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the most conspicuous moths: those with coloration unmatched to their surroundings. Kettlewell then performed field experiments using mark-recapture techniques to investigate the selective predation of moths in their natural habitat. These experiments found that, in woods near industrialized areas, melanic moth forms were recaptured at much higher rates than the traditional lighter-colored forms, while in non-industrialized woods, the reverse held true.
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845:. While research had already emphasized the role of alleles in determining wing-color phenotype, it was still unknown whether the melanic alleles had a single origin or had arisen multiple times independently. The use of molecular marking and chromosomal mapping in conjunction with population surveys demonstrated in the early 2010s that the melanic
828:
is black and white flecks, but variant 'melanic' phenotypes with increased amounts of black also occur. In the nineteenth century, the frequency of these melanic variants increased rapidly. Many biologists proposed explanations for this phenomenon. It was demonstrated in the early 1910s, and again in
837:
Uncertainty surrounding whether birds preyed on moths at all posed an initial challenge, leading
Kettlewell to perform a series of experiments with captive birds. These experiments, while inititally unsuccessful, found that when a variety of insects are provided, the birds did preferentially prey on
861:
A major line of evidence can be drawn from what we about artificial selection and its influence on traits. Many experiments that have utilized artificial selection have found traits to respond quickly and steadily. If only a small amount of genes have a large influence on a particular trait, this
857:
Research on ecologically important traits often focuses on single alleles. However, it has been found that in many cases, phenotypes have a polygenic basis - they are controlled by many different alleles. Complex traits in particular are more likely to have a polygenic basis. Advances in genetic
833:
genome. The proposed explanations, then, centered around various environmental factors that could contribute to natural selection. In particular, it was proposed that bird predation was selecting for the melanic moth forms, which were more cryptic in industrialized areas. H. B. D. Kettlewell
697:
Research usually involves a mixture of field and laboratory studies. Samples of natural populations may be taken back to the laboratory for their genetic variation to be analyzed. Changes in the populations at different times and places will be noted, and the pattern of
865:
The prevalance of traits with a polygenic basis poses some issues when researching traits and adaptation in natural populations. Separating the effects of genes, environmental factors, and random genetic drift on traits can be difficult with complex traits.
858:
technology have allowed scientists to more closely investigate the genetic basis of complex traits, leading to an accumulation of evidence supporting the importance of polygenic control in understanding the evolution of these traits.
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Work of this kind needs long-term funding, as well as grounding in both ecology and genetics. These are both difficult requirements. Research projects can last longer than a researcher's career; for instance, research into
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would not be seen. The way that complex traits with continuous variation change in response to natural selection can most reasonably be explained by many alleles having a small effect on the phenotype of interest.
1201:. R.C. Lewontin, J.A. Moore, W.B. Provine & B. Wallace, eds. Columbia University Press, New York 1981. (reprints the 43 papers in this series, all but two of which were authored or co-authored by Dobzhansky)
879:
started 150 years ago and is still going strongly. Funding of this type of research is still rather erratic, but at least the value of working with natural populations in the field cannot now be doubted.
718:(1901–1988) in the early 20th century. Ford started research on the genetics of natural populations in 1924 and worked extensively to develop his formal definition of
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in natural populations. It combines ecology, evolution, and genetics to understand the processes behind adaptation. It is virtually synonymous with the field of
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variants have one single ancestral origin. Additionally, the melanic variants appear to have arisen by mutation from a typical wing-color phenotype.
809:. Many classical ecology works have employed aspects of ecological genetics, investigating how inheritance and the environment affect individuals.
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Although work on natural populations had been done previously, it is acknowledged that the field was founded by the
English biologist
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Mallet J. and Joron M. 1999. Evolution in diversity in warning color and mimicry: polymorphisms, shifting balance and speciation.
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were all strongly influenced by Ford; their careers date from the post World War II era. Collectively, their work on
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Cain A.J. and W.B. Provine 1992. Genes and ecology in history. In: R.J. Berry, T.J. Crawford and G.M. Hewitt (eds).
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in these populations will be studied. Research is often done on organisms that have short generation times, such as
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established the field and threw light on selection in natural populations, where its role had been once doubted.
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More recent research has further emphasized the role of genetics in the case of industrialized melanism in
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many later studies, that the melanic variants were a result of dominant alleles at a single locus in the
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van't Hof, Arjen E.; Edmonds, Nicola; DalĂková, Martina; Marec, František; Saccheri, Ilik J. (2011).
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is a well-known example of the process of natural selection. The typical wing color phenotype of
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1476:"Thinking About the Evolution of Complex Traits in the Era of Genome-Wide Association Studies"
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Insect evolutionary ecology: proceedings of the Royal
Entomological Society's 22nd Symposium
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1351:"Industrial Melanism in British Peppered Moths Has a Singular and Recent Mutational Origin"
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678:, or its ability to survive and reproduce. Examples of such traits include flowering time,
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998:. Proceedings of the Royal Entomological Society's ... symposium. Wallingford: CABI Publ.
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1248:"The peppered moth and industrial melanism: evolution of a natural selection case study"
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Fuhrmann, Nico; Prakash, Celine; Kaiser, Tobias S (2023-02-28). Weigel, Detlef (ed.).
