623:
a general and traditional commitment to the ideology, by way of her political and family ties. Gandhi personally had a fuzzy concept of socialism. In one of the early interviews she had given as Prime
Minister, Gandhi had ruminated: "I suppose you could call me a socialist, but you have understand what we mean by that term...we used the word because it came closest to what we wanted to do here – which is to eradicate poverty. You can call it socialism; but if by using that word we arouse controversy, I don't see why we should use it. I don't believe in words at all." Regardless of the debate over her ideology or lack of thereof, Gandhi remains a left-wing icon. She has been described by Hindustan Times columnist, Pankaj Vohra as "arguably the greatest mass leader of the last century." Her campaign slogan,
658:
513:
27:
598:. In this context, Gandhi was accused of formulating populist policies to suit her political needs; being seemingly against the rich and big business while preserving the status quo in order to manipulate the support of the left at times of political insecurity, such as the late 1960s. Although Gandhi came to be viewed in time as the scourge of the right-wing and reactionary political elements of India, leftist opposition to her policies emerged. As early as 1969, critics had begun accusing her of insincerity and
654:
currency devaluation became matters of intense national pride in India. After the bitter experience with
Johnson, Gandhi decided not to request food aid in the future. Moreover, Gandhi's government resolved never again to become "so vulnerably dependent" on aid, and painstakingly began building up substantial foreign exchange reserves. When food stocks slumped after poor harvests in 1972, the government made it a point to use foreign exchange to buy US wheat commercially rather than seek resumption of food aid.
755:
673:. Gandhi not only abandoned the short lived liberalization programme but also aggressively expanded the public sector with new licensing requirements and other restrictions for industry. She began a new course by launching the Fourth Five-Year Plan in 1969. The government targeted growth at 5.7% while stating as its goals, "growth with stability and progressive achievement of self-reliance." The rationale behind the overall plan was Gandhi's
619:, an attempt at economic reform. Nevertheless, others were more convinced of Gandhi's sincerity and devotion to socialism. Pankaj Vohra noted that "even the late prime minister's critics would concede that the maximum number of legislations of social significance was brought about during her tenure... she lives in the hearts of millions of Indians who shared her concern for the poor and weaker sections and who supported her politics."
641:, had plunged India into the sharpest recession since independence. The government responded by taking steps to liberalize the economy, and by agreeing to the devaluation of the currency in return for the restoration of foreign aid. The economy managed to recover in 1966 and ended up growing at 4.1% over 1966–1969. But, much of that growth was offset by the fact that the external aid promised by the United States government and the
520:
645:(IBRD), meant to ease the short-run costs of adjustment to a liberalized economy, never materialized. American policy makers had complained of continued restrictions imposed on the economy. At the same time, Indo-US relations were straining due to Gandhi's criticism of the American bombing campaign in Vietnam. While it was thought, at the time, and for decades after, that President
778:'s short reign in office in the second half of 1979, inflation averaged 18.2%, compared to 6.5% during Gandhi's last year in office (1984). General economic recovery under Gandhi led to an average inflation at 6.5% from 1981–82 to 1985–86; the lowest since the beginning of India's inflation problems in the 1960s.
