368:
82:, and a host of other reasons. There is no universally accepted benchmark for a healthy ecosystem, rather the apparent health status of an ecosystem can vary depending upon which health metrics are employed in judging it and which societal aspirations are driving the assessment. Advocates of the health metaphor argue for its simplicity as a communication tool. "Policy-makers and the public need simple, understandable concepts like health." Some critics worry that ecosystem health, a "value-laden construct", can be "passed off as science to unsuspecting policy makers and the public." However, this term is often used in portraying the state of ecosystems worldwide and in conservation and management. For example, scientific journals and the UN often use the terms planetary and ecosystem health, such as the recent journal
253:“Another way to measure ecosystem health" is using complex systems concepts such as criticality, meaning that a healthy ecosystem is in some sort of balance between adaptability (randomness) and robustness (order) . Nevertheless, the universality of criticality is still under examination and is known as the Criticality Hypothesis, which states that systems in a dynamic regime shifting between order and disorder, attain the highest level of computational capabilities and achieve an optimal trade-off between robustness and flexibility. Recent results in cell and evolutionary biology, neuroscience and computer science have great interest in the criticality hypothesis, emphasizing its role as a viable candidate general law in the realm of adaptive complex systems (see and references therein).
28:
153:
547:
objective", to employ habitat descriptors and real properties of ecosystems. An example of a policy statement is "The maintenance of viable natural populations of wildlife and ecological functions always takes precedence over any human use of wildlife." An example of a goal is "Maintain viable populations of all native species in situ." An example of a management objective is "Maintain self-sustaining populations of lake whitefish within the range of abundance observed during 1990-99."
98:(1887–1948) spoke metaphorically of land health, land sickness, mutilation, and violence when describing land use practices. The term "ecosystem management" has been in use at least since the 1950s. The term "ecosystem health" has become widespread in the ecological literature, as a general metaphor meaning something good, and as an environmental quality goal in field assessments of rivers, lakes, seas, and forests.
250:. Ecologist Glenn Suter argues that such indices employ "nonsense units," the indices have "no meaning; they cannot be predicted, so they are not applicable to most regulatory problems; they have no diagnostic power; effects of one component are eclipsed by responses of other components, and the reason for a high or low index value is unknown."
551:
functioning ecosystem is defined with emphasis on phenomena relevant to stakeholder goals, (3) benchmark reference conditions and permissible variation of the system are established, (4) measurement variables are chosen for use as indicators, and (5) the time scale and spatial scale of assessment are decided.
537:
There is conflicting usage with various government forestry agencies having long had programs or departments of “forest health” meaning absence of tree disease and fire damage, whereas “ecosystem health” may embrace the roles of disease and fire. “Fire is a vital and natural part of the functioning
530:
It is a vague concept. It is "undefinable in a rigorous sense and is, therefore, acceptable only as conveying a vague sense of well-being." "Currently there are many, often contradictory, definitions of ecosystem health," that "are open to so much abuse and misuse that they represent a threat to the
265:
are determined by stakeholder goals, which drive ecosystem definition. An ecosystem is an abstraction. "Ecosystems cannot be identified or found in nature. Instead, they must be delimited by an observer. This can be done in many different ways for the same chunk of nature, depending on the specific
241:
is a "capacity" that varies depending upon which properties of the ecosystem are to be studied and depending upon what kinds of disturbances are considered and how they are to be quantified. Approaches to assessing it "face high uncertainties and still require a considerable amount of empirical and
508:
Ecosystem health is in the eye of the beholder. It is an economic, political or ethical judgement rather than a scientific measure of environmental quality. Health ratings are shaped by the goals and preferences of environmental stakeholders. "There is no scientific basis for demarcating ecosystem
550:
Kurt Jax presented an ecosystem assessment format that avoids imposing a preconceived notion of normality, that avoids the muddling of normative and descriptive, and that gives serious attention to ecosystem definition. (1) Societal purposes for the ecosystem are negotiated by stakeholders, (2) a
358:
successfully used in monitoring programs. Their richness and abundance ensure that they play significant roles in ecosystem function but thwart focus on a few key species." And, "Reviews of species-based monitoring approaches reveal that no single species, nor even a group of species, accurately
