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barks of trees were also used. Men of the poorer classes wore only one piece of cloth around the waist. Women covered their upper body with a kind of dress called, kachchu. Among the higher classes, men wore two pieces: one around the waist and the other, the upper cloth, thrown over the shoulders. Women of sophisticated society wore half sarees, made of the finest cotton and silk fabrics, with embroidery. Both men and women sported long tresses of hair. The diet was plain, rice being the staple cereal, with millet, milk, butter and honey being in common use. Meat eating was discouraged as expounded in the ancient tamil literature
Thirukkural, Naladiyar etc. The kind of housing was determined by the type of geography of the land and the economic status of the occupants. The rich built their houses with tiled roofs and walls made of burnt bricks and mud, while the poor built their huts with mud and thatched it with grass, coconut leaves or palmyra palm leaves. Both in the huts and houses, the flooring was smeared with cowdung. The affluent had houses with porticoes, many storeys, open terraces and furnished their houses well. The inner walls of their houses were decorated with flowers and paintings, with cottages to protect them from the wind. Cots were in common use – the rich had luxurious beds decked with swan's feathers and flowers, while the common people had beds woven with the straw of maize and the poorest people used beds made of grass or hay.
1275:
offences included theft, adultery, forgery and treason. The punishments were very severe and hence crimes were rare: one caught in the act of burglary, adultery or spying was given the death penalty and one giving false testimony would have his tongue cut off. The king was the chief commander of the army and usually led his army in the battlefield. The military was said to be fourfold : the infantry, the cavalry, the elephantry and the chariotry. A wide variety of war weapons filled the military arsenal including shields, swords, spears, tridents, maces, bows and arrows. The main sources of royal revenue were taxes, tributes, customs duties and tolls. Land tax, paid in money or in kind, and income tax, equal to one-sixth of an individual's income, were the major types of taxes collected. Other sources of revenue include tributes paid by feudal subordinates, war booty presents by loyal and visiting subjects, treasure troves besides land revenue, cess and forced gifts. The items incurring expenditure for the king include the military, gifts to poets and temples, maintenance of educational and health services, building infrastructure such as roads and irrigation and the palace household expenses.
1097:, who is considered the greatest of all the early Pandyan kings. Since the Pandyan kingdom was considerably larger than a few generations ago, he had to defend it against many neighbors invading from various fronts. Not only did he succeed in defending his territory, he also seems to have advanced into the enemy territories – the southern province of Cholas and eastern province of the Cheras. At one point, it is said that a coalition of his neighbors including the Cheras, Cholas and five other kingdoms, met him at a pitched battle in Talaialanganam, in present-day
1235:(Tamil: எண்பேராயம்) or the Eight Groups of Attendants. While some scholars believe it consisted of attendants on the king's person like the perfumers, dressing valets, etc., others believe it consisted of more important persons like the people of the capital city, the leaders of the elephant corps and of the cavalry. The principal officers of State were the high priest, the chief astrologer, the ministers and the commanders of the army. The king divided his territory into a number of administrative units or principalities, each called a
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1036:. During this time, the Tamil country consisted of several small kingdoms ruled over by independent chieftains, in addition to the three monarchies of Cheras, Cholas and Pandyas. In a bid to expand his territory, Nedunj Cheliyan I invaded the kingdom of Koodal (later renamed Madurai), which was under the rule of an independent chieftain, Akutai. He defeated Akutai and moved the capital of Pandyan kingdom to Madurai. This king also defeated an invading army from the
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44:
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991:. These coins have been assigned a broad time period ranging from 200 BCE to 200 CE. Several coins issued by the Pandyan king Mudukudumi Peruvaludhi have been recovered in the Madurai area and have been dated to around 200 BCE. Many gold and silver coins of the Roman empire have been found around Madurai: these coins bear the names of emperors ranging from
1271:) under the near-sovereign government of some senior member of the royal family or a feudatary. The village was the most fundamental unit of administration under the Pandyas. The affairs of a village were the responsibility of its elders, who supervised the judicial, administrative and financial functions.
974:
Excavations in Tamil Nadu in the last fifty years or so have yielded remnants of black-and-red pottery ware, normally assigned to the Tamil speaking areas around 300 BCE. Some all-black and Russet coated ware assigned to the same time period have also been found. Rouletted and
Amphorae wares, made in
613:
dynasty. As with many other kingdoms around this period (earlier than 200 BCE), most of the information about the Early
Pandyas come to modern historians mainly through literary sources and some epigraphic, archaeological and numismatic evidence. The capital of the Early Pandyan kingdom was initially
1282:
A variety of clothing was used by people during this age, including those made of cotton and silk. People living in hilly and deserted areas wore dresses made of foliage and flowers. Sheaths of grassy weeds (Korai) were used for making dress by the hill and forest area people. Skins of animals and
1274:
Justice was administered free of charge, by special officers appointed as judges and magistrates, but the king was supreme and the final arbiter in all civil and criminal cases. Mortgage, lease, trust property, loans, breach of contract were some common sources of civil litigation, while criminal
702:
Historians have used several sources to identify the origins of the Early
Pandyan dynasty with the pre-Christian Era and also to piece together the names of the Pandyan kings. Unfortunately, the exact genealogy of these kings has not been authoritatively established yet.
