
18373:
18371:
18368:
18367:
18365:
18361:
18355:
18352:
18350:
18347:
18345:
18342:
18340:
18337:
18335:
18332:
18330:
18327:
18325:
18322:
18320:
18317:
18316:
18314:
18312:Drug legality
18310:
18302:
18299:
18297:
18294:
18292:
18289:
18287:
18284:
18282:
18279:
18277:
18274:
18272:
18269:
18267:
18264:
18263:
18262:
18261:United States
18259:
18257:
18254:
18252:
18249:
18247:
18244:
18242:
18239:
18237:
18234:
18232:
18229:
18227:
18224:
18222:
18219:
18217:
18214:
18212:
18209:
18207:
18204:
18203:
18201:
18195:
18187:
18184:
18182:
18179:
18175:
18174:Latin America
18172:
18171:
18170:
18167:
18165:
18162:
18160:
18157:
18155:
18152:
18150:
18147:
18146:
18145:
18144:Policy reform
18142:
18138:
18135:
18133:
18130:
18128:
18125:
18123:
18120:
18118:
18115:
18114:
18113:
18110:
18109:
18107:
18103:
18095:
18092:
18090:
18087:
18085:
18082:
18081:
18079:
18075:
18072:
18070:
18067:
18065:
18062:
18061:
18060:
18057:
18056:
18054:
18052:International
18050:
18046:
18039:
18035:
18021:
18018:
18016:
18013:
18011:
18010:Sex and drugs
18008:
18006:
18003:
18001:
17998:
17996:
17993:
17991:
17990:Poly drug use
17988:
17986:
17983:
17981:
17978:
17976:
17973:
17971:
17968:
17966:
17963:
17961:
17958:
17956:
17953:
17951:
17948:
17946:
17943:
17941:
17938:
17936:
17933:
17932:
17930:
17926:
17920:
17917:
17915:
17912:
17910:
17907:
17905:
17902:
17900:
17899:Cloud-chasing
17897:
17895:
17892:
17890:
17887:
17886:
17884:
17882:
17878:
17872:
17869:
17867:
17864:
17862:
17859:
17857:
17854:
17852:
17849:
17847:
17844:
17842:
17839:
17837:
17834:
17832:
17829:
17827:
17826:Psychonautics
17824:
17823:
17821:
17819:
17815:
17809:
17806:
17804:
17801:
17799:
17796:
17794:
17791:
17789:
17786:
17784:
17781:
17779:
17776:
17774:
17771:
17769:
17766:
17764:
17761:
17759:
17756:
17754:
17753:Drinking song
17751:
17749:
17746:
17744:
17743:Diethyl ether
17741:
17739:
17736:
17734:
17733:Beer festival
17731:
17729:
17726:
17724:
17721:
17720:
17718:
17716:
17712:
17706:
17703:
17701:
17698:
17696:
17693:
17691:
17688:
17687:
17685:
17683:
17679:
17673:
17670:
17668:
17665:
17663:
17660:
17658:
17655:
17653:
17650:
17648:
17645:
17643:
17640:
17638:
17635:
17633:
17630:
17628:
17625:
17623:
17620:
17618:
17615:
17613:
17610:
17608:
17605:
17603:
17600:
17598:
17595:
17593:
17590:
17588:
17585:
17583:
17580:
17579:
17577:
17575:
17571:
17567:
17563:
17558:
17554:
17540:
17537:
17534:
17530:
17529:Nitrous oxide
17527:
17523:
17520:
17518:
17515:
17514:
17513:
17510:
17508:
17505:
17503:
17500:
17499:
17497:
17495:
17491:
17481:
17478:
17476:
17473:
17472:
17470:
17468:
17464:
17456:
17453:
17451:
17448:
17446:
17443:
17441:
17438:
17437:
17436:
17433:
17429:
17426:
17424:
17421:
17419:
17416:
17415:
17414:
17411:
17410:
17408:
17406:
17402:
17396:
17393:
17391:
17388:
17384:
17381:
17379:
17376:
17374:
17371:
17369:
17366:
17365:
17364:
17360:
17357:
17356:
17354:
17352:
17348:
17340:
17337:
17336:
17335:
17332:
17330:
17327:
17323:
17320:
17319:
17318:
17315:
17313:
17310:
17308:
17305:
17301:
17298:
17296:
17293:
17291:
17288:
17285:
17281:
17280:Nitrous oxide
17278:
17277:
17276:
17273:
17271:
17268:
17265:
17261:
17258:
17257:
17255:
17253:
17252:Dissociatives
17249:
17241:
17238:
17237:
17236:
17232:
17229:
17225:
17222:
17220:
17217:
17215:
17212:
17211:
17210:
17207:
17205:
17202:
17200:
17197:
17193:
17190:
17189:
17188:
17185:
17181:
17178:
17176:
17173:
17171:
17168:
17167:
17166:
17163:
17162:
17160:
17158:
17154:
17151:
17149:
17148:Hallucinogens
17145:
17137:
17134:
17132:
17129:
17128:
17127:
17124:
17122:
17119:
17117:
17114:
17109:
17108:
17107:
17104:
17102:
17099:
17098:
17096:
17094:
17090:
17082:
17079:
17077:
17074:
17073:
17072:
17069:
17065:
17062:
17060:
17057:
17055:
17052:
17051:
17050:
17047:
17045:
17042:
17040:
17037:
17035:
17032:
17030:
17027:
17025:
17022:
17020:
17017:
17013:
17010:
17009:
17008:
17005:
17001:
16998:
16996:
16993:
16992:
16991:
16988:
16984:
16981:
16980:
16979:
16976:
16972:
16969:
16967:
16966:Energy drinks
16964:
16962:
16959:
16958:
16957:
16954:
16952:
16949:
16945:
16942:
16941:
16940:
16937:
16935:
16932:
16931:
16929:
16927:
16923:
16917:
16914:
16910:
16907:
16906:
16905:
16902:
16898:
16895:
16894:
16893:
16890:
16886:
16883:
16882:
16881:
16878:
16876:
16873:
16868:
16867:
16866:
16865:Hydromorphone
16863:
16861:
16858:
16853:
16852:
16851:
16848:
16846:
16843:
16838:
16835:
16834:
16833:
16830:
16825:
16824:
16823:
16820:
16816:
16813:
16812:
16811:
16808:
16803:
16800:
16799:
16798:
16797:Buprenorphine
16795:
16794:
16792:
16790:
16786:
16780:
16777:
16775:
16772:
16770:
16767:
16761:
16758:
16757:
16755:
16751:
16750:Paint thinner
16748:
16746:
16743:
16741:
16738:
16736:
16733:
16732:
16731:
16727:
16722:
16718:
16717:Nitrous oxide
16715:
16714:
16712:
16711:
16710:
16707:
16705:
16702:
16700:
16697:
16693:
16690:
16688:
16685:
16683:
16680:
16679:
16678:
16675:
16673:
16670:
16668:
16665:
16663:
16660:
16659:
16657:
16655:
16651:
16647:
16640:
16636:
16632:
16625:
16620:
16618:
16613:
16611:
16606:
16605:
16602:
16590:
16582:
16581:
16578:
16572:
16569:
16565:
16562:
16561:
16560:
16557:
16553:
16550:
16549:
16548:
16545:
16543:
16540:
16538:
16535:
16533:
16530:
16528:
16525:
16523:
16520:
16518:
16515:
16514:
16512:
16508:
16498:
16495:
16493:
16490:
16488:
16485:
16483:
16480:
16478:
16475:
16473:
16470:
16468:
16465:
16463:
16460:
16456:
16453:
16452:
16451:
16450:Drug checking
16448:
16446:
16443:
16442:
16440:
16438:
16434:
16428:
16425:
16423:
16420:
16419:
16417:
16413:
16407:
16404:
16400:
16397:
16395:
16392:
16391:
16390:
16387:
16385:
16382:
16380:
16377:
16375:
16372:
16368:
16365:
16364:
16363:
16360:
16359:
16357:
16351:
16345:
16342:
16340:
16337:
16335:
16332:
16330:
16327:
16325:
16322:
16318:
16315:
16313:
16310:
16309:
16308:
16305:
16304:
16302:
16296:
16290:
16287:
16285:
16282:
16281:
16279:
16275:
16272:
16270:
16262:
16250:
16247:
16246:
16244:
16240:
16237:
16235:
16232:
16230:
16227:
16225:
16222:
16220:
16217:
16215:
16212:
16210:
16207:
16205:
16202:
16200:
16197:
16196:
16194:
16193:
16191:
16187:
16181:
16178:
16176:
16173:
16171:
16168:
16166:
16163:
16162:
16160:
16156:
16153:
16151:
16147:
16134:
16132:
16129:
16127:
16124:
16122:
16119:
16117:
16114:
16112:
16109:
16107:
16104:
16102:
16101:
16097:
16095:
16094:
16090:
16088:
16087:
16083:
16081:
16078:
16076:
16075:
16071:
16070:
16069:
16066:
16065:
16060:
16057:
16055:
16052:
16050:
16047:
16045:
16042:
16040:
16037:
16035:
16034:
16030:
16029:
16028:
16025:
16024:
16022:
16016:
16010:
16007:
16005:
16002:
15998:
15995:
15993:
15990:
15989:
15987:
15983:
15980:
15978:
15975:
15974:
15972:
15970:
15967:
15963:
15960:
15958:
15955:
15954:
15952:
15951:
15949:
15947:
15943:
15937:
15934:
15932:
15929:
15927:
15924:
15922:
15919:
15917:
15914:
15912:
15909:
15907:
15904:
15903:
15901:
15897:
15894:
15892:
15888:
15884:
15880:
15876:
15875:Reinforcement
15869:
15864:
15862:
15857:
15855:
15850:
15849:
15846:
15832:
15828:
15827:
15823:
15819:
15818:
15815:
15810:
15806:
15800:
15797:
15795:
15792:
15790:
15787:
15786:
15785:
15783:
15776:
15772:
15768:
15765:2014 talk by
15764:
15760:
15757:
15753:
15749:
15745:
15741:
15740:
15729:
15723:
15718:
15717:
15710:
15706:
15702:
15697:
15692:
15688:
15684:
15680:
15676:
15672:
15667:
15663:
15659:
15654:
15649:
15645:
15641:
15637:
15632:
15631:
15609:
15603:
15587:
15581:
15566:
15560:
15556:
15549:
15548:
15540:
15534:
15527:
15526:productivity.
15522:
15516:
15512:
15505:
15503:
15496:
15492:
15488:
15482:
15476:
15472:
15469:
15465:
15461:
15457:
15451:
15444:
15438:
15432:
15428:
15425:. Routledge.