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1414:"Polygenic adaptation from standing genetic variation allows rapid ecotype formation"
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1312:"The Beauty of Kettlewell's Classic Experimental Demonstration of Natural Selection"
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Avoiding attack: the evolutionary ecology of crypsis, warning signals & mimicry
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Proceedings of the
National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America
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1545:. Blackwell Scientific: Oxford. Provides a good historical background.
762:. He and his colleagues carried out studies on natural populations of
19:"Ecological Genetics" redirects here. For the book by E. B. Ford, see
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2010:
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660:, which works mostly on crosses between laboratory strains, and
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investigated this hypothesis extensively in the early 1950s.
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of ecological significance—traits that affect an organism's
2047:
1328:
10.1641/0006-3568(2005)055[0369:TBOKCE]2.0.CO;2
1218:(2nd ed.). Oxford; New York: Oxford University Press.
1175:. Columbia, N.Y. 1st ed 1937; second ed 1941; 3rd ed 1951.
2140:
2135:
728:, which ran to four editions and was widely influential.
661:
1065:
Ford E.B. 1940. Polymorphism and taxonomy. In Huxley J.
812:
805:
Ecological genetics is closely tied to the concept of
1411:
1199:
Dobzhansky's genetics of natural populations I-XLIII
800:
766:species in western USA and Mexico over many years.
743:of ecology, by mathematically merging the ideas of
1021:"The Ecology and Genetics of Microbial Diversity"
3728:
1082:. All Souls Studies, Faber & Faber, London.
967:Ruxton G.D. Sherratt T.N. and Speed M.P. 2004.
1474:Sella, Guy; Barton, Nicholas H. (2019-08-31).
1059:
1019:Kassen, Rees; Rainey, Paul B. (October 2004).
667:, which studies genes at the molecular level.
2447:
2063:
1564:
940:Conner, Jeffrey K.; Hartl, Daniel L. (2004).
731:Other notable ecological geneticists include
623:
1480:Annual Review of Genomics and Human Genetics
1245:
1018:
1473:
1214:Beebee, Trevor J. C.; Rowe, Graham (2008).
1105:Berry, Andrew; Browne, Janet (2022-07-26).
1104:
939:
2454:
2440:
2070:
2056:
1571:
1557:
1213:
739:. Fisher helped form what is known as the
630:
616:
2037:Timeline of biology and organic chemistry
1447:
1429:
1279:
1148:
1130:
3688:Transgenerational epigenetic inheritance
2461:
993:
944:. Sunderland, Mass: Sinauer Associates.
16:Study of genetics in natural populations
2403:List of genetics research organizations
1578:
1522:Annual Review of Ecological Systematics
3729:
1037:10.1146/annurev.micro.58.030603.123654
852:
3451:Dialogues Concerning Natural Religion
2435:
2051:
2032:Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine
1552:
1469:
1467:
1309:
1305:
1303:
1301:
1299:
1241:
1239:
1237:
1235:
1209:
1207:
813:Industrial melanism in peppered moths
1216:An introduction to molecular ecology
1186:Genetics of the evolutionary process
1085:
984:. Weidenfeld & Nicolson, London.
982:Taking genetics into the countryside
963:
961:
935:
933:
1492:10.1146/annurev-genom-083115-022316
1095:, 4th ed. Chapman and Hall, London.
13:
2856:Evolutionary developmental biology
1535:
1464:
1296:
1232:
1204:
1173:Genetics and the origin of species
14:
3748:
1246:Cook, L M; Saccheri, I J (2013).
958:
930:
801:Inheritance and natural selection
3710:
3701:
3700:
2416:
2415:
597:
596:
583:
41:
3513:Extended evolutionary synthesis
2702:Gene-centered view of evolution
1514:
1405:
1342:
1191:
1178:
1165:
942:A primer of ecological genetics
590:Evolutionary biology portal
3641:Hologenome theory of evolution
3508:History of molecular evolution
2734:Evolutionarily stable strategy
2623:Last universal common ancestor
1098:
1072:
1012:
987:
974:
869:
690:, and avoidance of attacks by
549:Creation–evolution controversy
303:History of evolutionary theory
1:
3435:Renaissance and Enlightenment
1197:Dobzhansky, Theodosius 1981.
1184:Dobzhansky, Theodosius 1970.
1025:Annual Review of Microbiology
923:
670:Research in this field is on
3646:Missing heritability problem
3273:Gamete differentiation/sexes
2362:Missing heritability problem
2077:
994:Fellowes, Mark, ed. (2005).
534:Evolution as fact and theory
7:
883:
795:
706:and microbial communities.
10:
3753:
3278:Life cycles/nuclear phases
2830:Trivers–Willard hypothesis
1069:. Oxford University Press.
971:. Oxford University Press.
709:
569:Nature-nurture controversy
21:Ecological Genetics (book)
18:
3696:
3596:
3521:
3425:
3352:
3308:
3163:
3067:
2884:
2843:
2776:Parent–offspring conflict
2712:
2581:Earliest known life forms
2502:
2469:
2411:
2390:
2289:
2240:
2184:
2123:
2085:
2019:
1586:
722:. Ford's magnum opus was
456:Evolutionary neuroscience
431:Evolutionary epistemology
411:Evolutionary anthropology
391:Applications of evolution
3629:Cultural group selection
3493:The eclipse of Darwinism
3465:On the Origin of Species
3440:Transmutation of species
1310:Rudge, David W. (2005).