1278:
Women were exposed to education, a fact testified by the presence of many women poets in the Sangam works – some of them include
Avvaiyar, Mudatamakkanniar, Kaakkaippaadiniyaar, Naachchellayaar, Naagaiyaar, Nanmullaiyaar, Ponmudiyaar, Ilaveyiniyaar and Nappasaliyaar.
966:, (c. 150 BCE), refers to the arrival of a tribute of jewels and elephants from the Pandyan king. The stone inscriptions discovered at Mangulam (a.k.a. Meenakshipuram) mentions the name of Nedunj Cheliyan III and his contemporary and subordinate, Kadalan Vazhuthi.
718:
Malayadhwaja Pandya and his queen
Kanchanamala had one daughter Thathagai alias Meenakshi who succeeded her father and ruled the kingdom successfully. The Madurai Meenakshi Amman temple was built after her. The city of Madurai was built around this temple.
711:. south Mathurai), Kulasekharan Pandya as he was built like a bull. It was used as an epithet of masculinity. His son, the second king of Thenmadurai, the legendary Malayadhwaja Pandya who sided with the Pandavas and took part in the
1231:(Tamil: ஐம்பெருங்குழு) or the Five Great Assemblies, which consisted of the representatives of the people, priests, physicians, astrologers and the ministers. There was another assembly of officials that served the king called the
706:
One theory is that the word Pandya is derived from the Tamil word "Pandi" meaning bull. Ancient Tamils, considered the bull as a sign of masculinity and valor. Pandya became the epithet of the first
Pandyan king of Thenmadurai
691:. The Pandyan country was well known for pearl fishery, with Korkai being the principal center of the trade. Some of the exports were pearls, spices, ivory and shells, while the imports included horses, gold, glass and wine.
661:
is referred to as the most popular warrior among the Early
Pandyas, winning a battle at Talaialanganam against a coalition of forces from Cholas and Cheras and five other kingdoms. The early Pandyan kingdom extended between
1073:
and defeated the chieftain Evvi II. He then headed west and captured the Aayi territory controlled by another chieftain, Atiyan. Both Evvi II and Atiyan were made commanders of the
Pandyan army for his battles against
1538:
975:
the Roman empire and brought by traders, have been excavated in several parts of Tamil Nadu, including the
Pandyan country. These imported wares are dated to the early centuries of the Christian Era.
1090:, was also a great warrior and carried the devastation into enemy territories. He performed yagas with the aid of Brahmin priests, similar to the tradition in northern India at that time.
1105:. The genealogy after this king is not very clear but there are at least four other kings who are thought to have ruled in the immediate succeeding generations. Notable among them were,
804:, mention the legend of three separate Tamil Sangams lasting several centuries before the Christian Era and ascribe their patronage to the Pandyas. The Sangam poem
1101:
district. Nedunj Cheliyan emerged victorious in the battle that ensued and ended up annexing several new territories to his kingdom. He thus came to be known as
1082:(the Pandyan whose kingdom was washed by two seas). Since he was responsible for expanding the Pandyan kingdom by annexing several kingdoms, he was also called
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collections of the third century BCE contain poems sung in praise of various Pandyan kings and also poems that were composed by the kings themselves.
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country that was further west. From here he expanded the Pandyan kingdom almost to the western coast, which earned him the title
580:
270:
265:
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Scholars have attempted to reconstruct the political history of the ancient Pandya country based on classical works such as the
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The Early Pandyas had active maritime trade relationships with the west, a fact testified by western classical writers such as
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108:
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2123:
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also known as "Pasumpun Pandyan". Immediately after ascending the throne, he marched with his troops to the north of
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128:
98:
449:
1267:. While the king ruled over his entire territory from the capital, he often placed one or more principalities (
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25:
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1056:. Both Pudappandiyan and his predecessor, Nedunj Cheliyan I, were poets themselves who contributed to the
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met, at Damascus, the ambassador sent by an Indian King "named Pandion or, according to others, Porus" to
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received an embassy from a Pandya about 361 CE. A Roman trading centre was located on the Pandyan coast (
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657:, which have been used by historians to identify their names and, to some extent, their genealogy.
