27:
113:
ultimately doomed to failure. Without alternative strategies, the acquisition of drug resistance by pathogenic microorganisms looms as possibly one of the most significant public health threats facing humanity in the 21st century. Some of the best alternative sources to reduce the chance of antibiotic resistance are probiotics, prebiotics, dietary fibers, enzymes, organic acids, phytogenics.
476:
evolutionary fitness as compared to susceptible pathogens. This is one of the reasons drug resistance adaptations are rarely seen in environments where antibiotics are absent. However, in the presence of antibiotics, the survival advantage conferred off-sets the high metabolic cost and allows resistant strains to proliferate.
112:
In short, the lack of concerted effort by governments and the pharmaceutical industry, together with the innate capacity of microbes to develop resistance at a rate that outpaces development of new drugs, suggests that existing strategies for developing viable, long-term anti-microbial therapies are
475:
Drug resistance has a high metabolic price in pathogens for which this concept is relevant (bacteria, endoparasites, and tumor cells.) In viruses, an equivalent "cost" is genomic complexity. The high metabolic cost means that, in the absence of antibiotics, a resistant pathogen will have decreased
492:
which is a key transporter of medications on the cellular level. If MDR1 is overexpressed, drug resistance increases. Therefore, ABCB1 levels can be monitored. In patients with high levels of ABCB1 expression, the use of secondary treatments, like metformin, have been used in conjunction with the
544:
by sending molecules of those antibiotics out of the bacterial cell. Sometimes a combination of different classes of antibiotics may be used synergistically; that is, they work together to effectively fight bacteria that may be resistant to one of the antibiotics alone.
72:
specific, any mutation in these molecules will interfere with or negate its destructive effect, resulting in antibiotic resistance. Furthermore, there is mounting concern over the abuse of antibiotics in the farming of livestock, which in the
129:
may be capable of surviving drug treatment. Drug-resistant traits are accordingly inherited by subsequent offspring, resulting in a population that is more drug-resistant. Unless the drug used makes sexual reproduction or
520:(the group of enzymes responsible for breaking down beta-lactams). Beta-lactam bacterial resistance can also be dealt with by administering beta-lactam antibiotics with drugs that block beta-lactamases such as
80:
Bacteria are capable of not only altering the enzyme targeted by antibiotics, but also by the use of enzymes to modify the antibiotic itself and thus neutralize it. Examples of target-altering pathogens are
242:, and dips. The chemicals contained in these preparations, besides harming beneficial organisms, may intentionally or inadvertently target organisms that have the potential to develop resistance.
1417:
Yoon KS, Kwon DH, Strycharz JP, Hollingsworth CS, Lee SH, Clark JM (November 2008). "Biochemical and molecular analysis of deltamethrin resistance in the common bed bug (Hemiptera: Cimicidae)".
803:
Reading: The
Resistance Phenomenon in Microbes and Infectious Disease Vectors: Implications for Human Health and Strategies for Containment -- Workshop Summary - The National Academies Press
987:
Ghasabi M, Mansoori B, Mohammadi A, Duijf PH, Shomali N, Shirafkan N, Mokhtarzadeh A, Baradaran B (2019). "MicroRNAs in cancer drug resistance: Basic evidence and clinical applications".
500:, which represents a widespread problem nowadays, drugs designed to block the mechanisms of bacterial antibiotic resistance are used. For example, bacterial resistance against
1460:
626:
Alfarouk, KO; Stock, CM; Taylor, S; Walsh, M; Muddathir, AK; Verduzco, D; Bashir, AH; Mohammed, OY; Elhassan, GO; Harguindey, S; Reshkin, SJ; Ibrahim, ME; Rauch, C (2015).
1374:
Weber DJ, Rutala WA (October 2006). "Use of germicides in the home and the healthcare setting: is there a relationship between germicide use and antibiotic resistance?".
845:"Probiotics (Direct-Fed Microbials) in Poultry Nutrition and Their Effects on Nutrient Utilization, Growth and Laying Performance, and Gut Health: A Systematic Review"
68:
The development of antibiotic resistance in particular stems from the drugs targeting only specific bacterial molecules (almost always proteins). Because the drug is
1269:
1761:
Ramos-Peñafiel C, Olarte-Carrillo I, CerĂłn-Maldonado R, Rozen-Fuller E, Kassack-Ipiña JJ, MelĂ©ndez-Mier G, Collazo-Jaloma J, MartĂnez-Tovar A (September 2018).
1078:
Molin S, Tolker-Nielsen T (June 2003). "Gene transfer occurs with enhanced efficiency in biofilms and induces enhanced stabilisation of the biofilm structure".