1171:Dobzhansky, Theodosius.
446:Evolutionary linguistics
441:Evolutionary game theory
416:Evolutionary computation
3634:Dual inheritance theory
3473:History of paleontology
1375:10.1126/science.1203043
1132:10.1073/pnas.2122144119
751:. Dobzhansky worked on
559:Objections to evolution
466:Evolutionary psychology
461:Evolutionary physiology
406:Evolutionary aesthetics
385:Fields and applications
367:History of paleontology
3322:Punctuated equilibrium
2643:Non-adaptive radiation
2591:Evolutionary arms race
1646:Biological engineering
918:Polymorphism (biology)
491:Speciation experiments
471:Experimental evolution
426:Evolutionary economics
248:Recent human evolution
106:Processes and outcomes
3614:Evolutionary medicine
3488:Mendelian inheritance
3196:Biological complexity
3184:Programmed cell death
2876:Phenotypic plasticity
2596:Evolutionary pressure
2586:Evidence of evolution
2484:Timeline of evolution
2398:List of genetic codes
1731:Developmental biology
1706:Computational biology
1686:Cellular microbiology
1188:. Columbia, New York.
890:Antibiotic resistance
820:in the peppered moth
737:Theodosius Dobzhansky
451:Evolutionary medicine
396:Biosocial criminology
362:History of speciation
275:Evolutionary taxonomy
238:Timeline of evolution
3588:Teleology in biology
3483:Blending inheritance
2861:Genetic assimilation
2724:Artificial selection
2463:Evolutionary biology
2297:Behavioural genetics
1951:Reproductive biology
1836:Mathematical biology
1761:Evolutionary biology
1711:Conservation biology
1080:Genetic polymorphism
913:Pesticide resistance
720:genetic polymorphism
656:This contrasts with
421:Evolutionary ecology
35:Evolutionary biology
3737:Ecological genetics
3651:Molecular evolution
3609:Ecological genetics
3478:Transitional fossil
3268:Sexual reproduction
3108:endomembrane system
3037:pollinator-mediated
2993:dolphins and whales
2771:Parental investment
2377:Population genomics
2367:Molecular evolution
2327:Genetic engineering
1736:Ecological genetics
1580:Branches of biology
1431:10.7554/eLife.82824
1367:2011Sci...332..958V
1264:10.1038/hdy.2012.92
1123:2022PNAS..11922144B
1117:(30): e2122144119.
1107:"Mendel and Darwin"
1093:Ecological genetics
1067:The new systematics
853:Polygenic selection
818:Industrial melanism
725:Ecological Genetics
643:Ecological genetics
523:Social implications
511:Universal Darwinism
501:Island biogeography
436:Evolutionary ethics
401:Ecological genetics
347:Molecular evolution
285:Transitional fossil
113:Population genetics
29:Part of a series on
3624:Cultural evolution
2739:Fisher's principle
2668:Handicap principle
2658:Parallel evolution
2522:Adaptive radiation
2337:Genetic monitoring
2027:History of biology
1961:Structural biology
1946:Relational biology
1771:Generative biology
1766:Freshwater biology
900:Genetic monitoring
778:Bernard Kettlewell
658:classical genetics
554:Theistic evolution
486:Selective breeding
198:Parallel evolution
163:Adaptive radiation
3724:
3723:
3340:Uniformitarianism
3293:Sex-determination
2798:Sexual dimorphism
2793:Natural selection
2697:Unit of selection
2663:Signalling theory
2429:
2428:
2352:He Jiankui affair
2342:Genetic genealogy
2332:Genetic diversity
2261:the British Isles
2166:Genetic variation
2045:
2044:
1966:Synthetic biology
1846:Molecular biology
1701:Cognitive biology
1361:(6032): 958–960.
1225:978-0-19-929205-9
1005:978-0-85199-812-1
951:978-0-87893-202-3
807:natural selection
665:sequence analysis
651:molecular ecology
640:
639:
331:Origin of Species
133:Natural selection
3744:
3714:
3704:
3703:
3503:Modern synthesis
3263:Multicellularity
3258:Mosaic evolution
3143:auditory ossicle
2825:Social selection
2808:Flowering plants
2803:Sexual selection
2456:
2449:
2442:
2433:
2432:
2419:
2418:
2382:Reverse genetics
2357:Medical genetics
2072:
2065:
2058:
2049:
2048:
1691:Chemical biology
1573:
1566:
1559:
1550:
1549:
1543:Genes in ecology
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1096:
1091:Ford E.B. 1975.
1089:
1083:
1078:Ford E.B. 1965.
1076:
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1016:
1010:
1009:
991:
985:
980:Ford E.B. 1981.