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2009:
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2020:
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The Mahabharata of Krishna-Dwaipayana Vyasa translated into ..., Volume 8 By Kisari Mohan Ganguli
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The head of the government was the king, a hereditary monarch. His power was restricted by the
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How India Wrought for Freedom: The Story of the National Congress Told from Official Records
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A Political and General History of the District of Tinnevelly, in the Presidency of Madras
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A Political and General History of the District of Tinnevelly, in the Presidency of Madras
8:
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895:(Northern India)...The inhabitants are small; they are the same height as the Chinese..."
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The first Pandyan king who has been mentioned in the Sangam works recovered so far is
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950:. According to the edicts, these kingdoms lay outside the southern boundary of the
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consisting of many villages. A locality inside a town or village was called
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The Pandyan Kingdom : From the Earliest Times to the Sixteenth Century
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The Pandyan Kingdom : From the Earliest Times to the Sixteenth Century
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The Pandyan Kingdom : From the Earliest Times to the Sixteenth Century
1539:
A History of South India: From Prehistoric Times to the Fall of Vijayanagar
1118:
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987:, near Madurai, recovered two copper coins of the early Pandyas along with
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river in the north and all the way to the ocean in the east and the south.
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A History of South India from Prehistoric Times to the Fall of Vijayanagar
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The origin of the word "Pandya" has been a subject of much speculation.
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Early Tamil epigraphy from the earliest times to the sixth century A.D
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The Pandyan Kingdom: From the Earliest Times to the Sixteenth Century
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The primary classical language of the world By Ñānamuttan̲ Tēvanēyan̲
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of the third century BCE and onwards, in literary works such as the
1048:, who expanded the kingdom by conquering Ollaiyur (near modern-day
1032:, who ruled from the coastal town of Korkai, at the mouth of river
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river, southeast of Madurai). Pandyas also had trade contacts with
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migrated to the Pandyan kingdom and started living there in the
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946:(273 - 232 BCE) refers to the Pandyas, Cholas, Cheras and the
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1395:
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battle is described as follows in Karna Parva (verse 20.25).
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1614:
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1247:, which in turn was divided into many sub-provinces called
1117:
for the fact that it was in his court that the famous poet
919:
2001:
1571:"The Peoples of the West" from the Weilue 魏略 by Yu Huan 魚豢
1921:
Ancient Tamil Country - Its Social and Economic Structure
2026:
History Of The Tamils: From the Earliest Times to 600 AD
1609:
1603:
History of the Tamils: From the Earliest Times to 600 AD
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1427:
History of the Tamils: From the Earliest Times to 600 AD
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1086:(the Pandyan who annexed many lands). His successor,
1594:
1529:
926:
by the 3rd century. The 1st century Greek historian
2139:
Some Contributions of South India to Indian Culture
1511:
Let's go: India & Nepal, 2004 By Let's Go, Inc.
934:around 13 CE (Strabo XV.1-4, and Strabo XV.1-73).
1514:
1135:of the Yadu Kingdom. He ruled a territory called
832:contains a description of the king's palace. The
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1947:
1945:
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313:
2201:
2189:
1573:Draft Translation of the Weilüe by John Hill
850:mentions that many Dravidian tribes such as
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2168:
1493:Mahabhrata Book Eight: Karna By Adam Bowles
1410:: CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (
1189:. Unsourced material may be challenged and
1109:for the fact that he conquered the town of
601:were one of the three main kingdoms of the
2235:
2221:
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1942:
1243:was further divided into provinces called
818:and the Pandyan country under the rule of
605:(southern India), the other two being the
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2005:Memoirs of the Geological Survey of India
1633:
1618:
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1398:Memoirs of the Geological Survey of India
1209:Learn how and when to remove this message
883:"...The kingdom of Panyue is also called
2197:. Asian Educational Services, New Delhi.
2132:
2043:
1981:
1969:Studies in the History of the Sangam Age
1954:Studies in the History of the Sangam Age
1936:Studies in the History of the Sangam Age
1918:
1903:
1843:
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969:
2099:
2019:
937:
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1454:
814:contains a full-length description of
798:Several Tamil literary works, such as
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2195:The Tamils Eighteen Hundred Years Ago
2008:. Governor-General of India. p.
1906:The Tamils Eighteen Hundred Years Ago
1558:The Tamils Eighteen Hundred Years Ago
1551:
1549:
978:
854:, Eyinar, Oliar, Oviar, Aruvalur and
694:
1984:The Tamil Eighteen Hundred Years Ago
1966:
1951:
1933:
1439:
1341:
1290:
1187:adding citations to reliable sources
1154:
1143:. He belongs to the clan of ancient
1113:on the coast of the Arabian Sea and
1052:) – an act that earned him the name
722:Yet another theory suggests that in
2171:Cankakala Mannar Kalanilai Varalaru
2002:Geological Survey of India (1883).
1873:
1858:
1813:
1783:
1738:
1723:
1678:
1648:
1600:
1520:
1424:
1396:Geological Survey of India (1883).