144:
It is the last goal mentioned in the survey, accommodating humans, that is most contentious. "We have observed that when groups of stakeholders work to define ... visions, this leads to debate over whether to emphasize ecosystem health or human well-being ... Whether the priority is ecosystems or
546:
Alternatives have been proposed for the term ecosystem health, including more neutral language such as ecosystem status, ecosystem prognosis, and ecosystem sustainability. Another alternative to the use of a health metaphor is to "express exactly and clearly the public policy and the management
316:
Estimation of ecosystem health has been criticized for intermingling the two types of environmental indicators. A health indicator is a normative indicator, and if conflated with descriptive indicators "implies that normative values can be measured objectively, which is certainly not true. Thus,
494:
The very choice of the word "health" applied to ecology has been questioned as lacking in neutrality in a BioScience article on responsible use of scientific language: "Some conservationists fear that these terms could endorse human domination of the planet ... and could exacerbate the shifting
541:
The public can be deceived by the term ecosystem health which may camouflage the ramifications of a policy goal and be employed to pejoratively rank policy choices. "The most pervasive misuse of ecosystem health and similar normative notions is insertion of personal values under the guise of
324:
by the observer's perspective and separation of goals from descriptions has been advocated as a step toward transparency: "A separation of descriptive and normative indicators is essential from the perspective of the philosophy of science ... Goals and values cannot be deduced directly from
220:
While this captures significant ecosystem properties, a generalization is elusive as those properties do not necessarily co-vary in nature. For example, there is not necessarily a clear or consistent relationship between productivity and species richness. Similarly, the relationship between
106:
The term ecosystem health has been employed to embrace some suite of environmental goals deemed desirable. Edward
Grumbine's highly cited paper "What is ecosystem management?" surveyed ecosystem management and ecosystem health literature and summarized frequently encountered goal statements:
325:
descriptions ... a fact that is emphasized repeatedly in the literature of environmental ethics ... Hence, we advise always specifying the definition of indicators and propose clearly distinguishing ecological indicators in science from policy indicators used for decision-making processes."
301:
Used descriptively, high chlorophyll-a is an indicator of eutrophication, but it may also be used as an ecosystem health indicator. When used as a normative (health) indicator, it indicates a rank on a health scale, a rank that can vary widely depending on societal preferences as to what is
570:
term in reference to "green" cities (composting, recycling), and has been used loosely with regard to various environmental issues, and as the condition of human-disturbed environmental sites. Ecosystem integrity implies a condition of an ecosystem exposed to a minimum of human influence.
347:(low probability of wrongly indicating a change). The reliability of various health metrics has been questioned and "what combination of measurements should be used to evaluate ecosystems is a matter of current scientific debate." Most attempts to identify ecological indicators have been
451:
as criteria of ecosystem health. For example, destruction of wetlands to control malaria mosquitoes "resulted in an improvement in ecosystem health." The protectionist view treats humans as an invasive species: "If there was ever a species that qualified as an invasive pest, it is
245:
Other authors have sought a numerical index of ecosystem health that would permit quantitative comparisons among ecosystems and within ecosystems over time. One such system employs ratings of the three properties mentioned above: Health = system vigor x system organization x
459:
Proponents of the utilitarian view argue that "healthy ecosystems are characterized by their capability to sustain healthy human populations," and "healthy ecosystems must be economically viable," as it is "unhealthy" ecosystems that are likely to result in increases in
391:
A trade-off between human health and the "health" of nature has been termed the "health paradox" and it illuminates how human values drive perceptions of ecosystem health. Human health has benefited by sacrificing the "health" of wild ecosystems, such as dismantling and
168:
and maintenance of populations of some 70 indigenous fish species. A suite of 80 lake health indicators was developed for the Great Lakes Basin including monitoring native fish species, exotic species, water levels, phosphorus levels, toxic chemicals,
229:
may depend upon one or a few species rather than overall diversity. And some undesirable ecosystems are highly productive. “If species richness is our major normative target, then we should convert the Amazon rainforest even faster into pasture.”