622:
In summarizing the biographical works on Gandhi, Blema S. Steinberg concluded she was decidedly non-ideological. Only 7.4% (24) of the total 330 biographical extractions posit ideology as a reason for her policy choices. Steinberg noted Gandhi's association with socialism was superficial; only having
717:
of fixed exchanged rate; the resulting turbulence in the foreign exchange markets being further accentuated by the oil shock of 1973. The government was even able to exceed the targeted growth figure with an annual growth rate of 5.0–5.2% over the five-year period of the plan (1974–79). The economy
762:
During Lal
Bahadur Shastri's last full year in office (1965), inflation averaged 7.7%, compared to 5.2% at the end of Gandhi's first stint in office (1977). On average, inflation in India had remained below 7% through the 1950s and 1960s. But, it then accelerated sharply in the 1970s, from 5.5% in
730:
government had led to the strongest recession (−5.2%) in the history of modern India with inflation rampant at 18.2%. Gandhi proceeded to abrogate the Janata Party government's Five-Year Plan in 1980 and launched the Sixth Five-Year Plan (1980–85). The government targeted an average growth of 5.2%
696:
Some of the other objectives of the economic plan for the period was to provide for the minimum needs of the community through a rural works program and the removal of the privy purses of the nobility. Both these, and many other goals of the 1967 program were accomplished by 1974–75. Nevertheless,
677:
of 1967. This had been her first economic policy formulation, six months after coming to office. The programme emphasized greater state control of the economy with the understanding that government control assured greater welfare than private control. Related to this point were a set of policies
709:
of 1975. The latter was the economic rationale of the emergency, a political act which has often been justified on economic grounds. In contrast to the reception of Gandhi's earlier economic plan, this one was criticized for being a "hastily thrown together wish list." Gandhi promised to reduce
689:
subsequently culminated under her government in the 1970s and transformed the country from a nation heavily reliant on imported grains and prone to famine to being largely able to feed itself, and become successful in achieving its goal of food security. Gandhi had a personal motive in pursuing
653:
was to coerce Indian support for the war, in fact, it was to offer India rainmaking technology that he wanted to use as a counterweight to China's possession of the atomic bomb. In light of the circumstances, liberalization became politically suspect and was soon abandoned. Grain diplomacy and
767:. Gandhi declared inflation the gravest of problems in 1974 (at 25.2%) and devised a severe anti-inflation program. The government was successful in bringing down inflation during the emergency; achieving negative figures of −1.1% by the end of 1975–76.
614:
wrote that "some have even seen the declaration of emergency rule in 1975 as a move to suppress dissent against Gandhi's policy shift to the right." In the 1980s, Gandhi was accused of "betraying socialism" after the beginning of
228:
710:
poverty by targeting the consumption levels of the poor and enact wide-ranging social and economic reforms. The government additionally targeted an annual growth of 4.4% over the period of the plan.
629:('Remove Poverty'), has become the iconic motto of the Indian National Congress. To the rural and urban poor, untouchables, minorities and women in India, Gandhi was "Indira Amma or Mother Indira."
586:
journalist, Peter
Hazelhurst, famously quipped that Gandhi's socialism was "slightly left of self-interest." Critics have focused on the contradictions in the evolution of her stance towards
713:
The measures of the emergency regime was able to halt the economic trouble of the early to mid-1970s, which had been marred by harvest failures, fiscal contraction, and the breakdown of the
974:
92:
742:(SOE), which Gandhi qualified as a "sad thing", and in stimulating the private sector through deregulation and liberation of the capital market. The government subsequently launched
746:
in 1982, the first cautious attempt at reform. The Sixth Plan went on to become the most successful of the Five-Year Plans yet; showing an average growth of 5.7% over 1980–85.
685:
To deal with India's food problems, Gandhi expanded the emphasis on production of inputs to agriculture that had already been initiated by her father, Jawaharlal Nehru. The
808:
637:
Gandhi inherited a weak and troubled economy. Fiscal problems associated with the war with
Pakistan in 1965, along with a drought-induced food crisis that spawned
834:
243:
594:
even describing her as "the scourge of
Communist Party." Yet, she later forged close relations with Indian communists even while using the army to break the
1569:
642:
731:
over the period of the plan. Measures to check the inflation were also taken; by the early 1980s inflation was under control at an annual rate of about 5%.
497:
472:
457:
447:
502:
487:
477:
467:
462:
452:
442:
682:. By the end of the 1960s, the reversal of the liberalization process was complete, and India's policies were characterised as "protectionist as ever."
492:
482:
718:
grew at the rate of 9% in 1975–76 alone, and the Fifth Plan, became the first plan during which the per capita income of the economy grew by over 5%.
437:
738:. Populist programs and policies were replaced by pragmatism. There was an emphasis on tightening public expenditures, greater efficiency of the
697:
the success of the overall economic plan was tempered by the fact that annual growth at 3.3–3.4% over 1969–74 fell short of the targeted figure.
670:
569:
was characterized by moderate tax increases on higher income
Indians, bank nationalisation, and the green revolution. Gandhi presided over three
97:
978:
693:
The economic period of 1967–75 became significant for its major wave of nationalisations amidst the increased regulation of the private sector.
551:
258:
107:
1123:
213:
87:
120:
1559:
1535:
818:
1415:
373:
248:
734:
Although Gandhi continued professing socialist beliefs, the Sixth Five-Year Plan was markedly different from the years of
378:
1506:
1479:
1398:
1373:
1335:
1273:
1248:
1221:
1194:
1164:
1107:
1077:
1043:
1016:
933:
869:
544:
406:
335:
838:
726:
Gandhi inherited a weak economy when she again became Prime
Minister in 1980. The preceding year in 1979–80 under the
1303:
396:
1564:
576:
There is considerable debate regarding whether Gandhi was a socialist on principle or out of political expediency.