1103:Talaialanganathu Seruvendra Pandyan
1093:The next king in the hierarchy was
1063:The successor of Pudappandiyan was
622:and was later moved to Koodal (now
16:One of three ancient Tamil kingdoms
13:
2183:The Chronology of the Early Tamils
2061:Thinakaran, Dr. Mrs. A.J. (1987).
1888:
1831:The Chronology of the Early Tamils
1828:
1801:The Chronology of the Early Tamils
1798:
1771:The Chronology of the Early Tamils
1768:
1756:The Chronology of the Early Tamils
1753:
1711:The Chronology of the Early Tamils
1708:
1693:
1663:
1546:
1535:
1121:submitted his much-acclaimed work
14:
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2102:The History of the Pandya Country
1876:The History of the Pandya Country
1861:The History of the Pandya Country
1816:The History of the Pandya Country
1786:The History of the Pandya Country
1741:The History of the Pandya Country
1726:The History of the Pandya Country
1681:The History of the Pandya Country
1651:The History of the Pandya Country
1523:The History of the Pandya Country
2324:
1379:Economy of ancient Tamil country
1345:
1294:
1259:and each neighborhood inside an
1159:
548:
364:
357:
42:
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2104:. Selvi Pathippakam, Karaikudi.
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922:by the first century, and with
778:siblings and together with the
2142:. Asian Educational Services.
2100:Husaini, Abdul Qadir. (1962).
2091:Sastri, K.A.Nilakanta (1966).
2086:. Swathi Publications, Madras.
2074:. Garnet Publications, Madras.
2029:. Asian Educational Services.
1505:
1496:
1487:
1478:
1044:. He was succeeded by his son
1:
2206:. Koodal Publishers, Madurai.
2185:. Asian Educational Services.
2169:Purushottam, Vi. Pi. (1989).
1993:
1150:
1054:Ollaiyur Thantha Pudappandian
1042:Aariyap Padaikadantha Pandyan
869:in his 3rd century text, the
2369:
989:Northern Black Polished Ware
637:are frequently mentioned in
7:
2416:Srivilliputhur Andal temple
2306:12th century civil conflict
2164:. Harvard University Press.
1584:"Strabo, Geography, NOTICE"
1326:
64:Chronology of Tamil history
10:
2483:
2095:. Oxford University Press.
2070:Krishnamurthy, R. (1997).
1376:
1337:
1330:
1286:
1220:
1080:Vidambalamba Ninra Pandyan
1002:
2406:
2368:
2333:
2322:
2296:Battle of Thirupurambiyam
2271:
2251:
2134:Aiyangar, S. Krishnaswami
2063:The Second Pandyan Empire
1457:The Second Pandyan Empire
1131:is one among the ancient
918:and, through Egypt, with
887:. It is several thousand
794:Literary sources in Tamil
430:Venad - Kingdom of Quilon
2431:Kalugasalamoorthy temple
2343:Early Pandyan government
2202:Subrahmanian, N (1972).
2118:. Kessinger Publishing.
1383:
1223:Early Pandyan government
956:Hathigumpha inscriptions
726:Tamil lexicon, the word
2421:Kasi Viswanathar temple
2021:Iyengar, Srinivasa P.T.
2014:korkai pandyan capital.
1107:Musiri Mutriya Cheliyan
1084:Pannadu Thantha Pandyan
862:period 2000 years ago.
418:Confluence of religions
2316:Malik Kafur's invasion
2080:Sastri, K.A. Nilakanta
2072:Sangam Age Tamil Coins
1636:Sangam Age Tamil Coins
1621:Sangam Age Tamil Coins
1521:Husaini, Abdul Qadir.
1472:Sangam Age Tamil Coins
1333:Ancient Tamil religion
1088:Mudukudumi Peruvaludhi
942:The 2nd and 13th rock
910:- at the mouth of the
865:The Chinese historian
685:and the author of the
626:) during the reign of
69:List of Tamil monarchs
2291:Early Pandyan society
2286:Early Pandyan kingdom
1040:and hence was called
970:Archeological sources
877:The Kingdom of Panyue
507:Unification of Kerala
478:Battle of Tirurangadi
35:History of Tamil Nadu
2378:Art and architecture
2158:Mahadevan, Iravatham
1239:(Tamil: கூற்றம்). A
1183:improve this section
938:Epigraphical sources
928:Nicolaus of Damascus
891:to the southeast of
774:are the traditional
649:Tamil literary works
450:Minor principalities
2370:Society and culture
2204:History of Tamilnad
2055:Early pandya coins.
1846:History of Tamilnad
1095:Nedunj Cheliyan III
983:The excavations at
812:Mankudi Maruthanaar
801:Iraiyanar Akapporul
786:that ruled ancient
498:Communism in Kerala
212:Vijayanagara Empire
104:Three Crowned Kings
2462:Ancient Tamil Nadu
2426:Nellaiappar Temple
2110:Besant, Annie Wood
1829:Pillai, Sivaraja.
