Echinoderm - Knowledge

2035:. This is especially common in cold water species where planktonic larvae might not be able to find sufficient food. These retained eggs are usually few in number and are supplied with large yolks to nourish the developing embryos. In starfish, the female may carry the eggs in special pouches, under her arms, under her arched body, or even in her cardiac stomach. Many brittle stars are hermaphrodites; they often brood their eggs, usually in special chambers on their oral surfaces, but sometimes in the ovary or coelom. In these starfish and brittle stars, development is usually direct to the adult form, without passing through a bilateral larval stage. A few sea urchins and one species of sand dollar carry their eggs in cavities, or near their anus, holding them in place with their spines. Some sea cucumbers use their buccal tentacles to transfer their eggs to their underside or back, where they are retained. In a very small number of species, the eggs are retained in the coelom where they develop 1736: 2271: 1392: 1205: 925: 2518: 2356: 2454:, while the larvae are a major component of the plankton. Among the ecological roles of adults are the grazing of sea urchins, the sediment processing of heart urchins, and the suspension and deposit feeding of crinoids and sea cucumbers. Some sea urchins can bore into solid rock, destabilising rock faces and releasing nutrients into the ocean. Coral reefs are also bored into in this way, but the rate of accretion of carbonate material is often greater than the erosion produced by the sea urchin. Echinoderms sequester about 0.1 gigatonnes of carbon dioxide per year as 1375: 945: 1341: 1976:. Sea cucumbers often discharge parts of their internal organs if they perceive themselves to be threatened, regenerating them over the course of several months. Sea urchins constantly replace spines lost through damage, while sea stars and sea lilies readily lose and regenerate their arms. In most cases, a single severed arm cannot grow into a new starfish in the absence of at least part of the disc. However, in a few species a single arm can survive and develop into a complete individual, and arms are sometimes intentionally detached for the purpose of 1446:. Echinoderms left behind an extensive fossil record. It is hypothesised that the ancestor of all echinoderms was a simple, motile, bilaterally symmetrical animal with a mouth, gut and anus. This ancestral organism adopted an attached mode of life with suspension feeding, and developed radial symmetry. Even so, the larvae of all echinoderms are bilaterally symmetrical, and all develop radial symmetry at metamorphosis. Like their ancestor, the starfish and crinoids still attach themselves to the seabed while changing to their adult form. 1476: 993: 2225: 1324: 854: 1517: 1086: 894: 185: 1184: 1954: 1551: 2295:

are unattached and usually live in crevices, under corals or inside sponges with their arms the only visible part. Some sea feathers emerge at night and perch themselves on nearby eminences to better exploit food-bearing currents. Many species can "walk" across the seabed, raising their body with the help of their arms, or swim using their arms. Most species of sea feather, however, are largely sedentary, seldom moving far from their chosen place of concealment.

2435: 2024:. The eggs and sperm cells are typically released into open water, where fertilisation takes place. The release of sperm and eggs is synchronised in some species, usually with regard to the lunar cycle. In other species, individuals may aggregate during the reproductive season, increasing the likelihood of successful fertilisation. Internal fertilisation has been observed in three species of sea star, three brittle stars and a deep-water sea cucumber. Even at 1535: 2334:

through their guts. In this way they disturb and process large volumes of substrate, often leaving characteristic ridges of sediment on the seabed. Some sea cucumbers live infaunally in burrows, anterior-end down and anus on the surface, swallowing sediment and passing it through their gut. Other burrowers live anterior-end up and wait for detritus to fall into the entrances of the burrows or rake in debris from the surface nearby with their buccal podia.

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to the coelom. Some holothuroids like the Apodida lack tube feet and canals along the body; others have longitudinal canals. The arrangement in crinoids is similar to that in asteroids, but the tube feet lack suckers and are used in a back-and-forth wafting motion to pass food particles captured by the arms towards the central mouth. In the asteroids, the same motion is employed to move the animal across the ground.

1363: 1762:. The ring canal branches into a set of radial canals, which in asteroids extend along the arms, and in echinoids adjoin the test in the ambulacral areas. Short lateral canals branch off the radial canals, each one ending in an ampulla. Part of the ampulla can protrude through a pore (or a pair of pores in sea urchins) to the exterior, forming a podium or 1842:, and the blood often lacks any respiratory pigment. Gaseous exchange occurs via dermal branchiae or papulae in starfish, genital bursae in brittle stars, peristominal gills in sea urchins and cloacal trees in sea cucumbers. Exchange of gases also takes place through the tube feet. Echinoderms lack specialized excretory (waste disposal) organs and so 2054: 6276:

Arshinoff, Bradley I; Cary, Gregory A; Karimi, Kamran; Foley, Saoirse; Agalakov, Sergei; Delgado, Francisco; Lotay, Vaneet S; Ku, Carolyn J; Pells, Troy J; Beatman, Thomas R; Kim, Eugene; Cameron, R Andrew; Vize, Peter D; Telmer, Cheryl A; Croce, Jenifer C; Ettensohn, Charles A; Hinman, Veronica F (7

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Many sea urchins feed on algae, often scraping off the thin layer of algae covering the surfaces of rocks with their specialised mouthparts known as Aristotle's lantern. Other species devour smaller organisms, which they may catch with their tube feet. They may also feed on dead fish and other animal

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Historically, taxonomists believed that the Ophiuroidea were sister to the Asteroidea as the clade Asterozoa, or that they were sister to the (Holothuroidea + Echinoidea) as the clade Cryptosyringida. However, a 2014 analysis of 219 genes from all classes of echinoderms resulted in strong support for

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in the Caribbean caused a change from a coral-dominated reef system to an alga-dominated one. Sea urchins are among the main herbivores on reefs and there is usually a fine balance between the urchins and the kelp and other algae on which they graze. A diminution of the numbers of predators (otters,

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and have bands of cilia with which they swim; some, usually known as 'pluteus' larvae, have arms. When fully developed they settle on the seabed to undergo metamorphosis, and the larval arms and gut degenerate. The left-hand side of the larva develops into the oral surface of the juvenile, while the

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Although individual ossicles are robust and fossilize readily, complete skeletons of starfish, brittle stars and crinoids are rare in the fossil record. On the other hand, sea urchins are often well preserved in chalk beds or limestone. During fossilization, the cavities in the stereom are filled in

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are long and sharp and can cause a painful puncture wound as the epithelium covering them contains a toxin. Because of their catch connective tissue, which can change rapidly from a flaccid to a rigid state, echinoderms are very difficult to dislodge from crevices. Some sea cucumbers have a cluster

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The majority of crinoids are motile, but sea lilies are sessile and attached to hard substrates by stalks. Movement in most sea lilies is limited to bending (their stems can bend) and rolling and unrolling their arms; a few species can relocate themselves on the seabed by crawling. The sea feathers

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The organisation of the water vascular system is somewhat different in ophiuroids, where the madreporite may be on the oral surface and the podia lack suckers. In holothuroids, the system is reduced, often with few tube feet other than the specialised feeding tentacles, and the madreporite opens on

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extending down the side of the body, fringed on either side by brachioles, like the pinnules of a modern crinoid. Eventually, except for the crinoids, all the classes of echinoderms reversed their orientation to become mouth-downward. Before this happened, the podia probably had a feeding function,

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Sea cucumbers are often mobile deposit or suspension feeders, using their buccal podia to actively capture food and then stuffing the particles individually into their buccal cavities. Others ingest large quantities of sediment, absorb the organic matter and pass the indigestible mineral particles

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Sea urchins use their tube feet to move around in a similar way to starfish. Some also use their articulated spines to push or lever themselves along or lift their oral surfaces off the substrate. If a sea urchin is overturned, it can extend its tube feet in one ambulacral area far enough to bring

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at least periodically occupy much of the body cavities of sea urchins and sea cucumbers, while the less voluminous crinoids, brittle stars and starfish have two gonads in each arm. While the ancestors of modern echinoderms are believed to have had one genital aperture, many organisms have multiple

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Echinoderms possess a simple digestive system which varies according to the animal's diet. Starfish are mostly carnivorous and have a mouth, oesophagus, two-part stomach, intestine and rectum, with the anus located in the centre of the aboral body surface. With a few exceptions, the members of the

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Crinoids catch food particles using the tube feet on their outspread pinnules, move them into the ambulacral grooves, wrap them in mucus, and convey them to the mouth using the cilia lining the grooves. The exact dietary requirements of crinoids have been little researched, but in the laboratory,

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Nearly all starfish are detritus feeders or carnivores, though a few are suspension feeders. Small fish landing on the upper surface may be captured by pedicilaria and dead animal matter may be scavenged but the main prey items are living invertebrates, mostly bivalve molluscs. To feed on one of

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The modes of feeding vary greatly between the different echinoderm taxa. Crinoids and some brittle stars tend to be passive filter-feeders, enmeshing suspended particles from passing water. Most sea urchins are grazers; sea cucumbers are deposit feeders; and the majority of starfish are active

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movements; some have short tube feet on their under surface with which they can creep along in the manner of a starfish. Some species drag themselves along using their buccal tentacles, while others manage to swim with peristaltic movements or rhythmic flexing. Many live in cracks, hollows and

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The epidermis contains pigment cells that provide the often vivid colours of echinoderms, which include deep red, stripes of black and white, and intense purple. These cells may be light-sensitive, causing many echinoderms to change appearance completely as night falls. The reaction can happen

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coelom and often also a perihaemal coelom. During development, echinoderm coelom is divided into the metacoel, mesocoel and protocoel (also called somatocoel, hydrocoel and axocoel, respectively). The water vascular system, haemal system and perihaemal system form the tubular coelomic system.

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Brittle stars are the most agile of the echinoderms. Any one of the arms can form the axis of symmetry, pointing either forwards or back. The animal then moves in a co-ordinated way, propelled by the other four arms. During locomotion, the propelling arms can made either snake-like or rowing

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Cloning is costly to the larva both in resources and in development time. Larvae undergo this process when food is plentiful or temperature conditions are optimal. Cloning may occur to make use of the tissues that are normally lost during metamorphosis. The larvae of some sand dollars clone

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of the bivalve relaxes, more stomach is inserted and when digestion is complete, the stomach is returned to its usual position in the starfish with its now liquefied bivalve meal inside it. Other starfish evert the stomach to feed on sponges, sea anemones, corals, detritus and algal films.

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Echinoderms primarily use their tube feet to move about, though some sea urchins also use their spines. The tube feet typically have a tip shaped like a suction pad in which a vacuum can be created by contraction of muscles. This combines with some stickiness from the secretion of

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are however pelagic. Some crinoids are pseudo-planktonic, attaching themselves to floating logs and debris, although this behaviour was exercised most extensively in the Paleozoic, before competition from organisms such as barnacles restricted the extent of the behaviour.

2564:. The sea cucumbers are boiled for twenty minutes and then dried both naturally and later over a fire which gives them a smoky tang. In China they are used as a basis for gelatinous soups and stews. Both male and female gonads of sea urchins are consumed, particularly in 2421:

which can be ejected as long sticky threads from their anus to entangle and permanently disable an attacker. Sea cucumbers occasionally defend themselves by rupturing their body wall and discharging the gut and internal organs. Starfish and brittle stars may undergo

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marks the opening of the "second mouth" that places echinoderms within the deuterostomes, and the mesoderm, which will host the skeleton, migrates inwards. The secondary body cavity, the coelom, forms by the partitioning of three body cavities. The larvae are often

1908:. Nerves radiate from central rings around the mouth into each arm or along the body wall; the branches of these nerves coordinate the movements of the organism and the synchronisation of the tube feet. Starfish have sensory cells in the epithelium and have simple 1651:

Genetic studies have showed that genes which direct the development of the trunk region is absent during the development (only known exception is a gene active at the tip of the sea stars arms), indicating that their body consists of just a developed head region.

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The larvae pass through several stages, which have specific names derived from the taxonomic names of the adults or from their appearance. For example, a sea urchin has an 'echinopluteus' larva while a brittle star has an 'ophiopluteus' larva. A starfish has a

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Echinoderms have secondary radial symmetry in portions of their body at some stage of life, most likely an adaptation to a sessile or slow-moving existence. Many crinoids and some seastars are symmetrical in multiples of the basic five; starfish such as

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with the disc splitting in two. Both the lost disc area and the missing arms regrow, so an individual may have arms of varying lengths. During the period of regrowth, they have a few tiny arms and one large arm, and are thus often known as "comets".

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The first echinoderms were non-motile, but evolved into animals able to move freely. These soon developed endoskeletal plates with stereom structure, and external ciliary grooves for feeding. The Paleozoic echinoderms were globular, attached to the

1766:. The water vascular system assists with the distribution of nutrients throughout the animal's body; it is most visible in the tube feet which can be extended or contracted by the redistribution of fluid between the foot and the internal ampulla. 2318:, while other brittle stars use several methods of feeding. Some are suspension feeders, securing food particles with mucus strands, spines or tube feet on their raised arms. Others are scavengers and detritus feeders. Others again are voracious 2127:

themselves when they detect dissolved fish mucus, indicating the presence of predators. Asexual reproduction produces many smaller larvae that escape better from planktivorous fish, implying that the mechanism may be an anti-predator adaptation.

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farmers, for whom the starfish pose a major threat by eating their cultured stock. Other uses for the starfish they recover include the manufacture of animal feed, composting and the preparation of dried specimens for the arts and craft trade.

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The larvae of some echinoderms are capable of asexual reproduction. This has long been known to occur among starfish and brittle stars, but has more recently been observed in a sea cucumber, a sand dollar and a sea urchin. This may be by

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these, the starfish moves over it, attaches its tube feet and exerts pressure on the valves by arching its back. When a small gap between the valves is formed, the starfish inserts part of its stomach into the prey, excretes digestive

2263:; in some way, however, the tube feet are coordinated, as the animal glides steadily along. Some burrowing starfish have points rather than suckers on their tube feet and they are able to "glide" across the seabed at a faster rate. 2098:

uses this method frequently, splitting into two a little in front of the midpoint. The two halves each regenerate their missing organs over a period of several months, but the missing genital organs are often very slow to develop.

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Sartori D., Scuderi A.; Sansone G.; Gaion A. (February 2015). "Echinoculture: the rearing of Paracentrotus lividus in a recirculating aquaculture system—experiments of artificial diets for the maintenance of sexual maturation".

1717:-based material can change its mechanical properties under nervous control rather than by muscular means. This tissue enables a starfish to go from moving flexibly around the seabed to becoming rigid while prying open a 2411:

include the presence of spines, toxins (inherent or delivered through the tube feet), and the discharge of sticky entangling threads by sea cucumbers. Although most echinoderm spines are blunt, those of the

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them within reach of the substrate and then successively attach feet from the adjoining area until it is righted. Some species bore into rock, usually by grinding away at the surface with their mouthparts.

