833:
1020:
22:
709:. The Tamil area had an independent existence outside the control of these northern empires. The Tamil kings and chiefs were always in conflict with each other mostly over property. The royal courts were mostly places of social gathering rather than places of dispensation of authority; they were centres for distribution of resources.
1198:'There were three levels of redistribution corresponding to the three categories of chieftains, namely: the Ventar, Velir and Kilar in descending order. Ventar were the chieftains of the three major lineages, viz Cera, Cola and Pandya. Velir were mostly hill chieftains, while Kilar were the headmen of settlements...' —
1016:. This work also describes the numerous battles Karikala fought against the other two Tamil kings in one of which the Chera king was disgraced (received a wound on his back) and committed suicide. Karikala thus broke the confederacy that was formed against him and established hegemony over Pandyas and Cheras.
1087:
by
Poygayar mentions the Chola King Kocengannan and his battle with the Chera king Kanaikkal Irumporai. The Chera was taken prisoner and Poygayar, who was a friend of the Chera, sang a poem praising the Chola King Kochchenganan in 40 stanzas. The Chola king, pleased with the work, released the Chera.
1132:
The Chola monarchs were approachable by subjects and justice was meted out directly by the king in most occasions. This is in marked contrast to the magnificent empires of the later Cholas where the
Emperor was kept much away from contact with the lay people. The kings often took the field in person
957:
The Chola kings namely
Dharmavarcholan and Killivalavan developed the shrine of Srirangam into big temple seen now. They laid the basic foundations and primary Buildings. Killi, Thiru Mangai, Kulasekaran, Rajamahendra and Thiru Vikrama were named in the Sri Ranganathar temple in Tiruchchirappalli as
976:
The earliest Chola kings of whom we have tangible evidence are those mentioned in the Sangam literature, written in the period 600 BCE–300 CE. Unfortunately, it has not been possible to piece together an internal chronology of the Sangam works. Due to this, we know of several rulers, but not
949:
which gives fifteen names before
Vijayalaya Cholan including the historical ones of Karikala, Perunarkilli and Kocengannan. The Thiruvalangadu Plate swells this list to forty-four, and the Kanyakumari Plate runs up to fifty-two. There are other lists gathered from literary works such as
1128:
Hereditary monarchy was the prevailing form of government. Disputed succession and civil war was not uncommon. The sphere of state activity was limited. In a society steeped in respect for custom, even the most perverse dictator could not have done much harm.
1067:. Nedunkilli shut himself in a fort in Avur, which was being besieged by Mavalattan, Nalankilli's younger brother. The poet chided Nedunkilli to come out and fight like a man instead of causing untold misery to the people of the city.
944:
These historic incidents received enormous emphasis in the later Chola period in the long mythical genealogies incorporated into the copper-plate charters of the 10th and 11th centuries. The earliest version of this is found in the
1124:
The land of the Cholas was fertile and there was ample food. Sangam poems say that in the Chola country watered by the river Kaveri, in a space in which an elephant could lie, one can produce enough grain to feed seven.
1033:
and in inscriptions and literary works of the 11th and 12th centuries. They attribute to him the conquest of the whole of India up to the
Himalayas and the construction of the flood banks,
1004:, a brave king and a hard fighter. 'Karikala' means 'elephant feller' or 'charred leg', which is assumed to be a reference to an accident by fire that befell the prince early in his life.
1283:
883:
directed by a parrot. Beyond the ancient textual history, archaeological evidence such as inscriptions refer to this temple, and these stone inscriptions are from late
910:
are replete with history about the Early Chola kings. The Cholas were looked upon as descended from the sun. These historic incidents speak of the Chola king
313:
958:
being ancestors of
Killivallavan. Dharmavarma was another ancestor of Killivallavan, possibly his father. It is located in the middle of the Trichy town.
832:
887:. Hence, making it one of the oldest surviving active temple complexes in South India. there are many mandapas which were built near the main
977:
their chronology. All three kings have been portrayed as fighting the war or involved in feeding both the armies at that legendary war.
937:) as the just king who '..had a bell with a rope attached at the head of his bed, so that all who sought redress might ring it..'. King
1242:'Everywhere within Beloved-of-the-Gods, King Piyadasi's domain, and among the people beyond the borders, the Cholas, the Pandyas, the
1200:
1400:
Schalk, Peter (2002). "Buddhism Among Tamils in Pre-colonial
Tamilakam and Ilam: Prologue. The Pre-Pallava and the Pallava period".