1799:Pillai, Sivaraja.
1769:Pillai, Sivaraja.
1754:Pillai, Sivaraja.
1713:. pp. 99–102.
1634:Krishnamurthy, R.
1619:Krishnamurthy, R.
1357:. You can help by
1306:. You can help by
1115:Ukkirap Peruvaludi
1066:Nedunj Cheliyan II
979:Numismatic sources
860:Third Tamil Sangam
695:Origin and sources
677:(1st century CE),
466:Rise of Travancore
385:Megalithic culture
256:Ancient Tamil Nadu
237:Thondaiman Kingdom
119:Naming conventions
2439:
2438:
2335:Pandya government
2301:Battle of Tellaru
1982:Kanakasabhai, V.
1971:. pp. 3, 35.
1919:Sundararajan, S.
1904:Kanakasabhai, V.
1844:Subrahmanian, N.
1653:. pp. 20–21.
1638:. pp. 20–26.
1444:. pp. 24–25.
1375:
1374:
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1218:
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997:Alexander Severus
734:in contrast with
639:Sangam literature
633:The kings of the
591:
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470:Mysorean invasion
458:Portuguese period
422:Mamankam festival
390:Maritime contacts
345:History of Kerala
330:
329:
207:Madurai Sultanate
79:Maritime contacts
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2328:
2311:Battle of Nettur
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2179:Pillai, Sivaraja
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1743:. pp. 9–10.
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1437:
1431:
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1393:
1370:
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1349:
1342:
1319:
1316:
1298:
1291:
1214:
1207:
1203:
1200:
1194:
1163:
1155:
944:edicts of Ashoka
647:and other early
583:
576:
569:
555:India portal
553:
552:
551:
494:Battle of Quilon
482:Malabar District
454:Age of Discovery
368:
361:
332:
331:
322:
315:
308:
227:Kalahasti Nayaks
176:Medieval history
46:
21:
20:
2482:
2481:
2477:
2476:
2475:
2473:
2472:
2471:
2457:Pandyan dynasty
2442:
2441:
2440:
2435:
2402:
2364:
2353:Tenkasi Pandyas
2329:
2320:
2267:
2247:
2241:
2211:
2210:
2191:Kanakasabhai, V
2150:
2126:
2037:
1996:
1991:
1980:
1976:
1965:
1961:
1950:
1943:
1932:
1928:
1917:
1913:
1902:
1898:
1887:
1883:
1872:
1868:
1857:
1853:
1842:
1838:
1827:
1823:
1812:
1808:
1797:
1793:
1782:
1778:
1767:
1763:
1752:
1748:
1737:
1733:
1728:. pp. 8–9.
1722:
1718:
1707:
1703:
1692:
1688:
1677:
1673:
1662:
1658:
1647:
1643:
1632:
1628:
1617:
1610:
1605:. pp. 7–8.
1599:
1595:
1582:
1581:
1577:
1569:
1565:
1554:
1547:
1534:
1530:
1519:
1515:
1510:
1506:
1501:
1497:
1492:
1488:
1483:
1479:
1470:Krishnamurthy.
1468:
1464:
1453:
1449:
1438:
1434:
1423:
1419:
1403:
1402:
1394:
1390:
1386:
1381:
1371:
1365:
1362:
1355:needs expansion
1340:
1335:
1329:
1320:
1314:
1311:
1304:needs expansion
1289:
1225:
1215:
1204:
1198:
1195:
1180:
1164:
1153:
1005:
981:
972:
940:
932:Caesar Augustus
916:Ptolemaic Egypt
820:Nedunjeliyan II
796:
697:
675:Pliny the Elder
659:Nedunjeliyan II
635:Pandyan dynasty
587:
549:
547:
540:
539:
538:
533:
529:
524:
519:
511:
510:
509:
504:
500:
496:
492:
488:
484:
480:
476:
472:
468:
464:
460:
456:
452:
448:
446:Arakkal kingdom
444:
440:
436:
432:
428:
424:
420:
416:
412:
408:
404:
400:
396:
392:
387:
382:
374:
373:
372:
371:
370:
369:
362:
326:
297:
296:
295:
250:
242:
241:
182:Kalabhra Empire
177:
169:
168:
94:
84:
83:
54:
17:
12:
11:
5:
2480:
2470:
2469:
2464:
2459:
2454:
2437:
2436:
2434:
2433:
2428:
2423:
2418:
2412:
2410:
2404:
2403:
2401:
2400:
2395:
2393:Pandya coinage
2390:
2385:
2380:
2374:
2372:
2366:
2365:
2363:
2362:
2360:Flag of Pandya
2357:
2356:
2355:
2345:
2339:
2337:
2331:
2330:
2323:
2321:
2319:
2318:
2313:
2308:
2303:
2298:
2293:
2288:
2283:
2277:
2275:
2269:
2268:
2252:
2249:
2248:
2244:Pandya dynasty
2240:
2239:
2232:
2225:
2217:
2209:
2208:
2199:
2187:
2175:
2166:
2154:
2148:
2130:
2124:
2106:
2097:
2088:
2076:
2067:
2058:
2041:
2035:
2017:
1998:
1997:
1995:
1992:
1990:
1989:
1986:. p. 125.