128:
524:
690:
agricultural self-sufficiency, having found India's dependency on the U.S. for shipments of grains humiliating.
112:
606:
wrote that: "it would be difficult to find a more machiavellian leftist than Mrs Indira Gandhi...for here is
537:
176:
166:
1009:
Women in Power: The
Personalities and Leadership Styles of Indira Gandhi, Golda Meir, and Margaret Thatcher
669:
The period of 1967–75 was characterized by socialist ascendency in India which culminated in 1976 with the
401:
253:
238:
171:
161:
149:
144:
139:
134:
758:
The price of oil during the 1970s energy crisis. The graph shows sharp increases in 1973 and again in 1979
1391:
Exposed to
Innumerable Delusions: Public Enterprise and State Power in Egypt, India, Mexico, and Turkey
781:
Unemployment stayed constant at 9% over a nine-year period (1971–80) before declining to 8.3% in 1983.
657:
591:
421:
156:
686:
1130:
570:
284:
233:
72:
705:
The Fifth Five-Year Plan (1974–79) was enacted in the backdrop of the state of emergency and the
82:
57:
1471:
1465:
1325:
1211:
1067:
1033:
923:
1554:
1496:
1365:
1293:
1184:
739:
325:
294:
1238:
1124:"Prometheus unleashed: science as A diplomatic weapon in the Lyndon B. Johnson administration"
1097:
607:
611:
512:
362:
1357:
714:
577:
416:
411:
368:
263:
8:
310:
771:
320:
1531:
1502:
1475:
1394:
1369:
1358:
1331:
1299:
1269:
1244:
1217:
1190:
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1103:
1073:
1039:
1012:
929:
865:
814:
662:
646:
340:
330:
77:
289:
26:
764:
315:
279:
580:
described her as "a master of rhetoric...often more posture than policy", while
770:
Gandhi inherited a tattered economy in her second term; harvest failures and a
679:
650:
345:
1548:
203:
198:
193:
188:
41:
775:
735:
727:
625:
573:
as Prime Minister, two of which succeeded in meeting the targeted growth.
599:
1031:
754:
610:
at its best in the person of a suave, charming and astute politician."
1291:
925:
India's Silent Revolution: The Rise of the Lower Castes in North India
1095:
590:; Gandhi being known for her anti-communist stance in the 1950s with
587:
582:
183:
948:
The Indian Libertarian, Volume 15–17. 1969. University of Virginia.
595:
700:
519:
721:
632:
1292:
Kelly, D. David A.; Ramkishen S. Raj; Gillian H. L. Goh (2010).
638:
1213:
India and the United States: Estranged Democracies, 1941–1991
837:. Timeshighereducation.co.uk. 7 December 2001. Archived from
774:
in the late 1970s had again caused inflation to rise. During
1494:
1032:
Chandra, Bipan; Aditya Mukherjee; Mridula Mukherjee (2008).
1186:
India and the World Bank: The Politics of Aid and Influence
1327:
The Economics of Defence Spending: An International Survey
959:
Indira Gandhi: Enigma, Mother-Goddess and Terror Incernate
1096:
Nayak, Pulin; Bishwanath Goldar; Pradeep Agrawal (2010).
905:
903:
901:
899:
897:
895:
893:
891:
889:
887:
885:
883:
881:
977:. Hindustantimes.com. 1 November 2009. Archived from
878:
643:
International Bank for Reconstruction and Development
1360:
The Hindu Equilibrium: India c.1500 B.C. – 2000 A.D.
1295:
Managing Globalisation: Lessons from China And India
1236:
928:. C. Hurst & Co. Publishers. pp. 131–142.
802:
800:
798:
796:
794:
1323:
1268:. London: Lynne Rienner Publishers. p. 150.
961:. 3 November 1994. The Straits Times (Singapore).
1546:
791:
567:economic policy of the Indira Gandhi premiership
1449:Basic Statistics Relating to the Indian Economy
701:State of Emergency and the Fifth Five-Year Plan
1498:Contemporary India: Economy, Society, Politics
1495:Chandhoke, Neera; Praveen Priyadarshi (2009).