269:
Ecosystem definition determines the acceptable range of variability (reference conditions) and determines measurement variables. The latter are used as indicators of ecosystem structure and function, and can be used as indicators of "health".
512:
Ecosystem health is an example of normative science, and "using normative science in policy deliberations is stealth advocacy." "Normative science is a corruption of science and should not be tolerated in the scientific community — without
503:
Criticism of ecosystem health largely targets the failure of proponents to explicitly distinguish the normative (policy preference) dimension from the descriptive (scientific information) dimension, and has included the following:
277:
is a variable, such as a chemical or biological property, that when measured, is used to infer trends in another (unmeasured) environmental variable or cluster of unmeasured variables (the indicandum). For example, rising
490:
are historically normal in pre-industrial nature. Diseases and parasites promote ecosystem functioning, driving biodiversity and productivity, and parasites may constitute a significant fraction of ecosystem biomass.
1009:
Asanova, Umut (2002). "Philosophy of ecological ethics education, considering the Issyk-Kul Lake reediation mechanisms." Jean Klerkx and
Beishen Imanakanov (2002). Lake Issk-Kul: Its natural Environment Springer
435:
and resource managers over the question of whether to "ratchet back human domination of the biosphere" or whether to embrace it. These two perspectives have been characterized as utilitarian vs protectionist.
516:
Health is a metaphor, not a property of an ecosystem. Health is an abstraction. It implies "good", an optimum condition, but in nature ecosystems are ever-changing transitory assemblages with no identifiable
297:
Ecosystem assessments employ two kinds of indicators, descriptive indicators and normative indicators. "Indicators can be used descriptively for a scientific purpose or normatively for a political purpose."
359:
reflects entire communities. Understanding the response of a single species may not provide reliable predictions about a group of species even when the group is comprised of a few very similar species."
328:
And integration of multiple, possibly conflicting, normative indicators into a single measure of "ecosystem health" is problematic. Using 56 indicators, "determining environmental status and assessing
1058:
RamĂrez-Carrillo, Elvia; LĂłpez-Corona, Oliver; Toledo-Roy, Juan C.; Lovett, Jon C.; LeĂłn-González, Fernando de; Osorio-Olvera, Luis; Equihua, Julian; Robredo, Everardo; Frank, Alejandro (2018-07-16).
520:
Use of human health and well-being as a criterion of ecosystem health introduces an arrogance and a conflict of interest into environmental assessment, as human population growth has caused much
566:
term for programs to modify health risks (diabetes, obesity, smoking, etc.). Human health itself, when viewed in its broadest sense, is viewed as having ecological foundations. It is also an
1019:
Morar, N., 2019. Biodiversity? Yes, but what kind? A critical reassessment in light of a challenge from microbial ecology. Journal of
Agricultural and Environmental Ethics, 32, pp.201-218.
177:, fish tissue contaminants, etc. Some authors have attempted broad definitions of ecosystem health, such as benchmarking as healthy the historical ecosystem state "prior to the onset of
351:
rather than derived from prospective testing of their predictive value and the selection process for many indicators has been based upon weak evidence or has been lacking in evidence.
587:
has evolved as societal priorities have changed and, as a consequence, the working definition of ecosystem health, along with the overall management goals, have evolved as well.
1515:
Hearnshaw, E.J.S., Cullen, R. and Hughey, K.F.D., (2005). "Ecosystem health demystified." Economic and
Environment Network, Australia National University, Canberra. 30 pp.
575:
is the relationship of human health to the environment, including the effect of climate change, wars, food production, urbanization, and ecosystem structure and function.
149:
are critical to ecosystem health and an essential part of nature, for others they are a symbol of government overreach threatening their livelihoods and cultural values."