1593:, free-swimming organisms with bilateral symmetry. Later, during metamorphosis, the left side of the body grows at the expense of the right side, which is eventually absorbed. The left side then grows in a 1799:, sorting through the sediment with modified tube feet around their mouth, the buccal tentacles. Sand and mud accompanies their food through their simple gut, which has a long coiled intestine and a large 1754:(body cavity) that function in gas exchange, feeding, sensory reception and locomotion. This system varies between different classes of echinoderm but typically opens to the exterior through a sieve-like 715:

formations and can provide valuable clues as to the geological environment. They were the most used species in regenerative research in the 19th and 20th centuries. Further, some scientists hold that the

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Telmer, Cheryl; Karimi, Kamran; Chess, Macie; Agalakov, Sergei; Arshinoff, Bradley; Lotay, Vaneet; Wang, Dong Zhuo; Chu, Stanley; Pells, Troy; Vize, Peter; Hinman, Veronica; Ettensohn, Charles (2024).

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to form flexible joints as in the arms of sea stars, brittle stars and crinoids. The ossicles may bear external projections in the form of spines, granules or warts and they are supported by a tough

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larva. The provision of a yolk-sac means that smaller numbers of eggs are produced, the larvae have a shorter development period and a smaller dispersal potential, but a greater chance of survival.

2039:, later emerging through ruptures in the body wall. In some crinoids, the embryos develop in special breeding bags, where the eggs are held until sperm released by a male happens to find them. 1811:

which drift into their outstretched arms. Boluses of mucus-trapped food are passed to the mouth, which is linked to the anus by a loop consisting of a short oesophagus and longer intestine.

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do not possess an anus. In many species of starfish, the large cardiac stomach can be everted to digest food outside the body. Some other species are able to ingest whole food items such as

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In 2019, 129,052 tonnes of echinoderms were harvested. The majority of these were sea cucumbers (59,262 tonnes) and sea urchins (66,341 tonnes). These are used mainly for food, but also in

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as they do in the crinoids today. The locomotor function of the podia came later, when the re-orientation of the mouth brought the podia into contact with the substrate for the first time.

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Edgecombe, Gregory D.; Giribet, Gonzalo; Dunn, Casey W.; Hejnol, Andreas; Kristensen, Reinhardt M.; Neves, Ricardo C.; Rouse, Greg W.; Worsaae, Katrine; Sørensen, Martin V. (June 2011).

2532:. Sea cucumbers are considered a delicacy in some countries of southeast Asia; as such, they are in imminent danger of being over-harvested. Popular species include the pineapple roller 1831:

Echinoderms are unusual in having both a coelomic circulatory system (the water vascular system) and a haemal circulatory system, as most groups of animals have just one of the two.

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larva, living and feeding in the water column, is considered to be the ancestral larval type for echinoderms, but in extant echinoderms, some 68% of species develop using a

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and able to lasso their waterborne prey with a sudden encirclement by their flexible arms. The limbs then bend under the disc to transfer the food to the jaws and mouth.

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cells (for cytotoxicity, inflammation, and anti-bacterial activity), vibratile cells (for coelomic fluid movement and clotting), and crystal cells (which may serve for

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Smith, A., Zamora, S. & Álvaro, J. The oldest echinoderm faunas from Gondwana show that echinoderm body plan diversification was rapid. Nat Commun 4, 1385 (2013).

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Echinoderms become sexually mature after approximately two to three years, depending on the species and the environmental conditions. Almost all species have separate

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or preventing itself from being extracted from a crevice. Similarly, sea urchins can lock their normally mobile spines upright as a defensive mechanism when attacked.

1865:. These cells are usually large and granular, and are believed to be a main line of defence against potential pathogens. Depending on the class, echinoderms may have 1427:

of Australia. These fossils are disc-like, with radial ridges on the rim and a five-pointed central depression marked with radial lines. However, the fossils have no

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on the aboral (upper) surface of the animal. The madreporite is linked to a slender duct, the stone canal, which extends to a ring canal that encircles the mouth or

3377: 1980:. During periods when they have lost their digestive tracts, sea cucumbers live off stored nutrients and absorb dissolved organic matter directly from the water. 6108:

Gaion, A.; Scuderi, A.; Pellegrini, D.; Sartori, D. (2013). "Arsenic Exposure Affects Embryo Development of Sea Urchin, Paracentrotus lividus (Lamarck, 1816)".

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stage. New larvae can develop from the preoral hood (a mound like structure above the mouth), the side body wall, the postero-lateral arms, or their rear ends.

1475: 1263:, but they are found in habitats ranging from shallow intertidal areas to abyssal depths. Two main subdivisions are traditionally recognised: the more familiar 6043: 5924: 5821: 2572:. The taste is described as soft and melting, like a mixture of seafood and fruit. Sea urchin breeding trials have been undertaken to try to compensate for 5897: 2426:

when attacked, detaching an arm; this may distract the predator for long enough for the animal to escape. Some starfish species can swim away from danger.

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Vaughn, Dawn (March 2010). "Why run and hide when you can divide? Evidence for larval cloning and reduced larval size as an adaptive inducible defense".

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The GI of urchins in the wild can vary hugely and can be less than 1% or as high as 20%, whilst for cultured sea urchins GI values can be as high as 35%

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Yamaguchi, M.; J. S. Lucas (1984). "Natural parthenogenesis, larval and juvenile development, and geographical distribution of the coral reef asteroid

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Echinoderms sometimes have large population swings which can transform ecosystems. In 1983, for example, the mass mortality of the tropical sea urchin

1672:. If solid, these would form a heavy skeleton, so they have a sponge-like porous structure known as stereom. Ossicles may be fused together, as in the 701:

tissue, organs and limbs; in some cases, they can undergo complete regeneration from a single limb. Geologically, the value of echinoderms is in their

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The echinoderms are important both ecologically and geologically. Ecologically, there are few other groupings so abundant in the biotic desert of the

5348: 8151: 6495: 6544: 6279:"Echinobase: leveraging an extant model organism database to build a knowledgebase supporting research on the genomics and biology of echinoderms" 5293: 8779: 3907: 3407:

Formery, L.; Peluso, P.; Kohnle, I.; Malnick, J.; Thompson, J. R.; Pitel, M.; Uhlinger, K. R.; Rokhsar, D. S.; Rank, D. R.; Lowe, C. J. (2023).

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Sartori, D.; Gaion, A. (2015). "Toxicity of polyunsaturated aldehydes of diatoms to Indo-Pacific bioindicator organism Echinometra mathaei".

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and generate new tissues. Morphallactic regeneration involves the movement and remodelling of existing tissues to replace lost parts. Direct

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where the arms are flexible. The oral surface is covered with thousands of tube feet which move out of time with each other, but not in a

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to provide adhesion. The tube feet contract and relax in waves which move along the adherent surface, and the animal moves slowly along.

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that assist in gravitational orientation, and they too have sensory cells in their epidermis, particularly in the tube feet, spines and

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Asterozoa. An independent analysis in 2015 of RNA transcriptomes from 23 species across all classes of echinoderms gave the same tree.

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Despite their low nutrition value and the abundance of indigestible calcite, echinoderms are preyed upon by many organisms, including

1374: 8753: 5748: 4125: 8792: 7857: 5242:"Getting around when you're round: Quantitative analysis of the locomotion of the blunt-spined brittle star, Ophiocoma echinata" 3525:

Perillo, Margherita; Oulhen, Nathalie; Foster, Stephany; Spurrell, Maxwell; Calestani, Cristina; Wessel, Gary (19 August 2020).

1857:, or immune cells. There are several types of immune cells, which vary among classes and species. All classes possess a type of 1791:

through their mouth. Sea urchins are herbivores and use their specialised mouthparts to graze, tear and chew their food, mainly

2624:. Currently there are 4 species of echinoderms fully supported (gene pages, BLAST, JBrowse tracks, genome downloads) including 2604:

are used for this purpose in embryological studies. The large size and the transparency of the eggs enables the observation of

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and touch-sensitive tentacle-like tube feet at the tips of their arms. Sea urchins have no particular sense organs but do have

2686:. Four thousand tons of the animals are used annually for these purposes. This trade is often carried out in conjunction with 2084:, adults reproduce asexually until they mature, then reproduce sexually. In most of these species, asexual reproduction is by 6460: 6415: 4822: 4362: 4254: 4034: 3993: 3746: 3482: 3287: 3151: 2700: 2282:

Sea cucumbers are generally sluggish animals. Many can move on the surface of the seabed or burrow through sand or mud using

8797: 4701: 1391: 1920:. Brittle stars, crinoids and sea cucumbers in general do not have sensory organs, but some burrowing sea cucumbers of the 2401:

and humans. Larger starfish prey on smaller ones; the great quantity of eggs and larva that they produce form part of the

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can observe distinctive cleavage patterns and sometimes even the intricate internal and external structure of the test.

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Xiaofeng, Wang; Hagdorn, Hans; Chuanshang, Wang (September 2006). "Pseudoplanktonic lifestyle of the Triassic crinoid

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Eaves, Alexandra A.; Palmer, A. Richard (11 September 2003). "Reproduction: Widespread cloning in echinoderm larvae".

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Echinoderms are globally distributed in almost all depths, latitudes and environments in the ocean. Adults are mainly

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Hart, M. W. (January–February 2002). "Life history evolution and comparative developmental biology of echinoderms".

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Telford, M. J.; Lowe, C. J.; Cameron, C. B.; Ortega-Martinez, O.; Aronowicz, J.; Oliveri, P.; Copley, R. R. (2014).

8864: 6608: 6035: 4021:. Advances in Experimental Medicine and Biology. Vol. 708. Boston, Massachusetts: Springer. pp. 260–301. 2742: 5814: 2876: 1838:

and reduced circulatory system. This usually consists of a central ring and five radial vessels. There is no true

8810: 6603: 6380: 2612:. The arm regeneration potential of brittle stars is being studied in connection with understanding and treating 6518: 5798: 4444: 1735: 2172:' larva. A sea cucumber's larva is an 'auricularia' while a crinoid's is a 'vitellaria'. All these larvae are 6687: 6677: 6660: 5640:

Herrera-Escalante, T.; López-Pérez, R. A.; Leyte-Morales, G. E. (2005). "Bioerosion caused by the sea urchin

2809: 2626: 2594: 1382: 763: 5815:"B-76 Sea-urchins and other echinoderms Capture production by species, fishing areas and countries or areas" 1927:

have a single statocyst adjoining each radial nerve, and some have an eyespot at the base of each tentacle.

2529: 2522: 2160:, but in some species the eggs are retained inside the female, while in some the female broods the larvae. 2104: 5356: 2253:

movements. Starfish move using their tube feet, keeping their arms almost still, including in genera like

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amebocyte, which engulf invading particles and infected cells, aggregate or clot, and may be involved in

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Echinoderms possess a unique water vascular system, a network of fluid-filled canals modified from the

1594: 721: 5673:"Global contribution of echinoderms to the marine carbon cycle: CaCO3 budget and benthic compartments" 2842: 2405:, consumed by many marine creatures. Crinoids, on the other hand, are relatively free from predation. 1688:" in sea urchins, the supportive stalks of crinoids, and the structural "lime ring" of sea cucumbers. 8820: 7994: 3327:"The manoeuvrability hypothesis to explain the maintenance of bilateral symmetry in animal evolution" 2361: 1431:

or internal structure indicating a water vascular system, so they cannot be conclusively identified.

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Smith, L. Courtney; Ghosh, Julie; Buckley, Katherine M.; et al. (2010). "Echinoderm Immunity".

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Weber, W.; Dambach, M. (April 1974). "Light-sensitivity of isolated pigment cells of the sea urchin

2492:), which graze on living coral tissue, has greatly increased coral mortality and reduced coral reef 8869: 6527: 5970: 5494: 3765:

Sampling Biodiversity in Coastal Communities: NaGISA Protocols for Seagrass and Macroalgal Habitats

3095:"A boom–bust phylum? Ecological and evolutionary consequences of density variations in echinoderms" 2734: 2485: 2413: 6532: 1787:. Brittle stars, which have varying diets, have a blind gut with no intestine or anus; they expel 1684:. Skeletal elements are sometimes deployed in specialized ways, such as the chewing organ called " 8902: 8669: 8079: 6692: 5975: 2230: 2173: 2151:

Development begins with a bilaterally symmetrical embryo, with a coeloblastula developing first.

2115:. Autotomised parts or buds may develop directly into fully formed larvae, or may pass through a 1835: 1710: 1597:

symmetric fashion, in which the body is arranged in five parts around a central axis. Within the

1534: 639: 132: 2584:

Because of their robust larval growth, sea urchins are widely used in research, particularly as

2270: 780:, meaning that their ancestors were mirror-symmetric. Among the bilaterians, they belong to the 8846: 8631: 7843: 6564: 5548: 5433: 1965: 1874: 1685: 1677: 1586: 1331: 739: 717: 698: 6242:"A literature review of sea star control methods for bottom and off bottom shellfish cultures" 4434: 3734: 1362: 8841: 8307: 7957: 6655: 6514: 5599:"Purification and partial characterisation of an autotomy-promoting factor from the sea star 5525: 4580: 2911:"Phylogenomic Analyses of Echinodermata Support the Sister Groups of Asterozoa and Echinozoa" 2632: 2589: 2140: 1948: 1740: 1730: 1635: 1352: 793: 152: 8856: 8833: 2784: 1204: 924: 8892: 8727: 8678: 7972: 5998: 5684: 5199: 5157: 5043: 4977: 4730: 4599: 4545: 3420: 3238: 3194: 3106: 3030: 2922: 2517: 2408: 2072: 2000: 1977: 1886: 1669: 944: 805: 694: 307: 162: 8784: 4965: 1611:

also contain some six-armed species. Amongst the brittle stars, six-armed species such as

8: 5597:

Mladenov, Philip V.; Igdoura, Suleiman; Asotra, Satish; Burke, Robert D. (1 April 1989).

4853: 4346: 4110: 1681: 1644: 1454:

and were orientated with their oral surfaces facing upwards. These early echinoderms had

1451: 1295: 341: 7835: 6357: 6332: 6002: 5763: 5688: 5203: 5161: 5047: 4981: 4904: 4734: 4603: 4549: 4146: 3424: 3110: 3034: 2926: 2177:

right side becomes the aboral surface. At this stage the pentaradial symmetry develops.