699:
1231:
Shefte N, Bruggers RL, Schafer EW (April 1982). "Repellency and toxicity of three bird control chemicals to four species of
African grain-eating birds".
2132:
125:
and is a response to pressures imposed on any living organism. Individual organisms vary in their sensitivity to the drug used and some with greater
2117:
953:
800:
Institute of
Medicine (US) Forum on Emerging Infections; Knobler, S. L.; Lemon, S. M.; Najafi, M.; Burroughs, T. (2003). "Summary and Assessment".
1334:
524:
so that the antibiotics can work without getting destroyed by the bacteria first. Researchers have recognized the need for new drugs that inhibit
1535:
Sandhu P, Akhter Y (January 2018). "Evolution of structural fitness and multifunctional aspects of mycobacterial RND family transporters".
1309:
2147:
896:"Dietary fiber in poultry nutrition and their effects on nutrient utilization, performance, gut health, and on the environment: a review"
273:
594:
1132:
1464:
2183:
819:
784:
1356:
222:
In the domestic environment, drug-resistant strains of organism may arise from seemingly safe activities such as the use of
2275:
2240:
357:
Plasmid encode enzymes that chemically alter the drug (e.g., by acetylation or phosphorylation), thereby inactivating it.
2969:
2111:
599:
162:
have also been shown to affect acquired drug resistance in cancer cells and this can be used for therapeutic purposes.
1277:
724:
Duckenfield, Joan (2011-12-30). "Antibiotic
Resistance Due to Modern Agricultural Practices: An Ethical Perspective".
207:". Examples of drug-resistant strains are to be found in microorganisms such as bacteria and viruses, parasites both
19:
This article is about pathogen resistance to the effects of drugs. For human resistance to the effects of drugs, see
2523:
1763:"Effect of metformin on the survival of patients with ALL who express high levels of the ABCB1 drug resistance gene"
77:
alone accounts for three times the volume dispensed to humans – leading to development of super-resistant bacteria.
2959:
2002:"Comparative synergistic activity of nafcillin, oxacillin, and methicillin in combination with gentamicin against"
295:
in bacteria inhibited by sulfonamides. Instead, like mammalian cells, they turn to utilizing preformed folic acid.
61:
challenge clinical care and drive research. When an organism is resistant to more than one drug, it is said to be
2899:
2392:
1342:
2122:
2954:
2650:
2561:
2427:
1430:
138:
impossible in the entire target population, resistance to the drug will inevitably follow. This can be seen in
1701:"Compensation of the Metabolic Costs of Antibiotic Resistance by Physiological Adaptation in Escherichia coli"
2879:
2504:
2432:
195:, and is termed horizontal gene transfer in which there is a direct exchange of genes, particularly in the
3009:
2622:
799:
2357:
2176:
2156:
269:
525:
2869:
2617:
2611:
58:
2138:
2999:
2934:
2636:
2146: : A web server for predicting inhibitors against drug tolerant M. Tuberculosis, published in
579:
135:
62:
54:
2685:
2447:
2442:
2352:
2270:
105:
448:
Bacteria change shape of the outer membrane porin proteins, preventing drug from entering cell.
2821:
2582:
2557:
2492:
2381:
2265:
1313:
501:
299:
284:
99:
2114:—An EU project to estimate the financial burden of antibiotic resistance in European hospitals
2929:
2721:
2200:
2169:
1615:
Gillespie SH, McHugh TD (September 1997). "The biological cost of antimicrobial resistance".
1270:"Reptiles Magazine, your source for reptile and herp care, breeding, and enthusiast articles"
1113:
801:
574:
569:
497:
303:
176:
83:
230:, and soaps, particularly antibacterial soaps, hand-washing, surface sprays, application of
2964:
2826:
2736:
2577:
2457:
2225:
1192:"Rodent resistance to the anticoagulant rodenticides, with particular reference to Denmark"
677:
589:
584:
533:
250:
The four main mechanisms by which microorganisms exhibit resistance to antimicrobials are:
192:
2127:
8:
3004:
2874:
2762:
2731:
2377:
2337:
2260:
1699:
Händel, Nadine; Schuurmans, J. Merijn; Brul, Stanley; ter Kuile, Benno H. (August 2013).
226:, tooth-brushing and mouthwashing, the use of antibiotics, disinfectants and detergents,
1760:
1053:
2844:
2794:
2695:
2508:
2487:
2387:
2308:
2220:
2085:
2050:
1977:
1952:
1838:
1813:
1789:
1762:
1733:
1700:
1595:
1560:
1512:
1487:
1442:
1399:
1248:
1208:
1191:
1012:
930:
895:
871:
844:
749:
654:
627:
171:
2026:
2001:
1887:
1862:
1676:
1652:"Biological cost of rifampin resistance from the perspective of Staphylococcus aureus"
1651:
1650:
Wichelhaus TA, Böddinghaus B, Besier S, Schäfer V, Brade V, Ludwig A (November 2002).