367:
233:"Resilience is not desirable per se. There can be highly resilient states of ecosystems which are very undesirable from some human perspectives , such as algal-dominated
1347:
C. Max
Finlayson and Pierre Horwitz (2015). "Wetlands as settings for human health – the benefits and the paradox." Pages 1-13 in Finlayson, C.M. et al. 2015.
1527:
Lackey, Robert T. (2003). "Appropriate use of ecosystem health and normative science in ecological policy" Pages. 175-186 in: Rapport, David J. et al. (2003)
583:
refer to the sustainable management of ecosystems and in some cases may employ the terms ecosystem health or ecosystem integrity as a goal. The practice of
1334:
Kremsater, Laurie L. and Fred L. Bunnell (2009). "Sustaining forest-dwelling species." Pages 173-218 in
Bunnell, Fred L. and Glen B. Dunsworth (2009).
1317:
Ahmed A.H. et al. (2016). "How do ecologists select and use indicator species to monitor ecological change? Insights from 14 years of publication in
1278:
Borja A, et al. (2014). "Tales from a thousand and one ways to integrate marine ecosystem components when assessing the environmental status."
1373:
Tudela, Sergi and
Katherine Short (2005). "Paradigm shifts, gaps, inertia, and political agendas in ecosystem-based fisheries management."
509:
health." "At the core of debates over the utility of ecosystem health is a struggle over which societal preferences will take precedence."
495:
cognitive baseline whereby humans tend to become accustomed to new and often degraded ecosystems and thus forget the nature of the past."
1125:
Roli, Andrea; Villani, Marco; Filisetti, Alessandro; Serra, Roberto (2017-11-17). "Dynamical
Criticality: Overview and Open Questions".
828:
Xu, F, ZF Yang, B. Chen, and Y.W. Zhao. (2012). "Ecosystem Health
Assessment of Baiyangdian Lake Based on Thermodynamic Indicators."
815:
Davies, P.E. et al. (2010). "The
Sustainable Rivers Audit: assessing river ecosystem health in the Murray–Darling Basin, Australia."
763:
Leopold, Aldo (1946). "The land health concept and conservation." Pages 218-226 in Callicott, J. Baird, and Eric T.Freyfogle. (1999)
94:
The health metaphor applied to the environment has been in use at least since the early 1800s and the great American conservationist
1614:
Nasi, R., Dennis, R., Meijaard, E., Applegate, G. and Moore, P., 2002. Forest fire and biological diversity. UNASYLVA-FAO- pp.36-40.
1226:
Heink, Ulrich and Ingo Kowarik (2010) "What are indicators? On the definition of indicators in ecology and environmental planning."
527:
Ecosystem health masquerades as an operational goal because environmental managers "may be reluctant to define their goals clearly."
1489:
Kueffer, Christoph and Brendon M. H. Larson (2014). "Responsible Use of Language in Scientific Writing and Science Communication."
1028:
Costanza, R. 1992. "Toward an operational definition of ecosystem health." Pp 239-256 in Costanza, R., B. Norton, and B. Haskell.
160:
Measuring ecosystem health requires extensive goal-driven environmental sampling. For example, a vision for ecosystem health of
896:
Leslie, heather M. and Karen L. McLeod (2007). "Confronting the challenges of implementing marine ecosystem-based management."
938:
Shear, Harvey et al. (2003). "The development and implementation of indicators of ecosystem health in the Great Lakes Basin."
709:
Lancaster, Jill (2000). "The Ridiculous Notion of Assessing Ecological Health and Identifying the Useful Concepts Underneath."
1709:
145:
people greatly influences stakeholders' assessment of desirable ecological and social states." and, for example, "For some,
1476:
Kuris, Armand M. et al. (2008). "Ecosystem energetic implications of parasite and free-living biomass in three estuaries."
1177:
Jax, Kurt (2007). "Can we define ecosystems? On the confusion between definition and description of ecological concepts."