2028:, where no light penetrates, echinoderms often synchronise their reproductive activity. 8302: 7984: 7120: 6672: 6650: 6638: 6613: 6489: 6433: 6305: 6278: 6176: 6133: 6090: 6014: 5902: 5874: 5847: 5622: 5215: 5059: 5009: 4993: 4936: 4885: 4806: 4764: 4693: 4667:"Regeneration of the Reproductive System Following Binary Fission in the Sea-Cucumber, 4647: 4561: 4415: 4399: 4304: 4246: 3640: 3636: 3605: 3553: 3526: 3353: 3326: 3305: 3046: 2994: 2969: 2945: 2910: 2644: 2600: 2481: 2472:

lobsters and fish) can result in an increase in urchin numbers, causing overgrazing of

2467: 2355: 2260: 2094: 2085: 1819: 1617: 792:

instead of the mouth. The characteristics of adult echinoderms are the possession of a

179: 8683: 6215: 5945: 3018: 2450:

Echinoderms are numerous invertebrates whose adults play an important role in benthic

1743:

of a starfish, showing the ring canal, the radial canals, ampullae (small bulbs), and

8828: 8696: 8094: 7542: 7462: 6812: 6682: 6645: 6633: 6623: 6557: 6475: 6456: 6421: 6411: 6362: 6310: 6219: 6168: 6164: 6137: 6125: 6094: 6082: 5949: 5879: 5794: 5727: 5653: 5386: 5263: 5013: 5001: 4928: 4877: 4814: 4756: 4440: 4407: 4358: 4312: 4040: 4030: 3999: 3989: 3930: 3889: 3879: 3854: 3769: 3742: 3597: 3558: 3478: 3444: 3436: 3408: 3358: 3293: 3283: 3147: 2999: 2950: 2650: 2613: 2544: 2455: 2418: 2239: 1957: 1882: 1843: 1818:

of echinoderms are complex. Aside from the water vascular system, echinoderms have a

1804: 1759: 1455: 690: 6180: 6018: 5219: 5063: 4940: 4889: 4565: 4419: 3973: 3954: 3644: 3168: 3050: 1692:

with calcite that is continuous with the surrounding rock. On fracturing such rock,

1259:

species of echinoderm as well as about 13,000 extinct species. All echinoderms are

992: 8370: 8249: 8141: 8084: 8024: 8019: 7947: 7932: 6597: 6352: 6344: 6300: 6290: 6211: 6160: 6117: 6074: 6006: 5941: 5869: 5859: 5702: 5692: 5671:

Lebrato, Mario; Iglesias-Rodríguez, Debora; Feely, Richard A.; et al. (2010).

5614: 5253: 5207: 5165: 5051: 4985: 4920: 4869: 4798: 4783: 4768: 4746: 4738: 4685: 4607: 4553: 4391: 4350: 4296: 4238: 4219: 4193: 4075:"A Guide to the Sea Urchin Reproductive Cycle and Staging Sea Urchin Gonad Samples" 4022: 3981: 3632: 3609: 3589: 3548: 3538: 3428: 3348: 3338: 3139: 3114: 3038: 2989: 2981: 2940: 2930: 2573: 2534: 2224: 1524: 654:(pentamerous symmetry), and are found on the sea bed at every ocean depth from the 567: 497: 35: 6816: 6194:

Longo, F. J.; Anderson, E. (June 1969). "Sperm differentiation in the sea urchins

6121: 6078: 4666: 3980:. Advances in Experimental Medicine and Biology. Vol. 708. pp. 260–301. 8543: 8448: 8410: 8365: 8297: 8054: 8014: 7999: 7892: 7823: 7729: 7580: 7483: 7340: 6873: 6539: 5940:. Developments in Aquaculture and Fisheries Science. Vol. 37. pp. 1–4. 5785: 4026: 3985: 3763: 2935: 2909:

Escriva, Hector; Reich, Adrian; Dunn, Casey; Akasaka, Koji; Wessel, Gary (2015).

2675: 2656: 2638: 2077: 1921: 849: 655: 651: 432: 426: 374: 5864: 4379: 4354: 4280: 3143: 2648:(Crown-of-thorns sea star). Partially supported species (no gene pages) include 8603: 8548: 8538: 8380: 8194: 8146: 8059: 8034: 8029: 8009: 8004: 7907: 7897: 7488: 7466: 7284: 7196: 7174: 7137: 6628: 6348: 5936:

Lawrence, John M. (2001). "The edible sea urchins". In John M. Lawrence (ed.).

4378:

Mashanov, Vladimir S.; Igor Yu. Dolmatov; Thomas Heinzeller (1 December 2005).

4279:

Dobson, W. E.; S. E. Stancyk; L. A. Clements; R. M. Showman (1 February 1991).

3432: 2877:"Echinodermata: Spiny-skinned animals: sea urchins, starfish, and their allies" 2768: 2763: 2585: 2185: 2181: 2032: 1893: 1870: 1834:

Haemal and perihaemal systems are derived from the original coelom, forming an

1673: 1489: 1483: 1465: 1435: 1260: 893: 853: 353: 171: 6449: 6256: 6010: 5211: 5169: 5055: 4338: 4278: 3893: 3462:

New Genetic Study Reveals Sea Stars Are Just A Bunch of Heads Smushed Together

3042: 3019:"Higher-level metazoan relationships: recent progress and remaining questions" 8886: 8327: 8312: 8274: 8199: 8135: 8121: 8069: 8064: 7978: 7967: 7962: 7942: 7937: 7912: 7633: 7537: 7036: 6425: 3440: 3297: 2477: 2330:, detritus, algal pieces and the bacterial layer surrounding grains of sand. 2327: 2144: 2021: 2003:

of one type of tissue to another during tissue replacement is also observed.

1991:. In epimorphosis stem cells—either from a reserve pool or those produced by 1953: 1917: 1275: 1115: 1085: 876: 675: 421: 142: 122: 70: 5598: 4989: 2970:"Phylogenomic analysis of echinoderm class relationships supports Asterozoa" 1709:

One characteristic of most echinoderms is a special kind of tissue known as

8654: 8523: 8518: 8493: 8468: 8458: 8385: 8254: 8128: 8089: 8074: 8049: 8044: 7989: 7922: 7739: 7734: 7622: 7478: 7364: 7250: 7153: 7132: 7002: 6953: 6909: 6890: 6366: 6314: 6295: 6172: 6129: 6086: 5883: 5657: 5267: 5005: 4932: 4881: 4818: 4760: 4751: 4411: 4316: 4198: 4181: 4044: 4003: 3562: 3448: 3362: 3343: 3003: 2985: 2954: 2493: 2459: 2206: 2201: 2197: 2169: 2152: 2025: 1988: 1984: 1862: 1858: 1693: 1603: 1347: 1299: 1287: 1267: 1256: 940: 907: 781: 708: 702: 667: 659: 631: 619: 551: 278: 265: 167: 16:

Exclusively marine phylum of animals with generally 5-point radial symmetry

6223: 4873: 4377: 4281:"Nutrient Translocation during Early Disc Regeneration in the Brittlestar 3601: 3134:

Arnone, Maria Ina; Byrne, Maria; Martinez, Pedro (2015). "Echinodermata".

1601:, there can be a few exceptions from the rule. Most starfish in the genus 1183: 8766: 8706: 8663: 8578: 8553: 8498: 8473: 8395: 8390: 8355: 8345: 8039: 7952: 7700: 7671: 7657: 7647: 7232: 7048: 6961: 6743: 5639: 4924: 2473: 2402: 2315: 2311: 2283: 1854: 1815: 1796: 1780: 1755: 1424: 1311: 1283: 1176: 975: 627: 473: 466: 461: 399: 229: 137: 45: 20: 4997: 4339:"Regenerating Echinoderms: A Promise to Understand Stem Cells Potential" 3543: 2434: 2204:, living as plankton in the open ocean. Some holothuroid adults such as 2053: 678:

phylum. The first definitive echinoderms appeared near the start of the

8611: 8573: 8503: 8483: 8478: 8433: 8405: 8360: 8350: 8322: 8317: 8259: 8234: 7927: 7902: 7797: 7782: 7777: 7758: 7753: 7681: 7628: 7590: 7532: 7406: 7398: 7381: 7161: 7073: 7026: 6966: 6928: 6748: 6733: 5707: 5626: 5258: 5241: 4810: 4697: 4651: 4612: 4557: 4403: 4308: 4250: 4073:

James, Philip; Siikavuopio, Sten; Johansson, Gunhild Seljehaug (2018).

3668: 3666: 3623:

Motokawa, Tatsuo (May 1984). "Connective tissue catch in echinoderms".

3593: 3409:"Molecular evidence of anteroposterior patterning in adult echinoderms" 3220: 3218: 3216: 2884: 2621: 2443: 2398: 2390: 2378: 2291:

and can float in the water with webbed papillae forming sails or fins.

2255: 2165: 2036: 2017: 1788: 1608: 1439: 1401: 1291: 1279: 1197: 1136: 801: 785: 635: 623: 446: 416: 404: 386: 347: 299: 147: 127: 112: 90: 55: 6549: 5697: 5672: 5468: 5466: 4056: 4054: 3119: 3094: 2674:

The calcareous tests or shells of echinoderms are used as a source of

1143: 8771: 8740: 8528: 8508: 8400: 8279: 8214: 8204: 8189: 8184: 8165: 7917: 7763: 7710: 7705: 7676: 7665: 7614: 7609: 7561: 7473: 7260: 7255: 7217: 7066: 7058: 6987: 6939: 6860: 6847: 6828: 6823: 6782: 6333:"Echinobase: a resource to support the echinoderm research community" 5670: 5274: 5085: 4436:

Reproduction, Larval Biology, and Recruitment of the Deep-Sea Benthos

3678: 3527:"Regulation of dynamic pigment cell states at single-cell resolution" 3491: 2720: 2683: 2679: 2561: 2451: 2394: 2370: 2319: 2081: 1913: 1897: 1763: 1744: 1598: 1569: 1443: 1307: 1166: 1122: 1105: 1080: 1013: 988: 866: 836: 797: 777: 769: 752: 712: 452: 439: 410: 393: 380: 369: 325: 255: 242: 216: 196: 95: 8625: 5644:(Echinodermata: Echinoidea) at Bahías de Huatulco, Western Mexico". 5618: 5578: 5185:"The structure and function of the tube feet in certain echinoderms" 5125: 5123: 4802: 4742: 4689: 4395: 4300: 4242: 3714: 3690: 3663: 3475:

Handbook of Biomineralization: Biomimetic and bioinspired chemistry'

3213: 8745: 8648: 8583: 8563: 8558: 8533: 8513: 8488: 8453: 8443: 8438: 8269: 8244: 8224: 7884: 7787: 7771: 7694: 7686: 7641: 7604: 7585: 7574: 7556: 7550: 7411: 7352: 7328: 7225: 7106: 6995: 6879: 6770: 6761: 6667: 5463: 5328: 5316: 5075: 5073: 4453: 4051: 3806: 2822: 2617: 2423: 2157: 2120: 2116: 2112: 1996: 1969: 1936: 1905: 1866: 1823: 1808: 1718: 1714: 1661: 1640: 1565: 1561: 1303: 1271: 1264: 1008: 889: 809: 788:, the first opening to form during embryo development, becomes the 686: 679: 671: 615: 363: 85: 80: 65: 60: 50: 39: 8758: 5848:"Medicinal and health benefit effects of functional sea cucumbers" 5453: 5451: 5404: 5402: 5192:

Journal of the Marine Biological Association of the United Kingdom

4148:

Population Structure and Reproduction of the Fissiparous Seastar,

3261: 3259: 3093:

Uthicke, Sven; Schaffelke, Britta; Byrne, Maria (1 January 2009).

2509: 8588: 8568: 8264: 8239: 8229: 8219: 8175: 8112: 7747: 7723: 7715: 7652: 7566: 7386: 7373: 7306: 7297: 7242: 7167: 5148: 5120: 4581:"Patterns of sexual and asexual reproduction in the brittle star 4336: 3908:"Macrobenthos of the North Sea - Echinodermata > Introduction" 3702: 3651: 2967: 2687: 2662: 2288: 2108: 2067: 2059: 1973: 1924: 1847: 1784: 1665: 1541: 1428: 1419: 1397: 663: 157: 100: 75: 6470:

Ruppert, Edward E.; Fox, Richard, S.; Barnes, Robert D. (2004).

5664: 5566: 5070: 4905:"Abrupt Change in Food Environment Induces Cloning in Plutei of 4337:

Candia-Carnevali, M. D.; Thorndyke, M. C.; Matranga, V. (2009).

2326:

matter. Sand dollars may perform suspension feeding and feed on

8428: 8420: 8289: 7792: 7526: 6726: 6713: 6584: 6581: 6030: 6028: 5448: 5399: 4513: 4501: 4489: 4477: 4465: 3830: 3818: 3794: 3782: 3256: 2569: 2339: 2314:

are suspension feeders, raising their branched arms to collect

2092:

Adult sea cucumbers reproduce asexually by transverse fission.

1909: 1878: 1800: 1751: 1414: 705: 558: 554: 335: 206: 6406:

Brusca, Richard C.; Moore, Wendy; Shuster, Stephen M. (2016).

4640:

Proceedings of the Academy of Natural Sciences of Philadelphia

3201:. Museum of Paleontology: University of California at Berkeley 1607:

have six arms, although five-armed individuals can occur. The

8732: 8337: 8209: 6509: 6107: 4634:

Monks, Sarah P. (1 April 1904). "Variability and Autotomy of

2620:

data relevant to echinoderm model organisms are collected in

2605: 2565: 2557: 2374: 2246: 2135: 1931: 1901: 1839: 1827: 1792: 1590: 1495: 647: 643: 6326: 6324: 6025: 5987: 5749:"On the relationships between marine plants and sea urchins" 3762:

Rigby, P. Robin; Iken, Katrin; Shirayama, Yoshihisa (2007).

2287:

burrows and hardly move at all. Some deep-water species are

1706:

changes colour in just fifty minutes when exposed to light.

594: 524: 8375: 7867: 4963: 3524: 2609: 2386: 2382: 789: 650:

echinoderms are recognisable by their usually five-pointed

606: 600: 585: 579: 542: 536: 515: 509: 6249:

Canadian Industry Report of Fisheries and Aquatic Sciences

5596: 5426:"Learn about sea urchins: feeding, nutrition & growth" 3406: 3127: 3016: 7865: 6330: 6321: 5141: 4155:. 3rd California Islands Symposium. National Park Service 4072: 3853:(2nd ed.). Cambridge University Press. p. 245. 1434:

The first universally accepted echinoderms appear in the

1298:

while others are motile. These consist of the Crinoidea (

570: 500: 6275: 6271: 6269: 4010: 3927:

Animal Evolution: Interrelationships of the Living Phyla

3900: 829:

The context of the echinoderms within the Bilateria is:

7516: 5780:

Birkeland, Charles; Lucas, John S. (1990). "Effects of

2974:

Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences

2908: 2682:

is unavailable and some are used in the manufacture of

6239: 6110:

Bulletin of Environmental Contamination and Toxicology

4380:"Transdifferentiation in Holothurian Gut Regeneration" 3280:

Australian echinoderms: biology, ecology and evolution

3092: 6266: 5839: 4964:

Vaughn, Dawn; Richard R. Strathmann (14 March 2008).