15424:
15418:
15410:
15406:
15401:
15396:
15392:
15388:
15384:
15380:
15376:
15369:
15367:
15358:
15354:
15350:
15346:
15342:
15338:
15334:
15327:
15319:
15315:
15310:
15305:
15301:
15300:
15295:
15288:
15280:
15276:
15272:
15268:
15264:
15260:
15253:
15245:
15241:
15237:
15233:
15229:
15225:
15218:
15216:
15214:
15212:
15203:
15199:
15195:
15191:
15187:
15183:
15176:
15174:
15172:
15170:
15168:
15166:
15164:
15162:
15160:
15158:
15156:
15154:
15152:
15150:
15148:
15146:
15137:
15131:
15127:
15123:
15119:
15118:
15110:
15102:
15098:
15094:
15090:
15086:
15082:
15075:
15067:
15063:
15059:
15053:
15049:
15045:
15041:
15034:
15026:
15022:
15017:
15012:
15007:
15002:
14998:
14994:
14990:
14983:
14975:
14971:
14966:
14961:
14957:
14953:
14949:
14945:
14941:
14934:
14926:
14922:
14918:
14914:
14910:
14906:
14899:
14891:
14887:
14883:
14879:
14875:
14871:
14867:
14863:
14859:
14855:
14847:
14845:
14843:
14834:
14830:
14826:
14822:
14818:
14814:
14810:
14806:
14799:
14797:
14795:
14786:
14782:
14778:
14774:
14770:
14766:
14762:
14758:
14751:
14749:
14740:
14736:
14732:
14728:
14724:
14720:
14716:
14712:
14705:
14703:
14694:
14690:
14686:
14682:
14678:
14674:
14670:
14666:
14659:
14657:
14648:
14642:
14634:
14630:
14626:
14620:
14616:
14615:
14607:
14599:
14595:
14591:
14587:
14583:
14579:
14572:
14570:
14561:
14557:
14553:
14549:
14545:
14541:
14537:
14533:
14526:
14518:
14514:
14510:
14506:
14499:
14497:
14488:
14484:
14480:
14474:
14470:
14469:
14461:
14459:
14457:
14442:
14441:
14433:
14419:
14418:
14410:
14402:
14398:
14393:
14388:
14384:
14380:
14376:
14372:
14368:
14361:
14353:
14349:
14345:
14341:
14337:
14333:
14329:
14325:
14318:
14310:
14306:
14302:
14298:
14294:
14290:
14286:
14282:
14275:
14273:
14264:
14260:
14256:
14252:
14248:
14244:
14237:
14222:
14218:
14214:
14210:
14206:
14202:
14198:
14194:
14190:
14183:
14175:
14171:
14167:
14163:
14159:
14155:
14151:
14147:
14140:
14138:
14136:
14127:
14123:
14119:
14115:
14111:
14107:
14100:
14098:
14089:
14085:
14081:
14077:
14073:
14069:
14062:
14054:
14050:
14046:
14042:
14038:
14034:
14030:
14026:
14019:
14011:
14007:
14003:
13999:
13995:
13991:
13987:
13983:
13976:
13968:
13964:
13960:
13954:
13950:
13946:
13942:
13935:
13933:
13931:
13922:
13916:
13912:
13908:
13904:
13900:
13893:
13891:
13889:
13887:
13885:
13883:
13881:
13872:
13866:
13862:
13858:
13855:. Routledge.
13854:
13847:
13839:
13835:
13831:
13827:
13823:
13819:
13812:
13804:
13798:
13794:
13790:
13787:. Routledge.
13786:
13779:
13772:
13765:
13757:
13753:
13749:
13745:
13741:
13737:
13730:
13722:
13718:
13714:
13710:
13706:
13702:
13695:
13687:
13683:
13679:
13675:
13671:
13667:
13663:
13659:
13651:
13643:
13639:
13633:
13625:
13621:
13617:
13613:
13609:
13605:
13601:
13597:
13593:
13589:
13582:
13574:
13567:
13559:
13555:
13551:
13547:
13542:
13537:
13533:
13529:
13525:
13521:
13514:
13512:
13503:
13497:
13493:
13489:
13485:
13481:
13474:
13472:
13470:
13461:
13457:
13453:
13449:
13444:
13439:
13435:
13431:
13426:
13421:
13417:
13413:
13409:
13405:
13398:
13390:
13386:
13381:
13376:
13371:
13366:
13362:
13358:
13354:
13347:
13339:
13333:
13326:
13325:
13318:
13303:
13299:
13293:
13291:
13275:
13271:
13265:
13249:
13245:
13239:
13237:
13235:
13233:
13224:
13220:
13215:
13210:
13206:
13202:
13198:
13194:
13190:
13183:
13168:
13167:
13162:
13156:
13140:
13133:
13126:
13113:
13109:
13105:
13098:
13096:
13094:
13086:
13067:
13063:
13056:
13050:
13048:
13046:
13044:
13042:
13040:
13023:
13016:
13008:
13004:
12999:
12994:
12990:
12986:
12982:
12978:
12974:
12967:
12959:
12955:
12950:
12945:
12941:
12937:
12934:(6): 779–89.
12933:
12929:
12925:
12918:
12916:
12914:
12912:
12903:
12899:
12895:
12891:
12886:
12881:
12876:
12871:
12867:
12863:
12859:
12852:
12844:
12840:
12836:
12829:
12827:
12815:
12811:
12804:
12796:
12792:
12788:
12784:
12780:
12776:
12769:
12761:
12757:
12753:
12749:
12745:
12741:
12737:
12733:
12726:
12718:
12714:
12710:
12706:
12702:
12698:
12694:
12690:
12686:
12682:
12678:
12671:
12664:
12659:
12655:
12650:
12645:
12640:
12635:
12631:
12627:
12623:
12616:
12608:
12602:
12594:
12593:
12588:
12581:
12565:
12561:
12555:
12539:
12538:
12533:
12527:
12519:
12515:
12511:
12507:
12503:
12499:
12496:(2): 158–64.
12495:
12491:
12484:
12476:
12472:
12468:
12464:
12460:
12456:
12452:
12448:
12444:
12438:
12430:
12424:
12408:
12404:
12397:
12389:
12388:DrugAbuse.com
12385:
12378:
12370:
12366:
12360:
12352:
12348:
12341:
12333:
12329:
12323:
12315:
12311:
12305:
12297:
12296:
12288:
12273:
12269:
12262:
12247:
12243:
12237:
12235:
12218:
12214:
12208:
12206:
12198:
12193:
12187:
12183:
12176:
12168:
12164:
12160:
12156:
12151:
12146:
12143:(5): 630–50.
12142:
12138:
12137:Psychosom Med
12131:
12123:
12119:
12115:
12111:
12107:
12103:
12096:
12089:
12084:
12080:
12075:
12070:
12066:
12062:
12058:
12054:
12050:
12043:
12041:
12039:
12030:
12026:
12021:
12016:
12012:
12008:
12004:
12000:
11996:
11989:
11987:
11979:
11974:
11970:
11966:
11960:
11956:
11952:
11948:
11941:
11939:
11937:
11935:
11927:
11916:
11910:
11906:
11899:
11897:
11889:
11875:
11871:
11866:
11861:
11857:
11853:
11849:
11845:
11841:
11834:
11832:
11830:
11828:
11826:
11824:
11817:
11812:
11805:
11801:
11796:
11791:
11787:
11783:
11779:
11775:
11771:
11764:
11762:
11760:
11743:
11739:
11733:
11725:
11719:
11711:
11707:
11702:
11697:
11693:
11689:
11685:
11678:
11676:
11674:
11665:
11661:
11656:
11651:
11647:
11643:
11639:
11635:
11631:
11624:
11616:
11612:
11608:
11604:
11599:
11594:
11591:(2): 251–60.
11590:
11586:
11579:
11577:
11568:
11564:
11560:
11556:
11552:
11548:
11541:
11539:
11530:
11526:
11521:
11516:
11512:
11508:
11504:
11500:
11496:
11489:
11481:
11475:
11471:
11464:
11456:
11452:
11448:
11444:
11440:
11436:
11433:(3): 271–86.
11432:
11428:
11421:
11419:
11410:
11406:
11402:
11398:
11394:
11390:
11383:
11381:
11373:
11368:
11364:
11359:
11354:
11349:
11344:
11340:
11336:
11332:
11328:
11324:
11317:
11315:
11306:
11302:
11297:
11292:
11288:
11284:
11280:
11276:
11272:
11268:
11264:
11257:
11249:
11245:
11241:
11237:
11232:
11227:
11223:
11219:
11215:
11208:
11200:
11196:
11192:
11188:
11184:
11180:
11176:
11172:
11165:
11157:
11151:
11147:
11140:
11133:
11128:
11124:
11119:
11114:
11110:
11106:
11102:
11098:
11094:
11087:
11085:
11083:
11081:
11073:
11065:
11061:
11056:
11051:
11047:
11043:
11039:
11035:
11031:
11024:
11022:
11020:
11018:
11016:
11007:
11003:
10998:
10993:
10988:
10983:
10979:
10975:
10971:
10967:
10963:
10956:
10941:
10937:
10930:
10922:
10918:
10913:
10908:
10904:
10900:
10896:
10892:
10888:
10881:
10873:
10869:
10865:
10861:
10857:
10853:
10846:
10844:
10836:
10828:
10824:
10819:
10814:
10810:
10806:
10802:
10798:
10794:
10787:
10780:
10771:
10767:
10762:
10757:
10753:
10749:
10745:
10741:
10737:
10730:
10728:
10726:
10724:
10717:
10712:
10700:
10696:
10691:
10686:
10682:
10678:
10674:
10670:
10666:
10659:
10657:
10655:
10646:
10642:
10637:
10632:
10628:
10624:
10620:
10616:
10612:
10608:
10601:
10594:
10582:
10578:
10571:
10564:
10559:
10555:
10550:
10545:
10541:
10537:
10533:
10529:
10525:
10518:
10512:
10507:
10494:
10490:
10485:
10480:
10476:
10472:
10468:
10464:
10460:
10453:
10451:
10449:
10441:
10437:
10433:
10430:(3): 491–96.
10429:
10425:
10421:
10414:
10412:
10410:
10408:
10406:
10398:
10394:
10390:
10386:
10382:
10378:
10374:
10371:(6): 428–37.
10370:
10366:
10359:
10357:
10355:
10353:
10351:
10349:
10347:
10345:
10343:
10341:
10332:
10328:
10324:
10320:
10315:
10314:10400.22/7331
10310:
10306:
10302:
10298:
10294:
10287:
10285:
10283:
10274:
10270:
10265:
10260:
10256:
10252:
10248:
10244:
10240:
10233:
10231:
10229:
10227:
10218:
10214:
10209:
10204:
10200:
10196:
10192:
10188:
10184:
10177:
10162:
10158:
10152:
10137:
10133:
10127:
10111:
10107:
10103:
10097:
10081:
10077:
10070:
10055:
10051:
10045:
10043:
10026:
10020:
10018:
10016:
10007:
10003:
9998:
9993:
9989:
9985:
9981:
9977:
9973:
9966:
9958:
9954:
9950:
9946:
9942:
9938:
9930:
9922:
9918:
9913:
9908:
9904:
9900:
9896:
9889:
9881:
9877:
9873:
9869:
9865:
9861:
9856:
9851:
9848:(4): 417–63.