1628:
1091:
2839:
2700:
2690:
2518:
2512:
2347:
2090:
2072:
2031:
1982:
1933:
1892:
1843:
1794:
1738:
1720:
1681:
1667:
1632:
1552:
1517:
1503:
1434:
1391:
1213:
1095:
1004:
935:
917:
876:
825:
815:
780:
776:
741:
659:
605:
469:
126:
1564:
1446:
1403:
1016:
753:
409:
Bacteria make an altered penicillin-binding proteins, that do not bind to the drug.
2884:
2772:
2767:
2567:
2537:
2323:
2303:
2285:
2080:
2062:
2021:
2013:
1972:
1964:
1923:
1882:
1874:
1833:
1825:
1784:
1774:
1728:
1712:
1671:
1663:
1624:
1544:
1507:
1499:
1426:
1383:
1240:
1203:
1147:
1087:
996:
925:
907:
866:
856:
807:
772:
733:
649:
639:
2051:"Phage therapy: An alternative to antibiotics in the age of multi-drug resistance"
767:
Fisher, Jed F.; Mobashery, Shahriar (2010). "Enzymology of
Bacterial Resistance".
2799:
2627:
2587:
2572:
2280:
2230:
1049:
537:
521:
465:
359:
Plasmid encode beta-lactamase, which open the beta-lactam ring, inactivating it.
262:
167:
2482:
158:
B. This protein stimulates the growth of cancer cells which are drug-resistant.
2914:
2894:
2813:
2655:
2397:
2342:
1968:
1951:
Tegos GP, Haynes M, Strouse JJ, Khan MM, Bologa CG, Oprea TI, Sklar LA (2011).
912:
628:"Resistance to cancer chemotherapy: failure in drug response from ADME to P-gp"
517:
489:
485:
74:
42:
20:
1779:
1548:
1151:
737:
644:
2993:
2919:
2406:
2313:
2076:
1724:
1133:"Ethion resistance in the cattle tick (Boophilus microplus) in New Caledonia"
1031:
970:
921:
745:
557:
553:
509:
444:
Binds to 30S Ribosome subunit, inhibiting protein synthesis by blocking tRNA
292:
212:
208:
204:
93:
38:
2067:
1291:
415:
Bacteria make an altered DNA topoisomerase that does not binds to the drug.
2889:
2849:
2750:
2674:
2552:
2235:
2192:
2094:
1986:
1937:
1847:
1829:
1798:
1742:
1685:
1556:
1521:
1438:
1395:
1165:
1099:
1008:
939:
880:
829:
695:
663:
541:
362:
Plasmid encode an enzyme that acetylate the drug, thereby inactivating it.
143:
2035:
1896:
1636:
1217:
769:
Comprehensive
Natural Products II. Volume 8: Enzymes and Enzyme Mechanisms
403:
Inhibit the enzyme dihydrofolate reduces, blocking the folic acid pathway
2974:
2461:
2437:
2152:
1928:
1911:
1716:
529:
439:
Binds to penicillin-binding proteins, Inhibiting peptidoglycan synthesis
391:
Binds to penicillin-binding proteins, Inhibiting peptidoglycan synthesis
350:
Binds to penicillin-binding proteins, Inhibiting peptidoglycan synthesis
280:
239:
147:
88:
2017:
1878:
861:
2854:
2786:
2678:
2453:
1252:
700:"Use of strongest antibiotics rises to record levels on European farms"
505:
407:
Bacteria make an altered 30S ribosomes that does not bind to the drug.
288:
255:
26:
1463:. Australian Department of Health & Human Services. Archived from
1000:
412:
Bacteria make a form of 50S ribosome that does not binds to the drug.
2632:
1166:"Review Article on Colorado Potato Beetle Resistance to Insecticides"
513:
418:
Bacteria make an altered polymerase that does not binds to the drug.
231:
216:
122:
2143:
1244:
400:
Binds to the RNA polymerase; inhibiting initiation of RNA synthesis
353:
Bind to 50S ribosome subunit, inhibiting formation of peptide bonds
142:
tumors where some cells may develop resistance to the drugs used in
2754:
2726:
2713:
2402:
1912:"The importance of efflux pumps in bacterial antibiotic resistance"
1387:
811:
549:
254:
Drug inactivation or modification: e.g., enzymatic deactivation of
235:
159:
50:
1649:
397:
Binds to DNA topoisomerase, an enzyme essential for DNA synthesis
2215:
421:
Bacteria make an altered enzyme that does not binds to the drug.