978:
972:
965:
956:
955:
937:
907:Biston betularia
822:Biston betularia
741:modern synthesis
645:is the study of
632:
625:
618:
605:
600:
599:
592:
588:
587:
564:Level of support
357:Current research
342:Modern synthesis
337:Before synthesis
290:Extinction event
48:Darwin's finches
45:
26:
25:
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3747:
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3619:Group selection
3592:
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3421:
3348:
3310:Tempo and modes
3304:
3159:
3063:
2880:
2839:
2715:
2708:
2685:Species complex
2498:
2489:History of life
2465:
2460:
2430:
2425:
2407:
2386:
2285:
2276:the Middle East
2242:Archaeogenetics
2236:
2180:
2119:
2081:
2076:
2046:
2041:
2015:
1976:Systems biology
1941:Quantum biology
1582:
1577:
1538:
1536:Further reading
1533:
1532:
1519:
1515:
1472:
1465:
1410:
1406:
1347:
1343:
1308:
1297:
1244:
1233:
1226:
1212:
1205:
1196:
1192:
1183:
1179:
1170:
1166:
1103:
1099:
1090:
1086:
1077:
1073:
1064:
1060:
1017:
1013:
1006:
992:
988:
979:
975:
966:
959:
952:
938:
931:
926:
905:Peppered moth,
895:Genetic ecology
886:
872:
855:
815:
803:
798:
770:Philip Sheppard
712:
636:
595:
582:
581:
574:
573:
524:
516:
515:
386:
378:
377:
376:
304:
296:
295:
294:
243:Human evolution
233:History of life
217:
216:Natural history
209:
208:
207:
107:
99:
54:
24:
17:
12:
11:
5:
3750:
3740:
3739:
3722:
3721:
3719:
3718:
3708:
3697:
3694:
3693:
3691:
3690:
3685:
3680:
3675:
3670:
3669:
3668:
3658:
3653:
3648:
3643:
3638:
3637:
3636:
3631:
3626:
3616:
3611:
3606:
3600:
3598:
3594:
3593:
3591:
3590:
3585:
3584:
3583:
3578:
3573:
3572:
3571:
3561:
3556:
3551:
3546:
3541:
3531:
3525:
3523:
3519:
3518:
3516:
3515:
3510:
3505:
3500:
3495:
3490:
3485:
3480:
3475:
3470:
3469:
3468:
3459:Charles Darwin
3456:
3455:
3454:
3442:
3437:
3431:
3429:
3423:
3422:
3420:
3419:
3414:
3409:
3404:
3399:
3397:Non-ecological
3394:
3389:
3384:
3379:
3374:
3369:
3364:
3358:
3356:
3350:
3349:
3347:
3346:
3337:
3328:
3314:
3312:
3306:
3305:
3303:
3302:
3297:
3296:
3295:
3290:
3285:
3280:
3275:
3265:
3260:
3255:
3250:
3245:
3240:
3235:
3230:
3225:
3220:
3215:
3214:
3213:
3203:
3198:
3193:
3188:
3187:
3186:
3181:
3170:
3168:
3161:
3160:
3158:
3157:
3156:
3155:
3150:
3148:nervous system
3145:
3140:
3135:
3127:
3126:
3125:
3120:
3115:
3110:
3105:
3100:
3090:
3085:
3080:
3074:
3072:
3065:
3064:
3062:
3061:
3056:
3051:
3046:
3041:
3040:
3039:
3029:
3028:
3027:
3022:
3021:
3020:
3015:
3005:
3000:
2995:
2990:
2985:
2984:
2983:
2978:
2968:
2958:
2953:
2952:
2951:
2941:
2936:
2931:
2926:
2925:
2924:
2914:
2909:
2908:
2907:
2897:
2891:
2889:
2882:
2881:
2879:
2878:
2873:
2868:
2863:
2858:
2853:
2847:
2845:
2841:
2840:
2838:
2837:
2832:
2827:
2822:
2821:
2820:
2815:
2810:
2800:
2795:
2790:
2785:
2780:
2779:
2778:
2773:
2763:
2758:
2753:
2752:
2751:
2741:
2736:
2731:
2726:
2720:
2718:
2710:
2709:
2707:
2706:
2705:
2704:
2694:
2689:
2688:
2687:
2682:
2672:
2671:
2670:
2660:
2655:
2650:
2648:Origin of life
2645:
2640:
2635:
2633:Microevolution
2630:
2628:Macroevolution
2625:
2620:
2615:
2614:
2613:
2603:
2598:
2593:
2588:
2583:
2578:
2573:
2568:
2566:Common descent
2563:
2562:
2561:
2551:
2546:
2544:Baldwin effect
2541:
2540:
2539:
2534:
2524:
2519:
2514:
2508:
2506:
2500:
2499:
2497:
2496:
2491:
2486:
2481:
2476:
2470:
2467:
2466:
2459:
2458:
2451:
2444:
2436:
2427:
2426:
2424:
2423:
2412:
2409:
2408:
2406:
2405:
2400:
2394:
2392:
2388:
2387:
2385:
2384:
2379:
2374:
2372:Plant genetics
2369:
2364:
2359:
2354:
2349:
2344:
2339:
2334:
2329:
2324:
2319:
2314:
2312:Genome editing
2309:
2304:
2299:
2293:
2291:
2290:Related topics
2287:
2286:
2284:
2283:
2278:
2273:
2268:
2263:
2258:
2253:
2247:
2245:
2238:
2237:
2235:
2234:
2229:
2224:
2219:
2214:
2212:Immunogenetics
2209:
2204:
2199:
2194:
2188:
2186:
2182:
2181:
2179:
2178:
2173:
2168:
2163:
2158:
2153:
2148:
2143:
2138:
2133:
2127:
2125:
2124:Key components
2121:
2120:
2118:
2117:
2112:
2107:
2102:
2097:
2092:
2086:
2083:
2082:
2075:
2074:
2067:
2060:
2052:
2043:
2042:
2040:
2039:
2034:
2029:
2023:
2021:
2017:
2016:
2014:
2013:
2008:
2003:
1998:
1993:
1988:
1983:
1978:
1973:
1968:
1963:
1958:
1953:
1948:
1943:
1938:
1933:
1928:
1923:
1918:
1913:
1908:
1903:
1898:
1893:
1888:
1883:
1878:
1873:
1868:
1863:
1858:
1853:
1848:
1843:
1838:
1833:
1831:Marine biology
1828:
1823:
1818:
1813:
1808:
1803:
1798:
1793:
1788:
1783:
1778:
1773:
1768:
1763:
1758:
1753:
1748:
1743:
1738:
1733:
1728:
1723:
1718:
1713:
1708:
1703:
1698:
1693:
1688:
1683:
1678:
1673:
1668:
1663:
1658:
1653:
1648:
1643:
1641:Bioinformatics
1638:
1633:
1628:
1623:
1618:
1613:
1608:
1603:
1598:
1593:
1587:
1584:
1583:
1576:
1575:
1568:
1561:
1553:
1547:
1546:
1537:
1534:
1531:
1530:
1513:
1486:(1): 461–493.