9847:
9843:
9836:
9828:
9824:
9820:
9816:
9812:
9808:
9804:
9800:
9796:
9789:
9773:
9769:
9765:
9759:
9751:
9747:
9742:
9737:
9733:
9729:
9725:
9721:
9717:
9710:
9708:
9691:
9687:
9683:
9677:
9675:
9667:
9662:
9658:
9654:
9650:
9646:
9642:
9638:
9634:
9627:
9611:
9607:
9601:
9585:
9581:
9575:
9573:
9564:
9560:
9556:
9552:
9547:
9542:
9537:
9532:
9528:
9524:
9520:
9513:
9505:
9501:
9496:
9491:
9487:
9483:
9480:(3): 267–79.
9479:
9475:
9471:
9464:
9456:
9452:
9447:
9442:
9438:
9434:
9430:
9426:
9422:
9415:
9400:
9396:
9389:
9373:
9369:
9362:
9354:
9350:
9346:
9342:
9338:
9334:
9327:
9325:
9316:
9312:
9307:
9302:
9298:
9294:
9290:
9286:
9282:
9275:
9267:
9263:
9259:
9255:
9251:
9247:
9240:
9232:
9228:
9224:
9220:
9215:
9210:
9205:
9200:
9196:
9192:
9188:
9184:
9180:
9176:
9169:
9167:
9158:
9154:
9149:
9144:
9140:
9136:
9132:
9128:
9124:
9117:
9110:
9102:
9098:
9093:
9088:
9084:
9080:
9076:
9072:
9068:
9061:
9059:
9057:
9055:
9053:
9051:
9049:
9047:
9045:
9043:
9041:
9039:
9037:
9035:
9033:
9031:
9022:
9018:
9013:
9008:
9004:
9000:
8996:
8992:
8988:
8981:
8973:
8969:
8964:
8959:
8955:
8951:
8947:
8940:
8938:
8936:
8934:
8932:
8930:
8922:
8910:
8904:
8900:
8893:
8891:
8883:
8875:
8871:
8866:
8861:
8857:
8853:
8849:
8845:
8841:
8834:
8827:
8822:
8818:
8814:
8810:
8806:
8802:
8795:
8787:
8783:
8779:
8773:
8769:
8765:
8761:
8754:
8752:
8750:
8748:
8746:
8744:
8735:
8731:
8727:
8723:
8719:
8715:
8712:(3): 343–51.
8711:
8707:
8700:
8692:
8688:
8684:
8680:
8673:
8665:
8661:
8657:
8653:
8649:
8645:
8642:(4): 465–69.
8641:
8637:
8630:
8622:
8618:
8614:
8610:
8603:
8595:
8591:
8587:
8583:
8580:(6): 621–34.
8579:
8575:
8568:
8560:
8556:
8552:
8546:
8542:
8538:
8533:
8528:
8524:
8517:
8509:
8505:
8501:
8497:
8493:
8489:
8482:
8474:
8470:
8465:
8460:
8456:
8452:
8448:
8444:
8440:
8433:
8425:
8421:
8417:
8413:
8409:
8405:
8398:
8396:
8394:
8378:
8372:
8370:
8368:
8352:
8346:
8331:
8327:
8321:
8319:
8310:
8306:
8301:
8296:
8292:
8288:
8284:
8280:
8276:
8269:
8267:
8265:
8263:
8254:
8250:
8246:
8242:
8238:
8234:
8230:
8226:
8219:
8204:
8200:
8194:
8192:
8190:
8174:
8170:
8164:
8156:
8152:
8147:
8142:
8138:
8134:
8130:
8123:
8121:
8112:
8108:
8103:
8098:
8094:
8090:
8086:
8082:
8078:
8071:
8069:
8060:
8056:
8052:
8048:
8044:
8040:
8033:
8025:
8021:
8017:
8013:
8009:
8005:
7998:
7990:
7986:
7981:
7976:
7972:
7968:
7964:
7960:
7956:
7949:
7947:
7945:
7928:
7924:
7918:
7903:
7899:
7893:
7885:
7881:
7877:
7873:
7869:
7865:
7861:
7857:
7850:
7848:
7839:
7835:
7830:
7825:
7821:
7817:
7813:
7809:
7805:
7798:
7796:
7794:
7785:
7781:
7776:
7771:
7767:
7763:
7759:
7755:
7748:
7740:
7736:
7732:
7728:
7724:
7720:
7713:
7705:
7701:
7696:
7691:
7687:
7683:
7679:
7675:
7671:
7664:
7656:
7652:
7647:
7642:
7638:
7634:
7630:
7623:
7615:
7611:
7606:
7601:
7596:
7591:
7587:
7583:
7579:
7572:
7564:
7560:
7556:
7552:
7548:
7544:
7540:
7536:
7529:
7527:
7518:
7514:
7509:
7504:
7499:
7494:
7490:
7486:
7485:F1000Research
7482:
7475:
7473:
7471:
7462:
7458:
7453:
7448:
7443:
7438:
7434:
7430:
7426:
7422:
7418:
7411:
7403:
7399:
7394:
7389:
7385:
7381:
7377:
7373:
7369:
7362:
7360:
7358:
7356:
7347:
7341:
7333:
7329:
7325:
7319:
7315:
7314:
7306:
7298:
7294:
7289:
7284:
7280:
7276:
7272:
7268:
7264:
7257:
7255:
7246:
7242:
7237:
7232:
7228:
7224:
7220:
7213:
7211:
7202:
7198:
7194:
7190:
7186:
7182:
7178:
7174:
7166:
7164:
7162:
7160:
7158:
7150:
7145:
7141:
7136:
7131:
7127:
7123:
7119:
7115:
7114:
7109:
7102:
7100:
7098:
7096:
7094:
7086:
7081:
7077:
7073:
7069:
7065:
7061:
7057:
7053:
7046:
7044:
7042:
7040:
7031:
7027:
7023:
7019:
7014:
7009:
7005:
7001:
6997:
6990:
6982:
6978:
6973:
6968:
6963:
6958:
6954:
6950:
6946:
6939:
6931:
6927:
6923:
6919:
6915:
6911:
6904:
6888:
6884:
6878:
6870:
6864:
6860:
6853:
6838:
6834:
6827:
6825:
6823:
6821:
6813:
6809:
6805:
6800:
6795:
6791:
6787:
6783:
6779:
6775:
6768:
6766:
6764:
6762:
6760:
6758:
6756:
6754:
6752:
6750:
6748:
6746:
6744:
6736:
6731:
6728:
6722:
6718:
6713:
6708:
6704:
6700:
6696:
6692:
6688:
6681:
6679:
6677:
6675:
6673:
6671:
6669:
6667:
6665:
6663:
6661:
6659:
6657:
6655:
6653:
6651:
6649:
6647:
6645:
6643:
6641:
6639:
6637:
6635:
6633:
6631:
6629:
6627:
6625:
6623:
6621:
6619:
6617:
6615:
6606:
6602:
6597:
6592:
6588:
6584:
6580:
6576:
6572:
6565:
6563:
6561:
6559:
6557:
6555:
6553:
6551:
6549:
6547:
6545:
6543:
6541:
6539:
6537:
6521:
6517:
6513:
6509:
6505:
6501:
6497:
6493:
6489:
6485:
6481:
6474:
6472:
6470:
6468:
6466:
6464:
6462:
6460:
6458:
6449:
6445:
6441:
6437:
6433:
6429:
6425:
6418:
6403:
6399:
6393:
6385:
6381:
6376:
6371:
6367:
6363:
6359:
6355:
6351:
6344:
6342:
6340:
6338:
6336:
6334:
6332:
6330:
6328:
6326:
6324:
6322:
6305:
6301:
6295:
6287:
6283:
6279:
6275:
6271:
6267:
6263:
6257:
6253:
6249:
6245:
6241:
6234:
6232:
6230:
6228:
6226:
6224:
6222:
6220:
6218:
6216:
6214:
6197:
6193:
6186:
6184:
6182:
6180:
6172:
6164:
6160:
6155:
6150:
6146:
6142:
6138:
6134:
6130:
6123:
6121:
6112:
6106:
6102:
6095:
6088:
6084:
6080:
6075:
6067:
6061:
6057:
6050:
6043:
6028:
6021:
6014:
6012:
6003:
5999:
5995:
5991:
5987:
5983:
5979:
5975:
5968:
5952:
5945:
5939:
5937:
5928:
5924:
5919:
5914:
5910:
5906:
5902:
5898:
5894:
5887:
5879:
5875:
5870:
5865:
5861:
5857:
5853:
5849:
5845:
5838:
5830:
5826:
5821:
5816:
5811:
5806:
5802:
5798:
5794:
5787:
5771:
5767:
5761:
5759:
5757:
5748:
5744:
5739:
5734:
5731:(2): 95–101.