227:
196:
185:
181:
163:
131:
49:
or condition. The term is used in the context of resistance that
46:
261:
in some penicillin-resistant bacteria through the production of
2161:
2055:
World
Journal of Gastrointestinal Pharmacology and Therapeutics
450:
New membrane transport system prevent drug from entering cell.
223:
139:
1416:
1698:
986:
843:
Jha, Rajesh; Das, Razib; Oak, Sophia; Mishra, Pravin (2020).
200:
155:
151:
53:
or cancers have "acquired", that is, resistance has evolved.
37:
is the reduction in effectiveness of a medication such as an
389:
Binds to 30S Ribosome subunit, inhibiting protein synthesis
348:
Binds to 30S Ribosome subunit, inhibiting protein synthesis
2607:
2500:
2496:
2298:
441:
Bind to 50S ribosome subunit, inhibiting protein synthesis
394:
Bind to 50S ribosome subunit, inhibiting protein synthesis
2673:
1953:"Microbial efflux pump inhibition: tactics and strategies"
1586:
1431:
10.1603/0022-2585(2008)45[1092:BAMAOD]2.0.CO;2
2947:
528:, which cause resistance to multiple antibiotics such as
310:
2749:
1814:"Penicillinase-resistant Penicillins and Cephalosporins"
1488:"Efflux-mediated drug resistance in bacteria: an update"
1032:"Resistance spread 'compromising' fight against malaria"
625:
121:
Drug, toxin, or chemical resistance is a consequence of
2907:
1999:
373:
Beta-lactam antibiotics (penicillin and cephalosporin)
341:
Beta-lactam antibiotics (penicillin and cephalosporin)
2369:
1950:
1335:"The Dirt on Clean: Antibacterial Soap v Regular Soap"
1054:"Drug-resistant malaria can infect African mosquitoes"
453:
New membrane transport system pumps drug out of cell.
97:, while examples of antibiotic-modifying microbes are
1863:"Beta-lactamase inhibitors from laboratory to clinic"
1592:
1577:
1230:
2112:
BURDEN of
Resistance and Disease in European Nations
2049:
Lin, Derek M; Koskella, Britt; Lin, Henry C (2017).
287:(PABA), an important precursor for the synthesis of
180:
are posing massive problems for health authorities.
2331:
1077:
516:that are not susceptible to destruction by certain
512:) can be circumvented by using antibiotics such as
306:(pumping out) of the drugs across the cell surface.
191:A rapid process of sharing resistance exists among
30:
An illustrative diagram explaining drug resistance.
2139:Battle of the Bugs: Fighting Antibiotic Resistance
1594:
1264:
1262:
971:"Chemo 'Undermines Itself' Through Rogue Response"
219:, mammals, birds, reptiles, fish, and amphibians.
2000:Glew RH, Millering RS, Wennersten C (June 1975).
2991:
2135:- An informative article on multidrug resistance
1811:
1593:Catherine A. Ingraham, John L. Ingraham (2000).
1578:Catherine A. Ingraham, John L. Ingraham (2000).
1130:
726:Journal of Agricultural and Environmental Ethics
1614:
1259:
842:
766:
268:Alteration of target site: e.g., alteration of
2048:
1610:
1608:
298:Reduced drug accumulation: by decreasing drug
272:— the binding target site of penicillins — in
2812:
2177:
1909:
1292:"How household bleach works to kill bacteria"
1534:
1479:
1310:"Compete50 The complete mouth care products"
279:Alteration of metabolic pathway: e.g., some
1605:
1580:Introduction to Microbiology second edition
1376:Infection Control and Hospital Epidemiology
1373:
1131:Brun LO, Wilson JT, Daynes P (March 1983).
980:
900:Journal of Animal Science and Biotechnology
723:
199:state. A similar asexual method is used by
2184:
2170:
1114:"Mechanisms of drug action and resistance"
894:Jha, Rajesh; Mishra, Pravin (2021-04-19).
493:primary drug treatment with some success.
2785:
2253:
2208:
2084:
2066:
2025:
1976:
1927:
1916:The Journal of Antimicrobial Chemotherapy
1886:
1837:
1788:
1778:
1732:
1675:
1511:
1485:
1207:
1196:Bulletin of the World Health Organization
929:
911:
893:
870:
860:
653:
643:
595:Physical factors affecting microbial life
238:and any cosmetic or health-care product,
166:in 2012 has become a resurgent threat in
1357:"Should antibacterial soap be outlawed?"