1121:
Sangam literature gives an unusually complete and true picture of the social and economic conditions during the early Chola period.
1478:
616:
1291:
1705:
1594:
1462:
1357:
967:
1414:
details King
Kulakottan's involvement in the restoration of Koneswaram temple in 438 A.D. (Pillay, K., Pillay, K. (1963).
1008:
describes this accident and the enterprising way in which the prince escaped and established himself in the Chola throne.
1715:
1650:
1133:
in battles and if the kings was killed or wounded in battle, his army immediately gave up the fight and surrendered.
1070:
In another poem, the poet begs both the princes to give up the civil war as whoever wins, the loser will be a Chola.
836:
747:
Another source for the available information of the early Cholas is the early Tamil literature of the Sangam Period.
941:
who rescued a dove from a hawk by giving his own flesh to the hungry hawk was also part of the early Chola history.
946:
1041:
with the aid of his feudatories. These legends however are conspicuous by their absence in the works of Sangam.
777:(81–96 CE) and contains precious information of the Chola country. Writing half a century later, the geographer
757:
513:
1504:
733:
1700:
609:
588:
755:. There are also brief notices on the Chola country and its towns, ports and commerce furnished by the
548:
533:
553:
1333:
have been the main source for the information we attribute now to
Karikala. See also K.A.N. Sastri,
741:
1630:
Krishnamurthy, R Non-Roman
Ancient Foreign Coins from Karur in India, Garnet Publishers, Chennai
1710:
922:
who sentenced his son to death for having accidentally killed a calf. Mahavamasa portrays King
602:
573:
918:, whose devotion brought the river Kaveri into existence. There is also the story of the king
1584:
1347:
800:
681:
470:
1099:
Kocengannan became the subject of many instances in later times and is portrayed as a pious
1208:
1023:
Kallanai / Grand Anicut built by Karikala Cholan, on the River Kaveri, near Tiruchirappalli
410:
400:
849:
8:
1013:
380:
1530:
1482:
1405:
1319:
821:
809:
430:
360:
333:
323:
243:
728:(inscribed 273–232 BCE) inscriptions, among the kingdoms, which though not subject to
1646:
1590:
1458:
1353:
1170:
971:
919:
888:
840:
813:
752:
725:
486:
303:
293:
1429:
1382:
1248:
751:
was the most famous early Chola. He is mentioned in a number of poems in the Tamil
691:
and several chieftaincies, headed by the chiefs called by the general denomination
538:
518:
283:
253:
183:
1059:
The poet Kovur Kilar mentions a protracted civil war between two Chola chieftains
954:. No two of these lists agree, although some names and details are common to all.
861:
1682:
1544:
1452:
907:
213:
174:
875:. The Kaveri river flood destroyed the temple, and later, the early Cholas King
1313:
1029:
996:
986:
867:
839:
is the largest functioning religious complex in the world and mentioned in the
748:
717:
658:
654:
523:
478:
121:
76:
1386:
744:
of the confederacy of the Tamil kingdoms that had existed for over 100 years.
1694:
1671:
1165:
1116:
781:
has more to tell us about the Chola country, its port and its inland cities.
721:
713:
666:
642:
638:
543:
462:
370:
130:
32:
1622:
1160:
1137:
1088:
Kalavali describes the battle fought at Kalumalam, near the Chera capital.
1038:
1034:
1001:
938:
927:
876:
568:
420:
351:
263:
223:
139:
112:
1373:
Hellmann-Rajanayagam, Dagmar (1994). "Tamils and the meaning of history".
1103:
devotee who built many fine temples for Siva along the banks of the river
1089:
1079:
817:
805:
390:
203:
67:
1019:
1329:
1064:
1060:
1054:
1050:
855:
844:
770:
684:
528:
273:
103:
94:
1027:
In later times Karikala was the subject of many legends found in the
791:
text, also recounts a number of conflicts between the inhabitants of
784:
737:
646:
583:
578:
558:
1136:
The trade that flourished between the Chola country and the ancient
1093:
991:
923:
788:
774:
493:
233:
193:
85:
673:
history goes back to the period when written records were scarce.