5730:
5726:
5722:
5715:
5713:
5704:
5700:
5695:
5690:
5686:
5682:
5678:
5674:
5670:
5663:
5655:
5649:
5641:
5637:
5632:
5627:
5623:
5619:
5615:
5608:
5600:
5596:
5592:
5588:
5584:
5580:
5573:
5566:
5558:
5552:
5548:
5541:
5539:
5522:
5518:
5514:
5510:
5503:
5495:
5491:
5487:
5483:
5479:
5475:
5468:
5461:
5454:
5448:
5444:
5437:
5435:
5426:
5422:
5418:
5414:
5410:
5406:
5399:
5391:
5384:
5368:
5364:
5360:
5356:
5350:
5348:
5346:
5338:
5333:
5329:
5324:
5319:
5315:
5311:
5307:
5300:
5298:
5296:
5294:
5292:
5290:
5288:
5286:
5284:
5282:
5280:
5278:
5276:
5274:
5272:
5270:
5268:
5266:
5264:
5262:
5254:
5249:
5245:
5240:
5235:
5231:
5227:
5223:
5219:
5215:
5211:
5207:
5200:
5198:
5193:
5179:
5170:
5166:
5157:
5147:
5143:
5137:
5136:
5127:
5118:
5111:
5105:
5096:
5089:
5085:
5081:
5076:
5070:
5061:
5059:
5051:
5047:
5043:
5039:
5035:
5031:
5027:
5024:
5020:
5016:
5012:
5008:
5005:
5001:
4997:
4991:
4987:
4970:
4966:
4955:
4952:
4950:
4947:
4945:
4942:
4940:
4937:
4935:
4932:
4930:
4927:
4925:
4922:
4920:
4917:
4915:
4912:
4911:
4904:
4901:
4897:
4893:
4887:
4883:
4880:
4876:
4873:
4869:
4867:
4863:
4861:
4857:
4854:
4853:Contemplation
4850:
4848:
4844:
4840:
4830:
4825:
4810:
4806:
4803:
4799:
4795:
4787:
4783:
4780:
4778:
4775:
4774:
4773:
4770:
4768:
4764:
4753:
4751:
4746:
4742:
4738:
4734:
4730:
4725:
4720:
4718:
4714:
4710:
4700:
4697:
4694:
4689:
4687:
4683:
4679:
4674:
4672:
4668:
4663:
4659:
4655:
4651:
4647:
4643:
4639:
4629:
4627:
4623:
4619:
4615:
4611:
4607:
4605:
4601:
4597:
4593:
4589:
4585:
4581:
4569:
4568:
4563:
4558:
4549:
4547:
4536:
4532:
4528:
4524:
4515:
4511:
4507:
4499:
4496:
4493:
4489:
4485:
4484:
4483:
4480:
4476:
4472:
4463:
4459:
4455:
4446:
4442:
4438:
4431:
4428:
4425:
4422:
4419:
4416:
4413:
4410:
4409:
4408:
4405:
4396:
4382:
4379:
4377:
4374:
4373:
4369:
4366:
4363:
4362:
4359:
4355:
4351:
4348:
4345:
4342:
4341:
4338:
4336:
4333:
4331:
4328:
4327:
4323:
4320:
4317:
4316:
4313:
4310:
4308:
4305:
4304:
4300:
4298:Addiction to
4297:
4294:
4293:
4290:
4288:
4284:
4280:
4276:
4272:
4267:
4257:
4255:
4251:
4247:
4243:
4239:
4235:
4233:
4229:
4225:
4221:
4217:
4213:
4207:
4203:
4199:
4195:
4189:
4174:
4171:
4167:
4160:South America
4157:
4154:
4149:
4147:
4143:
4138:
4128:
4126:
4121:
4119:
4118:
4112:
4110:
4105:
4101:
4099:
4094:
4090:
4084:
4082:
4078:
4074:
4070:
4064:
4060:
4056:
4049:United States
4046:
4041:
4037:
4027:
4024:
4018:
4008:
4005:
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3991:
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3981:
3977:
3967:
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3915:
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3846:
3842:
3839:
3838:
3837:
3834:
3832:
3828:
3824:
3820:
3815:
3814:immune system
3811:
3807:
3798:
3788:
3784:
3774:
3772:
3768:
3758:
3755:
3753:
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3745:
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3725:
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3698:
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3673:
3668:
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3126:
3122:expression in
3121:
3117:
3114:
3111:Environmental
3107:
3100:
3087:
3079:
3073:
3068:
3063:
3057:
3055:
3051:
3047:
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3039:
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2910:
2907:
2905:
2901:
2897:
2895:feedback loop
2894:
2890:
2886:
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2880:
2876:
2871:
2868:
2866:
2862:
2853:
2842:
2839:
2828:
2826:
2820:
2818:
2814:
2808:
2795:
2791:
2788:
2784:
2783:
2782:
2775:
2774:orbitofrontal
2771:
2767:
2763:
2760:
2756:
2752:
2749:
2745:
2741:
2738:
2734:
2730:
2726:
2722:
2719:postsynaptic
2718:
2714:
2711:
2707:
2703:
2702:
2701:
2699:
2695:
2682:
2679:
2675:
2671:
2667:
2661:
2657:
2653:
2649:
2645:
2641:
2637:
2629:
2618:
2617:
2608:
2607:Reward system
2601:Reward system
2598:
2596:
2592:
2588:
2582:
2579:
2578:medications.
2577:
2572:
2571:sensitization
2567:
2562:
2557:
2555:
2551:
2547:
2543:
2539:
2535:
2531:
2527:
2523:
2519:
2515:
2511:
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2499:
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2487:
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2479:
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2461:
2457:
2449:
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2418:
2414:
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2403:
2399:
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2327:
2318:
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2267:
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2258:
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2241:
2231:
2224:
2217:
2210:
2203:
2196:
2189:
2182:
2171:
2164:
2157:
2150:
2141:
2131:
2126:
2124:
2119:
2117:
2112:
2111:
2107:
2103:
2097:
2096:
2085:
2080:
2078:
2073:
2071:
2066:
2065:
2062:
2056:
2055:
2051:
2048:
2044:
2043:
2039:
2036:
2032:
2031:
2027:
2024:
2020:
2016:
2012:
2011:
2007:
2004:
2000:
1996:
1992:
1991:
1987:
1984:
1980:
1979:
1975:
1972:
1971:
1967:
1965:
1961:
1957:
1956:messenger RNA
1953:
1952:
1951:transcription
1948:
1946:
1942:
1938:
1937:
1933:
1932:
1930:
1925:
1922:
1920:
1916:
1912:
1911:preclinically
1908:
1905:
1901:
1897:
1893:
1888:
1878:
1876:
1871:
1867:
1863:
1859:
1854:
1851:
1847:
1843:
1839:
1835:
1830:
1820:
1818:
1815:, as well as
1814:
1810:
1806:
1797:
1794:
1786:
1785:mental health
1782:
1772:
1768:
1759:
1754:
1744:
1741:
1737:
1733:
1728:
1723:
1721:
1710:
1707:
1703:
1699:
1696:
1690:
1686:
1684:
1680:
1676:
1670:
1666:
1662:
1658:
1652:
1648:
1638:
1633:
1623:
1621:
1617:
1610:
1600:
1598:
1594:
1587:
1573:
1568:
1557:
1549:
1546:
1538:
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1535:
1530:
1526:
1524:
1520:
1518:
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1509:
1502:
1491:
1484:
1473:
1469:
1466:
1458:
1456:
1454:
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1443:
1438:
1434:
1432:
1428:
1426:
1418:
1414:
1412:
1408:
1406:
1403:
1401:
1396:
1395:
1379:
1378:
1377:Reinforcement
1369:
1366:
1352:
1350:
1349:
1344:
1338:
1336:
1328:
1326:
1319:
1317:
1314:
1313:
1299:
1283:
1279:
1277:
1273:
1269:
1265:
1261:
1257:
1253:
1249:
1247:
1237:
1235:
1231:
1230:impulsiveness
1227:
1223:
1219:
1214:
1213:Data analysis
1210:
1206:
1202:
1198:
1193:
1178:
1169:
1157:
1154:
1151:
1148:
1145:
1144:
1143:
1140:
1131:
1122:
1120:
1116:
1112:
1090:
1087:
1084:
1081:
1078:
1077:
1076:
1071:
1068:
1065:
1062:
1059:
1056:
1053:
1050:
1049:
1048:
1043:
1040:
1037:
1034:
1031:
1028:
1025:
1022:
1019:
1016:
1013:
1012:
1011:
1010:
1006:
1003:
1000:
999:
996:
990:
987:
984:
981:
978:
975:
972:
969:
968:
967:
959:
957:
956:consumer debt
953:
947:
943:
930:
927:
924:
923:
922:
919:
916:
912:
906:
896:
892:
890:
884:
881:
876:
866:
862:
859:
857:
853:
849:
845:
841:
840:comorbidities
837:
833:
831:
827:
823:
820:
816:
812:
808:
804:
800:
799:reward system
796:
790:
786:
776:
774:
770:
766:
762:
758:
753:
749:
745:
738:
728:
726:
722:
718:
714:
708:
706:
702:
698:
694:
690:
684:
674:
672:
668:
663:
660:
656:
651:
649:
644:
642:
636:
634:
628:
615:
612:
609:
606:
603:
600:
597:
595:
592:
589:
586:
583:
580:
579:
578:
575:
573:
569:
565:
561:
556:
554:
550:
534:
529:
527:
522:
520:
515:
514:
511:
505:
504:
500:
497:
496:
492:
489:
488:
487:sensitization
484:
481:
479:
475:
472:
470:
466:
463:
462:
458:
455:
451:
447:
446:
442:
439:
438:
434:
431:
427:
426:
422:
419:
418:
414:
412:
408:
407:
403:
400:
396:
392:
391:
387:
386:
384:
379:
375:
371:
365:
355:
353:
349:
344:
341:
336:
334:
330:
326:
322:
318:
314:
310:
306:
302:
298:
294:
290:
286:
282:
278:
274:
270:
266:
256:
254:
250:
246:
242:
238:
234:
230:
226:
222:
218:
214:
210:
206:
202:
198:
194:
190:
186:
181:
179:
178:gratification
175:
171:
170:preoccupation
167:
163:
158:
156:
152:
148:
144:
141:
137:
133:
129:
125:
121:
117:
109:
105:
101:
97:
94:
92:
88:
84:
80:
76:
72:
67:
63:
59:
54:
48:
44:
37:
33:
19:
19070:Lifetime use
18905:
18872:Liquor store
18790:South Africa
18420:War on drugs
18246:Soviet Union
18122:Legalization
17960:Drug tourism
17808:Wine tasting
17728:Beer culture
17690:Coffee break
17627:Cannabis tea
17562:Drug culture
17405:Cannabinoids
17334:Salvinorin A
17300:amyl nitrite
17157:Psychedelics
16909:/paracetamol
16822:Desomorphine
16662:Barbiturates
16098:
16091:
16084:
16072:
16031:
15973:Sex-related
15890:
15878:
15820:
15780:
15747:
15715:
15678:
15674:
15643:
15639:
15612:. Retrieved
15602:
15592:17 September
15590:. Retrieved
15580:
15570:28 September
15568:. Retrieved
15546:
15533:
15524:
15510:
15486:
15481:
15459:
15455:
15450:
15442:
15437:
15422:
15417:
15382:
15378:
15340:
15336:
15326:
15297:
15287:
15262:
15258:
15252:
15227:
15223:
15185:
15181:
15116:
15109:
15084:
15080:
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15039:
15033:
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14933:
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14760:
14756:
14714:
14710:
14668:
14664:
14613:
14606:
14581:
14577:
14535:
14531:
14525:
14508:
14504:
14467:
14444:, retrieved
14439:
14432:
14421:, retrieved
14416:
14409:
14374:
14370:
14360:
14327:
14323:
14317:
14287:(2): 89–95.
14284:
14280:
14246:
14242:
14236:
14224:. Retrieved
14196:
14192:
14182:
14149:
14145:
14109:
14105:
14071:
14067:
14061:
14031:(1): 17–27.
14028:
14024:
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13985:
13981:
13975:
13940:
13902:
13852:
13846:
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13817:
13811:
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13661:
13657:
13650:
13641:
13632:
13591:
13587:
13581:
13572:
13566:
13527:
13523:
13488:Philadelphia
13483:
13411:
13407:
13397:
13360:
13356:
13346:
13323:
13317:
13305:. Retrieved
13301:
13277:. Retrieved
13273:
13264:
13252:. Retrieved
13247:
13196:
13192:
13182:
13170:. Retrieved
13164:
13155:
13143:. Retrieved
13132:
13123:
13116:. Retrieved
13112:the original
13107:
13080:
13073:. Retrieved
13066:the original
13061:
13026:. Retrieved
13015:
12983:(1): 71–90.