1974:
1959:
1941:
1926:
1923:. p. 154.
1911:
1896:
1881:
1866:
1851:
1836:
1833:. p. 131.
1821:
1806:
1803:. p. 121.
1791:
1776:
1773:. p. 123.
1761:
1758:. p. 120.
1746:
1731:
1716:
1701:
1686:
1671:
1656:
1641:
1626:
1608:
1593:
1575:
1563:
1556:Kanakasabhai.
1545:
1542:. p. 127.
1528:
1513:
1504:
1495:
1486:
1477:
1462:
1447:
1432:
1429:. p. 189.
1417:
1387:
1385:
1382:
1373:
1372:
1352:
1350:
1339:
1336:
1331:Main article:
1328:
1325:
1322:
1321:
1301:
1299:
1288:
1285:
1221:Main article:
1217:
1216:
1167:
1165:
1158:
1152:
1149:
1038:Deccan Plateau
1029:Nedunjeliyan I
1004:
1001:
980:
977:
971:
968:
952:Mauryan Empire
939:
936:
897:
896:
795:
792:
782:are the major
696:
693:
644:Mathuraikkanci
628:Nedunjeliyan I
589:
588:
586:
585:
578:
571:
563:
560:
559:
558:
557:
542:
541:
520:
517:
516:
513:
512:
474:British Period
383:
380:
379:
376:
375:
363:
356:
355:
354:
353:
352:
351:
348:
347:
341:
340:
328:
327:
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317:
310:
302:
299:
298:
294:
293:
288:
283:
278:
273:
268:
263:
258:
252:
251:
248:
247:
244:
243:
240:
239:
234:
229:
224:
222:Tanjore Nayaks
219:
217:Madurai Nayaks
214:
209:
204:
199:
194:
192:Pandyan Empire
189:
187:Pallava Empire
184:
178:
175:
174:
171:
170:
167:
166:
161:
156:
151:
146:
141:
136:
131:
126:
121:
116:
111:
106:
101:
95:
90:
89:
86:
85:
82:
81:
76:
71:
66:
61:
55:
52:
51:
48:
47:
39:
38:
30:
29:
15:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
2479:
2468:
2465:
2463:
2460:
2458:
2455:
2453:
2452:Tamil history
2450:
2449:
2447:
2432:
2429:
2427:
2424:
2422:
2419:
2417:
2414:
2413:
2411:
2409:
2405:
2399:
2396:
2394:
2391:
2389:
2386:
2384:
2381:
2379:
2376:
2375:
2373:
2371:
2367:
2361:
2358:
2354:
2351:
2350:
2349:
2346:
2344:
2341:
2340:
2338:
2336:
2332:
2327:
2317:
2314:
2312:
2309:
2307:
2304:
2302:
2299:
2297:
2294:
2292:
2289:
2287:
2284:
2282:
2279:
2278:
2276:
2274:
2270:
2266:
2262:
2258:
2255:
2250:
2245:
2238:
2233:
2231:
2226:
2224:
2219:
2218:
2215:
2205:
2200:
2196:
2192:
2188:
2184:
2180:
2176:
2172:
2167:
2163:
2159:
2155:
2151:
2149:9788120609990
2145:
2141:
2140:
2135:
2131:
2127:
2125:9780766105973
2121:
2117:
2116:
2111:
2107:
2103:
2098:
2094:
2089:
2085:
2081:
2077:
2073:
2068:
2064:
2059:
2056:
2052:
2051:
2046:
2042:
2038:
2036:9788120601451
2032:
2028:
2027:
2022:
2018:
2015:
2011:
2007:
2006:
2000:
1999:
1985:
1978:
1970:
1967:Balambal, V.
1963:
1955:
1952:Balambal, V.
1948:
1946:
1938:. p. 34.
1937:
1934:Balambal, V.
1930:
1922:
1915:
1908:. p. 86.
1907:
1900:
1893:. p. 26.
1892:
1885:
1878:. p. 13.
1877:
1870:
1863:. p. 12.
1862:
1855:
1848:. p. 89.
1847:
1840:
1832:
1825:
1818:. p. 11.
1817:
1810:
1802:
1795:
1788:. p. 10.
1787:
1780:
1772:
1765:
1757:
1750:
1742:
1735:
1727:
1720:
1712:
1705:
1698:. p. 15.
1697:
1690:
1682:
1675:
1668:. p. 35.