1463:
1404:
1341:
1295:
1258:(3): 207–212.
1231:
1224:
1203:
1190:
1177:
1164:
1097:
1084:
1071:
1058:
1031:(1): 207–231.
1011:
1004:
986:
973:
957:
950:
928:
927:
925:
922:
921:
920:
915:
910:
902:
897:
892:
885:
882:
871:
868:
854:
851:
814:
811:
802:
799:
797:
794:
711:
708:
638:
637:
635:
634:
627:
620:
612:
609:
608:
607:
606:
593:
576:
575:
572:
571:
566:
561:
556:
551:
546:
544:Social effects
541:
536:
531:
525:
522:
521:
518:
517:
514:
513:
508:
503:
498:
493:
488:
483:
478:
473:
468:
463:
458:
453:
448:
443:
438:
433:
428:
423:
418:
413:
408:
403:
398:
393:
387:
384:
383:
380:
379:
375:
374:
364:
359:
354:
349:
344:
339:
334:
327:
322:
317:
312:
306:
305:
302:
301:
298:
297:
293:
292:
287:
282:
277:
272:
270:Classification
267:
262:
257:
252:
251:
250:
240:
235:
230:
228:Common descent
225:
223:Origin of life
219:
218:
215:
214:
211:
210:
206:
205:
200:
195:
190:
185:
180:
175:
170:
165:
160:
155:
150:
145:
140:
135:
130:
125:
120:
115:
109:
108:
105:
104:
101:
100:
98:
97:
92:
87:
81:
80:
75:
70:
65:
59:
56:
55:
46:
38:
37:
31:
30:
15:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
3749:
3738:
3735:
3734:
3732:
3717:
3713:
3709:
3707:
3699:
3698:
3695:
3689:
3686:
3684:
3681:
3679:
3676:
3674:
3671:
3667:
3664:
3663:
3662:
3661:Phylogenetics
3659:
3657:
3654:
3652:
3649:
3647:
3644:
3642:
3639:
3635:
3632:
3630:
3627:
3625:
3622:
3621:
3620:
3617:
3615:
3612:
3610:
3607:
3605:
3602:
3601:
3599:
3595:
3589:
3586:
3582:
3579:
3577:
3574:
3570:
3567:
3566:
3565:
3564:Structuralism
3562:
3560:
3557:
3555:
3552:
3550:
3547:
3545:
3542:
3540:
3539:Catastrophism
3537:
3536:
3535:
3532:
3530:
3527:
3526:
3524:
3520:
3514:
3511:
3509:
3506:
3504:
3501:
3499:
3498:Neo-Darwinism
3496:
3494:
3491:
3489:
3486:
3484:
3481:
3479:
3476:
3474:
3471:
3467:
3466:
3462:
3461:
3460:
3457:
3453:
3452:
3448:
3447:
3446:
3443:
3441:
3438:
3436:
3433:
3432:
3430:
3428:
3424:
3418:
3415:
3413:
3412:Reinforcement
3410:
3408:
3405:
3403:
3400:
3398:
3395:
3393:
3390:
3388:
3385:
3383:
3380:
3378:
3375:
3373:
3370:
3368:
3365:
3363:
3360:
3359:
3357:
3355:
3351:
3345:
3344:Catastrophism
3341:
3338:
3336:
3335:Macromutation
3332:
3331:Micromutation
3329:
3327:
3323:
3319:
3316:
3315:
3313:
3311:
3307:
3301:
3298:
3294:
3291:
3289:
3286:
3284:
3281:
3279:
3276:
3274:
3271:
3270:
3269:
3266:
3264:
3261:
3259:
3256:
3254:
3251:
3249:
3246:
3244:
3241:
3239:
3238:Immune system
3236:
3234:
3231:
3229:
3226:
3224:
3221:
3219:
3216:
3212:
3209:
3208:
3207:
3204:
3202:
3199:
3197:
3194:
3192:
3189:
3185:
3182:
3180:
3177:
3176:
3175:
3172:
3171:
3169:
3167:
3162:
3154:
3151:
3149:
3146:
3144:
3141:
3139:
3136:
3134:
3131:
3130:
3128:
3124:
3121:
3119:
3116:
3114:
3111:
3109:
3106:
3104:
3101:
3099:
3098:symbiogenesis
3096:
3095:
3094:
3091:
3089:
3086:
3084:
3081:
3079:
3076:
3075:
3073:
3071:
3066:
3060:
3057:
3055:
3052:
3050:
3047:
3045:
3042:
3038:
3035:
3034:
3033:
3030:
3026:
3023:
3019:
3016:
3014:
3011:
3010:
3009:
3006:
3004:
3001:
2999:
2996:
2994:
2991:
2989:
2986:
2982:
2979:
2977:
2974:
2973:
2972:
2969:
2967:
2964:
2963:
2962:
2959:
2957:
2954:
2950:
2947:
2946:
2945:
2942:
2940:
2937:
2935:
2932:
2930:
2927:
2923:
2920:
2919:
2918:
2915:
2913:
2910:
2906:
2903:
2902:
2901:
2898:
2896:
2893:
2892:
2890:
2888:
2883:
2877:
2874:
2872:
2869:
2867:
2864:
2862:
2859:
2857:
2854:
2852:
2849:
2848:
2846:
2842:
2836:
2833:
2831:
2828:
2826:
2823:
2819:
2816:
2814:
2811:
2809:
2806:
2805:
2804:
2801:
2799:
2796:
2794:
2791:
2789:
2786:
2784:
2781:
2777:
2774:
2772:
2769:
2768:
2767:
2766:Kin selection
2764:
2762:
2761:Genetic drift
2759:
2757:
2754:
2750:
2747:
2746:
2745:
2742:
2740:
2737:
2735:
2732:
2730:
2727:
2725:
2722:
2721:
2719:
2717:
2711:
2703:
2700:
2699:
2698:
2695:
2693:
2690:
2686:
2683:
2681:
2678:
2677:
2676:
2673:
2669:
2666:
2665:
2664:
2661:
2659:
2656:
2654:
2651:
2649:
2646:
2644:
2641:
2639:
2636:
2634:
2631:
2629:
2626:
2624:
2621:
2619:
2616:
2612:
2609:
2608:
2607:
2604:
2602:
2599:
2597:
2594:
2592:
2589:
2587:
2584:
2582:
2579:
2577:
2574:
2572:
2569:
2567:
2564:
2560:
2557:
2556:
2555:
2552:
2550:
2547:
2545:
2542:
2538:
2535:
2533:
2530:
2529:
2528:
2525:
2523:
2520:
2518:
2515:
2513:
2510:
2509:
2507:
2505:
2501:
2495:
2492:
2490:
2487:
2485:
2482:
2480:
2477:
2475:
2472:
2471:
2468:
2464:
2457:
2452:
2450:
2445:
2443:
2438:
2437:
2434:
2422:
2414:
2413:
2410:
2404:
2401:
2399:
2396:
2395:
2393:
2389:
2383:
2380:
2378:
2375:
2373:
2370:
2368:
2365:
2363:
2360:
2358:
2355:
2353:
2350:
2348:
2345:
2343:
2340:
2338:
2335:
2333:
2330:
2328:
2325:
2323:
2320:
2318:
2315:
2313:
2310:
2308:
2305:
2303:
2300:
2298:
2295:
2294:
2292:
2288:
2282:
2279:
2277:
2274:
2272:
2269:
2267:
2264:
2262:
2259:
2257:
2254:
2252:
2249:
2248:
2246:
2243:
2239:
2233:
2230:
2228:
2225:
2223:
2220:
2218:
2215:
2213:
2210:
2208:
2205:
2203:
2200:
2198:
2195:
2193:
2190:
2189:
2187:
2183:
2177:
2174:
2172:
2169:
2167:
2164:
2162:
2159:
2157:
2154:
2152:
2149:
2147:
2144:
2142:
2139:
2137:
2134:
2132:
2129:
2128:
2126:
2122:
2116:
2113:
2111:
2108:
2106:
2103:
2101:
2098:
2096:
2093:
2091:
2088:
2087:
2084:
2080:
2073:
2068:
2066:
2061:
2059:
2054:
2053:
2050:
2038:
2035:
2033:
2030:
2028:
2025:
2024:
2022:
2018:
2012:
2009:
2007:
2004:
2002:
1999:
1997:
1994:
1992:
1989:
1987:
1984:
1982:
1979:
1977:
1974:
1972:
1969:
1967:
1964:
1962:
1959:
1957:
1954:
1952:
1949:
1947:
1944:
1942:
1939:
1937:
1934:
1932:
1929:
1927:
1924:
1922:
1919:
1917:
1914:
1912:
1911:Phylogenetics
1909:
1907:
1904:
1902:
1899:
1897:
1894:
1892:
1889:
1887:
1884:
1882:
1879:
1877:
1874:
1872:
1869:
1867:
1864:
1862:
1859:
1857:
1854:
1852:
1849:
1847:
1844:
1842:
1839:
1837:
1834:
1832:
1829:
1827:
1824:
1822:
1819:
1817:
1814:
1812:
1809:
1807:
1806:Human biology
1804:
1802:
1799:
1797:
1794:
1792:
1789:
1787:
1784:
1782:
1779:
1777:
1774:
1772:
1769:
1767:
1764:
1762:
1759:
1757:
1754:
1752:
1749:
1747:
1744:
1742:
1739:
1737:
1734:
1732:
1729:
1727:
1724:
1722:
1719:
1717:
1714:
1712:
1709:
1707:
1704:
1702:
1699:
1697:
1696:Chronobiology
1694:
1692:
1689:
1687:
1684:
1682:
1679:
1677:
1674:
1672:
1671:Biotechnology
1669:
1667:
1666:Biostatistics
1664:
1662:
1659:
1657:
1654:
1652:
1649:
1647:
1644:
1642:
1639:
1637:
1634:
1632:
1629:
1627:
1624:
1622:
1619:
1617:
1614:
1612:
1609:
1607:
1604:
1602:
1599:
1597:
1594:
1592:
1589:
1588:
1585:
1581:
1574:
1569:
1567:
1562:
1560:
1555:
1554:
1551:
1544:
1540:
1539:
1527:
1523:
1517:
1509:
1505:
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1477:
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1187:
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1133:
1128:
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1120:
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1101:
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1075:
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1038:
1034:
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1022:
1015:
1007:
1001:
997:
990:
983:
977:
970:
964:
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947:
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850:
848:
844:
839:
835:
832:
827:
823:
819:
810:
808:
793:
791:
788:and on human
787:
783:
779:
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771:
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761:
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750:
746:
742:
738:
734:
729:
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621:
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512:
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476:Phylogenetics
474:
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328:
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320:Before Darwin
318:
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148:Genetic drift
146:
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40:
39:
36:
33:
32:
28:
27:
22:
3673:Polymorphism
3656:Astrobiology
3608:
3604:Biogeography
3559:Saltationism
3549:Orthogenesis
3534:Alternatives
3463:
3449:
3382:Cospeciation
3377:Cladogenesis
3326:Saltationism
3283:Mating types
3206:Color vision
3191:Avian flight
3113:mitochondria
2851:Canalisation
2729:Biodiversity
2474:Introduction
2322:Genetic code
2256:the Americas
2232:Quantitative
2206:
2202:Cytogenetics
2197:Conservation
2090:Introduction
1956:Sociobiology
1936:Protistology
1901:Photobiology
1896:Pharmacology
1886:Parasitology
1881:Paleontology
1861:Neuroscience
1841:Microbiology
1751:Epidemiology
1735:
1721:Cytogenetics
1681:Cell biology
1661:Biosemiotics
1651:Biomechanics
1631:Biogeography
1626:Biochemistry
1621:Bacteriology
1616:Astrobiology
1542:
1525:
1521:
1516:
1483:
1479:
1421:
1417:
1407:
1358:
1354:
1344:
1319:
1315:
1255:
1251:
1215:
1198:
1193:
1185:
1180:
1172:
1167:
1114:
1110:
1100:
1092:
1087:
1079:
1074:
1066:
1061:
1028:
1024:
1014:
995:
989:
981:
976:
968:
941:
906:
873:
864:
860:
856:
847:B. betularia
846:
843:B. betularia
842:
840:
836:
831:B. betularia
830:
826:B. betularia
825:
821:
816:
804:
790:blood groups
774:Cyril Clarke
768:
763:
756:polymorphism
733:R. A. Fisher
730:
723:
713:
696:
684:polymorphism
669:
655:
642:
641:
496:Sociobiology
481:Paleontology
400:
329:
265:Biogeography
260:Biodiversity
178:Coextinction
168:Co-operation
143:Polymorphism
68:Introduction
3683:Systematics
3554:Mutationism
3372:Catagenesis
3300:Snake venom
3233:Eusociality
3211:in primates
3201:Cooperation
3129:In animals
2949:butterflies
2922:Cephalopods
2912:Brachiopods
2844:Development
2818:Mate choice
2571:Convergence
2554:Coevolution
2512:Abiogenesis
2302:Epigenetics
2006:Xenobiology
2001:Virophysics
1971:Systematics
1926:Primatology
1871:Ornithology
1811:Ichthyology
1796:Herpetology
1791:Gerontology
1756:Epigenetics
1716:Cryobiology
1606:Agrostology
1596:Aerobiology
1591:Abiogenesis
870:Limitations
786:lepidoptera
760:fruit flies
682:tolerance,
506:Systematics
315:Renaissance
193:Convergence
183:Contingency
173:Coevolution
3544:Lamarckism
3522:Philosophy
3445:David Hume
3407:Peripatric
3402:Parapatric
3387:Ecological
3367:Anagenesis
3362:Allopatric
3354:Speciation
3318:Gradualism
3243:Metabolism
3103:chromosome
3093:Eukaryotes
2871:Modularity
2788:Population
2714:Population
2675:Speciation
2653:Panspermia
2606:Extinction
2601:Exaptation
2576:Divergence
2549:Cladistics
2537:Reciprocal
2517:Adaptation
2307:Geneticist
2281:South Asia
2227:Population
2207:Ecological
2176:Amino acid
2156:Nucleotide
2131:Chromosome
1991:Toxicology
1986:Teratology
1931:Proteomics
1916:Physiology
1856:Neontology
1821:Lipidology
1816:Immunology
1786:Geobiology
1746:Embryology
1726:Dendrology
1656:Biophysics
1636:Biogeology
1424:: e82824.
1322:(4): 369.