1416:"Sunanda K Datta Ray: Rendezvous with Ronniel"
722:Operation Forward and the Sixth Five-Year Plan
633:Green Revolution and the Fourth Five-Year Plan
1451:. Economic Intelligence Service. August 1993.
1025:
749:
545:
1443:
1441:
1439:
1437:
1065:
810:World bank and economic development of India
1002:
1000:
998:
996:
969:
967:
763:1970–71 to over 20% by 1973–74, due to the
1447:Centre for Monitoring the Indian Economy;
1407:
1393:. Cambridge University Press. p. 58.
1061:
1059:
1057:
1055:
806:
552:
538:
1488:
1459:
1457:
1434:
1388:
1382:
1319:
1317:
1315:
1243:. Deep and Deep Publications. p. 7.
1006:
921:
835:"Indira – terror personified or goddess?"
1570:Economic history of India (1947–present)
1287:
1285:
1091:
1089:
1011:. McGill-Queen's Press. pp. 79–95.
993:
964:
951:
915:
753:
656:
1178:
1176:
1052:
671:official declaration of state socialism
1547:
1463:
1454:
1414:Ray, Sunanda K. Datta (12 June 2004).
1351:
1349:
1347:
1312:
1263:
1154:
1148:
1069:Understanding India's economic Reforms
1525:
1282:
1237:Gupta, K. L.; Harvinder Kaur (2004).
1230:
1086:
909:
859:
827:
1324:Harley, Keith; Todd Sandler (1990).
1182:
1173:
1072:. Academic Foundation. p. 126.
1038:. Penguin Books India. p. 335.
864:. Penguin Books India. p. 346.
853:
374:State of Uttar Pradesh v. Raj Narain
1413:
1364:. Oxford University Press. p.
1355:
1344:
1209:
1203:
1102:. SAGE Publications. pp. 8–9.
665:in the Oval Office on 28 March 1966
13:
407:1975 Sikkimese monarchy referendum
336:1975 Sikkimese monarchy referendum
14:
1581:
1528:India: The Years of Indira Gandhi
1467:Indian Economy Since Independence
1216:. DIANE Publishing. p. 311.
1066:Kapila, Raj; Kapila, Uma (2004).
678:which were meant to regulate the
397:1966 anti-cow slaughter agitation
1298:. World Scientific. p. 62.
1266:Building Democracy in South Asia
1189:. Anthem Press. pp. 20–21.
661:Indira Gandhi meeting President
518:
511:
259:North-Eastern Reorganisation Act
25:
1470:. Academic Foundation. p.
1257:
1157:George Woods and the World Bank
1116:
975:"The original aam aadmi leader"
813:. APH Publishing. p. 375.
1526:Malik, Yogendra Kumar (1988).
1519:
1240:New Indian Economy and Reforms
942:
1:
922:Jaffrelot, Christoph (2003).
784:
1560:Indira Gandhi administration
402:1974 railway strike in India
239:The Gold (Control) Act, 1968
7:
10:
1586:
1330:. Routledge. p. 192.
1155:Oliver, Robert W. (1995).
1099:India's Economy and Growth
750:Inflation and unemployment
157:Union Council of Ministers
1007:Steinberg, Blema (2008).
687:Green Revolution in India
649:'s policy of withholding
430:Constitutional amendments
1389:Waterbury, John (1993).
1035:India Since Independence
862:The Rediscovery Of India
765:international oil crisis
234:Enemy Property Act, 1968
73:Early life and education
34:This article is part of
1565:Economic policy in Asia
1501:. Pearson. p. 60.
1422:. Business-standard.com
1420:Business Standard India
1183:Kirk, Jason A. (2011).
860:Desai, Meghnad (2011).
740:state-owned enterprises
528:: Picture, Sound, Video
59:Prime Minister of India
957:Sunanda K. Datta-Ray;
759:
666:
604:The Indian Libertarian
326:Operation Steeplechase
1264:Chadda, Maya (2000).
757:
660:
303:Missions and projects
1464:Kapila, Uma (2009).
1356:Lal, Deepak (2004).
1210:Kux, Dennis (1992).
715:Bretton Woods system
707:Twenty Point Program
651:food grain shipments
578:Sunanda K. Datta-Ray
417:Insurgency in Punjab
412:1980 Moradabad riots
369:Baroda dynamite case
285:Indira–Sheikh Accord
272:Treaties and accords
1136:on 15 February 2017
807:L. N. Dash (2000).