4016: 3929:(3rd ed.). Oxford University Press. p. 78. 3136:

Evolutionary Developmental Biology of Invertebrates 6

582: 576: 573: 539: 518: 512: 506: 5925:

Wikisource:1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Bêche-de-Mer

5300:. Sea Stars of the Pacific Northwest. Archived from 4854:"Predator-Induced Larval Cloning in the Sand Dollar 4531: 3873: 3277: 2904: 2902: 2548:. These and other species are colloquially known as 603: 591: 521: 6447:Dorit, R. L.; Walker, W. F.; Barnes, R. D. (1991). 5419: 5417: 4903:McDonald, Kathryn A.; Dawn Vaughn (1 August 2010). 4902: 3518: 3133: 2458:, making them important contributors in the global 597: 588: 533: 527: 503: 6448: 6405: 6240:Barkhouse, C.; Niles, M.; Davidson, L. A. (2007). 5385:. Holt-Saunders International. pp. 997–1007. 5280: 5129: 5091: 4111:"Autotomy and regeneration of Hawaiian starfishes" 3761: 3708: 3684: 3657: 3497: 1442:, while the crinoids were a dominant group in the 6446: 5852:Journal of Traditional and Complementary Medicine 5584: 5572: 5487:"Learn about feather stars: feeding & growth" 5079: 3874:Hickman, C. Jr.; Roberts, L.; Larson, A. (2003). 3720: 3696: 3672: 3224: 2899: 2828: 2342:and slowly liquefies the soft body parts. As the 2200:, living on the seabed, whereas larvae are often 1850:, diffuses out through the respiratory surfaces. 8884: 8152:Archaeal Richmond Mine acidophilic nanoorganisms 6469: 5845: 5518:"Learn about sand dollars: feeding & growth" 5472: 5457: 5414: 5408: 5334: 5322: 4519: 4507: 4495: 4483: 4471: 4459: 4432: 4174: 4172: 4170: 4060: 3836: 3824: 3812: 3800: 3788: 3737:. In Jangoux, Michel; Lawrence, John M. (eds.). 3472: 3318: 3271: 3265: 2228:Echinoderms use their tube feet to move about. ( 4966:"Predators induce cloning in echinoderm larvae" 4439:. Columbia University Press. pp. 179–194. 4433:Young, Craig M.; Eckelbarger, Kevin J. (1994). 4140: 4138: 3243:University of California Museum of Paleontology 2961: 120:Extant and extinct echinoderms of six classes: 5962: 5779: 3953:Ramirez-Gomez, Francisco (27 September 2010). 7851: 6565: 6235: 6233: 6193: 5756:Oceanographic Marine Biological Annual Review 5376: 5374: 4959: 4957: 4847: 4845: 4843: 4525: 4213: 4211: 4209: 4167: 4102: 3952: 3848: 3282:. Clayton South, Victoria. pp. 322–324. 2107:parts that develop into secondary larvae, by 1983:The regeneration of lost parts involves both 1939:through which eggs or sperm may be released. 6494:: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list ( 6064: 5590: 4896: 4716: 4714: 4371: 4135: 3575: 2484:, an unexplained increase in the numbers of 2168:' larva, which develops into a multi-armed ' 1873:in sea cucumbers). The coelomocytes secrete 1724: 1286:, with some 900 species) and Holothuroidea ( 6952: 6410:(3rd ed.). Sunderland, Massachusetts. 5726:. Cambridge University Press. p. 464. 5233: 4775: 4720: 4178:See last paragraph in review above Analysis 2802: 2191: 1306:, with around 580 species) and the extinct 7858: 7844: 6926: 6572: 6558: 6438:: CS1 maint: location missing publisher ( 6230: 5846:Pangestuti, Ratih; Arifin, Zainal (2018). 5724:Tropical Ecosystem and Ecological Concepts 5371: 5103: 5027: 4954: 4840: 4272: 4206: 4180:Hotchkiss, Frederick H. C. (1 June 2000). 4152:Gray, on Santa Catalina Island, California 3473:Behrens, Peter; Bäuerlein, Edmund (2007). 3324: 3310:: CS1 maint: location missing publisher ( 3138:. Vienna: Springer Vienna. pp. 1–58. 3088: 3086: 3084: 3082: 3067:. University of Michigan Museum of Zoology 1900:of interconnected neurons with no central 1278:, with around 2,300 species), Echinoidea ( 1192:brittle & basket stars 111: 7119: 6356: 6304: 6294: 5898:"Sea Cucumbers Threatened by Asian Trade" 5873: 5863: 5790:: Major Management Problem of Coral Reefs 5706: 5696: 5257: 4750: 4711: 4658: 4627: 4611: 4341:. In Rinkevich, B.; Matranga, V. (eds.). 4197: 4179: 4108: 3741:. Rotterdam: A. A. Balkema. p. 244. 3552: 3542: 3352: 3342: 3278:Byrne, Marie; O'Hara, Tim; CSIRO (2017). 3236: 3118: 2993: 2944: 2934: 2513:Sea urchin being cut open to eat its eggs 1576: 1274:, with some 1,745 species), Ophiuroidea ( 727: 662:. The phylum contains about 7,600 living 6986: 6910:Hemichordata (acorn worms and relatives) 6858: 5935: 5793:. Florida: CRC Press. pp. 148–159. 5746: 4578: 4285:(Stimpson) (Echinodermata: Ophiuroidea)" 3878:. Granite Hill Publishers. p. 271. 3622: 3192: 3186: 2516: 2508: 2433: 2354: 2269: 2223: 2134: 2052: 1952: 1734: 666:, making it the second-largest group of 7883: 6711: 6579: 5938:Edible Sea Urchins: Biology and Ecology 5721: 5340: 4782:Jaeckle, William B. (1 February 1994). 4781: 4220:"Asexual Reproduction in the Starfish, 4144: 3924: 3732: 3369: 3079: 2504: 2350: 2278:can burrow using peristaltic movements. 2042: 720:of echinoderms was responsible for the 711:, which are major contributors to many 8885: 8111: 6904:Echinodermata (starfish and relatives) 6874:Xenacoelomorpha (acoels and relatives) 5540: 5380: 5239: 5033: 4851: 4217: 3849:Moore, Janet; Overhill, Raith (2006). 3509: 3065:"Animal Diversity Web - Echinodermata" 2870: 2868: 2011: 1964:Many echinoderms have great powers of 1581:Echinoderms evolved from animals with 8630: 8629: 7839: 6845: 6553: 5182: 5176: 4664: 4633: 3971: 3948: 3946: 3166: 2834: 2732: 2701:List of prehistoric echinoderm genera 2130: 1585:. Although adult echinoderms possess 1290:, with about 1,430 species); and the 8821:31f21a6e-371d-42b9-868c-569f2249ab4a 7175:Acanthocephala (thorny-headed worms) 6150: 6046:from the original on 5 February 2018 5515: 5484: 5423: 4707:from the original on 9 October 2022. 4623:from the original on 9 October 2022. 4579:McGovern, Tamara M. (5 April 2002). 4131:from the original on 9 October 2022. 3851:An Introduction to the Invertebrates 3325:Holló, Gábor; Novák, Mihály (2012). 3023:Organisms, Diversity & Evolution 2874: 2782: 2726: 2608:cells in the process of fertilising 1877:against bacteria, and have a set of 1664:skeleton in the dermis, composed of 1655: 1639:possess up to fifty arms, while the 1438:period; asterozoans appeared in the 1270:, which encompasses the Asteroidea ( 5827:from the original on 9 October 2022 5346: 4828:from the original on 9 October 2022 4260:from the original on 9 October 2022 4182:"On the Number of Rays in Starfish" 4087:from the original on 9 October 2022 3375: 3057: 2865: 1889:that is still being characterised. 13: 7209: 7015: 6772:Cnidaria (jellyfish and relatives) 6474:(7th ed.). Cengage Learning. 6204:Journal of Ultrastructure Research 5546: 3943: 3637:10.1111/j.1469-185X.1984.tb00409.x 2783:Hall, Danielle (3 February 2022). 2721:https://doi.org/10.1038/ncomms2391 14: 8914: 8898:Extant Cambrian first appearances 6503: 3514:. Thomas Murby. pp. 240–241. 3199:Introduction to the Echinodermata 3193:Waggoner, Ben (16 January 1995). 3167:Smith, Dave (28 September 2005). 2785:"Echinoderms | Smithsonian Ocean" 2048: 1892:Echinoderms have a simple radial 1408: 7816:Phyla with ≥1000 extant species 6373: 6187: 6165:10.1046/j.1525-142x.2002.01052.x 6144: 6101: 6058: 5981: 5929: 5918: 5890: 5807: 5773: 5740: 5715: 5633: 5281:Brusca, Moore & Shuster 2016 5130:Brusca, Moore & Shuster 2016 5092:Brusca, Moore & Shuster 2016 3972:Smith, Courtney (January 2010). 3709:Brusca, Moore & Shuster 2016 3685:Brusca, Moore & Shuster 2016 3658:Brusca, Moore & Shuster 2016 3512:An Introduction to Palaeontology 3498:Brusca, Moore & Shuster 2016 2743:World Register of Marine Species 2499: 2476:, resulting in an alga-denuded " 1853:The coelomic fluid contains the 1549: 1533: 1515: 1474: 1413:The oldest candidate echinoderm 1390: 1373: 1361: 1339: 1322: 1203: 1182: 1142: 1121: 1084: 1012: 991: 943: 923: 892: 852: 738:The name echinoderm is from 566: 496: 183: 43: 6545:Larval Echinodermata Fact Sheet 6455:. Saunders College Publishing. 5585:Dorit, Walker & Barnes 1991 5573:Dorit, Walker & Barnes 1991 5509: 5478: 5353:Charles Messing's Crinoid Pages 5349:"The crinoid feeding mechanism" 5286: 5246:Journal of Experimental Biology 5135: 5104:van Egmond, Wim (1 July 2000). 5097: 5080:Dorit, Walker & Barnes 1991 4572: 4426: 4330: 4118:Bishop Museum Occasional Papers 4066: 3965: 3918: 3867: 3842: 3755: 3726: 3721:Dorit, Walker & Barnes 1991 3697:Dorit, Walker & Barnes 1991 3673:Dorit, Walker & Barnes 1991 3616: 3569: 3503: 3466: 3455: 3400: 3382:Charles Messing's Crinoid Pages 3230: 3225:Dorit, Walker & Barnes 1991 3160: 3010: 2840: 2829:Dorit, Walker & Barnes 1991 2365:, are defended by sharp spines. 2214: 2006: 1942: 1773: 693:. Most echinoderms are able to 7003:Nematomorpha (horsehair worms) 6451:Zoology, International edition 6399: 5473:Ruppert, Fox & Barnes 2004 5458:Ruppert, Fox & Barnes 2004 5409:Ruppert, Fox & Barnes 2004 5335:Ruppert, Fox & Barnes 2004 5323:Ruppert, Fox & Barnes 2004 5106:"Gallery of Echinoderm Larvae" 4592:Marine Ecology Progress Series 4520:Ruppert, Fox & Barnes 2004 4508:Ruppert, Fox & Barnes 2004 4496:Ruppert, Fox & Barnes 2004 4484:Ruppert, Fox & Barnes 2004 4472:Ruppert, Fox & Barnes 2004 4460:Ruppert, Fox & Barnes 2004 4343:Stem Cells in Marine Organisms 4218:Fisher, W. K. (1 March 1925). 4061:Ruppert, Fox & Barnes 2004 3837:Ruppert, Fox & Barnes 2004 3825:Ruppert, Fox & Barnes 2004 3813:Ruppert, Fox & Barnes 2004 3801:Ruppert, Fox & Barnes 2004 3789:Ruppert, Fox & Barnes 2004 3266:Ruppert, Fox & Barnes 2004 3195:"Echinodermata: Fossil Record" 2776: 2756: 2713: 2579: 2308:they can be fed with diatoms. 776: 'skin'. Echinoderms are 1: 6846: 6216:10.1016/S0022-5320(69)80046-8 6200:Strongylocentrotus purpuratus 6122:10.3109/01480545.2015.1041602 6079:10.3109/01480545.2015.1041602 6036:"Insight from the Sea Urchin" 5946:10.1016/S0167-9309(01)80002-8 4852:Vaughn, Dawn (October 2009). 4145:McAlary, Florence A. (1993). 3959:Invertebrate Survival Journal 2706: 2669: 2627:Strongylocentrotus purpuratus 2595:Strongylocentrotus purpuratus 2219: 1383:Strongylocentrotus purpuratus 759: 'hedgehog' and 7615:Echinozoans inc. sea urchins 6533:Echinoderms of the North Sea 6067:Drug and Chemical Toxicology 5784:on Coral-Reef Communities". 5722:Osborne, Patrick L. (2000). 