1463:
Hudson, Peter J., Andrew P. Dobson and Kevin D. Lafferty (2006). "Is a healthy ecosystem one that is rich in parasites?"
332:
health in an integrative way is still one of the grand challenges in marine ecosystems ecology, research and management"
1740:
KARR, J. R., (1996). "Ecological integrity and ecological health are not the same." Pp. 97-109, In: Schulz, P. (ed.)
1386:
Noss, Redd et al. (2013). "Humanity's domination of nature is part of the problem: a response to Kareiva and Marvier."
1789:
181:." A difficulty is that the historical composition of many human-altered ecosystems is unknown or unknowable. Also,
59:
1304:
Barton, Philip S. et al. (2015). "Learning from clinical medicine to improve the use of surrogates in ecology."
1193:
O'Neill, Robert V. (2001). "Is it time to bury the ecosystem concept? (with full military honors, of course!)"
646:
629:
1592:
Ryder, R. A., (1990). "Ecosystem health, a human perception: Definition, detection, and the dichotomous key."
1291:
Woodward, Guy, et al. (2012). Continental-wide effects of nutrient pollution on stream ecosystem functioning.
1820:
1810:
854:
Covington, W. Wallace et al. (1997) "Restoring Ecosystem Health in Ponderosa Pine Forests of the Southwest."
340:
1766:
Leech, Susan., Alan Wiensczyk, and Jennifer Turner. (2009). "Ecosystem management: A practitioners' guide."
909:
Myers, Andrew (2015). Which wolf, which trap? Socially constructing wolves and trapping in western Montana.
1502:
Carolan, Michael S. (2006). "Science, Expertise, and the Democratization of the Decision-Making Process."
1252:
Carolan, Michael (2006). "The values and vulnerabilities of metaphors within the environmental sciences."
1360:
Tallis, Heather and & Jane Lubchenco (2014) "Working together: A call for inclusive conservation."
584:
562:
has been used as a medical term in reference to human allergy and multiple chemical sensitivity and as a
27:
1825:
954:
Rapport, David J. and • Luisa Maffi (2011). "Eco-cultural health, global health, and sustainability."
580:
689:
Meyer, Judy L. (1997). "Stream health: incorporating the human dimension to advance stream ecology."
336:
335:
Another issue with indicators is validity. Good indicators must have an independently validated high
1434:
Rapport, David (1998). "Dimensions of ecosystem health." Pages 34-40 in Rapport, D.J. (ed.) (1998).
737:
344:
1579:
Duarte, Carlos M. et al. (2015). "Paradigms in the recovery of estuarine and coastal ecosystems."
534:"There are in general no clear definitions of what proponents of the concept mean by 'ecosystem'."
1060:"Assessing sustainability in North America's ecosystems using criticality and information theory"
274:
1835:
605:
Rapport, David (1998). "Defining ecosystem health." Pages 18-33 in Rapport, D.J. (ed.) (1998).
200:
1675:"Implementing the ecological approach in tobacco control programs: results of a case study."
483:
432:
384:
303:
137:
Grumbine describes each of these goals as a "value statement" and stresses the role of human
193:
through time, so it is difficult to identify one snapshot in time as optimum or "healthy.".
152:
1071:
996:
Ives, Anthony R. and Stephen R. Carpenter (2007). "Stability and Diversity of Ecosystems."
576:
521:
479:
380:
238:
206:
21:
983:
Adler, Peter et al. (2011). "Productivity is a poor predictor of plant species richness."
8:
867:
Slocombe, D. Scott (1998). "Defining Goals and Criteria for Ecosystem-Based Management."
226:
190:
122:
1075:
196:
A commonly cited broad definition states that a healthy ecosystem has three attributes:
1160:
1134:
1102:
1059:
465:
376:
262:
165:
1605:
Allen, E., 2001. Forest health assessment in Canada. Ecosystem Health, 7(1), pp.28-34.
1399:
Nijhius, Michelle (2014). "Bridging the conservation divide." New Yorker, December 9.