1140:International Journal of Pest Management
276:and other penicillin-resistant bacteria.
154:to produce large amounts of the protein
25:
2712:
2420:
1812:Barber M, Waterworth PM (August 1964).
1048:
1029:
2992:
2545:
2475:
1910:Webber MA, Piddock LJ (January 2003).
694:
311:Mechanisms of Acquired Drug Resistance
184:has shown an increasing resistance to
2165:
2006:Antimicrobial Agents and Chemotherapy
1756:
1754:
1752:
1705:Antimicrobial Agents and Chemotherapy
1656:Antimicrobial Agents and Chemotherapy
678:"Antibiotic Resistance and Evolution"
560:(virus that kills bacteria) is used.
2600:
1860:
1854:
1189:
427:Inhibits drug entry or removes drug
2155:: Cancer Drug Resistance Database.
2128:HCMV drug resistance mutations tool
1805:
954:"Tolerance and Resistance to Drugs"
283:-resistant bacteria do not require
13:
2970:Minimum bactericidal concentration
1749:
1233:The Journal of Wildlife Management
600:Small multidrug resistance protein
16:Pathogen resistance to medications
14:
3021:
2105:
1767:Journal of Translational Medicine
1461:"Antibacterial cleaning products"
460:
2960:Minimum inhibitory concentration
2191:
2118:Merck - Tolerance and Resistance
1668:10.1128/AAC.46.11.3381-3385.2002
1504:10.2165/11317030-000000000-00000
1486:Li XZ, Nikaido H (August 2009).
1080:Current Opinion in Biotechnology
777:10.1016/B978-008045382-8.00161-1
472:required to achieve a function.
174:, and drug-resistant strains of
2900:WHO list of essential medicines
2393:Non-specific effect of vaccines
2042:
1993:
1944:
1903:
1692:
1643:
1571:
1528:
1453:
1410:
1367:
1349:
1327:
1302:
1284:
1224:
1183:
1158:
1124:
1106:
1071:
1042:
1023:
964:
2955:Antimicrobial pharmacodynamics
989:Journal of Cellular Physiology
958:Merck Manuals Consumer Version
946:
887:
836:
793:
771:. Elsevier. pp. 443–201.
760:
717:
688:
670:
619:
468:is a measure of the increased
1:
2880:Functional analog (chemistry)
1957:Current Pharmaceutical Design
1867:Clinical Microbiology Reviews
1629:10.1016/S0966-842X(97)01101-3
1419:Journal of Medical Entomology
1092:10.1016/S0958-1669(03)00036-3
612:
548:Destruction of the resistant
245:
103:and aminoglycoside-resistant
2433:Hill equation (biochemistry)
1597:Introduction to Microbiology
1030:McGrath, Matt (2012-04-05).
479:
7:
563:
10:
3026:
2948:Antimicrobial pharmacology
2428:Dose–response relationship
2358:Desensitization (medicine)
2157:Scientific Reports 3, 1445
1969:10.2174/138161211795703726
913:10.1186/s40104-021-00576-0
18:
2870:Coinduction (anesthetics)
2863:
2664:
2536:
2322:
2199:
2148:Chemistry Central Journal
2133:Combating Drug Resistance
1780:10.1186/s12967-018-1620-6
1549:10.1007/s00203-017-1434-6
1152:10.1080/09670878309370763
738:10.1007/s10806-011-9370-y
645:10.1186/s12935-015-0221-1
632:Cancer Cell International
302:and/or increasing active
59:antineoplastic resistance
2935:Multiple drug resistance
2908:Tolerance and resistance
2276:Physiological antagonist
1537:Archives of Microbiology
580:Mass drug administration
552:can also be achieved by
331:Mechanism of Resistance
136:horizontal gene transfer
116:
91:and macrolide-resistant
55:Antimicrobial resistance
2686:Neuropsychopharmacology
2448:Cheng-Prussoff Equation
2443:Del Castillo Katz model
2370:Other effects of ligand
2353:Receptor (biochemistry)
2271:Irreversible antagonist
2068:10.4292/wjgpt.v8.i3.162
1861:Bush K (January 1988).