5646:Revista de Biología Tropical 5549:"Echinoderm: role in nature" 4027:10.1007/978-1-4419-8059-5_14 3986:10.1007/978-1-4419-8059-5_14 2936:10.1371/journal.pone.0119627 2530:traditional Chinese medicine 2523:traditional Chinese medicine 2359:Many echinoderms, like this 1896:that consists of a modified 1250: 815: 358:Robison & Sprinkle, 1969 7: 7672:Chelicerates inc. arachnids 7412:Phoronida (horseshoe worms) 7227:Platyhelminthes (flatworms) 7138:Gnathostomulida (jaw worms) 7027:Loricifera (corset animals) 5865:10.1016/j.jtcme.2017.06.007 4355:10.1007/978-90-481-2767-2_7 3578:Centrostephanus longispinus 3239:"Echinodermata: Morphology" 3144:10.1007/978-3-7091-1856-6_1 2851:Invertebrate Anatomy OnLine 2815:Online Etymology Dictionary 2694: 2542:) and the red sea cucumber 1904:, although some do possess 1703:Centrostephanus longispinus 1589:symmetry, their larvae are 1318:The subphyla of echinoderms 1152:sea urchins, etc 804:endoskeleton consisting of 784:division, meaning that the 10: 8919: 7562:Medusozoans inc. jellyfish 7308:Annelida (segmented worms) 7133:Chaetognatha (arrow worms) 7049:Onychophora (velvet worms) 6255:(7): 14–15. Archived from 6040:Microscope Imaging Station 5381:Barnes, Robert D. (1982). 4283:Microphiopholis gracillima 3510:Davies, A. Morley (1925). 3477:. Wiley-VCH. p. 393. 3433:10.1038/s41586-023-06669-2 2678:by farmers in areas where 2429: 2298: 2237: 2076:, reproduces asexually by 2046: 1946: 1728: 1368:Starfish of varied colours 762: 745: 731: 722:Mesozoic Marine Revolution 18: 8638: 8601: 8419: 8336: 8288: 8173: 8164: 8107: 7879: 7875: 7870:phyla/divisions by domain 7812: 7610:Asterozoans inc. starfish 7512: 7505: 7456: 7407:Brachiopoda (lamp shells) 7397: 7388:Ectoprocta (moss animals) 7372: 7363: 7348: 7339: 7324: 7317: 7293: 7282: 7241: 7233:Gastrotricha (hairybacks) 7216: 7205: 7194: 7146: 7128: 7115: 7104: 7057: 7044: 7035: 7022: 7011: 6979: 6962:Kinorhyncha (mud dragons) 6948: 6937: 6922: 6898: 6889: 6869: 6854: 6841: 6806: 6781: 6757: 6742: 6734:Ctenophora (comb jellies) 6722: 6707: 6591: 6153:Evolution and Development 6011:10.1007/s10499-014-9802-6 5991:Aquaculture International 5820:. FAO. pp. 463–465. 5762:: 213–286. Archived from 5212:10.1017/S0025315400012042 5170:10.1080/00241160600715321 5056:10.1007/s00227-010-1410-z 3768:. NUS Press. p. 44. 3043:10.1007/s13127-011-0044-4 2875:Wray, Gregory A. (1999). 2769:Dictionary.com Unabridged 2362:Centrostephanus coronatus 1968:. Many species routinely 1960:regenerating several arms 1846:, chiefly in the form of 1725:The water vascular system 1629:often has more than six. 1528:from northeastern Estonia 1201: 1180: 1170: 1140: 1119: 1109: 1099: 1078: 1071: 1006: 986: 979: 938: 918: 911: 887: 880: 870: 847: 840: 734:List of echinoderm orders 674:, as well as the largest 638:or "stone lilies". While 634:, as well as the sessile 323: 318: 305: 298: 180:Scientific classification 178: 119: 110: 30: 7168:Rotifera (wheel animals) 6967:Priapulida (penis worms) 6528:Tree of Life Web Project 6349:10.1093/genetics/iyae002 5971:Oxford Companion to Food 5747:Lawrence, J. M. (1975). 5601:Pycnopodia Helianthoides 4858:: Might Mothers Matter?" 4665:Kille, Frank R. (1942). 4109:Edmondson, C.H. (1935). 3733:Jangoux, Michel (1982). 3582:Cell and Tissue Research 2666:(feather star crinoid). 2486:crown-of-thorns starfish 2446:, a biodiverse ecosystem 2414:crown-of-thorns starfish 2274:Sea cucumbers like this 2192:Distribution and habitat 1972:and regenerate arms and 1700:quickly: the sea urchin 143:Stomopneustes variolaris 8080:Thermodesulfobacteriota 7382:Entoprocta or Kamptozoa 7354:Nemertea (ribbon worms) 7075:Tardigrada (waterbears) 7068:Arthropoda (arthropods) 5976:Oxford University Press 5607:The Biological Bulletin 5553:Encyclopædia Britannica 5146:from Southwest China". 4990:10.1126/science.1151995 4384:The Biological Bulletin 3925:Nielsen, Claus (2012). 3735:"11. Digestive Systems" 2231:Colobocentrotus atratus 2174:bilaterally symmetrical 1711:catch connective tissue 1676:of sea urchins, or may 1668:-based plates known as 1522:The Ordovician cystoid 808:connected by a mesh of 640:bilaterally symmetrical 330:Gill & Caster, 1960 133:Ophiocoma scolopendrina 7557:Anthozoans inc. corals 7256:Dicyemida or Rhombozoa 6519:Natural History Museum 6515:The Echinoid Directory 6283:Nucleic Acids Research 5978:, 3rd edition. p. 730. 5968:Davidson, Alan (2014) 5240:Astley, H. C. (2012). 4907:Dendraster excentricus 4856:Dendraster excentricus 3344:10.1186/1745-6150-7-22 2986:10.1098/rspb.2014.0479 2733:Stöhr, Sabine (2014). 2654:(painted sea urchin), 2525: 2514: 2447: 2366: 2279: 2235: 2148: 2113:splitting transversely 2063: 1961: 1875:antimicrobial peptides 1747: 1577:Anatomy and physiology 1332:Ophionereis reticulata 1255:There are about 7,600 728:Taxonomy and evolution 8842:Paleobiology Database 8308:Neocallimastigomycota 7687:Hexapods inc. insects 6997:Nematoda (roundworms) 6538:13 April 2008 at the 5677:Ecological Monographs 5183:Smith, J. E. (1937). 4874:10.1086/BBLv217n2p103 4019:Invertebrate Immunity 3978:Invertebrate Immunity 3974:"Echinoderm Immunity" 3955:"Echinoderm Immunity" 3099:Ecological Monographs 2633:Lytechinus variegatus 2630:(purple sea urchin), 2590:developmental biology 2520: 2512: 2437: 2409:Antipredator defences 2393:, other echinoderms, 2358: 2273: 2238:Further information: 2227: 2141:bilaterally symmetric 2138: 2056: 2018:male and female sexes 1956: 1949:Starfish regeneration 1947:Further information: 1807:, passively catching 1741:water vascular system 1738: 1731:Water vascular system 1636:Labidiaster annulatus 1463:Further information: 1353:Stichopus chloronotus 794:water vascular system 319:Subphyla and classes 153:Oxycomanthus bennetti 7973:Coprothermobacterota 6880:Chordata (chordates) 6472:Invertebrate Zoology 6296:10.1093/nar/gkab1005 5383:Invertebrate Zoology 5229:on 15 November 2013. 4925:10.1086/BBLv219n1p38 4585:in the Florida Keys" 4534:Ophidiaster granifer 4349:. pp. 165–186. 4199:10.1093/icb/40.3.340 3912:etibioinformatics.nl 3739:Echinoderm Nutrition 2636:(green sea urchin), 2616:diseases in humans. 2505:As food and medicine 2351:Antipredator defence 2276:Neothyonidium magnum 2073:Ophidiaster granifer 2043:Asexual reproduction 2001:transdifferentiation 1978:asexual reproduction 1887:innate immune system 1627:Ophiacantha vivipara 1294:, some of which are 163:Actinopyga echinites 19:For the fungus, see 7330:Mollusca (molluscs) 6815:of the animal root 6003:2015AqInt..23..111S 5769:on 5 February 2011. 5689:2010EcoM...80..441L 5587:, pp. 789–790. 5475:, pp. 884–885. 5337:, pp. 911–912. 5325:, pp. 899–900. 5304:on 9 September 2012 5283:, pp. 982–983. 5204:1937JMBUK..22..345S 5162:2006Letha..39..187X 5094:, pp. 997–998. 5048:2010MarBi.157.1301V 4982:2008Sci...319.1503V 4913:Biological Bulletin 4862:Biological Bulletin 4791:Biological Bulletin 4735:2003Natur.425..146E 4678:Biological Bulletin 4604:2002MEPS..230..119M 4550:1984MarBi..83...33Y 4462:, pp. 887–888. 4231:Biological Bulletin 4063:, pp. 872–929. 3815:, pp. 902–904. 3723:, pp. 790–793. 3699:, pp. 784–785. 3687:, pp. 980–982. 3675:, pp. 780–791. 3544:10.7554/elife.60388 3500:, pp. 979–980. 3425:2023Natur.623..555F 3227:, pp. 792–793. 3111:2009EcoM...79....3U 3035:2011ODivE..11..151E 2927:2015PLoSO..1019627R 2853:. Lander University 2831:, pp. 777–779. 2592:and ecotoxicology. 2080:. In certain other 2049:§ Regeneration 2012:Sexual reproduction 1883:complement proteins 1686:Aristotle's lantern 1660:Echinoderms have a 1645:Comaster schlegelii 1623:Ophionotus hexactis 1131:sea cucumbers 695:reproduce asexually 8303:Blastocladiomycota 7543:Calcareous sponges 6728:Porifera (sponges) 6196:Arbacia punctulata 5903:The New York Times 5788:Acanthaster planci 5528:on 19 October 2012 5497:on 12 January 2013 5359:on 14 January 2013 5347:Messing, Charles. 5259:10.1242/jeb.068460 4669:Holothuria parvula 4613:10.3354/meps230119 4583:Ophiactis savignyi 4558:10.1007/BF00393083 4186:American Zoologist 3625:Biological Reviews 3594:10.1007/BF00224270 3388:on 29 October 2013 3376:Messing, Charles. 3169:"Vendian Animals: 2980:(1786): 20140479. 2663:Anneissia japonica 2645:Acanthaster planci 2601:Arbacia punctulata 2526: 2515: 2490:Acanthaster planci 2482:Great Barrier Reef 2468:Diadema antillarum 2448: 2391:gastropod molluscs 2367: 2280: 2261:metachronal rhythm 2236: 2149: 2131:Larval development 2095:Holothuria parvula 2086:transverse fission 2064: 2020:, though some are 1962: 1805:suspension feeders 1748: 1618:Ophiactis savignyi 1583:bilateral symmetry 1481:Early echinoderms 1456:ambulacral grooves 1059:Internal phylogeny 825:External phylogeny 614:), which includes 8880: 8879: 8829:Open Tree of Life 8632:Taxon identifiers 8623: 8622: 8619: 8618: 8597: 8596: 8160: 8159: 8103: 8102: 8095:Verrucomicrobiota 7833: 7832: 7808: 7807: 7501: 7500: 7497: 7496: 7452: 7451: 7448: 7447: 7444: 7443: 7440: 7439: 7436: 7435: 7432: 7431: 7428: 7427: 7424: 7423: 7420: 7419: 7278: 7277: 7274: 7273: 7190: 7189: 7186: 7185: 7100: 7099: 7096: 7095: 7092: 7091: 7088: 7087: 7084: 7083: 6975: 6974: 6918: 6917: 6837: 6836: 6802: 6801: 6798: 6797: 6462:978-0-03-030504-7 6417:978-1-60535-375-3 6289:(D1): D970–D979. 6042:. Exploratorium. 5698:10.1890/09-0553.1 5642:Diadema mexicanum 5522:A Snail's Odyssey 5491:A Snail's Odyssey 5430:A Snail's Odyssey 5252:(11): 1923–1929. 4364:978-90-481-2766-5 4150:Linckia columbiae 4036:978-1-4419-8058-8 3995:978-1-4419-8058-8 3748:978-90-6191-080-0 3484:978-3-527-31805-6 3419:(7987): 555–561. 3378:"Crown and calyx" 3289:978-1-4863-0763-0 3153:978-3-7091-1855-9 3120:10.1890/07-2136.1 2660:(sugar star) and 2651:Lytechinus pictus 2614:neurodegenerative 2545:Holothuria edulis 2521:Sea cucumbers as 2456:calcium carbonate 2419:cuvierian tubules 2240:Animal locomotion 2031:Some echinoderms 1993:dedifferentiation 1844:nitrogenous waste 1816:coelomic cavities 1656:Skin and skeleton 1648:has two hundred. 