1316:BioScience
924:References
764:Drosophila
753:chromosome
280:Cladistics
203:Extinction
188:Divergence
158:Speciation
138:Adaptation
52:John Gould
3678:Protocell
3529:Darwinism
3417:Sympatric
3166:processes
3054:Tetrapods
3003:Kangaroos
2929:Dinosaurs
2866:Inversion
2835:Variation
2756:Gene flow
2749:Inclusive
2559:Mutualism
2504:Evolution
2222:Molecular
2217:Microbial
2192:Classical
1906:Phycology
1891:Pathology
1876:Osteology
1866:Nutrition
1826:Mammalogy
1801:Histology
1500:1527-8204
1440:2050-084X
1383:0036-8075
1336:0006-3568
1272:0018-067X
1141:0027-8424
1045:0066-4227
782:A.J. Cain
716:E.B. Ford
700:mortality
692:predators
539:Dysgenics
255:Phylogeny
153:Gene flow
123:Diversity
118:Variation
3731:Category
3706:Category
3581:Vitalism
3576:Theistic
3569:Spandrel
3253:Morality
3248:Monogamy
3123:plastids
3088:Flagella
3044:Reptiles
3025:sea cows
3008:primates
2917:Molluscs
2895:Bacteria
2783:Mutation
2716:genetics
2692:Taxonomy
2638:Mismatch
2618:Homology
2532:Cheating
2527:Altruism
2421:Category
2347:Heredity
2317:Genomics
2161:Mutation
2151:Heredity
2115:Glossary
2105:Timeline
2079:Genetics
2020:See also
1996:Virology
1981:Taxonomy
1921:Pomology
1851:Mycology
1781:Genomics
1776:Genetics
1601:Agronomy
1508:31283361
1458:36852484
1399:21493823
1391:29784314
1290:23211788
1252:Heredity
1159:35858395
1053:15487936
884:See also
796:Research
647:genetics
603:Category
529:Eugenics
371:timeline
352:Evo-devo
310:Overview
128:Mutation
90:Evidence
85:Glossary
3597:Related
3427:History
3288:Meiosis
3223:Empathy
3218:Emotion
3118:nucleus
3059:Viruses
3049:Spiders
2961:Mammals
2944:Insects
2744:Fitness
2680:Species
2479:Outline
2100:History
2095:Outline
2011:Zoology
1741:Ecology
1611:Anatomy
1528:201–233
1449:9977305
1363:Bibcode
1355:Science
1281:3668657
1150:9335214
1119:Bibcode
877:mimicry
710:History
704:insects
688:mimicry
680:drought
676:fitness
95:History
78:Outline
3716:Portal
3392:Hybrid
3228:Ethics
3070:organs
3032:Plants
3018:lemurs
3013:humans
2998:horses
2988:hyenas
2976:wolves
2971:canids
2905:origin
2266:Europe
2251:Africa
2185:Fields
2171:Allele
2146:Genome
1676:Botany
1524:1999.
1506:
1498:
1456:
1446:
1438:
1397:
1389:
1381:
1334:
1288:
1278:
1270:
1222:
1157:
1147:
1139:
1051:
1043:
1002:
948:
749:Mendel
745:Darwin
672:traits
601:
325:Darwin
3179:Death
3174:Aging
3153:brain
2939:Fungi
2900:Birds
2813:Fungi
2611:Event
2494:Index
2391:Lists
2271:Italy
2110:Index
1418:eLife
1387:JSTOR
63:Index
3666:Tree
3138:hair
3078:Cell
2981:dogs
2966:cats
2956:Life
2934:Fish
2887:taxa
1504:PMID
1496:ISSN
1454:PMID
1436:ISSN
1395:PMID
1379:ISSN
1332:ISSN
1286:PMID
1268:ISSN
1220:ISBN
1155:PMID
1137:ISSN
1049:PMID
1041:ISSN
1000:ISBN
946:ISBN
780:and
747:and
735:and
73:Main
3164:Of
3133:eye
3083:DNA
3068:Of
2885:Of
2141:RNA
2136:DNA
1488:doi
1444:PMC
1426:doi
1371:doi
1359:332
1324:doi
1276:PMC
1260:doi
1256:110
1145:PMC
1127:doi
1115:119
1033:doi
758:in
662:DNA
50:by
3733::
2244:of
1526:30
1502:.
1494:.
1484:20
1482:.
1478:.
1466:^
1452:.
1442:.
1434:.
1422:12
1420:.
1416:.
1393:.
1385:.
1377:.
1369:.
1357:.
1353:.
1330:.
1320:55
1318:.
1314:.
1298:^
1284:.
1274:.
1266:.
1254:.
1250:.
1234:^
1206:^
1153:.
1143:.
1135:.
1125:.
1113:.
1109:.
1047:.
1039:.
1029:58
1027:.
1023:.
960:^
932:^
776:,
772:,
694:.
686:,
653:.
3342:/
3333:/
3324:/
3320:/
2455:e
2448:t
2441:v
2071:e
2064:t
2057:v
1572:e
1565:t
1558:v
1510:.
1490::
1460:.
1428::
1401:.
1373::
1365::
1338:.
1326::
1292:.
1262::
1228:.
1161:.
1129::
1121::
1055:.
1035::
1008:.
954:.
631:e
624:t
617:v
373:)
369:(
23:.
Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License. Additional terms may apply.