1818:British Medical Journal
502:beta-lactam antibiotics
193:single-celled organisms
106:Acinetobacter baumannii
87:, vancomycin-resistant
2822:Classical pharmacology
2583:Plasma protein binding
2558:Volume of distribution
2266:Competitive antagonist
1830:10.1136/bmj.2.5405.344
556:, in which a specific
526:bacterial efflux pumps
285:para-aminobenzoic acid
146:. Chemotherapy causes
100:Pseudomonas aeruginosa
31:
2930:Antibiotic resistance
2722:Clinical pharmacology
2241:Physiological agonist
2201:Ligand (biochemistry)
575:Fecal bacteriotherapy
570:Antibiotic resistance
498:antibiotic resistance
177:Plasmodium falciparum
84:Staphylococcus aureus
29:
2827:Reverse pharmacology
2737:Pharmacoepidemiology
2578:Biological half-life
2458:Ligand binding assay
2332:Activity at receptor
2226:Irreversible agonist
1717:10.1128/AAC.02096-12
590:Pharmacoepidemiology
585:Multidrug resistance
490:MDR1(p-glycoprotein)
484:In humans, the gene
325:Antimicrobial Agent
2875:Combination therapy
2763:Pharmacoinformatics
2732:Medicinal chemistry
2338:Mechanism of action
2018:10.1128/aac.7.6.828
1879:10.1128/CMR.1.1.109
1052:(20 October 2015).
862:10.3390/ani10101863
698:(16 October 2016).
682:detectingdesign.com
368:Alters drug target
318:
63:multidrug-resistant
3010:Psychopharmacology
2845:Immunopharmacology
2795:Pharmacotoxicology
2696:Psychopharmacology
2488:Intrinsic activity
2388:Pleiotropy (drugs)
2309:Agonist-antagonist
2221:Endogenous agonist
2123:Cosmetics Database
1929:10.1093/jac/dkg050
1274:reptilechannel.com
317:
172:sub-Saharan Africa
32:
2987:
2986:
2983:
2982:
2943:
2942:
2840:Photopharmacology
2835:
2834:
2808:
2807:
2781:
2780:
2745:
2744:
2708:
2707:
2701:Electrophysiology
2691:Neuropharmacology
2646:
2645:
2596:
2595:
2532:
2531:
2519:Therapeutic index
2471:
2470:
2416:
2415:
2365:
2364:
2294:
2293:
2249:
2248:
1345:on 6 August 2011.
1001:10.1002/jcp.26810
821:978-0-309-08854-1
786:978-0-08-045382-8
606:Eleftheria terrae
470:energy metabolism
458:
457:
215:, plants, fungi,
3017:
2945:
2944:
2905:
2904:
2885:Polypharmacology
2810:
2809:
2783:
2782:
2773:Pharmacogenomics
2768:Pharmacogenetics
2747:
2746:
2710:
2709:
2671:
2670:
2598:
2597:
2568:Rate of infusion
2543:
2542:
2538:Pharmacokinetics
2473:
2472:
2418:
2417:
2367:
2366:
2329:
2328:
2324:Pharmacodynamics
2304:Neurotransmitter
2286:Enzyme inhibitor
2251:
2250:
2206:
2205:
2186:
2179:
2172:
2163:
2162:
2099:
2098:
2088:
2070:
2046:
2040:
2039:
2029:
1997:
1991:
1990:
1980:
1963:(13): 1291–302.
1948:
1942:
1941:
1931:
1907:
1901:
1900:
1890:
1858:
1852:
1851:
1841:
1809:
1803:
1802:
1792:
1782:
1758:
1747:
1746:
1736:
1711:(8): 3752–3762.
1696:
1690:
1689:
1679:
1647:
1641:
1640:
1617:Trends Microbiol
1612:
1603:
1602:
1600:
1590:
1584:
1583:
1575:
1569:
1568:
1532:
1526:
1525:
1515:
1498:(12): 1555–623.
1483:
1477:
1476:
1474:
1472:
1457:
1451:
1450:
1414:
1408:
1407:
1371:
1365:
1364:
1353:
1347:
1346:
1341:. Archived from
1331:
1325:
1324:
1322:
1321:
1312:. Archived from
1306:
1300:
1299:
1288:
1282:
1281:
1276:. Archived from
1266:
1257:
1256:
1228:
1222:
1221:
1211:
1187:
1181:
1180:
1178:
1176:
1170:potatobeetle.org
1162:
1156:
1155:
1137:
1128:
1122:
1121:
1110:
1104:
1103:
1075:
1069:
1068:
1066:
1064:
1046:
1040:
1039:
1027:
1021:
1020:
995:(3): 2152–2168.
984:
978:
977:, 5 August 2012.