1247: 1246: 1235: 1234: 1226: 1225: 1217: 1216: 1156: 1155: 1055: 1054: 1046: 1045: 1036: 1035: 1026: 1025: 965: 964: 956: 955: 488: 487: 479: 470: 458: 359: 331: 294: 8910: 8873: 8872: 8860: 8859: 8850: 8849: 8837: 8836: 8824: 8823: 8814: 8813: 8801: 8800: 8788: 8787: 8775: 8774: 8762: 8761: 8749: 8748: 8736: 8735: 8723: 8722: 8710: 8709: 8700: 8699: 8687: 8686: 8674: 8673: 8672: 8659: 8658: 8657: 8627: 8626: 8371:Anthocerotophyta 8250:Hemimastigophora 8171: 8170: 8142:Nitrososphaerota 8109: 8108: 8085:Thermomicrobiota 8025:Kiritimatiellota 8020:Ignavibacteriota 7985:Deferribacterota 7948:Campylobacterota 7933:Bdellovibrionota 7881: 7880: 7877: 7876: 7860: 7853: 7846: 7837: 7836: 7514: 7513: 7470: 7370: 7369: 7346: 7345: 7322: 7321: 7291: 7290: 7287: 7214: 7213: 7207: 7206: 7203: 7202: 7199: 7126: 7125: 7117: 7116: 7113: 7112: 7109: 7042: 7041: 7020: 7019: 7013: 7012: 6984: 6983: 6950: 6949: 6946: 6945: 6942: 6935: 6934: 6931: 6924: 6923: 6896: 6895: 6867: 6866: 6863: 6856: 6855: 6843: 6842: 6820: 6755: 6754: 6720: 6719: 6716: 6709: 6708: 6620: 6600: 6574: 6567: 6560: 6551: 6550: 6499: 6493: 6485: 6466: 6454: 6443: 6437: 6429: 6393: 6392: 6390: 6388: 6383:. Wild Singapore 6377: 6371: 6370: 6360: 6328: 6319: 6318: 6308: 6298: 6273: 6264: 6263: 6261: 6246: 6237: 6228: 6227: 6191: 6185: 6184: 6148: 6142: 6141: 6105: 6099: 6098: 6062: 6056: 6055: 6053: 6051: 6032: 6023: 6022: 5985: 5979: 5966: 5960: 5959: 5933: 5927: 5922: 5916: 5915: 5913: 5911: 5894: 5888: 5887: 5877: 5867: 5843: 5837: 5836: 5834: 5832: 5826: 5819: 5811: 5805: 5804: 5777: 5771: 5770: 5768: 5753: 5744: 5738: 5737: 5719: 5713: 5712: 5710: 5700: 5668: 5662: 5661: 5637: 5631: 5630: 5594: 5588: 5582: 5576: 5570: 5564: 5563: 5561: 5559: 5547:Miller, John E. 5544: 5538: 5537: 5535: 5533: 5524:. Archived from 5513: 5507: 5506: 5504: 5502: 5493:. Archived from 5482: 5476: 5470: 5461: 5455: 5446: 5445: 5443: 5441: 5436:on 22 March 2013 5432:. Archived from 5421: 5412: 5406: 5397: 5396: 5378: 5369: 5368: 5366: 5364: 5355:. Archived from 5344: 5338: 5332: 5326: 5320: 5314: 5313: 5311: 5309: 5296:Luidia foliolata 5290: 5284: 5278: 5272: 5271: 5261: 5237: 5231: 5230: 5228: 5222:. Archived from 5189: 5180: 5174: 5173: 5139: 5133: 5127: 5118: 5117: 5115: 5113: 5101: 5095: 5089: 5083: 5077: 5068: 5067: 5042:(6): 1301–1312. 5031: 5025: 5024: 5022: 5020: 4961: 4952: 4951: 4949: 4947: 4900: 4894: 4893: 4849: 4838: 4837: 4835: 4833: 4827: 4788: 4779: 4773: 4772: 4754: 4718: 4709: 4708: 4706: 4675: 4662: 4656: 4655: 4631: 4625: 4624: 4622: 4615: 4589: 4576: 4570: 4569: 4529: 4523: 4517: 4511: 4505: 4499: 4493: 4487: 4481: 4475: 4469: 4463: 4457: 4451: 4450: 4430: 4424: 4423: 4375: 4369: 4368: 4334: 4328: 4327: 4325: 4323: 4276: 4270: 4269: 4267: 4265: 4259: 4228: 4215: 4204: 4203: 4201: 4176: 4165: 4164: 4162: 4160: 4142: 4133: 4132: 4130: 4115: 4106: 4100: 4099: 4094: 4092: 4086: 4079: 4070: 4064: 4058: 4049: 4048: 4014: 4008: 4007: 3969: 3963: 3962: 3950: 3941: 3940: 3922: 3916: 3915: 3904: 3898: 3897: 3876:Animal Diversity 3871: 3865: 3864: 3846: 3840: 3834: 3828: 3822: 3816: 3810: 3804: 3798: 3792: 3786: 3780: 3779: 3759: 3753: 3752: 3730: 3724: 3718: 3712: 3706: 3700: 3694: 3688: 3682: 3676: 3670: 3661: 3655: 3649: 3648: 3620: 3614: 3613: 3573: 3567: 3566: 3556: 3546: 3522: 3516: 3515: 3507: 3501: 3495: 3489: 3488: 3470: 3464: 3459: 3453: 3452: 3404: 3398: 3397: 3395: 3393: 3384:. Archived from 3373: 3367: 3366: 3356: 3346: 3322: 3316: 3315: 3309: 3301: 3275: 3269: 3263: 3254: 3253: 3251: 3249: 3234: 3228: 3222: 3211: 3210: 3208: 3206: 3190: 3184: 3183: 3181: 3179: 3164: 3158: 3157: 3131: 3125: 3124: 3122: 3090: 3077: 3076: 3074: 3072: 3061: 3055: 3054: 3014: 3008: 3007: 2997: 2965: 2959: 2958: 2948: 2938: 2906: 2897: 2896: 2894: 2892: 2883:. Archived from 2872: 2863: 2862: 2860: 2858: 2845:Asterias forbesi 2838: 2832: 2826: 2820: 2819: 2806: 2800: 2799: 2797: 2795: 2780: 2774: 2773: 2760: 2754: 2753: 2751: 2749: 2730: 2724: 2717: 2574:overexploitation 2535:Thelenota ananas 2147:with larval arms 2057:'Comet' form of 2033:brood their eggs 1613:Ophiothela danae 1553: 1537: 1525:Echinosphaerites 1519: 1478: 1394: 1377: 1365: 1343: 1329:A brittle star, 1326: 1207: 1186: 1173: 1172: 1146: 1125: 1112: 1111: 1102: 1101: 1088: 1083:(feather stars) 1074: 1073: 1064: 1063: 1017: 1016: 995: 982: 981: 947: 927: 914: 913: 896: 883: 882: 873: 872: 856: 843: 842: 833: 832: 773: 766: 756: 749: 691:shallower oceans 613: 612: 609: 608: 605: 602: 599: 596: 593: 590: 587: 584: 581: 578: 575: 572: 549: 548: 545: 544: 541: 538: 535: 530: 529: 526: 523: 520: 517: 514: 511: 508: 505: 502: 477: 465: 456: 357: 329: 293:Bruguière, 1791 292: 188: 187: 115: 105: 36:Cambrian Stage 3 34:Temporal range: 28: 27: 8918: 8917: 8913: 8912: 8911: 8909: 8908: 8907: 8883: 8882: 8881: 8876: 8868: 8863: 8855: 8853: 8845: 8840: 8832: 8827: 8819: 8817: 8809: 8804: 8796: 8791: 8783: 8778: 8770: 8765: 8757: 8752: 8744: 8739: 8731: 8726: 8718: 8713: 8705: 8703: 8695: 8690: 8682: 8677: 8668: 8667: 8662: 8653: 8652: 8647: 8634: 8624: 8615: 8593: 8544:Gnathostomulida 8449:Xenacoelomorpha 8415: 8411:Flowering plant 8366:Marchantiophyta 8332: 8298:Chytridiomycota 8284: 8156: 8099: 8055:Planctomycetota 8015:Gemmatimonadota 8000:Elusimicrobiota 7893:Acidobacteriota 7871: 7864: 7834: 7829: 7804: 7730:Phylactolaemata 7518: 7508: 7507: 7493: 7484:Xenambulacraria 7460: 7416: 7393: 7359: 7341:Kryptotrochozoa 7335: 7313: 7283: 7270: 7261:Monoblastozoa ( 7237: 7195: 7182: 7154:Micrognathozoa 7142: 7105: 7080: 7053: 7031: 7007: 6971: 6938: 6927: 6914: 6885: 6859: 6850: 6833: 6810: 6794: 6777: 6746: 6738: 6712: 6703: 6702: 6618: 6596: 6587: 6578: 6540:Wayback Machine 6506: 6487: 6486: 6482: 6463: 6431: 6430: 6418: 6402: 6397: 6396: 6386: 6384: 6379: 6378: 6374: 6329: 6322: 6277:January 2022). 6274: 6267: 6262:on 22 May 2013. 6259: 6244: 6238: 6231: 6192: 6188: 6149: 6145: 6106: 6102: 6063: 6059: 6049: 6047: 6034: 6033: 6026: 5986: 5982: 5967: 5963: 5956: 5934: 5930: 5923: 5919: 5909: 5907: 5896: 5895: 5891: 5844: 5840: 5830: 5828: 5824: 5817: 5813: 5812: 5808: 5801: 5778: 5774: 5766: 5751: 5745: 5741: 5734: 5720: 5716: 5669: 5665: 5638: 5634: 5619:10.2307/1541585 5595: 5591: 5583: 5579: 5571: 5567: 5557: 5555: 5545: 5541: 5531: 5529: 5516:Carefoot, Tom. 5514: 5510: 5500: 5498: 5485:Carefoot, Tom. 5483: 5479: 5471: 5464: 5456: 5449: 5439: 5437: 5424:Carefoot, Tom. 5422: 5415: 5407: 5400: 5393: 5379: 5372: 5362: 5360: 5345: 5341: 5333: 5329: 5321: 5317: 5307: 5305: 5292: 5291: 5287: 5279: 5275: 5238: 5234: 5226: 5187: 5181: 5177: 5140: 5136: 5128: 5121: 5111: 5109: 5108:. Microscopy UK 5102: 5098: 5090: 5086: 5078: 5071: 5032: 5028: 5018: 5016: 4962: 4955: 4945: 4943: 4901: 4897: 4850: 4841: 4831: 4829: 4825: 4803:10.2307/1542036 4786: 4780: 4776: 4752:10402/era.17195 4743:10.1038/425146a 4719: 4712: 4704: 4690:10.2307/1538013 4673: 4663: 4659: 4632: 4628: 4620: 4587: 4577: 4573: 4530: 4526: 4518: 4514: 4506: 4502: 4494: 4490: 4482: 4478: 4470: 4466: 4458: 4454: 4447: 4431: 4427: 4396:10.2307/3593108 4376: 4372: 4365: 4335: 4331: 4321: 4319: 4301:10.2307/1542439 4277: 4273: 4263: 4261: 4257: 4243:10.2307/1536659 4226: 4216: 4207: 4177: 4168: 4158: 4156: 4143: 4136: 4128: 4113: 4107: 4103: 4090: 4088: 4084: 4077: 4071: 4067: 4059: 4052: 4037: 4015: 4011: 3996: 3970: 3966: 3951: 3944: 3937: 3923: 3919: 3906: 3905: 3901: 3886: 3872: 3868: 3861: 3847: 3843: 3835: 3831: 3823: 3819: 3811: 3807: 3799: 3795: 3787: 3783: 3776: 3760: 3756: 3749: 3731: 3727: 3719: 3715: 3707: 3703: 3695: 3691: 3683: 3679: 3671: 3664: 3656: 3652: 3621: 3617: 3574: 3570: 3523: 3519: 3508: 3504: 3496: 3492: 3485: 3471: 3467: 3460: 3456: 3405: 3401: 3391: 3389: 3374: 3370: 3323: 3319: 3303: 3302: 3290: 3276: 3272: 3264: 3257: 3247: 3245: 3237:UCMP Berkeley. 3235: 3231: 3223: 3214: 3204: 3202: 3191: 3187: 3177: 3175: 3165: 3161: 3154: 3132: 3128: 3091: 3080: 3070: 3068: 3063: 3062: 3058: 3015: 3011: 2966: 2962: 2921:(3): e0119627. 2907: 2900: 2890: 2888: 2873: 2866: 2856: 2854: 2839: 2835: 2827: 2823: 2808: 2807: 2803: 2793: 2791: 2781: 2777: 2762: 2761: 2757: 2747: 2745: 2735:"Echinodermata" 2731: 2727: 2718: 2714: 2709: 2697: 2672: 2657:Asterias rubens 2642:(bat star) and 2639:Patiria miniata 2586:model organisms 2582: 2507: 2502: 2432: 2353: 2344:adductor muscle 2301: 2242: 2222: 2217: 2194: 2182:plankton-eating 2133: 2078:parthenogenesis 2066:One species of 2051: 2045: 2014: 2009: 1951: 1945: 1803:. Crinoids are 1776: 1733: 1727: 1719:bivalve mollusc 1694:paleontologists 1658: 1579: 1572: 1554: 1545: 1538: 1529: 1520: 1511: 1479: 1411: 1404: 1395: 1386: 1378: 1369: 1366: 1357: 1356:, from Malaysia 1344: 1335: 1327: 1253: 1248: 1236: 1227: 1218: 1157: 1056: 1047: 1037: 1027: 1011: 966: 957: 850:Xenacoelomorpha 818: 736: 730: 656:intertidal zone 652:radial symmetry 569: 565: 532: 499: 495: 433:Helicoplacoidea 427:Ophiocistioidea 375:Edrioasteroidea 314: 311: 291: 182: 106: 104: 103: 98: 93: 88: 83: 78: 73: 68: 63: 58: 53: 48: 42: 32: 24: 17: 12: 11: 5: 8916: 8906: 8905: 8903:Marine animals 8900: 8895: 8878: 8877: 8875: 8874: 8861: 8851: 8838: 8825: 8815: 8802: 8789: 8776: 8763: 8750: 8737: 8724: 8711: 8701: 8688: 8675: 8660: 8644: 8642: 8636: 8635: 8621: 8620: 8617: 8616: 8609: 8607: 8604:Incertae sedis 8599: 8598: 8595: 8594: 8592: 8591: 8586: 8581: 8576: 8571: 8566: 8561: 8556: 8551: 8549:Micrognathozoa 8546: 8541: 8539:Acanthocephala 8536: 8531: 8526: 8521: 8516: 8511: 8506: 8501: 8496: 8491: 8486: 8481: 8476: 8471: 8466: 8461: 8456: 8451: 8446: 8441: 8436: 8431: 8425: 8423: 8417: 8416: 8414: 8413: 8408: 8403: 8398: 8393: 8388: 8383: 8381:Lycopodiophyta 8378: 8373: 8368: 8363: 8358: 8353: 8348: 8342: 8340: 8334: 8333: 8331: 8330: 8325: 8320: 8315: 8310: 8305: 8300: 8294: 8292: 8286: 8285: 8283: 8282: 8277: 8272: 8267: 8262: 8257: 8252: 8247: 8242: 8237: 8232: 8227: 8222: 8217: 8212: 8207: 8202: 8197: 8195:Ancyromonadida 8192: 8187: 8181: 8179: 8168: 8162: 8161: 8158: 8157: 8155: 8154: 8149: 8147:Thermoproteota 8144: 8139: 8132: 8125: 8117: 8115: 8105: 8104: 8101: 8100: 8098: 8097: 8092: 8087: 8082: 8077: 8072: 8067: 8062: 8060:Pseudomonadota 8057: 8052: 8047: 8042: 8037: 8035:Mycoplasmatota 8032: 8030:Lentisphaerota 8027: 8022: 8017: 8012: 8010:Fusobacteriota 8007: 8005:Fibrobacterota 8002: 7997: 7992: 7987: 7982: 7975: 7970: 7965: 7960: 7955: 7950: 7945: 7940: 7935: 7930: 7925: 7920: 7915: 7910: 7908:Armatimonadota 7905: 7900: 7898:Actinomycetota 7895: 7889: 7887: 7873: 7872: 7863: 7862: 7855: 7848: 7840: 7831: 7830: 7828: 7827: 7820: 7813: 7810: 7809: 7806: 7805: 7803: 7802: 7801: 7800: 7795: 7790: 7785: 7780: 7768: 7767: 7766: 7761: 7756: 7744: 7743: 7742: 7737: 7732: 7720: 7719: 7718: 7713: 7708: 7703: 7695:Platyhelminths 7691: 7690: 7689: 7684: 7679: 7674: 7662: 7661: 7660: 7655: 7650: 7638: 7637: 7636: 7631: 7619: 7618: 7617: 7612: 7607: 7595: 7594: 7593: 7588: 7583: 7571: 7570: 7569: 7564: 7559: 7547: 7546: 7545: 7540: 7535: 7522: 7520: 7510: 7509: 7506: 7503: 7502: 7499: 7498: 7495: 7494: 7492: 7491: 7489:Centroneuralia 7486: 7481: 7476: 7471: 7457: 7454: 7453: 7450: 7449: 7446: 7445: 7442: 7441: 7438: 7437: 7434: 7433: 7430: 7429: 7426: 7425: 7422: 7421: 7418: 7417: 7415: 7414: 7409: 7403: 7401: 7395: 7394: 7392: 7391: 7384: 7378: 7376: 7367: 7361: 7360: 7358: 7357: 7349: 7343: 7337: 7336: 7334: 7333: 7325: 7319: 7315: 7314: 7312: 7311: 7304: 7294: 7288: 7285:Lophotrochozoa 7280: 7279: 7276: 7275: 7272: 7271: 7269: 7268: 7258: 7253: 7247: 7245: 7239: 7238: 7236: 7235: 7230: 7222: 7220: 7211: 7200: 7197:Platytrochozoa 7192: 7191: 7188: 7187: 7184: 7183: 7181: 7180: 7179: 7178: 7171: 7159: 7156:(Limnognathia) 7150: 7148: 7144: 7143: 7141: 7140: 7135: 7129: 7123: 7110: 7102: 7101: 7098: 7097: 7094: 7093: 7090: 7089: 7086: 7085: 7082: 7081: 7079: 7078: 7071: 7063: 7061: 7055: 7054: 7052: 7051: 7045: 7039: 7033: 7032: 7030: 7029: 7023: 7017: 7009: 7008: 7006: 7005: 7000: 6992: 6990: 6981: 6977: 6976: 6973: 6972: 6970: 6969: 6964: 6958: 6956: 6943: 6932: 6920: 6919: 6916: 6915: 6913: 6912: 6907: 6899: 6893: 6887: 6886: 6884: 6883: 6876: 6870: 6864: 6852: 6851: 6839: 6838: 6835: 6834: 6832: 6831: 6826: 6821: 6807: 6804: 6803: 6800: 6799: 6796: 6795: 6793: 6792: 6788: 6786: 6785:(Triploblasts) 6779: 6778: 6776: 6775: 6768: 6766:and relatives) 6758: 6752: 6740: 6739: 6737: 6736: 6731: 6723: 6717: 6705: 6704: 6701: 6700: 6699: 6698: 6697: 6696: 6693:Mesomycetozoea 6690: 6685: 6675: 6665: 6664: 6663: 6658: 6653: 6648: 6643: 6642: 6641: 6629:Diaphoretickes 6626: 6621: 6616: 6611: 6606: 6601: 6593: 6592: 6589: 6588: 6577: 6576: 6569: 6562: 6554: 6548: 6547: 6542: 6530: 6521: 6512: 6510:echinobase.org 6505: 6504:External links 6502: 6501: 6500: 6480: 6467: 6461: 6444: 6416: 6401: 6398: 6395: 6394: 6372: 6320: 6265: 6229: 6210:(5): 486–509. 