12980:
12977:Primary Care
12976:
12966:
12931:
12927:
12885:11343/283940
12865:
12861:
12851:
12803:
12778:
12774:
12768:
12735:
12731:
12725:
12684:
12680:
12670:
12661:
12629:
12625:
12615:
12590:
12580:
12568:. Retrieved
12564:the original
12554:
12542:. Retrieved
12535:
12526:
12493:
12489:
12483:
12450:
12446:
12443:Hatsukami DK
12437:
12423:
12413:19 September
12411:. Retrieved
12407:the original
12396:
12387:
12377:
12368:
12359:
12350:
12340:
12331:
12322:
12304:
12294:
12287:
12275:. Retrieved
12271:
12261:
12249:. Retrieved
12245:
12221:. Retrieved
12216:
12195:
12181:
12175:
12140:
12136:
12130:
12105:
12101:
12095:
12086:
12056:
12052:
12002:
11998:
11976:
11946:
11918:
11904:
11877:
11847:
11843:
11807:
11777:
11773:
11746:. Retrieved
11742:the original
11732:
11718:
11691:
11688:Arch. Neurol
11687:
11637:
11633:
11623:
11588:
11584:
11550:
11546:
11502:
11498:
11488:
11470:Pharmacology
11469:
11463:
11430:
11426:
11395:(1): 20–25.
11392:
11388:
11370:
11330:
11326:
11270:
11266:
11256:
11221:
11217:
11207:
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11164:
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11139:
11130:
11103:(1): 38–55.
11100:
11096:
11067:
11037:
11033:
10969:
10965:
10955:
10943:. Retrieved
10940:KEGG Pathway
10939:
10929:
10894:
10890:
10880:
10855:
10851:
10830:
10800:
10796:
10786:
10773:
10743:
10739:
10702:
10672:
10668:
10614:
10610:
10600:
10591:
10584:. Retrieved
10581:KEGG Pathway
10580:
10570:
10561:
10534:(1): 93–96.
10531:
10527:
10517:
10496:
10466:
10462:
10439:
10427:
10423:
10396:
10368:
10364:
10296:
10292:
10246:
10242:
10190:
10186:
10176:
10166:17 September
10164:. Retrieved
10160:
10151:
10139:. Retrieved
10135:
10126:
10114:. Retrieved
10110:the original
10105:
10096:
10084:. Retrieved
10080:the original
10069:
10059:17 September
10057:. Retrieved
10053:
10029:. Retrieved
9979:
9975:
9965:
9940:
9936:
9929:
9905:(1): 15–32.
9902:
9898:
9888:
9845:
9841:
9835:
9802:
9798:
9788:
9778:17 September
9776:. Retrieved
9772:the original
9767:
9758:
9726:(1): 17–31.
9723:
9719:
9696:26 September
9694:. Retrieved
9690:the original
9685:
9664:
9636:
9632:
9626:
9614:. Retrieved
9609:
9600:
9588:. Retrieved
9584:the original
9526:
9522:
9512:
9477:
9473:
9463:
9428:
9424:
9414:
9404:17 September
9402:. Retrieved
9398:
9393:Melemis SM.
9388:
9376:. Retrieved
9371:
9361:
9336:
9332:
9288:
9284:
9274:
9252:(1): 36–51.
9249:
9245:
9239:
9182:
9178:
9130:
9126:
9116:
9104:
9074:
9071:Neuroscience
9070:
8994:
8990:
8980:
8953:
8949:
8912:
8898:
8877:
8847:
8843:
8833:
8824:
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8635:
8629:
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8573:
8567:
8522:
8516:
8491:
8487:
8481:
8446:
8442:
8432:
8407:
8403:
8380:. Retrieved
8354:. Retrieved
8345:
8333:. Retrieved
8330:nida.nih.gov
8329:
8282:
8278:
8228:
8224:
8218:
8206:. Retrieved
8202:
8176:. Retrieved
8172:
8163:
8139:(1): 14–18.
8136:
8132:
8084:
8080:
8042:
8038:
8032:
8007:
8003:
7997:
7962:
7958:
7931:. Retrieved
7926:
7917:
7905:. Retrieved
7901:
7892:
7859:
7855:
7811:
7807:
7757:
7753:
7747:
7722:
7718:
7712:
7677:
7673:
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7585:
7581:
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7538:
7534:
7488:
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7424:
7420:
7410:
7375:
7371:
7312:
7305:
7273:(2): 37–43.
7270:
7266:
7226:
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7147:
7117:
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7083:
7055:
7051:
7003:
6999:
6989:
6952:
6948:
6938:
6913:
6909:
6903:
6891:. Retrieved
6886:
6877:
6858:
6852:
6840:. Retrieved
6836:
6811:
6781:
6777:
6724:
6694:
6690:
6578:
6574:
6523:. Retrieved
6487:
6483:
6434:(1): 33–46.
6431:
6427:
6417:
6405:. Retrieved
6401:
6392:
6357:
6353:
6308:. Retrieved
6303:
6294:
6243:
6200:. Retrieved
6195:
6166:
6136:
6132:
6100:
6094:
6074:
6055:
6049:
6041:
6034:. Retrieved
6027:the original
5977:
5973:
5967:
5955:. Retrieved
5950:
5900:
5896:
5886:
5851:
5847:
5837:
5800:
5796:
5786:
5774:. Retrieved
5769:
5728:
5724:
5676:
5672:
5662:
5648:cite journal
5621:
5617:
5607:
5582:
5578:
5565:
5546:
5525:. Retrieved
5521:the original
5516:
5512:
5502:
5477:
5473:
5467:
5456:
5442:
5408:
5404:
5398:
5389:
5383:
5371:. Retrieved
5358:
5335:
5313:
5309:
5251:
5213:
5209:
5146:
5138:Image legend
5126:
5117:
5104:
5095:
5069:
5009:9 and 14 on
4990:
4969:
4888:
4884:
4878:
4877:
4872:Maintenance:
4871:
4870:
4865:
4864:
4860:Preparation:
4859:
4858:
4852:
4851:
4846:
4845:
4842:
4827:
4807:
4791:
4771:
4763:body politic
4759:
4741:marginalized
4721:
4706:
4690:
4682:intoxication
4676:As noted by
4675:
4667:interactions
4662:intoxication
4642:Dwight Heath
4635:
4610:Ethnographic
4608:
4600:disciplinary
4580:biomedically
4577:
4565:
4542:
4533:
4529:
4525:
4521:
4512:
4508:
4504:
4481:
4477:
4473:
4469:
4460:
4456:
4452:
4443:
4439:
4435:
4406:
4402:
4393:
4324:choreomania
4318:danceaholic
4286:
4279:medico-legal
4275:rebracketing
4263:
4236:
4215:
4214:of the term
4209:
4163:
4150:
4145:
4141:
4134:
4122:
4115:
4113:
4106:
4102:
4085:
4066:
4043:
4020:
4006:
4003:
3987:
3970:Epidemiology
3958:strategies,
3949:
3923:
3870:, an active
3856:
3835:
3804:
3795:
3764:
3756:
3724:irritability
3708:
3701:
3696:
3692:
3688:
3684:
3680:
3676:
3670:
3666:
3664:
3619:
3447:No change or
3037:
3034:
3011:
2997:
2996:
2990:(net effect)
2821:
2809:
2805:
2780:
2717:co-localized
2710:dopaminergic
2691:
2668:(35–37
2583:
2580:
2576:dopaminergic
2558:
2554:viral vector
2514:cannabinoids
2471:
2441:corepressors
2343:
2332:
2273:
2264:
2156:Nuclear pore
2148:
2052:
2046:
2040:
2034:
2028:
2022:
2018:
2014:
2008:
2002:
1998:
1994:
1990:upregulation
1988:
1982:
1976:
1968:
1962:template by
1949:
1934:
1884:
1855:
1832:
1803:
1778:
1769:
1765:
1756:
1726:
1724:
1716:
1700:
1691:
1687:
1679:psychosocial
1672:
1635:
1626:Risk factors
1612:
1589:
1566:
1555:
1500:
1489:
1482:
1471:
1392:
1375:
1310:
1250:
1243:
1195:
1175:
1166:
1141:
1137:
1128:
1108:
994:
965:
949:
920:
908:
893:
885:
878:
863:
860:
834:
795:neuroimaging
792:
740:
709:
691:refers to a
688:
686:
664:
652:
645:
637:
630:
576:
557:
547:
501:
493:
485:
476:
467:
459:
443:
435:
429:
423:
415:
405:
404:
389:
388:
347:
345:
337:
332:
328:
320:
316:
268:
264:
262:
182:
169:
159:
151:psychosocial
136:self-control
115:
114:
47:
19077:Opiates use
19057:Cocaine use
18892:Issues with
18810:Switzerland
18795:South Korea
18765:Puerto Rico
18750:Philippines
18620:El Salvador
18530:Afghanistan
18266:Just Say No
18256:Switzerland
18231:Netherlands
18197:Drug policy
18127:Prohibition
18112:Drug policy
18105:State level
17950:Dance party
17861:Microdosing
17818:Psychedelia
17773:Oktoberfest
17695:Coffeehouse
17672:Stoner film
17363:Scopolamine
17093:Entactogens
17071:Theobromine
16934:Amphetamine
16860:Hydrocodone
16850:Diamorphine
16654:Depressants
16298:Behavioral
16209:Barbiturate
16204:Amphetamine
15982:Pornography
15977:Intercourse
15911:Amphetamine
15877:disorders:
15767:Nora Volkow
15681:(1): 1–18.
15614:10 February
15343:(1): 1–24.
15294:"Addiction"
14446:14 December
14423:14 December
14281:Art Therapy
14193:Art Therapy
14146:Art Therapy
13988:: 129–136.
13534:: 437–449.
13418:: 355–361.
13363:(1): 32–8.
13274:Mayo Clinic
11748:12 February
11499:J. Neurosci
11427:Hippocampus
10141:19 December
10116:19 December
10086:19 December
10031:15 December
9590:13 December
9378:13 December
9189:: 720–724.
9133:(1): 7–13.
9077:: 198–206.
8956:(2): 4–14.
8807:(1): 3–13.
8335:29 November
8208:29 November
8178:21 November
8173:Mayo Clinic
8045:: 706–713.
7927:icd.who.int
7902:www.who.int
7775:2436/622804
6407:15 November
6402:Mayo Clinic
6310:15 November
6202:15 November
6087:icd.who.int
5903:: 370–382.
5373:23 December
5156:Ion channel
4719:practices.