968:
962:
961:
950:
944:
943:
933:
915:
891:
885:
884:
874:
864:
840:
834:
833:
797:
791:
790:
764:
758:
757:
721:
715:
714:
712:
710:
692:
686:
685:
674:
668:
667:
657:
647:
623:
371:Aminoglycosides
344:Chloramphenicol
319:
316:
3025:
3024:
3020:
3019:
3018:
3016:
3015:
3014:
3000:Drug resistance
2990:
2989:
2988:
2979:
2939:
2925:Drug resistance
2903:
2859:
2831:
2804:
2800:Neurotoxicology
2777:
2741:
2704:
2666:
2660:
2642:
2592:
2588:Bioavailability
2573:Onset of action
2528:
2467:
2412:
2361:
2318:
2290:
2281:Inverse agonist
2245:
2231:Partial agonist
2195:
2190:
2108:
2103:
2102:
2047:
2043:
1998:
1994:
1949:
1945:
1908:
1904:
1859:
1855:
1824:(5405): 344–9.
1810:
1806:
1759:
1750:
1697:
1693:
1648:
1644:
1613:
1606:
1591:
1587:
1576:
1572:
1533:
1529:
1484:
1480:
1470:
1468:
1467:on 4 March 2015
1459:
1458:
1454:
1425:(6): 1092–101.
1415:
1411:
1382:(10): 1107–19.
1372:
1368:
1355:
1354:
1350:
1333:
1332:
1328:
1319:
1317:
1308:
1307:
1303:
1290:
1289:
1285:
1268:
1267:
1260:
1245:10.2307/3808656
1229:
1225:
1190:Lund M (1972).
1188:
1184:
1174:
1172:
1164:
1163:
1159:
1135:
1129:
1125:
1112:
1111:
1107:
1076:
1072:
1062:
1060:
1047:
1043:
1028:
1024:
985:
981:
969:
965:
952:
951:
947:
892:
888:
841:
837:
822:
798:
794:
787:
765:
761:
722:
718:
708:
706:
693:
689:
676:
675:
671:
624:
620:
615:
566:
538:chloramphenicol
522:clavulanic acid
518:beta-lactamases
482:
466:Biological cost
463:
339:Aminoglycoside
313:
248:
203:and is called "
168:South East Asia
119:
35:Drug resistance
24:
17:
12:
11:
5:
3023:
3013:
3012:
3007:
3002:
2985:
2984:
2981:
2980:
2978:
2977:
2972:
2967:
2965:Bacteriostatic
2962:
2957:
2951:
2949:
2941:
2940:
2938:
2937:
2932:
2927:
2922:
2917:
2915:Drug tolerance
2911:
2909:
2902:
2897:
2895:Lists of drugs
2892:
2887:
2882:
2877:
2872:
2867:
2865:
2861:
2860:
2858:
2857:
2852:
2847:
2842:
2836:
2833:
2832:
2830:
2829:
2824:
2818:
2816:
2814:Drug discovery
2806:
2805:
2803:
2802:
2797:
2791:
2789:
2779:
2778:
2776:
2775:
2770:
2765:
2759:
2757:
2743:
2742:
2740:
2739:
2734:
2729:
2724:
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2705:
2703:
2698:
2693:
2688:
2683:
2681:
2668:
2662:
2661:
2659:
2658:
2656:Bioequivalence
2653:
2647:
2644:
2643:
2641:
2640:
2630:
2625:
2620:
2615:
2604:
2602:
2594:
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2591:
2590:
2585:
2580:
2575:
2570:
2565:
2555:
2549:
2547:
2540:
2534:
2533:
2530:
2529:
2527:
2526:
2521:
2516:
2490:
2485:
2479:
2477:
2469:
2468:
2466:
2465:
2450:
2445:
2440:
2435:
2430:
2424:
2422:
2414:
2413:
2411:
2410:
2400:
2398:Adverse effect
2395:
2390:
2385:
2373:
2371:
2363:
2362:
2360:
2355:
2350:
2345:
2343:Mode of action
2340:
2335:
2333:
2326:
2320:
2319:
2317:
2316:
2311:
2306:
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2295:
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2174:
2166:
2160:
2159:
2150:
2141:
2136:
2130:
2125:
2120:
2115:
2107:
2106:External links
2104:
2101:
2100:
2061:(3): 162–173.
2041:
1992:
1943:
1902:
1853:
1804:
1748:
1691:
1662:(11): 3381–5.
1642:
1604:
1585:
1570:
1527:
1478:
1452:
1409:
1388:10.1086/507964
1366:
1348:
1326:
1301:
1283:
1280:on 2011-01-03.
1258:
1223:
1182:
1157:
1123:
1105:
1070:
1041:
1022:
979:
963:
945:
886:
835:
820:
812:10.17226/10651
792:
785:
759:
732:(2): 333–350.