6186: 6143: 6100: 6057: 6024: 5997:(1): 111–125. 5980: 5961: 5955:978-0444503909 5954: 5928: 5917: 5889: 5858:(3): 341–351. 5838: 5806: 5799: 5772: 5739: 5732: 5714: 5683:(3): 441–467. 5663: 5652:(3): 263–273. 5632: 5613:(2): 169–175. 5589: 5577: 5575:, p. 779. 5565: 5539: 5508: 5477: 5462: 5460:, p. 914. 5447: 5413: 5411:, p. 893. 5398: 5391: 5370: 5339: 5327: 5315: 5285: 5273: 5232: 5198:(1): 345–357. 5175: 5156:(3): 187–193. 5144:Traumatocrinus 5134: 5132:, p. 968. 5119: 5096: 5084: 5082:, p. 778. 5069: 5036:Marine Biology 5026: 4976:(5869): 1503. 4953: 4895: 4868:(2): 103–114. 4839: 4774: 4710: 4657: 4646:(2): 596–600. 4626: 4571: 4538:Marine Biology 4524: 4522:, p. 922. 4512: 4510:, p. 916. 4500: 4498:, p. 908. 4488: 4486:, p. 888. 4476: 4474:, p. 895. 4464: 4452: 4445: 4425: 4390:(3): 184–193. 4370: 4363: 4329: 4295:(1): 167–184. 4271: 4237:(3): 171–175. 4205: 4192:(3): 340–354. 4166: 4134: 4101: 4065: 4050: 4035: 4009: 3994: 3964: 3942: 3936:978-0199606023 3935: 3917: 3899: 3885:978-0071195492 3884: 3866: 3860:978-0521674065 3859: 3841: 3839:, p. 920. 3829: 3827:, p. 912. 3817: 3805: 3803:, p. 891. 3793: 3791:, p. 885. 3781: 3775:978-9971693688 3774: 3754: 3747: 3725: 3713: 3711:, p. 982. 3701: 3689: 3677: 3662: 3660:, p. 980. 3650: 3631:(2): 255–270. 3615: 3588:(3): 437–440. 3568: 3517: 3502: 3490: 3483: 3465: 3454: 3399: 3368: 3331:Biology Direct 3317: 3288: 3270: 3268:, p. 873. 3255: 3229: 3212: 3185: 3159: 3152: 3126: 3078: 3056: 3029:(2): 151–172. 3009: 2960: 2898: 2887:on 23 May 2015 2864: 2841:Fox, Richard. 2833: 2821: 2801: 2775: 2772:(Online). n.d. 2755: 2725: 2711: 2710: 2708: 2705: 2704: 2703: 2696: 2693: 2671: 2668: 2581: 2578: 2506: 2503: 2501: 2498: 2442:starfish on a 2431: 2428: 2352: 2349: 2300: 2297: 2221: 2218: 2216: 2213: 2193: 2190: 2132: 2129: 2044: 2041: 2026:abyssal depths 2022:hermaphroditic 2013: 2010: 2008: 2005: 1958:Sunflower star 1944: 1941: 1894:nervous system 1885:as part of an 1871:osmoregulation 1775: 1772: 1729:Main article: 1726: 1723: 1657: 1654: 1578: 1575: 1574: 1573: 1555: 1548: 1546: 1539: 1532: 1530: 1521: 1514: 1512: 1484:Ctenoimbricata 1480: 1473: 1470: 1469: 1466:Dibrachicystis 1436:Lower Cambrian 1410: 1409:Fossil history 1407: 1406: 1405: 1396: 1389: 1387: 1380:A sea urchin, 1379: 1372: 1370: 1367: 1360: 1358: 1345: 1338: 1336: 1328: 1321: 1319: 1252: 1249: 1245: 1244: 1238: 1237: 1233: 1232: 1229: 1228: 1224: 1223: 1220: 1219: 1215: 1214: 1210: 1209: 1200: 1194: 1193: 1189: 1188: 1179: 1171: 1169: 1163: 1162: 1159: 1158: 1154: 1153: 1149: 1148: 1139: 1133: 1132: 1128: 1127: 1118: 1110: 1108: 1100: 1098: 1095: 1094: 1091: 1090: 1077: 1072: 1070: 1062: 1061: 1060: 1053: 1052: 1049: 1048: 1044: 1043: 1039: 1038: 1034: 1033: 1029: 1028: 1024: 1023: 1020: 1019: 1005: 1002: 1001: 998: 997: 985: 980: 978: 972: 971: 968: 967: 963: 962: 959: 958: 954: 953: 950: 949: 937: 934: 933: 930: 929: 917: 912: 910: 904: 903: 899: 898: 886: 881: 879: 871: 869: 863: 862: 859: 858: 846: 841: 839: 831: 827: 826: 817: 814: 796:with external 729: 726: 486: 485: 481: 480: 471: 459: 457:von Buch, 1846 450: 437: 436: 430: 424: 419: 408: 407: 402: 391: 390: 384: 378: 372: 361: 360: 354:Ctenocystoidea 351: 345: 339: 321: 320: 316: 315: 313:Linnaeus, 1758 312: 303: 302: 296: 295: 286: 282: 281: 276: 269: 268: 263: 259: 258: 253: 246: 245: 240: 233: 232: 227: 220: 219: 214: 210: 209: 204: 200: 199: 194: 190: 189: 176: 175: 172:Ctenocystoidea 117: 116: 108: 107: 99: 94: 89: 84: 79: 74: 69: 64: 59: 54: 49: 44: 33: 15: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 8915: 8904: 8901: 8899: 8896: 8894: 8891: 8890: 8888: 8871: 8866: 8862: 8858: 8852: 8848: 8843: 8839: 8835: 8830: 8826: 8822: 8816: 8812: 8807: 8803: 8799: 8794: 8790: 8786: 8781: 8777: 8773: 8768: 8764: 8760: 8755: 8751: 8747: 8742: 8738: 8734: 8729: 8725: 8721: 8716: 8712: 8708: 8702: 8698: 8697:Echinodermata 8693: 8689: 8685: 8684:Echinodermata 8680: 8676: 8671: 8670:Echinodermata 8665: 8661: 8656: 8650: 8646: 8645: 8643: 8641: 8640:Echinodermata 8637: 8633: 8628: 8614: 8613: 8608: 8606: 8605: 8600: 8590: 8587: 8585: 8582: 8580: 8577: 8575: 8572: 8570: 8567: 8565: 8562: 8560: 8557: 8555: 8552: 8550: 8547: 8545: 8542: 8540: 8537: 8535: 8532: 8530: 8527: 8525: 8522: 8520: 8517: 8515: 8512: 8510: 8507: 8505: 8502: 8500: 8497: 8495: 8492: 8490: 8487: 8485: 8482: 8480: 8477: 8475: 8472: 8470: 8467: 8465: 8462: 8460: 8457: 8455: 8452: 8450: 8447: 8445: 8442: 8440: 8437: 8435: 8432: 8430: 8427: 8426: 8424: 8422: 8418: 8412: 8409: 8407: 8404: 8402: 8399: 8397: 8394: 8392: 8389: 8387: 8384: 8382: 8379: 8377: 8374: 8372: 8369: 8367: 8364: 8362: 8359: 8357: 8354: 8352: 8349: 8347: 8344: 8343: 8341: 8339: 8335: 8329: 8328:Basidiomycota 8326: 8324: 8321: 8319: 8316: 8314: 8313:Glomeromycota 8311: 8309: 8306: 8304: 8301: 8299: 8296: 8295: 8293: 8291: 8287: 8281: 8278: 8276: 8275:Stramenopiles 8273: 8271: 8268: 8266: 8263: 8261: 8258: 8256: 8253: 8251: 8248: 8246: 8243: 8241: 8238: 8236: 8233: 8231: 8228: 8226: 8223: 8221: 8218: 8216: 8213: 8211: 8208: 8206: 8203: 8201: 8200:Apusomonadida 8198: 8196: 8193: 8191: 8188: 8186: 8183: 8182: 8180: 8177: 8172: 8169: 8167: 8163: 8153: 8150: 8148: 8145: 8143: 8140: 8137: 8136:Nanoarchaeota 8133: 8130: 8126: 8123: 8122:Euryarchaeota 8119: 8118: 8116: 8114: 8110: 8106: 8096: 8093: 8091: 8088: 8086: 8083: 8081: 8078: 8076: 8073: 8071: 8070:Spirochaetota 8068: 8066: 8065:Rhodothermota 8063: 8061: 8058: 8056: 8053: 8051: 8048: 8046: 8043: 8041: 8038: 8036: 8033: 8031: 8028: 8026: 8023: 8021: 8018: 8016: 8013: 8011: 8008: 8006: 8003: 8001: 7998: 7996: 7995:Dictyoglomota 7993: 7991: 7988: 7986: 7983: 7980: 7979:Cyanobacteria 7976: 7974: 7971: 7969: 7968:Chrysiogenota 7966: 7964: 7963:Chloroflexota 7961: 7959: 7956: 7954: 7951: 7949: 7946: 7944: 7943:Calditrichota 7941: 7939: 7938:Caldisericota 7936: 7934: 7931: 7929: 7926: 7924: 7921: 7919: 7916: 7914: 7913:Atribacterota 7911: 7909: 7906: 7904: 7901: 7899: 7896: 7894: 7891: 7890: 7888: 7886: 7882: 7878: 7874: 7869: 7861: 7856: 7854: 7849: 7847: 7842: 7841: 7838: 7825: 7824:dubious phyla 7821: 7819: 7815: 7814: 7811: 7799: 7796: 7794: 7791: 7789: 7786: 7784: 7781: 7779: 7776: 7775: 7774: 7773: 7769: 7765: 7762: 7760: 7757: 7755: 7752: 7751: 7750: 7749: 7745: 7741: 7738: 7736: 7733: 7731: 7728: 7727: 7726: 7725: 7721: 7717: 7714: 7712: 7709: 7707: 7704: 7702: 7699: 7698: 7697: 7696: 7692: 7688: 7685: 7683: 7680: 7678: 7675: 7673: 7670: 7669: 7668: 7667: 7663: 7659: 7656: 7654: 7651: 7649: 7646: 7645: 7644: 7643: 7639: 7635: 7632: 7630: 7627: 7626: 7625: 7624: 7623:Hemichordates 7620: 7616: 7613: 7611: 7608: 7606: 7603: 7602: 7601: 7600: 7596: 7592: 7589: 7587: 7584: 7582: 7579: 7578: 7577: 7576: 7572: 7568: 7565: 7563: 7560: 7558: 7555: 7554: 7553: 7552: 7548: 7544: 7541: 7539: 7538:Glass sponges 7536: 7534: 7531: 7530: 7529: 7528: 7524: 7523: 7521: 7515: 7511: 7504: 7490: 7487: 7485: 7482: 7480: 7479:Deuterostomia 7477: 7475: 7472: 7468: 7465:of Bilateria 7464: 7459: 7458: 7455: 7413: 7410: 7408: 7405: 7404: 7402: 7400: 7396: 7390: 7389: 7385: 7383: 7380: 7379: 7377: 7375: 7371: 7368: 7366: 7362: 7356: 7355: 7351: 7350: 7347: 7344: 7342: 7338: 7332: 7331: 7327: 7326: 7323: 7320: 7316: 7310: 7309: 7305: 7303: 7301: 7298:Cycliophora ( 7296: 7295: 7292: 7289: 7286: 7281: 7266: 7264: 7259: 7257: 7254: 7252: 7249: 7248: 7246: 7244: 7240: 7234: 7231: 7229: 7228: 7224: 7223: 7221: 7219: 7215: 7212: 7208: 7204: 7201: 7198: 7193: 7177: 7176: 7172: 7170: 7169: 7165: 7164: 7163: 7160: 7158: 7157: 7152: 7151: 7149: 7145: 7139: 7136: 7134: 7131: 7130: 7127: 7124: 7122: 7118: 7114: 7111: 7108: 7103: 7077: 7076: 7072: 7070: 7069: 7065: 7064: 7062: 7060: 7056: 7050: 7047: 7046: 7043: 7040: 7038: 7037:Panarthropoda 7034: 7028: 7025: 7024: 7021: 7018: 7014: 7010: 7004: 7001: 6999: 6998: 6994: 6993: 6991: 6989: 6985: 6982: 6978: 6968: 6965: 6963: 6960: 6959: 6957: 6955: 6951: 6947: 6944: 6941: 6936: 6933: 6930: 6925: 6921: 6911: 6908: 6906: 6905: 6901: 6900: 6897: 6894: 6892: 6888: 6882: 6881: 6877: 6875: 6872: 6871: 6868: 6865: 6862: 6857: 6853: 6849: 6844: 6840: 6830: 6827: 6825: 6822: 6818: 6814: 6809: 6808: 6805: 6790: 6789: 6787: 6784: 6780: 6774: 6773: 6769: 6767: 6765: 6760: 6759: 6756: 6753: 6750: 6745: 6741: 6735: 6732: 6730: 6729: 6725: 6724: 6721: 6718: 6715: 6710: 6706: 6694: 6691: 6689: 6686: 6684: 6681: 6680: 6679: 6676: 6674: 6671: 6670: 6669: 6666: 6662: 6659: 6657: 6656:Stramenopiles 6654: 6652: 6649: 6647: 6644: 6640: 6637: 6636: 6635: 6632: 6631: 6630: 6627: 6625: 6622: 6619:(major groups 6617: 6615: 6612: 6610: 6607: 6605: 6602: 6599: 6595: 6594: 6590: 6586: 6583: 6575: 6570: 6568: 6563: 6561: 6556: 6555: 6552: 6546: 6543: 6541: 6537: 6534: 6531: 6529: 6525: 6524:Echinodermata 6522: 6520: 6516: 6513: 6511: 6508: 6507: 6497: 6491: 6483: 6481:81-315-0104-3 6477: 6473: 6468: 6464: 6458: 6453: 6452: 6445: 6441: 6435: 6427: 6423: 6419: 6413: 6409: 6408:Invertebrates 6404: 6403: 6382: 6376: 6368: 6364: 6359: 6354: 6350: 6346: 6342: 6338: 6334: 6327: 6325: 6316: 6312: 6307: 6302: 6297: 6292: 6288: 6284: 