1785:
1705:
1566:
Stanley, Thomas R. Jr. (1995). "Ecosystem management and the arrogance of humanism."
1152:
1107:
1089:
559:
247:
222:
112:
17:
1755:
Ecosystems and human health, a critical approach to ecohealth research and practice.
1164:
317:
implicit values are insinuated to the reader, a situation which has to be avoided."
1815:
1553:
Calow, P. (1992)." Can ecosystems be healthy? Critical consideration of concepts."
1144:
1097:
1079:
676:
Palmer, Margaret A. and Catherine M. Febria (2012). "The heartbeat of ecosystems."
641:
417:
329:
55:
1830:
1699:
1084:
343:(high probability of indicating a significant change in the indicandum) and high
283:
83:
1636:
Schrecker, Ted (1995) Synthesis of Discussion.pp 118-125 in Hodge, Tony et al.
1044:
Suter, Glenn W. (1993). "A critique of ecosystem health concepts and indexes."
567:
291:
279:
116:
79:
1265:
Jax, Kurt (2005). "Function and 'functioning' in ecology: what does it mean?"
1148:
1804:
1623:
Link, Jason S. (2002) "What Does Ecosystem-Based Fisheries Management Mean?"
1239:
Costanza, Robert, and Michael Mageau (1999). "What is a healthy ecosystem?"
1156:
1093:
563:
475:
461:
355:
287:
182:
170:
164:
was developed by a public forum and a series of objectives were prepared for
161:
1651:
Wildlife policy for Prince Edward Island. Government of Prince Edward Island
1057:
1111:
970:
Wicklum, D. and Ronald W. Davies (1995). "Ecosystem health and integrity?"
469:
444:
213:
178:
95:
486:
massive numbers of ecosystems to maintain their welfare, also disease and
1408:
Su, Meirong et al. (2010)."Urban ecosystem health assessment: A review."
440:
354:
In some cases no reliable indicators are known: "We found no examples of
348:
174:
487:
448:
405:
234:
51:
722:
Lackey, Robert T. (2007). "Science, scientists, and policy advocacy."
1338:. Learning how to Sustain Biodiversity in Managed Forests. UBC Press.
572:
498:
309:
might be viewed as healthy whereas a human-impacted wetland with the
39:
845:
HELCOM Initial Holistic Assessment.Balt. Sea Environ. Proc. No. 122.
1139:
776:
Lutz, H.J. (1957). "Applications of ecology in forest management."
409:
401:
397:
362:
43:
1640:. Ottawa: National Round Table on the Environment and the Economy.
929:
Great Lakes Fish. Commission Special Publication. 03-01. 78 pages.
306:
130:
Managing over long time frames to maintain evolutionary potential
75:
71:
67:
47:
425:
413:
372:
186:
146:
138:
63:
133:
Accommodating human use and occupancy within these constraints
421:
1421:
Rapport, David J. (1998). "Some distinctions worth making."
883:
Grumbine, R. Edward (1994). "What is ecosystem management?"
371:
Conceptual map illustrating the connections among nonhuman
321:
189:
records indicate that the species that occupy an ecosystem
1698:
White, Franklin; Stallones, Lorann; Last, John M. (2013).
1030:
Ecosystem health. New Goals for Environmental Management.
647:
10.1641/0006-3568(2001)051[0437:VPAEH]2.0.CO;2
1124:
660:
Rapport, David J. (1992). "Evaluating ecosystem health."
393:
1726:
Ecocities. Rebuilding cities in balance with nature.
1450:
Wilkins, D.A. (1999). "Assessing ecosystem health."
282:
of canaries in a coal mine is an indicator of rising
1531:
Boca Raton, Florida: Lewis Publishers, , 1510 pages.
320:
The very act of selecting indicators of any kind is
42:. Ecosystem condition can vary as a result of fire,
1728:
Gabriola Island: New Society publishers. 373 pages.
691:
Journal of the North American Benthological Society
302:desirable. A high chlorophyll-a level in a natural
156:Fire can play a key role in ecosystem restoration.