21:
1634:
1633:
Codrington, H. W. A short History of Ceylon, London (1926) <
1508:
915:
896:
824:
of the west coast, and as the royal who settled ancient Vanniar.
778:
662:
563:
51:
1243:
1104:
792:
729:
701:. Still lower at the local level there were clan chiefs called
697:
650:
634:
994:(c. 90 BCE) stands pre-eminent amongst all those mentioned in
1288:
Epigraphia Indica, Vol. XX (1929–1930). Delhi, 1933, pp 86–89
1100:
899:
670:
687:
contained three monarchical states, headed by kings called
645:(600 BCE–300 CE). It was one of the three main kingdoms of
847:(500 BCE - 300 CE), there are mentions in many books like
804:
and stone inscriptions like Konesar Kalvettu recount that
1627:
Nagaswamy, R, Roman Karur, Brahadish Publications (1995)
1207:. Kerala Council for Historical Research. Archived from
1559:
Companion Studies to the History of Tamil Literature
1372:
1290:. Missouri Southern State University. Archived from
1189:
K.A.N. Sashtri, A History of South India, pp 109–112
740:, who ruled around 150 BCE, mentioned in the famous
871:. The temple was first built by the Chola ruler,
1692:
732:, were on friendly terms with him. The king of
1246:, the Keralaputras, as far as Tamraparni...' —
961:
1454:Coromandel: A Personal History of South India
795:and the Tamil immigrants from Chola Country.
610:
1044:
879:rebuilt the temple complex after seeing the
617:
603:
1505:"Welcome to Sri Ranganathar Swamy Temple"
1457:. Little, Brown Book Group. p. 154.
1012:is a long poem on the then Chola capital
1645:. New Delhi: Harper Collins Publishers.
1623:http://www.whatisindia.com/inscriptions/
1018:
831:
808:, an early Chola king and descendant of
20:
1545:"Sri Ranganathaswamy Temple, Srirangam"
1693:
1399:
1450:
1640:
1323:and a number of individual poems in
1263:
1110:
968:Tamil history from Sangam literature
914:, supposed contemporary of the sage
1441:Silappadikaram book 11, lines 35–40
16:One of three ancient Tamil kingdoms
13:
1618:, OUP, New Delhi (Reprinted 2002).
1586:The Periplus of the Erythraean Sea
1349:The Periplus of the Erythraean Sea
1249:"Ashoka's second minor rock edict"
712:The names of the three dynasties,
14:
1727:
980:
812:, was the restorer of the ruined
773:merchant, written in the time of
1201:"Perspectives on Kerala History"
837:Srirangam Ranganathaswamy temple
1614:Nilakanta Sastri, K.A. (1955).
1577:
1564:
1551:
1537:
1523:
1497:
1471:
1444:
1435:
1423:
1393:
827:
1635:http://lakdiva.org/codrington/
1402:Acta Universitatis Upsaliensis
1366:
1340:
1306:
1276:
1236:
1223:
1192:
1183:
1142:Periplus of the Erythraean Sea
1073:
758:Periplus of the Erythraean Sea
1:
1706:Empires and kingdoms of India
1607:
1145:
931:
156:
57:
1621:South Indian Inscriptions -
1589:. Ashgate Publishing. 1980.
1410:The Tamil stone inscription
1352:. Ashgate Publishing. 1980.
649:. Their early capitals were
7:
1251:. Colorado State University
1154:
1140:is given in much detail by
962:Cholas in Sangam literature
589:Legendary early Chola kings
10:
1732:
1716:History of Tiruchirappalli
1432:, Encyclopaedia Britannica
1114:
1077:
1048:
984:
965:
769:is a work by an anonymous
676:
549:Great Living Chola Temples
534:Chola art and architecture
1679:
1669:
1663:
1387:10.1080/09584939408719724
1284:"Hathigumpha Inscription"
1045:Nalankilli and Nedunkilli
1616:A History of South India
1572:A History of South India
1479:"27. King Killivazhavan"
1231:A History of South India
1176:
1000:. Karikala's father was
906:The inscriptions of the
763:Periplus Maris Erythraei
1375:Contemporary South Asia
798:Chronicles such as the
742:Hathigumpha inscription
724:, are mentioned in the
1557:Kamil Veith Zvelebil,
1531:"History of Srirangam"
1416:South India and Ceylon
1381:(1). Routledge: 3–23.