6280: 6272: 6270: 6258: 6254: 6250: 6243: 6236: 6234: 6225: 6221: 6217: 6213: 6209: 6205: 6201: 6197: 6190: 6182: 6178: 6174: 6170: 6166: 6162: 6158: 6154: 6147: 6139: 6135: 6131: 6127: 6123: 6119: 6115: 6111: 6104: 6096: 6092: 6088: 6084: 6080: 6076: 6072: 6068: 6061: 6045: 6041: 6037: 6031: 6029: 6020: 6016: 6012: 6008: 6004: 6000: 5996: 5992: 5984: 5977: 5973: 5972: 5965: 5957: 5951: 5947: 5943: 5939: 5932: 5926: 5921: 5905: 5904: 5899: 5893: 5885: 5881: 5876: 5871: 5866: 5861: 5857: 5853: 5849: 5842: 5823: 5816: 5810: 5802: 5796: 5792: 5791: 5787: 5783: 5776: 5765: 5761: 5757: 5750: 5743: 5735: 5733:0-521-64523-9 5729: 5725: 5718: 5709: 5704: 5699: 5694: 5690: 5686: 5682: 5678: 5674: 5667: 5659: 5655: 5651: 5647: 5643: 5636: 5628: 5624: 5620: 5616: 5612: 5608: 5604: 5602: 5593: 5586: 5581: 5574: 5569: 5554: 5550: 5543: 5527: 5523: 5519: 5512: 5496: 5492: 5488: 5481: 5474: 5469: 5467: 5459: 5454: 5452: 5435: 5431: 5427: 5420: 5418: 5410: 5405: 5403: 5394: 5392:0-03-056747-5 5388: 5384: 5377: 5375: 5358: 5354: 5350: 5343: 5336: 5331: 5324: 5319: 5303: 5299: 5297: 5294:"Sand star - 5289: 5282: 5277: 5269: 5265: 5260: 5255: 5251: 5247: 5243: 5236: 5225: 5221: 5217: 5213: 5209: 5205: 5201: 5197: 5193: 5186: 5179: 5171: 5167: 5163: 5159: 5155: 5151: 5150: 5145: 5138: 5131: 5126: 5124: 5107: 5100: 5093: 5088: 5081: 5076: 5074: 5065: 5061: 5057: 5053: 5049: 5045: 5041: 5037: 5030: 5015: 5011: 5007: 5003: 4999: 4995: 4991: 4987: 4983: 4979: 4975: 4971: 4967: 4960: 4958: 4942: 4938: 4934: 4930: 4926: 4922: 4918: 4914: 4910: 4908: 4899: 4891: 4887: 4883: 4879: 4875: 4871: 4867: 4863: 4859: 4857: 4848: 4846: 4844: 4824: 4820: 4816: 4812: 4808: 4804: 4800: 4796: 4792: 4785: 4778: 4770: 4766: 4762: 4758: 4753: 4748: 4744: 4740: 4736: 4732: 4729:(6954): 146. 4728: 4724: 4717: 4715: 4703: 4699: 4695: 4691: 4687: 4683: 4679: 4672: 4670: 4661: 4653: 4649: 4645: 4641: 4637: 4630: 4619: 4614: 4609: 4605: 4601: 4597: 4593: 4586: 4584: 4575: 4567: 4563: 4559: 4555: 4551: 4547: 4543: 4539: 4535: 4528: 4521: 4516: 4509: 4504: 4497: 4492: 4485: 4480: 4473: 4468: 4461: 4456: 4448: 4442: 4438: 4437: 4429: 4421: 4417: 4413: 4409: 4405: 4401: 4397: 4393: 4389: 4385: 4381: 4374: 4366: 4360: 4356: 4352: 4348: 4345:. Dordrecht: 4344: 4340: 4333: 4318: 4314: 4310: 4306: 4302: 4298: 4294: 4290: 4286: 4284: 4275: 4256: 4252: 4248: 4244: 4240: 4236: 4232: 4225: 4223: 4222:Sclerasterias 4214: 4212: 4210: 4200: 4195: 4191: 4187: 4183: 4175: 4173: 4171: 4154: 4153: 4149: 4141: 4139: 4127: 4123: 4119: 4112: 4105: 4098: 4083: 4076: 4069: 4062: 4057: 4055: 4046: 4042: 4038: 4032: 4028: 4024: 4020: 4013: 4005: 4001: 3997: 3991: 3987: 3983: 3979: 3975: 3968: 3960: 3956: 3949: 3947: 3938: 3932: 3928: 3921: 3913: 3909: 3903: 3895: 3891: 3887: 3881: 3877: 3870: 3862: 3856: 3852: 3845: 3838: 3833: 3826: 3821: 3814: 3809: 3802: 3797: 3790: 3785: 3777: 3771: 3767: 3766: 3758: 3750: 3744: 3740: 3736: 3729: 3722: 3717: 3710: 3705: 3698: 3693: 3686: 3681: 3674: 3669: 3667: 3659: 3654: 3646: 3642: 3638: 3634: 3630: 3626: 3619: 3611: 3607: 3603: 3599: 3595: 3591: 3587: 3583: 3579: 3572: 3564: 3560: 3555: 3550: 3545: 3540: 3536: 3532: 3528: 3521: 3513: 3506: 3499: 3494: 3486: 3480: 3476: 3469: 3463: 3458: 3450: 3446: 3442: 3438: 3434: 3430: 3426: 3422: 3418: 3414: 3410: 3403: 3387: 3383: 3379: 3372: 3364: 3360: 3355: 3350: 3345: 3340: 3336: 3332: 3328: 3321: 3313: 3307: 3299: 3295: 3291: 3285: 3281: 3274: 3267: 3262: 3260: 3244: 3240: 3233: 3226: 3221: 3219: 3217: 3200: 3196: 3189: 3174: 3172: 3163: 3155: 3149: 3145: 3141: 3137: 3130: 3121: 3116: 3112: 3108: 3104: 3100: 3096: 3089: 3087: 3085: 3083: 3066: 3060: 3052: 3048: 3044: 3040: 3036: 3032: 3028: 3024: 3020: 3013: 3005: 3001: 2996: 2991: 2987: 2983: 2979: 2975: 2971: 2964: 2956: 2952: 2947: 2942: 2937: 2932: 2928: 2924: 2920: 2916: 2912: 2905: 2903: 2886: 2882: 2878: 2871: 2869: 2852: 2848: 2846: 2837: 2830: 2825: 2817: 2816: 2811: 2805: 2790: 2786: 2779: 2771: 2770: 2765: 2759: 2744: 2740: 2736: 2729: 2722: 2716: 2712: 2702: 2699: 2698: 2692: 2689: 2685: 2681: 2677: 2667: 2665: 2664: 2659: 2658: 2653: 2652: 2647: 2646: 2641: 2640: 2635: 2634: 2629: 2628: 2623: 2619: 2615: 2611: 2607: 2603: 2602: 2597: 2596: 2591: 2587: 2577: 2575: 2571: 2567: 2563: 2559: 2555: 2551: 2547: 2546: 2541: 2537: 2536: 2531: 2524: 2519: 2511: 2500:Use by humans 2497: 2495: 2491: 2487: 2483: 2479: 2478:urchin barren 2475: 2470: 2469: 2463: 2461: 2457: 2453: 2445: 2441: 2436: 2427: 2425: 2420: 2415: 2410: 2406: 2404: 2400: 2396: 2392: 2388: 2384: 2380: 2376: 2372: 2364: 2363: 2357: 2348: 2345: 2341: 2335: 2331: 2329: 2328:phytoplankton 2323: 2321: 2317: 2313: 2309: 2305: 2296: 2292: 2290: 2285: 2277: 2272: 2268: 2264: 2262: 2258: 2257: 2250: 2248: 2241: 2233: 2232: 2226: 2212: 2209: 2208: 2203: 2199: 2189: 2187: 2183: 2178: 2175: 2171: 2167: 2161: 2159: 2154: 2146: 2145:pluteus larva 2142: 2137: 2128: 2124: 2122: 2118: 2114: 2110: 2106: 2100: 2097: 2096: 2090: 2087: 2083: 2079: 2075: 2074: 2069: 2062: 2061: 2055: 2050: 2040: 2038: 2034: 2029: 2027: 2023: 2019: 2004: 2002: 1998: 1994: 1990: 1986: 1981: 1979: 1975: 1971: 1967: 1959: 1955: 1950: 1940: 1938: 1933: 1928: 1926: 1923: 1919: 1918:pedicellariae 1915: 1911: 1907: 1903: 1899: 1895: 1890: 1888: 1884: 1880: 1876: 1872: 1868: 1864: 1860: 1856: 1851: 1849: 1845: 1841: 1837: 1832: 1829: 1825: 1821: 1820:haemal coelom 1817: 1812: 1810: 1806: 1802: 1798: 1794: 1790: 1786: 1782: 1771: 1767: 1765: 1761: 1757: 1753: 1746: 1742: 1737: 1732: 1722: 1720: 1716: 1712: 1707: 1705: 1704: 1697: 1695: 1689: 1687: 1683: 1679: 1675: 1671: 1667: 1663: 1653: 1649: 1647: 1646: 1642: 1638: 1637: 1630: 1628: 1624: 1620: 1619: 1614: 1610: 1606: 1605: 1600: 1596: 1595:pentaradially 1592: 1588: 1584: 1571: 1567: 1563: 1559: 1558:Hyperoblastus 1552: 1547: 1543: 1536: 1531: 1527: 1526: 1518: 1513: 1510: 1509: 1504: 1503: 1498: 1497: 1492: 1491: 1486: 1485: 1477: 1472: 1471: 1468: 1467: 1462: 1461: 1460: 1457: 1453: 1447: 1445: 1441: 1437: 1432: 1430: 1426: 1422: 1421: 1416: 1403: 1399: 1393: 1388: 1385: 1384: 1376: 1371: 1364: 1359: 1355: 1354: 1349: 1342: 1337: 1334: 1333: 1325: 1320: 1317: 1316: 1315: 1313: 1309: 1305: 1301: 1300:feather stars 1297: 1293: 1289: 1288:sea cucumbers 1285: 1281: 1277: 1276:brittle stars 1273: 1269: 1266: 1262: 1258: 1243: 1240: 1239: 1231: 1230: 1222: 1221: 1212: 1211: 1208: 1206: 1199: 1196: 1195: 1191: 1190: 1187: 1185: 1178: 1175: 1174: 1168: 1165: 1164: 1161: 1160: 1151: 1150: 1147: 1145: 1138: 1135: 1134: 1130: 1129: 1126: 1124: 1117: 1116:Holothuroidea 1114: 1113: 1107: 1104: 1103: 1097: 1096: 1093: 1092: 1089: 1087: 1082: 1076: 1075: 1069: 1068:Echino‑ 1066: 1065: 1058: 1057: 1051: 1050: 1042:650 mya 1041: 1040: 1032:610 mya 1031: 1030: 1022: 1021: 1018: 1015: 1010: 1004: 1003: 1000: 999: 996: 994: 990: 984: 983: 977: 974: 973: 970: 969: 961: 960: 952: 951: 948: 946: 942: 936: 935: 932: 931: 928: 926: 922: 921:Echinodermata 916: 915: 909: 906: 905: 902:540 mya 901: 900: 897: 895: 891: 885: 884: 878: 877:Deuterostomia 875: 874: 868: 865: 864: 861: 860: 857: 855: 851: 845: 844: 838: 835: 834: 830: 824: 823: 822: 813: 811: 807: 803: 799: 795: 791: 787: 783: 779: 775: 772: 765: 761: 758: 755: 748: 744: 741: 740:Ancient Greek 735: 725: 723: 719: 714: 710: 709:endoskeletons 707: 704: 700: 696: 692: 689:, as well as 688: 683: 681: 677: 673: 669: 668:deuterostomes 665: 661: 657: 653: 649: 645: 641: 637: 633: 632:sea cucumbers 629: 625: 621: 620:brittle stars 617: 611: 563: 562:Echinodermata 560: 556: 553: 552:deuterostomal 547: 493: 484: 478:Regnéll, 1945 475: 474:Paracrinoidea 472: 468: 463: 460: 454: 451: 448: 445: 444: 443: 441: 434: 431: 428: 425: 423: 422:Holothuroidea 420: 418: 415: 414: 413: 412: 406: 403: 401: 398: 397: 396: 395: 388: 385: 382: 379: 376: 373: 371: 368: 367: 366: 365: 355: 352: 349: 346: 343: 340: 337: 334: 333: 332: 327: 322: 317: 310: 309: 304: 301: 297: 290: 289:Echinodermata 287: 284: 283: 280: 277: 274: 271: 270: 267: 266:Deuterostomia 264: 262:Superphylum: 261: 260: 257: 254: 251: 248: 247: 244: 241: 238: 235: 234: 231: 228: 225: 222: 221: 218: 215: 212: 211: 208: 205: 202: 201: 198: 195: 192: 191: 186: 181: 177: 173: 169: 168:Holothuroidea 165: 164: 159: 155: 154: 149: 145: 144: 139: 135: 134: 129: 125: 124: 123:Fromia indica 118: 114: 109: 102: 97: 92: 87: 82: 77: 72: 67: 62: 57: 52: 47: 41: 37: 29: 26: 22: 8639: 8610: 8602: 8524:Orthonectida 8519:Gastrotricha 8494:Nematomorpha 8469:Chaetognatha 8463: 8459:Hemichordate 8386:Pteridophyta 8255:Malawimonada 8129:Korarchaeota 8090:Thermotogota 8075:Synergistota 8050:Nitrospirota 8045:Nitrospinota 7990:Deinococcota 7923:Bacteroidota 7822:Potentially 7817: 7770: 7746: 7740:Gymnolaemata 7735:Stenolaemata 7724:Ectoproctans 7722: 7693: 7664: 7640: 7634:Pterobranchs 7621: 7598: 7597: 7573: 7549: 7525: 7519:within phyla 7517:Major groups 7387: 7374:Bryozoa s.l. 7365:Lophophorata 7353: 7329: 7307: 7299: 7262: 7251:Orthonectida 7226: 7173: 7166: 7155: 7074: 7067: 6996: 6954:Scalidophora 6903: 6902: 6891:Ambulacraria 6878: 6791:(see below↓) 6771: 6763: 6727: 6678:Opisthokonta 6471: 6450: 6407: 6385:. Retrieved 6375: 6340: 6336: 6286: 6282: 6257:the original 6252: 6248: 6207: 6203: 6199: 6195: 6189: 6159:(1): 62–71. 6156: 6152: 6146: 6116:(2): 124–8. 6113: 6109: 6103: 6073:(2): 124–8. 6070: 6066: 6060: 6048:. Retrieved 6039: 5994: 5990: 5983: 5969: 5964: 5937: 5931: 5920: 5908:. Retrieved 5906:. April 2009 5901: 5892: 5855: 5851: 5841: 5829:. Retrieved 5809: 5789: 5786: 5781: 5775: 5764:the original 5759: 5755: 5742: 5723: 5717: 5680: 5676: 5666: 5649: 5645: 5641: 5635: 5610: 5606: 5600: 5592: 5580: 5568: 5556:. Retrieved 5552: 5542: 5530:. Retrieved 5526:the original 5521: 5511: 5499:. Retrieved 5495:the original 5490: 5480: 5438:. Retrieved 5434:the original 5429: 5382: 5361:. Retrieved 5357:the original 5352: 5342: 5330: 5318: 5308:26 September 5306:. Retrieved 5302:the original 5295: 5288: 5276: 5249: 5245: 5235: 5224:the original 5195: 5191: 5178: 5153: 5147: 5143: 5137: 5110:. Retrieved 5099: 5087: 5039: 5035: 5029: 5017:. Retrieved 4973: 4969: 4944:. 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Retrieved 3059: 3026: 3022: 3012: 2977: 2973: 2963: 2918: 2914: 2889:. Retrieved 2885:the original 2881:Tree of Life 2880: 2855:. Retrieved 2850: 2844: 2836: 2824: 2813: 2810:"echinoderm" 2804: 2792:. Retrieved 2789:ocean.si.edu 2788: 2778: 2767: 2764:"echinoderm" 2758: 2746:. 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