1667:
1660:
1652:
1645:
1637:
1630:
1623:. p. 11.
1622:
1615:
1613:
1604:
1597:
1589:
1585:
1579:
1572:
1567:
1560:. p. 81.
1559:
1552:
1550:
1541:
1540:
1532:
1524:
1517:
1508:
1499:
1490:
1481:
1473:
1466:
1458:
1451:
1443:
1436:
1428:
1421:
1413:
1407:
1400:. p. 80.
1399:
1392:
1388:
1380:
1369:
1360:
1356:
1353:This section
1351:
1348:
1344:
1343:
1334:
1318:
1309:
1305:
1302:This section
1300:
1297:
1293:
1292:
1284:
1280:
1276:
1272:
1270:
1266:
1263:was called a
1262:
1258:
1254:
1250:
1246:
1242:
1238:
1234:
1230:
1229:Aimberunguzhu
1224:
1213:
1210:
1202:
1192:
1188:
1184:
1178:
1177:
1173:
1168:This section
1166:
1162:
1157:
1156:
1148:
1146:
1142:
1138:
1134:
1130:
1126:
1125:
1120:
1116:
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1100:
1096:
1091:
1089:
1085:
1081:
1077:
1072:
1068:
1067:
1061:
1059:
1055:
1051:
1047:
1046:Pudappandiyan
1043:
1039:
1035:
1031:
1030:
1024:
1022:
1018:
1017:
1012:
1011:
1000:
998:
994:
990:
986:
976:
967:
965:
961:
957:
953:
949:
945:
935:
933:
929:
925:
921:
917:
913:
909:
905:
902:
901:Roman emperor
894:
890:
886:
882:
881:
880:
878:
874:
873:
868:
863:
861:
857:
853:
849:
848:
843:
842:
837:
836:
831:
827:
826:
821:
817:
813:
809:
808:
807:Maduraikkanci
803:
802:
791:
789:
785:
781:
777:
773:
769:
765:
761:
757:
753:
749:
745:
741:
737:
733:
729:
725:
720:
716:
714:
710:
704:
700:
692:
690:
689:
684:
680:
676:
671:
669:
666:in the west,
665:
660:
656:
655:
654:Cilapatikaram
650:
646:
645:
640:
636:
631:
629:
625:
621:
617:
612:
608:
604:
600:
599:Sangam period
596:
595:Early Pandyas
584:
579:
577:
572:
570:
565:
564:
562:
561:
556:
546:
545:
544:
543:
537:
534:
532:
528:
523:
515:
514:
508:
505:
503:
499:
495:
491:
490:South Malabar
487:
486:North Malabar
483:
479:
475:
471:
467:
463:
459:
455:
451:
447:
443:
439:
435:
431:
427:
423:
419:
415:
411:
407:
403:
399:
395:
394:Sangam period
391:
386:
378:
377:
367:
360:
350:
349:
346:
343:
342:
338:
334:
333:
323:
318:
316:
311:
309:
304:
303:
301:
300:
292:
291:Ancient sites
289:
287:
284:
282:
279:
277:
274:
272:
269:
267:
264:
262:
259:
257:
254:
253:
246:
245:
238:
235:
233:
232:Gingee Nayaks
230:
228:
225:
223:
220:
218:
215:
213:
210:
208:
205:
203:
202:Chera Kingdom
200:
198:
195:
193:
190:
188:
185:
183:
180:
179:
173:
172:
165:
162:
160:
157:
155:
152:
150:
149:Early Pandyas
147:
145:
142:
140:
137:
135:
132:
130:
127:
125:
122:
120:
117:
115:
112:
110:
107:
105:
102:
100:
97:
96:
93:
92:Sangam period
88:
87:
80:
77:
75:
72:
70:
67:
65:
62:
60:
57:
56:
50:
49:
45:
41:
40:
37:
36:
32:
31:
27:
23:
22:
19:
2348:Pandya kings
2285:
2253:
2203:
2194:
2182:
2170:
2161:
2138:
2114:
2101:
2092:
2083:
2071:
2062:
2054:
2049:
2025:
2013:
2004:
1983:
1977:
1968:
1962:
1956:. p. 2.
1953:
1935:
1929:
1920:
1914:
1905:
1899:
1890:
1884:
1875:
1869:
1860:
1854:
1845:
1839:
1830:
1824:
1815:
1809:
1800:
1794:
1785:
1779:
1770:
1764:
1755:
1749:
1740:
1734:
1725:
1719:
1710:
1704:
1695:
1689:
1683:. p. 8.
1680:
1674:
1665:
1659:
1650:
1644:
1635:
1629:
1620:
1602:
1596:
1587:
1578:
1566:
1557:
1537:
1531:
1525:. p. 5.
1522:
1516:
1507:
1498:
1489:
1480:
1474:. p. 6.