675:Ten Point Programme
311:Operation Blue Star
93:International trips
760:
667:
321:Operation Lal Dora
295:Sirima–Gandhi Pact
1537:978-90-04-08681-4
820:978-81-7648-121-2
744:Operation Forward
663:Lyndon B. Johnson
617:Operation Forward
562:
561:
389:Riots and attacks
341:Samjhauta Express
331:Operation Sundown
129:General elections
51:
50:
1577:
1541:
1513:
1512:
1492:
1486:
1485:
1461:
1452:
1445:
1432:
1431:
1429:
1427:
1411:
1405:
1404:
1386:
1380:
1379:
1363:
1353:
1342:
1341:
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1289:
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1279:
1261:
1255:
1254:
1234:
1228:
1227:
1207:
1201:
1200:
1180:
1171:
1170:
1152:
1146:
1145:
1143:
1141:
1135:
1129:. Archived from
1128:
1120:
1114:
1113:
1093:
1084:
1083:
1063:
1050:
1049:
1029:
1023:
1022:
1004:
991:
990:
988:
986:
971:
962:
955:
949:
946:
940:
939:
919:
913:
912:, p. 60-72.
907:
876:
875:
857:
851:
850:
848:
846:
831:
825:
824:
804:
772:second oil shock
600:machiavellianism
554:
547:
540:
522:
515:
422:Airbus hijacking
290:Shimla Agreement
60:
47:
46:
44:
37:
29:
22:
21:
18:
17:
1585:
1584:
1580:
1579:
1578:
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1574:
1545:
1544:
1538:
1522:
1517:
1516:
1509:
1493:
1489:
1482:
1462:
1455:
1446:
1435:
1425:
1423:
1412:
1408:
1401:
1387:
1383:
1376:
1354:
1345:
1338:
1322:
1313:
1306:
1290:
1283:
1276:
1262:
1258:
1251:
1235:
1231:
1224:
1208:
1204:
1197:
1181:
1174:
1167:
1159:. p. 144.
1153:
1149:
1139:
1137:
1133:
1126:
1122:
1121:
1117:
1110:
1094:
1087:
1080:
1064:
1053:
1046:
1030:
1026:
1019:
1005:
994:
984:
982:
973:
972:
965:
956:
952:
947:
943:
936:
920:
916:
908:
879:
872:
858:
854:
844:
842:
841:on 22 July 2012
833:
832:
828:
821:
805:
792:
787:
752:
724:
703:
635:
571:Five-Year Plans
564:
558:
516:
509:
508:
507:
433:
432:
427:
426:
392:
391:
386:
385:
357:
356:
351:
350:
316:Operation Flood
306:
305:
300:
299:
280:Delhi Agreement
275:
274:
269:
268:
224:
223:
218:
217:
214:National policy
210:
131:
125:
117:
103:Economic Policy
98:Domestic Policy
69:
68:
66:
62:
58:
42:
40:
39:
38:
35:
33:
12:
11:
5:
1583:
1573:
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1518:
1515:
1514:
1508:978-8131719299
1507:
1487:
1481:978-8171887088
1480:
1453:
1433:
1406:
1400:978-0521434973
1399:
1381:
1375:978-0199275793
1374:
1343:
1337:978-0415001618
1336:
1311:
1304:
1281:
1275:978-1555878597
1274:
1256:
1250:978-8176295598
1249:
1229:
1223:978-0788102790
1222:
1202:
1196:978-0857284129
1195:
1172:
1166:978-1555875039
1165:
1147:
1115:
1109:978-8132104520
1108:
1085:
1079:978-8171881055
1078:
1051:
1045:978-0143104094
1044:
1024:
1018:9780-773533561
1017:
992:
981:on 13 May 2013
963:
950:
941:
935:978-1850653981
934:
914:
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871:978-0143417354
870:
852:
826:
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783:
751:
748:
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702:
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680:private sector
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404:
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358:
352:
349:
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346:Smiling Buddha
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116:
115:
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108:Foreign Policy
105:
100:
95:
90:
85:
80:
75:
64:
63:
56:
53:
52:
49:
48:
36:a series about
32:
30:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
1582:
1571:
1568:
1566:
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1561:
1558:
1556:
1555:Indira Gandhi
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