1024:
935: 3rd century BCE
903:
574:Gangaikonda Cholapuram
244:Parantaka II (Sundara)
26:
1022:
835:
801:Yalpana Vaipava Malai
494:Rajahnate of Sanmalan
24:
926:who was defeated by
254:Aditya II (Karikala)
1641:Keay, John (2000).
1294:on 17 November 2006
891:which dates around
1701:Dynasties of India
1570:Nilakanta Sastri,
1511:on 30 October 2022
1451:Allen, C. (2017).
1406:Uppsala University
1320:Porunaraatruppadai
1025:
904:
822:Munneswaram temple
810:Manu Needhi Cholan
35:Kings and Emperors
27:
1689:
1688:
1680:Succeeded by
1596:978-0-904180-05-3
1464:978-1-4087-0540-7
1430:Sangam literature
1359:978-0-904180-05-3
1211:on 26 August 2006
1171:Sangam literature
1111:Social conditions
1092:is one of the 63
972:Sangam literature
889:Sanctum Sanctorum
885:100 BCE to 100 CE
841:Sangam literature
814:Koneswaram temple
753:Sangam literature
726:Pillars of Ashoka
661:. Along with the
627:
626:
554:Solesvara Temples
514:Ganges Expedition
499:
498:
487:Rajahnate of Cebu
455:Related dynasties
439:
438:
342:
341:
147:
146:
1723:
1664:Preceded by
1661:
1660:
1656:
1643:India: A History
1601:
1600:
1581:
1575:
1568:
1562:
1555:
1549:
1548:
1541:
1535:
1534:
1527:
1521:
1520:
1518:
1516:
1507:. Archived from
1501:
1495:
1494:
1492:
1490:
1481:. Archived from
1475:
1469:
1468:
1448:
1442:
1439:
1433:
1427:
1421:
1420:
1412:Konesar Kalvettu
1397:
1391:
1390:
1370:
1364:
1363:
1344:
1338:
1310:
1304:
1303:
1301:
1299:
1280:
1274:
1267:
1261:
1260:
1258:
1256:
1240:
1234:
1227:
1221:
1220:
1218:
1216:
1205:P.J.Cherian (Ed)
1196:
1190:
1187:
1150:
1147:
952:Kalingathuparani
936:
933:
893:100 CE to 300 CE
619:
612:
605:
539:Chola literature
519:Chola government
459:
458:
357:
356:
180:
179:
165:
161:
158:
62:
59:
48:
47:
29:
28:
1731:
1730:
1726:
1725:
1724:
1722:
1721:
1720:
1691:
1690:
1685:
1683:Medieval Cholas
1675:
1667:
1659:
1653:
1610:
1605:
1604:
1597:
1583:
1582:
1578:
1569:
1565:
1556:
1552:
1543:
1542:
1538:
1529:
1528:
1524:
1514:
1512:
1503:
1502:
1498:
1488:
1486:
1485:on 29 June 2020
1477:
1476:
1472:
1465:
1449:
1445:
1440:
1436:
1428:
1424:
1398:
1394:
1371:
1367:
1360:
1346:
1345:
1341:
1311:
1307:
1297:
1295:
1282:
1281:
1277:
1269:K.A.N. Sastri,
1268:
1264:
1254:
1252:
1247:
1241:
1237:
1229:K.A.N. Sastri,
1228:
1224:
1214:
1212:
1199:
1197:
1193:
1188:
1184:
1179:
1157:
1148:
1119:
1113:
1082:
1076:
1057:
1049:Main articles:
1047:
989:
983:
974:
964:
934:
908:Medieval Cholas
830:
820:in 438 CE, the
679:
641:- pre and post
637:kingdom of the
623:
594:
593:
509:
501:
500:
456:
441:
440:
354:
344:
343:
214:Rajaditya Chola
177:
175:Medieval Cholas
163:
159:
149:
148:
60:
45:
17:
12:
11:
5:
1729:
1719:
1718:
1713:
1708:
1703:
1687:
1686:
1681:
1678:
1668:
1665:
1658:
1657:
1651:
1638:
1631:
1628:
1625:
1619:
1611:
1609:
1606:
1603:
1602:
1595:
1576:
1563:
1550:
1536:
1522:
1496:
1470:
1463:
1443:
1434:
1422:
1392:
1365:
1358:
1339:
1314:Pattinappaalai
1305:
1275:
1262:
1235:
1222:
1191:
1181:
1180:
1178:
1175:
1174:
1173:
1168:
1163:
1156:
1153:
1115:Main article:
1112:
1109:
1078:Main article:
1075:
1072:
1046:
1043:
1030:Cilappatikaram
1014:Kaveripattinam
1006:Pattinappaalai
997:Pattinappaalai
992:Karikala Chola
987:Karikala Chola
985:Main article:
982:
981:Karikala Chola
979:
963:
960:
829:
826:
749:Karikala Chola
678:
675:
659:Kaveripattinam
655:Tiruchirapalli
625:
624:
622:
621:
614:
607:
599:
596:
595:
592:
591:
586:
581:
576:
571:
566:
561:
556:
551:
546:
541:
536:
531:
526:
524:Chola military
521:
516:
510:
507:
506:
503:
502:
497:
496:
490:
489:
483:
482:
479:Nidugal Cholas
475:
474:
467:
466:
457:
454:
453:
450:
449:
443:
442:
437:
436:
433:
427:
426:
423:
417:
416:
413:
411:Kulothunga III
407:
406:
403:
401:Rajadhiraja II
397:
396:
393:
387:
386:
383:
377:
376:
373:
367:
366:
363:
355:
350:
349:
346:
345:
340:
339:
336:
330:
329:
326:
320:
319:
316:
310:
309:
306:
300:
299:
296:
290:
289:
286:
280:
279:
276:
270:
269:
266:
260:
259:
256:
250:
249:
246:
240:
239:
236:
230:
229:
226:
220:
219:
216:
210:
209:
206:
200:
199:
196:
190:
189:
186:
178:
173:
172:
169:
168:
151:
150:
145:
144:
142:
136:
135:
133:
127:
126:
124:
122:Kopperuncholan
118:
117:
115:
109:
108:
106:
100:
99:
97:
91:
90:
88:
82:
81:
79:
77:Ilamchetchenni
73:
72:
70:
64:
63:
61: 161 BCE
54:
46:
41:
40:
37:
36:
25:Karikala Chola
15:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
1728:
1717:
1714:
1712:
1711:Chola dynasty
1709:
1707:
1704:
1702:
1699:
1698:
1696:
1684:
1677:
1676:Early Cholas
1673:
1662:
1654:
1652:0-00-255717-7
1648:
1644:
1639:
1636:
1632:
1629:
1626:
1624:
1620:
1617:
1613:
1612:
1598:
1592:
1588:
1587:
1580:
1573:
1567:
1560:
1554:
1546:
1540:
1532:
1526:
1510:
1506:
1500:
1484:
1480:
1474:
1466:
1460:
1456:
1455:
1447:
1438:
1431:
1426:
1419:
1417:
1413:
1407:
1403:
1396:
1388:
1384:
1380:
1376:
1369:
1361:
1355:
1351:
1350:
1343:
1336:
1332:
1331:
1326:
1322:
1321:
1316:
1315:
1309:
1293:
1289:
1285:
1279:
1272:
1266:
1250:
1245:
1239:
1232:
1226:
1210:
1206:
1202:
1195:
1186:
1182:
1172:
1169:
1167:
1166:Chola Dynasty
1164:
1162:
1159:
1158:
1152:
1143:
1139:
1134:
1130:
1126:
1122:
1118:
1117:Sangam period
1108:
1106:
1102:
1097:
1095:
1091:
1086:
1081:
1071:
1068:
1066:
1062:
1056:
1052:
1042:
1040:
1036:
1032:
1031:
1021:
1017:
1015:
1011:
1010:Pattinappalai
1007:
1003:
999:
998:
993:
988:
978:
973:
969:
959:
955:
953:
948:
942:
940:
929:
928:Duttha Gamini
925:
921:
917:
913:
909:
901:
898:
894:
890:
886:
882:
881:Golden Vimana
878:
874:
870:
869:
868:Silapadikaram
864:
863:
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857:
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823:
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643:Sangam period
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544:Flag of Chola
542:
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512:
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508:Chola society
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464:
463:Telugu Chodas
461:
460:
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409:
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389:
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381:Kulothunga II
379:
378:
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364:
362:
359:
358:
353:
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197:
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176:
171:
170:
167:
164: 848 CE
155:Interregnum (
153:
152:
143:
141:
138:
137:
134:
132:
131:Kochchenganan
129:
128:
125:
123:
120:
119:
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107:
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55:
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44:
39:
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34:
31:
30:
23:
19:
1672:Chola empire
1670:
1642:
1615:
1585:
1579:
1571:
1566:
1558:
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1539:
1525:
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1509:the original
1499:
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1483:the original
1473:
1453:
1446:
1437:
1425:
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1401:
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1334:
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1292:the original
1287:
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1238:
1230:
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1209:the original
1204:
1194:
1185:
1161:Chola Empire
1149: 75 CE
1141:
1138:Roman Empire
1135:
1131:
1127:
1123:
1120:
1098:
1084:
1083:
1069:
1058:
1039:Kaveri River
1035:Grand Anicut
1028:
1026:
1009:
1005:
1002:Ilamcetcenni
995:
990:
975:
956:
951:
947:Anbil Plates
943:
911:
905:
892:
884:
880:
877:Killivalavan
872:
866:
860:
854:
848:
828:Early Cholas
816:and tank at
799:
797:
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762:
756:
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706:
702:
696:
692:
688:
680:
631:Early Cholas
630:
628:
569:Melakadambur
481:of Karnataka
446:
431:Rajendra III
421:Rajaraja III
361:Kulothunga I
352:Later Cholas
334:Athirajendra
324:Virarajendra
314:Rajamahendra
224:Gandaraditya
154:
140:Perunarkilli
113:Killivalavan
43:Early Cholas
42:
18:
1298:15 November
1273:, 1935 p 20
1255:15 November
1244:Satyaputras
1215:15 November
1090:Kocengannan
1080:Kocengannan
1074:Kocengannan
873:Dharmavarma
818:Trincomalee
806:Kulakkottan
771:Alexandrian
471:Chodagangas
391:Rajaraja II
304:Rajendra II
294:Rajadhiraja
204:Parantaka I
68:Kulakkottan
1695:Categories
1608:References
1330:Purananuru
1065:Nedunkilli
1061:Nalankilli
1055:Nedunkilli
1051:Nalankilli
966:See also:
856:Purananuru
845:Sangam era
685:Tamil Nadu
529:Chola Navy
473:of Kalinga
284:Rajendra I
274:Rajaraja I
184:Vijayalaya
162: – c.
160: 200
104:Nalankilli
95:Nedunkilli
1404:. 19–20.
1335:The Colas
1325:Akananuru
1271:The CōĻas
1037:, of the
895:built by
862:Paripāṭal
850:Akanaṉūṟu
785:Mahavamsa
738:Kharavela
647:Tamilakam
584:Tiruvarur
579:Thanjavur
559:Poompuhar
465:of Andhra
435:1246–1279
425:1216–1256
415:1178–1218
405:1166–1178
395:1146–1173
385:1133–1150
375:1118–1135
365:1070–1120
338:1067–1070
328:1063–1070
318:1060–1063
308:1051–1063
298:1018–1054
288:1012–1044
56:205 BCE–
1155:See also
1094:nayanars
1085:Kalavali
924:Ellaalan
912:Kantaman
789:Buddhist
775:Domitian
767:Periplus
665:and the
278:985–1014
234:Arinjaya
194:Aditya I
188:848–871?
86:Karikala
1574:, p 105
1515:29 June
1489:29 June
1233:, p 129
916:Agastya
897:Uraiyur
843:of the
779:Ptolemy
734:Kalinga
718:Pandyas
689:Vendhar
682:Ancient
677:Sources
663:Pandyas
633:were a
564:Uraiyur
447:Related
371:Vikrama
268:971–987
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1105:Kaveri
900:Cholas
793:Ceylon
730:Ashoka
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714:Cholas
707:mannar
703:kizhar
669:, the
667:Cheras
651:Urayur
264:Uttama
1637:>.
1561:, p12
1177:Notes
698:Velir
671:Chola
635:Tamil
33:Chola
1647:ISBN
1591:ISBN
1517:2020
1491:2020
1459:ISBN
1354:ISBN
1327:and
1300:2006
1257:2006
1217:2006
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1063:and
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920:Manu
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