1471:
1465:
1459:. p. 8.
1456:
1455:Thinakaran.
1450:
1441:
1435:
1426:
1420:
1397:
1391:
1363:
1359:adding to it
1354:
1312:
1308:adding to it
1303:
1281:
1277:
1273:
1268:
1264:
1260:
1256:
1252:
1251:, with each
1248:
1244:
1240:
1236:
1232:
1228:
1226:
1205:
1199:January 2019
1196:
1181:Please help
1169:
1122:
1119:Tiruvalluvar
1114:
1106:
1102:
1094:
1092:
1087:
1083:
1079:
1064:
1062:
1060:collection.
1057:
1053:
1045:
1041:
1027:
1025:
1021:Padirrupattu
1020:
1014:
1008:
1006:
995:(27 BCE) to
982:
973:
941:
898:
884:
876:
870:
864:
847:Kaliththokai
845:
839:
833:
825:Nedunalvadai
823:
805:
799:
797:
755:
748:hill country
747:
739:
731:
721:
717:
708:
705:
701:
698:
686:
672:
652:
642:
632:
594:
592:
531:Architecture
525:
518:Other topics
462:Dutch period
388:
281:Inscriptions
261:Architecture
197:Chola Empire
159:Early Cholas
154:Early Cheras
148:
114:Legal system
33:
18:
2053:. E. Keys.
1050:Pudukkottai
1016:Pattuppāṭṭu
985:Alagankulam
948:Satyaputras
908:Alagankulam
875:, mentions
740:new country
732:old country
713:Kurukshetra
620:Thoothukudi
502:Lakshadweep
438:Kolattunadu
414:Ezhil Malai
406:Spice trade
74:Wootz steel
2446:Categories
2383:Literature
1994:References
1440:Caldwell.
1377:See also:
1233:Enberaayam
1151:Government
1141:Courtallam
1129:Ilanji Vel
1124:Tirukkural
1058:Purananuru
1034:Tamraparni
1010:Purananuru
999:(235 CE).
885:Hanyuewang
856:Parathavar
835:Purananuru
788:Tamilakkam
780:Athiyamaan
664:Travancore
434:Valluvanad
249:Categories
124:Government
2467:Tamilakam
2254:Capitals:
2181:(1984) .
1874:Husaini.
1859:Husaini.
1814:Husaini.
1784:Husaini.
1739:Husaini.
1724:Husaini.
1679:Husaini.
1649:Husaini.
1601:Iyengar.
1588:tufts.edu
1425:Iyengar.
1406:cite book
1366:June 2008
1315:June 2008
1170:does not
964:Kharavela
841:Agananuru
603:Tamilakam
522:Geography
398:Tamilakam
276:Monuments
271:Economies
109:Education
59:Tamiḻakam
2398:Religion
2193:(1904).
2160:(2003).
2136:(1995).
2112:(1998).
2082:(1972).
2047:(1881).
2023:(2001).
1889:Sastri.
1709:Pillai.
1694:Sastri.
1664:Sastri.
1536:Sastri.
1327:Religion
1245:Mandalam
1019:and the
993:Augustus
830:Nakkirar
760:Sanskrit
754:meaning
746:meaning
738:meaning
688:Periplus
651:such as
337:a series
335:Part of
139:Religion
26:a series
24:Part of
2408:Temples
2388:Economy
2281:Origins
2273:History
2265:Tenkasi
2257:Madurai
1338:Economy
1287:Culture
1269:Kootram
1241:Kootram
1237:Kootram
1191:removed
1176:sources
1145:Pandyas
1139:, near
1099:Tanjore
1003:History
960:Kalinga
958:of the
893:Tianzhu
867:Yu Huan
852:Maravar
816:Madurai
752:Pallava
683:Ptolemy
668:Vellaru
624:Madurai
597:of the
527:Economy
426:Calicut
266:Culture
134:Society
129:Economy
99:Sources
2261:Korkai
2246:topics
2146:
2122:
2033:
1137:Ilanji
1133:velirs
1111:Musiri
1071:Vaigai
1013:, the
954:. The
912:Vaigai
904:Julian
872:Weilüe
822:. The
772:Pandya
762:. The
756:branch
730:means
728:Pandya
724:Sangam
679:Strabo
616:Korkai
611:Cheras
609:, and
607:Cholas
442:Cochin
402:Cheras
339:on the
164:Velirs
1384:Notes
1265:Cheri
1249:Nadus
1076:Kongu
962:King
924:China
784:Kings
776:Tamil
768:Chola
764:Chera
744:Chera
736:Chola
536:Forts
286:Forts
144:Music
2263:and
2144:ISBN
2120:ISBN
2031:ISBN
1412:link
1253:Nadu
1174:any
1172:cite
920:Rome
899:The
838:and
770:and
750:and
593:The
381:Main
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1361:.
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810:by
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