4693:Sociologist
4622:East Harlem
4364:sugarholic
4358:nymphomania
3716:homeostasis
3499:No change:
3344:Sensitized
2953:sensitivity
2794:hippocampus
2723:receptors (
2566:reinforcing
2394:amphetamine
2042:corepressor
2030:coactivator
2019:suppression
1983:controlling
1805:Epigenetics
899:Video games
765:amphetamine
599:Impulsivity
594:Epigenetics
469:reinforcing
297:compulsions
285:maladaptive
259:Definitions
153:as well as
61:Other names
18:Drug addict
19151:Categories
19117:Psychology
19065:Annual use
18916:Dependence
18780:Seychelles
18685:Kyrgyzstan
18600:Costa Rica
18545:Bangladesh
18518:Drug trade
18487:production
18476:production
18395:Drug court
18281:California
18199:by country
18132:Regulation
17866:Smart shop
17851:Literature
17846:Experience
17793:Sports bar
17758:Happy hour
17723:Bartending
17494:Club drugs
17467:Oneirogens
17351:Deliriants
17231:Psilocybin
17054:Polacrilex
17024:Mephedrone
16926:Stimulants
16728:Hazardous
16672:Carbamates
16522:Allen Carr
16362:Drug rehab
16353:Treatment
16269:management
16265:Treatment
16199:Alcoholism
16180:Withdrawal
16150:Dependence
16068:Epigenetic
16020:mechanisms
15953:Financial
15946:Behavioral
15883:dependence
15761: – a
15462:: 112954.
14226:4 December
13307:8 November
13279:8 November
13254:8 November
13145:14 January
12928:Hum. Genet
12837:(Report).
12570:27 October
12059:: 112–21.
10858:: 565–98.
10586:31 October
9686:samhsa.gov
9529:: 106917.
9366:Crowe JR.
8850:: 135–68.
8532:2001.06520
8382:3 December
8356:3 December
7933:25 October
7907:25 October
7179:: 154–64.
6955:: 480671.
6893:1 November
6270:1042341025
5980:(1): 1–8.
5957:28 January
5480:: 223–52.
5188:References
5165:G proteins
5075:repression
4900:meth mouth
4737:phenomenon
4729:immorality
4717:subculture
4696:Robin Room
4652:people of
4626:oppression
4588:biological
4539:Philosophy
4399:As therapy
4383:ergomania
4376:workaholic
4354:satyriasis
4350:erotomania
4343:sexaholic
4330:rageaholic
4311:chocolate
4307:chocoholic
4287:alcoholism
4283:dipsomania
3990:prevalence
3892:antibodies
3880:norcocaine
3862:exotoxin A
3777:Prevention
3726:, intense
3677:dependence
3625:of DNA at
3577:density in
3545:Number of
3513:enkephalin
3501:enkephalin
3211:Attenuated
3208:Attenuated
3113:enrichment
3078:reinforcer
2852:expression
2817:mesolimbic
2761:behaviors.
2670:kilodalton
2448:repression
2419:for these
2413:co-release
2015:repression
1995:activation
1881:Mechanisms
1834:Epigenetic
1809:phenotypic
1800:Epigenetic
1695:odds ratio
1607:See also:
1584:See also:
1394:Punishment
1312:Extinction
773:expression
693:compulsion
648:overeating
641:chocoholic
417:dependence
348:Dependence
313:betel quid
293:lifestyles
185:alcoholism
162:compulsive
104:toxicology
96:Psychiatry
19157:Addiction
19061:Cannabis
18906:Addiction
18862:Beer shop
18845:Venezuela
18710:Mauritius
18540:Australia
18478:and trade
18405:Drug test
18206:Australia
17980:Nootropic
17965:Entheogen
17940:Club drug
17788:Sommelier
17783:Pub crawl
17768:Nightclub
17763:Hip flask
17700:Latte art
17637:Head shop
17507:Quaaludes
17275:Inhalants
17224:San Pedro
17209:Mescaline
17192:Ayahuasca
17165:Bufotenin
17110:Benzofury
17101:2C series
17081:Chocolate
17044:Modafinil
17034:Methylone
17007:Ephedrine
16978:Cathinone
16939:Arecoline
16904:Oxycodone
16875:Methadone
16709:Inhalants
16300:therapies
16189:Disorders
15891:Addiction
15879:addiction
15475:0166-4328
15357:0020-773X
15318:241689890
15279:1058-6989
15182:Addiction
15101:0002-7294
15066:168489288
14999:(4): 79.
14993:Medicines
14925:1537-260X
14890:236928168
14874:1082-6084
14825:0955-3959
14785:145136521
14777:0192-6187
14731:0733-4648
14693:143901063
14685:1533-256X
14641:cite book
14633:922640395
14560:148421461
14552:0021-9495
14517:0090-1482
14487:794700340
14330:: 62–69.
14309:141669979
14301:0742-1656
14221:142341708
14213:0742-1656
14166:0742-1656
14126:0197-4556
14112:: 50–58.
14088:0197-4556
14045:1745-4832
13967:208386296
13756:0197-4556
13721:0197-4556
13707:: 50–58.
13638:"Alcohol"
13624:143289528
13616:2155-8256
13602:: 31–37.
13558:150418396
13550:1476-7392
12862:Addiction
12810:Teesson M
12701:0034-3552
12632:: 29–43.
12601:cite news
12544:7 October
12145:CiteSeerX
12102:Addiction
11593:CiteSeerX
10897:: 60–80.
9850:CiteSeerX
9827:143860602
9819:0044-118X
9661:205117578
9563:233278782
9431:: 71–75.
9231:254434507
8786:242036830
8664:207640075
8559:151160405
8253:226233515
8059:0747-5632
7555:1040-726X
7340:cite book
7332:830807378
7030:208186539
6727:Komisaruk
6520:212565361
6504:1099-0968
6428:Addiction
6286:242067468
5747:248835855
5640:150196703
5579:Addiction
5230:0893-133X
5011:histone 3
4798:injustice
4750:biosocial
4713:pathology
4686:fieldwork
4648:with the
4646:fieldwork
4618:fieldwork
4596:spiritual
4216:addiction
4212:etymology
4093:inpatient
4067:Based on
4011:Australia
3934:oxycontin
3900:rewarding
3744:headaches
3732:dysphoria
3641:Diagnosis
3627:CpG sites
3547:dendrites
3527:dynorphin
3521:dynorphin
3507:dynorphin
3496:dynorphin
3481:No change
3478:No change
3106:(aerobic)
3026:drug cues
2957:glutamate
2883:dynorphin
2748:GABAergic
2733:forebrain
2721:glutamate
2410:glutamate
1999:promotion
1915:biomarker
1892:DeltaFosB
1870:heritable
1866:microRNAs
1850:epigenome
1727:addiction
1057:Body odor
687:The term
568:classical
503:tolerance
478:rewarding
390:addiction
287:/harmful
273:polysemes
265:Addiction
168:stimuli,
166:rewarding
140:reshaping
116:Addiction
91:Specialty
56:Addiction
19129:Medicine
19045:drug use
18958:Overdose
18894:drug use
18820:Thailand
18805:Suriname
18785:Slovakia
18760:Portugal
18745:Paraguay
18705:Malaysia
18645:Honduras
18595:Colombia
18580:Cambodia
18301:Virginia
18291:Maryland
18286:Colorado
18241:Slovakia
18236:Portugal
17909:Smokeasy
17803:Wine bar
17705:Teahouse
17428:Hash oil
17359:Atropine
17317:Muscimol
17307:Ketamine
17270:Glaucine
17235:Psilocin
17049:Nicotine
16956:Caffeine
16916:Tramadol
16892:Morphine
16869:Dilaudid
16845:Fentanyl
16836:Darvocet
16826:Krokodil
16801:Suboxone
16740:Gasoline
16730:solvents
16713:Medical
16589:Category
16510:See also
16355:programs
16234:Nicotine
16224:Cannabis
16219:Caffeine
16158:Concepts
16018:Cellular
15962:Shopping
15957:Gambling
15931:Nicotine
15705:26674074
15662:19176747
15557:. 2013.
15409:23805068
15244:13579177
15202:22962955
15025:29088101
14974:25214748
14882:34348070
14833:21903372
14739:71341761
14617:. Cham.
14598:18439812
14401:25270497
14352:47011510
14344:29883870
14053:72987664
14010:78090920
14002:30901671
13686:20193011
13678:15083558
13596:Elsevier
13460:12682928
13452:18286796
13434:62869913
13389:36101564
13223:26502112
13028:24 March
13007:21356422
12958:22543841
12902:13674349
12894:29749059
12795:25405785
12760:24571763
12752:19012127
12717:28556555
12709:15714702
12658:24648786
12537:BBC News
12518:22415520
12510:16038686
12467:16321612
12223:24 March
12167:10511013
12122:24456155
12088:exposure
12083:25486626
12029:25950633
11973:26806771
11874:22487042
11804:18640924
11710:17998440
11664:24749941
11615:16495432
11567:16055761
11529:17652583
11455:23667629
11447:16411230
11409:15661621
11367:11572966
11305:21164015
11248:38811195
11240:17948030
11199:30545845
11127:22641964
11064:23643695
11006:19202072
10945:10 April
10921:23085425
10872:16776597
10827:18640924
10770:23430970
10699:21989194
10645:24939695
10619:Figure 1
10558:22200950
10493:19877494
10436:23020045
10393:19157711
10385:25083822
10331:25694221
10323:26572641
10273:22909205
10217:19711245
10074:SAMHSA.
10006:19017028
9921:25022184
9880:14686245
9872:10817843
9750:20596857
9653:30332573
9555:33862579
9504:23872493
9455:23454283
9315:18362899
9223:36477530
9185:(7941).
9157:19720467
9101:23920159
9021:18311189
8972:22002448
8874:23020641
8821:26781048
8734:24435589
8726:15225976
8656:18232522
8594:20546986
8508:23561823
8473:29129212
8424:17306727
8309:26772405
8245:33135468
8155:17342214
8111:27640529
8024:18721098
7989:27688739
7929:. Geneva
7884:17713327
7876:20545603
7838:34504996
7784:24388433
7739:18316427
7704:23125561
7655:26000201
7614:27375523
7517:30090625
7461:31923269
7421:PLOS ONE
7402:25747926
7297:26014671
7245:22624087
7201:25317397
7193:26391065
7144:23426671
7080:19042860
7072:24001295
7022:31744566
6981:33033480
6930:26866783
6808:21989194
6721:21459101
6605:35041154
6512:32142199
6448:11177518
6384:36053657
6278:31017751
6163:26816013
6081:(2023).