716:
687:
669:
617:
616:
614:
611:
610:
609:
602:
597:
592:
587:
582:
577:
572:
565:
562:
510:cephalosporins
481:
478:
462:
461:Metabolic cost
459:
456:
455:
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428:
424:
423:
405:
387:
369:
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247:
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118:
115:
75:European Union
45:in treating a
43:antineoplastic
21:Drug tolerance
15:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
3022:
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2920:Tachyphylaxis
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2407:Neurotoxicity
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1947:
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1935:
1930:
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1363:. 2007-11-07.
1362:
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1358:
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1330:
1316:on 2010-04-03
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435:Tetracycline
433:
432:Erythromycin
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419:
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413:
410:
406:
404:
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395:
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386:
385:Trimethoprim
383:
380:
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376:Erythromycin
374:
370:
367:
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360:
356:
354:
351:
347:
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338:
336:Destroy drug
335:
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293:nucleic acids
290:
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39:antimicrobial
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2890:Chemotherapy
2850:Cell biology
2751:Biochemistry
2675:Neuroscience
2623:Distribution
2553:Loading dose
2236:Superagonist
2193:Pharmacology
2058:
2054:
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1995:
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1956:
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1465:the original
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1343:the original
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1314:the original
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1278:the original
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1236:
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704:the Guardian
703:
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542:trimethoprim
530:beta-lactams
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314:
300:permeability
263:β-lactamases
256:
249:
240:insecticides
221:
190:
175:
144:chemotherapy
120:
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33:
2975:Bactericide
2651:Compartment
2462:Patch clamp
2438:Schild plot
1922:(1): 9–11.
1296:physorg.com
430:Penicillin
379:Quinolones
281:sulfonamide
148:fibroblasts
89:enterococci
3005:Immunology
2994:Categories
2855:Physiology
2787:Toxicology
2679:psychology
2628:Metabolism
2618:Absorption
2612:Liberation
2454:Organ bath
2382:Functional
2261:Antagonist
2254:Inhibitory
2209:Excitatory
1773:(1): 245.
1320:2010-07-18
1118:tulane.edu
1063:21 October
613:References
534:quinolones
506:penicillin
322:Mechanism
289:folic acid
257:Penicillin
246:Mechanisms
232:deodorants
217:arthropods
2637:Clearance
2633:Excretion
2452:Methods (
2077:2150-5349
1725:0066-4804
1471:1 October
1175:1 October
1050:Morelle R
922:2049-1891
906:(1): 51.
746:1187-7863
709:1 October
514:nafcillin
504:(such as
480:Treatment
382:Rifampin
236:sunblocks
160:MicroRNAs
140:cancerous
123:evolution
51:pathogens
2755:genetics
2727:Pharmacy
2714:Medicine
2524:Affinity
2483:Efficacy
2421:Analysis
2403:Toxicity
2153:CancerDR
2144:MDRIpred
2095:28828194
1987:21470111
1938:12493781
1848:14160224
1799:30176891
1743:23716056
1686:12384339
1565:13656026
1557:28951954
1522:19678712
1447:27422270
1439:19058634
1404:20734025
1396:17006819
1339:CBC News
1100:12849777
1058:BBC News
1036:BBC News
1017:52092652
1009:30146724
975:BBC News
940:33866972
881:33066185
830:22649806
754:55736918
664:26180516
564:See also
550:bacteria
488:encodes
228:shampoos
2665:Related
2608:(L)ADME
2562:Initial
2546:Metrics
2493:Potency
2476:Metrics
2378:Binding
2348:Binding
2216:Agonist
2086:5547374
2036:1155924
1978:3717411
1897:3060240
1839:1816326
1790:6122769
1734:3719774
1637:9294886
1513:2847397
1253:3808656
1218:4540680
1209:2480843
931:8054369
872:7602066
849:Animals
655:4502609
197:biofilm
186:dapsone
182:Leprosy
164:Malaria
127:fitness
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2667:fields
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2027:429234
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224:bleach
152:tumors
41:or an
2864:Other
2601:LADME
1561:S2CID
1492:Drugs
1443:S2CID
1400:S2CID
1249:JSTOR
1136:(PDF)
1013:S2CID
750:S2CID
486:ABCB1
213:ecto-
209:endo-
201:fungi
156:WNT16
150:near
117:Types
2753:and
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2501:IC50
2497:EC50
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1721:ISSN
1682:PMID
1633:PMID
1553:PMID
1518:PMID
1473:2018
1435:PMID
1392:PMID
1214:PMID
1177:2018
1096:PMID
1065:2015
1005:PMID
936:PMID
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877:PMID
826:PMID
816:ISBN
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742:ISSN
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660:PMID
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