38:is a metaphor used to describe the condition of an
1697:
1638:Pathways to Sustainability: Assessing Our Progress
940:Journal of Environmental Monitoring and Assessment
499:Criticism of the concept and proposed alternatives
1666:North Carolina: McFarland and Company, 296 pages.
127:Maintaining evolutionary and ecological processes
1802:
363:Relationship to human health: the health paradox
879:
877:
705:
703:
701:
699:
1782:A New Century for Natural Resources Management
1446:
1444:
966:
964:
950:
948:
1523:
1521:
1206:Wright, David A. and Pamela Welbourne (2002)
1189:
1187:
927:Fish-community objectives for Lake Superior.
601:
599:
1780:Knight, Richard; Bates, Sarah, eds. (2013).
1701:Global Public Health: Ecological Foundations
1540:Lackey, Robert (2013). "Normative Science".
1222:
1220:
1218:
1216:
1040:
1038:
921:
919:
913:, University of Montana, Oral Presentations.
874:
843:Ecosystem health of the Baltic Sea 2003–2007
696:
672:
670:
623:
621:
619:
617:
615:
478:argue that privileging of human health is a
1779:
1744:s Washington, D.C.: National Academy Press.
1736:
1734:
1664:Living with multiple chemical sensitivity.
1441:
961:
945:
750:Anon (1839). "On the culture of potatoes".
431:There has been an acrimonious schism among
1518:
1184:
798:
796:
794:
792:
790:
788:
786:
741:Volume 19, 391-497. Edinburgh: John Brown.
735:Anon (1816). "Rural economy, agricultur "
596:
1213:
1138:
1127:Journal of Systems Science and Complexity
1101:
1083:
1035:
932:
916:
667:
645:
612:
313:indicator value may be judged unhealthy.
89:
1742:Engineering Within Ecological Constraint
1731:
898:Frontiers of Ecology and the Environment
366:
151:
26:
1768:BC Journal of Ecosystems and Management
783:
141:in setting ecosystem management goals.
1803:
1046:Environmental toxicology and chemistry
630:"Values, Policy, and Ecosystem Health"
627:
711:Human and Ecological Risk Assessment
256:
1594:Journal of Great Lakes and Reserves
1555:Journal of Aquatic Ecosystem Health
662:Journal of aquatic ecosystem health
31:Studying coral health in St. Thomas
13:
14:
1847:
1529:Managing for Healthy Ecosystems
1410:Science of the Total Environment
554:
538:of numerous forest ecosystems.”
396:of wild valleys, destruction of
1773:
1760:
1747:
1718:
1691:
1682:
1677:Evaluation and Program Planning
1669:
1656:
1643:
1630:
1617:
1608:
1599:
1586:
1573:
1560:
1547:
1534:
1509:
1496:
1483:
1470:
1465:Trends in Ecology and Evolution
1457:
1452:Trends in Ecology and Evolution
1428:
1415:
1402:
1393:
1380:
1367:
1354:
1341:
1328:
1311:
1298:
1285:
1272:
1259:
1246:
1233:
1200:
1171:
1118:
1051:
1022:
1013:
1003:
990:
977:
903:
890:
861:
848:
835:
830:Procedia Environmental Sciences
822:
809:
770:
757:
1757:New York: Springer, 233 pages.
1753:Dakubo, Crescentia Y. (2010).
1375:Marine Ecology Progress Series
817:Marine and Freshwater Research
744:
729:
716:
683:
654:
408:, conversion of wilderness to
225:and diversity is complex, and
1:
1784:. Island Press. p. 411.
1688:Richard, Lucie et al. (2004).
1504:Society and Natural Resources
1254:Society and Natural Resources
1210:. Cambridge University Press.
590:
1085:10.1371/journal.pone.0200382
1032:Washington DC: Island Press.
925:Horns, W.H., et al. (2003).
767:Washington DC: Island Press.
765:For the Health of the Land.