5994:22153731
5927:23747571
5878:26816013
5829:31178763
5776:10 April
5703:29417149
5599:25963869
5425:18790142
5332:24459410
5248:33619327
5032:(mPFC),
5019:H3K14ac2
5007:residues
4961:Endnotes
4907:See also
4896:dementia
4745:symbolic
4733:deviance
4616:, whose
4604:holistic
4592:cultural
4466:Advocacy
4098:diabetes
3930:fentanyl
3918:nicotine
3904:dopamine
3831:toxicity
3827:fentanyl
3819:nicotine
3806:Vaccines
3728:cravings
3685:moderate
3635:residues
3378:striatal
3376:Altered
3348:response
3346:dopamine
3089:Opiates
3076:Type of
3065:Form of
2893:κ-opioid
2838:striatum
2674:isoforms
2672:) ΔFosB
2538:propofol
2526:nicotine
2506:aversion
2406:dopamine
2303:DARPP-32
2047:decrease
2035:increase
2023:decrease
2003:increase
1781:comorbid
1618:and the
936:Shopping
869:Internet
842:such as
807:dopamine
801:and the
785:Gambling
779:Gambling
771:. ΔFosB
763:between
301:impulses
281:symptoms
221:stalking
19141:Biology
19103:Portals
18720:Nigeria
18715:Moldova
18635:Germany
18630:Finland
18625:Estonia
18565:Bolivia
18221:Germany
18020:Whoonga
17871:Therapy
17539:Poppers
17517:Ecstasy
17502:Cocaine
17450:APINACA
17440:JWH-018
17423:Hashish
17295:poppers
17131:Ecstasy
17064:Tobacco
17012:Ephedra
16990:Cocaine
16810:Codeine
16804:Subutex
16789:Opioids
16229:Cocaine
15916:Cocaine
15906:Alcohol
15831:F10-F19
15696:4811731
15400:3690817
15016:5750603
14965:4158844
14392:4285770
14263:8911591
14174:5541133
13838:7040619
13443:3202501
13380:9175731
13214:5037576
13172:22 July
13118:3 April
13075:3 April
12998:3328297
12949:4408274
12649:3931688
12475:1218556
12277:9 March
12251:9 March
12074:4293340
12020:4425246
11865:3325516
11816:Table 3
11795:2607320
11655:4209936
11520:6672735
11335:Bibcode
11296:3142356
11275:Bibcode
11267:Science
11191:1615120
11118:4040958
11055:3766384
10997:2650365
10974:Bibcode
10912:3525776
10818:2607320
10761:3569166
10690:3272277
10636:4359351
10549:3250102
10484:2834246
10264:3463407
10208:2791696
9997:4113213
9957:2131328
9912:4446977
9741:3005022
9546:9186053
9495:3797854
9446:3640707
9353:8166312
9306:2442454
9266:2001619
9214:9771818
9191:Bibcode
9148:2763992
9092:3872494
9012:2442446
8963:3120118
8865:4084861
8464:5718360
8300:4870153
8146:1805733
8102:5264404
7980:5023737
7829:8381302
7695:3480687
7646:4420165
7605:4894006
7588:: 842.
7563:7014879
7508:5893944
7491:: 434.
7452:6953879
7429:Bibcode
7393:4458066
7288:4500883
7236:3354400
7135:3865508
6972:7509420
6842:9 March
6799:3272277
6712:3139704
6596:9287203
6525:9 March
6375:8905875
6154:6135257
6036:8 April
6002:3558840
5918:3830720
5869:6135257
5820:6538808
5803:: 311.
5694:5885949
5527:3 March
5494:3278676
5460:system.
5323:3898681
5239:8357831
5015:H3K9ac2
5013:(i.e.,
4654:Bolivia
4501:levels.
4271:alcohol
3888:protein
3884:cholera
3876:cocaine
3872:vaccine
3823:opioids
3748:tremors
3720:anxiety
3632:histone
3549:in the
3350:in the
3317:in the
3128:D1-type
3083:Sources
3052:during
3014:stimuli
2713:neurons
2678:D1-type
2638:in the
2530:opiates
2518:cocaine
2104:in the
1945:protein
1904:D1-type
1734:by the
1260:operant
564:operant
480:stimuli
471:stimuli
450:somatic
399:alcohol
309:alcohol
305:rewards
267:" and "
132:craving
18825:Turkey
18815:Taiwan
18770:Russia
18755:Poland
18735:Panama
18725:Norway
18700:Latvia
18680:Kosovo
18610:Cyprus
18570:Brazil
18560:Bhutan
18550:Belize
18296:Oregon
18251:Sweden
18211:Canada
17970:Hippie
17904:Loosie
17373:Datura
17219:Peyote
17204:LSD-25
16961:Coffee
16885:Kratom
16854:Heroin
16839:Darvon
16756:Other
16239:Opioid
16195:Drugs
16121:HDAC10
15936:Opioid
15763:TEDMED
15724:
15703:
15693:
15660:
15561:
15517:
15493:
15473:
15429:
15407:
15397:
15355:
15316:
15277:
15242:
15200:
15132:
15099:
15064:
15054:
15023:
15013:
14972:
14962:
14923:
14888:
14880:
14872:
14831:
14823:
14783:
14775:
14737:
14729:
14691:
14683:
14631:
14621:
14596:
14558:
14550:
14515:
14485:
14475:
14399:
14389:
14350:
14342:
14307:
14299:
14261:
14219:
14211:
14172:
14164:
14124:
14086:
14051:
14043:
14008:
14000:
13965:
13955:
13917:
13867:
13836:
13799:
13754:
13719:
13684:
13676:
13622:
13614:
13556:
13548:
13498:
13458:
13450:
13440:
13432:
13387:
13377:
13334:
13221:
13211:
13005:
12995:
12956:
12946:
12900:
12892:
12793:
12758:
12750:
12715:
12707:
12699:
12656:
12646:
12592:KIRO 7
12516:
12508:
12473:
12465:
12188:
12165:
12147:
12120:
12081:
12071:
12027:
12017:
11999:Neuron
11971:
11961:
11911:
11872:
11862:
11802:
11792:
11708:
11662:
11652:
11613:
11595:
11565:
11527:
11517:
11476:
11453:
11445:
11407:
11365:
11355:
11303:
11293:
11246:
11238:
11197:
11189:
11152:
11125:
11115:
11062:
11052:
11004:
10994:
10919:
10909:
10870:
10825:
10815:
10768:
10758:
10697:
10687:
10643:
10633:
10556:
10546:
10491:
10481:
10434:
10391:
10383:
10329:
10321:
10271:
10261:
10215:
10205:
10004:
9994:
9955:
9919:
9909:
9878:
9870:
9852:
9825:
9817:
9748:
9738:
9659:
9651:
9616:29 May
9561:
9553:
9543:
9502:
9492:
9453:
9443:
9374:: 1–11
9351:
9313:
9303:
9264:
9229:
9221:
9211:
9179:Nature
9155:
9145:
9099:
9089:
9019:
9009:
8970:
8960:
8905:
8872:
8862:
8819:
8784:
8774:
8732:
8724:
8662:
8654:
8592:
8557:
8547:
8506:
8471:
8461:
8422:
8307:
8297:
8251:
8243:
8153:
8143:
8109:
8099:
8057:
8022:
7987:
7977:
7882:
7874:
7836:
7826:
7782:
7737:
7702:
7692:
7653:
7643:
7612:
7602:
7561:
7553:
7515:
7505:
7459:
7449:
7400:
7390:
7330:
7320:
7295:
7285:
7243:
7233:
7199:
7191:
7142:
7132:
7078:
7070:
7028:
7020:
6979:
6969:
6928:
6865:
6806:
6796:
6719:
6709:
6603:
6593:
6518:
6510:
6502:
6446:
6382:
6372:
6284:
6276:
6268:
6258:
6161:
6151:
6107:
6062:
6000:
5992:
5925:
5915:
5876:
5866:
5827:
5817:
5745:
5701:
5691:
5638:
5597:
5553:
5492:
5449:
5423:
5330:
5320:
5246:
5236:
5228:
5174:
5167:&
5163:
5161:
5154:
5152:
5036:, and
5034:testes
5004:lysine
4866:Action
4594:, and
4487:facts.
4367:sugar
4321:dance
4266:suffix
4204:, and
4131:Canada
4061:, and
4030:Europe
3982:, and
3926:heroin
3914:TA-NIC
3853:hapten
3841:NicVAX
3825:, and
3771:ICD-11
3761:ICD-11
3736:nausea
3689:severe
3649:, and
2849:Target
2844:Target
2797:cells.
2658:, and
2591:opioid
2569:cross-
2536:, and
2427:and a
2400:, and
2296:CaMKII
1860:, and
1667:, and
1556:Escape
1224:, the
1181:Causes
1134:CRAFFT
1117:, and
854:, and
817:, and
750:. The
731:Sexual
723:, and
307:(e.g.
289:habits
271:" are
253:ICD-11
249:ICD-10
243:. The
174:Habits
18901:Abuse
18800:Spain
18675:Kenya
18670:Japan
18665:Italy
18650:India
18640:Haiti
18590:China
18585:Chile
18575:Burma
18555:Benin
18535:Aruba
18464:Other
18363:Other
18226:India
17928:Other
17856:Music
17662:NORML
17522:Molly
17455:Spice
17445:APICA
17175:Vilca
17136:Molly
17106:6-APB
17076:Cocoa
17000:Crack
16951:Betel
16944:Areca
16897:Opium
16760:Freon
16131:SIRT2
16126:SIRT1
16116:HDAC9
16111:HDAC5
16106:HDAC4
16100:HDAC3
16093:HDAC2
16086:HDAC1
16059:NF-κB
16054:GluR2
16039:c-Fos
16033:ΔFosB
15551:(PDF)
15542:(PDF)
15314:S2CID
15062:S2CID
14886:S2CID
14781:S2CID
14735:S2CID
14689:S2CID
14556:S2CID
14348:S2CID
14305:S2CID
14217:S2CID
14170:S2CID
14049:S2CID
14006:S2CID
13963:S2CID
13682:S2CID
13620:S2CID
13594:(2).
13554:S2CID
13530:(5).
13456:S2CID
13414:(4).
13328:(PDF)
13069:(PDF)
13058:(PDF)
12898:S2CID
12817:(PDF)
12756:S2CID
12713:S2CID
12514:S2CID
12471:S2CID
11451:S2CID
11358:58680
11244:S2CID
11195:S2CID
10833:c-fos
10777:c-Fos
10709:c-fos
10705:c-fos
10504:c-fos
10500:c-fos
10389:S2CID
10327:S2CID
9876:S2CID
9823:S2CID
9666:time.
9657:S2CID
9559:S2CID
9227:S2CID
8782:S2CID
8730:S2CID
8660:S2CID
8555:S2CID
8527:arXiv
8249:S2CID
7880:S2CID
7559:S2CID
7197:S2CID
7076:S2CID
7026:S2CID
6837:WebMD
6516:S2CID
6282:S2CID
6030:(PDF)
6023:(PDF)
5998:S2CID
5947:(PDF)
5743:S2CID
5636:S2CID
5624:(3).
5575:(PDF)
5253:them.
5038:sperm
4982:Notes
4650:Camba
4582:as a
4380:work
3868:TA-CD
3672:abuse
3661:DSM-5
3120:ΔFosB
2976:GluR1
2944:GluR2
2904:NF-κB
2865:c-Fos
2846:gene
2755:ΔFosB
2729:NMDAR
2725:AMPAR
2715:with
2652:ΔFosB
2644:c-Fos
2542:ΔJunD
2486:NF-κB
2445:c-Fos
2437:c-Fos
2373:HDAC1
2366:SIRT1
2357:c-Fos
2335:ΔFosB
2195:AMPAR
2188:NMDAR
2017:, or
1997:, or
1675:socio
925:Male,
752:DSM-5
701:ΔFosB
340:DSM-5
245:DSM-5
143:brain
118:is a
18730:Oman
18690:Laos
18660:Iran
18605:Cuba
18485:Drug
18474:Drug
18410:Narc
17995:Rave
17836:Drug
17512:MDMA
17361:and
17180:Yopo
17126:MDMA
17059:Salt
17019:MDPV
16995:Coca
16983:Khat
16815:Lean
16769:Kava
16692:Wine
16687:Beer
16267:and
16049:CREB
16044:Cdk5
15899:Drug
15881:and
15722:ISBN
15701:PMID
15658:PMID
15616:2021
15594:2018
15572:2018
15559:ISBN
15515:ISBN
15491:ISBN
15471:ISSN
15427:ISBN
15405:PMID
15353:ISSN
15275:ISSN
15240:PMID
15198:PMID
15130:ISBN
15097:ISSN
15052:ISBN
15021:PMID
14970:PMID
14921:ISSN
14878:PMID
14870:ISSN
14829:PMID
14821:ISSN
14773:ISSN
14727:ISSN
14681:ISSN
14647:link
14629:OCLC
14619:ISBN
14594:PMID
14548:ISSN
14513:ISSN
14483:OCLC
14473:ISBN
14448:2022
14425:2022
14397:PMID
14340:PMID
14297:ISSN
14259:PMID
14228:2022
14209:ISSN
14162:ISSN
14122:ISSN
14084:ISSN
14041:ISSN
13998:PMID
13953:ISBN
13915:ISBN
13865:ISBN
13834:PMID
13797:ISBN
13752:ISSN
13717:ISSN
13674:PMID
13612:ISSN
13546:ISSN
13496:ISBN
13448:PMID
13430:OCLC
13385:PMID
13332:ISBN
13309:2022
13281:2022
13256:2022
13219:PMID
13174:2019
13147:2018
13120:2016
13077:2016
13030:2023
13003:PMID
12954:PMID
12890:PMID
12791:PMID
12748:PMID
12705:PMID
12697:ISSN
12654:PMID
12607:link
12572:2009
12546:2009
12506:PMID
12463:PMID
12415:2006
12279:2021
12253:2021
12225:2023
12186:ISBN
12163:PMID
12118:PMID
12079:PMID
12025:PMID
11969:PMID
11959:ISBN
11909:ISBN
11870:PMID
11800:PMID
11750:2015
11706:PMID
11660:PMID
11611:PMID
11563:PMID
11525:PMID
11474:ISBN
11443:PMID
11405:PMID
11363:PMID
11301:PMID
11236:PMID
11187:PMID
11150:ISBN
11123:PMID
11060:PMID
11002:PMID
10947:2014
10917:PMID
10868:PMID
10823:PMID
10766:PMID
10695:PMID
10641:PMID
10588:2014
10554:PMID
10489:PMID
10432:PMID
10381:PMID
10319:PMID
10269:PMID
10213:PMID
10168:2018
10143:2016
10118:2016
10088:2016
10061:2018
10033:2017
10002:PMID
9953:PMID
9917:PMID
9868:PMID
9815:ISSN
9780:2018
9746:PMID
9698:2016
9649:PMID
9618:2020
9592:2017
9551:PMID
9500:PMID
9451:PMID
9406:2018
9380:2017
9349:PMID
9311:PMID
9262:PMID
9219:PMID
9153:PMID
9097:PMID
9017:PMID
8968:PMID
8903:ISBN
8870:PMID
8817:PMID
8772:ISBN
8722:PMID
8652:PMID
8590:PMID
8545:ISBN
8504:PMID
8469:PMID
8420:PMID
8384:2022
8358:2022
8337:2022
8305:PMID
8241:PMID
8210:2022
8180:2022
8151:PMID
8107:PMID
8055:ISSN
8020:PMID
7985:PMID
7935:2022
7909:2022
7872:PMID
7834:PMID
7780:PMID
7735:PMID
7700:PMID
7651:PMID
7610:PMID
7551:ISSN
7513:PMID
7457:PMID
7398:PMID
7346:link
7328:OCLC
7318:ISBN
7293:PMID
7241:PMID
7189:PMID
7140:PMID
7068:PMID
7018:PMID
6977:PMID
6926:PMID
6895:2022
6863:ISBN
6844:2023
6804:PMID
6717:PMID
6601:PMID
6527:2023
6508:PMID
6500:ISSN
6444:PMID
6409:2022
6380:PMID
6312:2022
6274:PMID
6266:OCLC
6256:ISBN
6204:2022
6159:PMID
6105:ISBN
6060:ISBN
6038:2023
5990:PMID
5959:2017
5923:PMID
5874:PMID
5825:PMID
5778:2023
5699:PMID
5654:link
5595:PMID
5551:ISBN
5529:2020
5490:PMID
5447:ISBN
5421:PMID
5375:2021
5328:PMID
5244:PMID
5226:ISSN
5088:FosB
5084:Fra2
5080:Fra1
5023:BDNF
5017:and
4894:and
4731:and
4709:etic
4390:Arts
4346:sex
4335:rage
4230:and
4210:The
4038:and
4000:Asia
3928:and
3843:, a
3785:and
3687:and
3681:mild
3675:and
3614:and
3579:the
3433:DRD2
3427:DRD2
3419:DRD3
3415:DRD2
3411:DRD1
3405:DRD3
3401:DRD2
3397:DRD1
3391:DRD3
3387:DRD2
3307:CREB
3132:MSNs
3042:CREB
3006:cues
2982:NAcc
2967:Cdk5
2919:NAcc
2913:NAcc
2825:AMPA
2792:The
2785:The
2772:and
2764:The
2742:The
2727:and
2660:Fra2
2656:Fra1
2648:FosB
2548:, a
2500:and
2482:CREB
2478:cAMP
2433:CREB
2408:and
2346:JunD
2325:CREB
2317:PP2B
2274:cAMP
2265:cAMP
2230:DRD4
2223:DRD3
2216:DRD2
2209:DRD5
2202:DRD1
1941:gene
1789:NIDA
1649:and
1262:and
1254:and
1244:The
1199:are
944:and
787:and
665:The
653:The
566:and
393:– a
372:and
338:The
331:and
291:and
247:and
239:and
124:drug
34:and
17841:Era
17831:Art
17778:Pub
17582:420
17413:THC
17329:PCP
17312:MXE
17260:DXM
17199:LSA
17187:DMT
17121:MDA
17116:AMT
16971:Tea
16704:GHB
16135:...
16074:G9a
15822:ICD
15775:NIH
15773:at
15691:PMC
15683:doi
15648:doi
15644:139
15464:doi
15460:398
15395:PMC
15387:doi
15345:doi
15304:doi
15267:doi
15232:doi
15190:doi
15186:107
15122:doi
15089:doi
15044:doi
15011:PMC
15001:doi
14960:PMC
14952:doi
14913:doi
14862:doi
14813:doi
14765:doi
14719:doi
14673:doi
14586:doi
14540:doi
14387:PMC
14379:doi
14332:doi
14328:189
14289:doi
14251:doi
14201:doi
14154:doi
14114:doi
14076:doi
14033:doi
13990:doi
13986:275
13945:doi
13907:doi
13857:doi
13826:doi
13789:doi
13744:doi
13709:doi
13666:doi
13604:doi
13536:doi
13438:PMC
13420:doi
13375:PMC
13365:doi
13209:PMC
13201:doi
12993:PMC
12985:doi
12944:PMC
12936:doi
12932:131
12880:hdl
12870:doi
12866:113
12839:doi
12783:doi
12740:doi
12689:doi
12644:PMC
12634:doi
12498:doi
12455:doi
12155:doi
12110:doi
12106:109
12069:PMC
12061:doi
12015:PMC
12007:doi
11951:doi
11860:PMC
11852:doi
11790:PMC
11782:doi
11778:363
11696:doi
11650:PMC
11642:doi
11638:171
11603:doi
11555:doi
11551:162
11515:PMC
11507:doi
11435:doi
11397:doi
11353:PMC
11343:doi
11291:PMC
11283:doi
11271:330
11226:doi
11179:doi
11175:107
11113:PMC
11105:doi
11050:PMC
11042:doi
10992:PMC
10982:doi
10970:106
10907:PMC
10899:doi
10895:100
10860:doi
10813:PMC
10805:doi
10801:363
10756:PMC
10748:doi
10685:PMC
10677:doi
10631:PMC
10623:doi
10621:).
10544:PMC
10536:doi
10532:139
10479:PMC
10471:doi
10373:doi
10309:hdl
10301:doi
10259:PMC
10251:doi
10203:PMC
10195:doi
9992:PMC
9984:doi
9945:doi
9907:PMC
9860:doi
9807:doi
9736:PMC
9728:doi
9724:214
9641:doi
9637:379
9541:PMC
9531:doi
9527:119
9490:PMC
9482:doi
9478:140
9441:PMC
9433:doi
9429:542
9341:doi
9337:151
9301:PMC
9293:doi
9289:154
9254:doi
9209:PMC
9199:doi
9183:612
9143:PMC
9135:doi
9087:PMC
9079:doi
9075:264
9007:PMC
8999:doi
8995:154
8958:PMC
8860:PMC
8852:doi
8809:doi
8805:105
8764:doi
8714:doi
8687:doi
8644:doi
8640:168
8617:doi
8582:doi
8537:doi
8496:doi
8492:132
8459:PMC
8451:doi
8412:doi
8295:PMC
8287:doi
8233:doi
8229:177
8141:PMC
8097:PMC
8089:doi
8047:doi
8012:doi
7975:PMC
7967:doi
7864:doi
7824:PMC
7816:doi
7770:hdl
7762:doi
7727:doi
7723:165
7690:PMC
7682:doi
7641:PMC
7600:PMC
7590:doi
7543:doi
7503:PMC
7493:doi
7447:PMC
7437:doi
7388:PMC
7380:doi
7283:PMC
7275:doi
7231:PMC
7181:doi
7177:101
7130:PMC
7122:doi
7060:doi
7008:doi
6967:PMC
6957:doi
6918:doi
6794:PMC
6786:doi
6707:PMC
6699:doi
6591:PMC
6583:doi
6492:doi
6436:doi
6370:PMC
6362:doi
6248:doi
6149:PMC
6141:doi
6137:374
5982:doi
5913:PMC
5905:doi
5864:PMC
5856:doi
5852:374
5815:PMC
5805:doi
5733:doi
5689:PMC
5681:doi
5626:doi
5587:doi
5583:110
5482:doi
5413:doi
5318:PMC
5234:PMC
5218:doi
4658:rum
4151:In
3964:TTM
3936:".
3417:, ↑
3413:, ↓
3403:, ↑
3399:, ↓
3389:, ↑
3365:Yes
3359:Yes
3205:Yes
3202:Yes
3196:Yes
3176:Yes
3173:Yes
3170:Yes
3070:or
2955:to
2546:G9a
2452:1–2
2310:PP1
2289:CaM
2282:PKA
2249:i/o
2181:1.2
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