290:levels in a lake may signal
7:
1704:. Oxford University Press.
1280:Frontiers in Marine Science
585:natural resource management
542:'scientific' impartiality."
266:perspectives of interest."
84:The Lancet Planetary Health
10:
1852:
1724:Register, Richard (2006).
972:Canadian Journal of Botany
806:Cambridge University Press
628:Lackey, Robert T. (2001).
581:ecosystem-based management
212:"organization" (including
101:
15:
1349:Wetlands and Human Health
1336:Forestry and Biodiversity
1149:10.1007/s11424-017-6117-5
404:, diversion of water for
1662:McCormick, Gail (2001).
1208:Environmental Toxicology
869:Environmental Management
738:Encyclopaedia Perthensis
16:Not to be confused with
1438:. Blackwell Scientific.
424:, whales, ferrets, and
242:theoretical research."
804:Ecosystem Functioning.
472:and fishery collapse.
388:
157:
90:History of the concept
32:
1319:Ecological Indicators
1228:Ecological Indicators
724:Conservation Biology.
609:Blackwell Scientific.
385:environmental justice
370:
166:protection of habitat
155:
30:
1821:Environmental health
1811:Conservation biology
1581:Estuaries and Coasts
1568:Conservation Biology
1323:Ecological Indicator
885:Conservation Biology
577:Ecosystem management
522:environmental damage
480:conflict of interest
381:environmental ethics
179:anthropogenic stress
22:Environmental health
1076:2018PLoSO..1300382R
956:Ecological Research
856:Journal of Forestry
802:Jax, Kurt. (2010).
752:Framer's Magazine,
466:infectious diseases
387:, and public health
227:ecosystem stability
123:ecosystem diversity
389:
377:ecosystem services
158:
113:viable populations
33:
1826:Natural resources
1711:978-0-19-975190-7
1544:January 23, 2013.
607:Ecosystem Health.
560:Ecological health
468:, fires, floods,
330:marine ecosystems
257:Health indicators
248:system resilience
18:Ecological health
1843:
1796:
1795:
1777:
1771:
1764:
1758:
1751:
1745:
1738:
1729:
1722:
1716:
1715:
1695:
1689:
1686:
1680:
1673:
1667:
1660:
1654:
1647:
1641:
1634:
1628:
1621:
1615:
1612:
1606:
1603:
1597:
1590:
1584:
1577:
1571:
1564:
1558:
1551:
1545:
1538:
1532:
1525:
1516:
1513:
1507:
1500:
1494:
1487:
1481:
1474:
1468:
1461:
1455:
1448:
1439:
1436:Ecosystem Health
1432:
1426:
1423:Ecosystem Health
1419:
1413:
1406:
1400:
1397:
1391:
1384:
1378:
1371:
1365:
1358:
1352:
1345:
1339:
1332:
1326:
1315:
1309:
1302:
1296:
1295:, 336:1448-1440.
1289:
1283:
1276:
1270:
1263:
1257:
1250:
1244:
1237:
1231:
1224:
1211:
1204:
1198:
1191:
1182:
1175:
1169:
1168:
1142:
1122:
1116:
1115:
1105:
1087:
1055:
1049:
1042:
1033:
1026:
1020:
1017:
1011:
1007:
1001:
994:
988:
981:
975:
968:
959:
952:
943:
936:
930:
923:
914:
907:
901:
894:
888:
881:
872:
865:
859:
852:
846:
841:HELCOM (2010).
839:
833:
826:
820:
813:
807:
800:
781:
774:
768:
761:
755:
748:
742:
733:
727:
720:
714:
707:
694:
687:
681:
674:
665:
658:
652:
651:
649:
625:
610:
603:
433:conservationists
337:predictive value
56:invasive species
36:Ecosystem health
1851:
1850:
1846:
1845:
1844:
1842:
1841:
1840:
1801:
1800:
1799:
1792:
1778:
1774:
1765:
1761:
1752:
1748:
1739:
1732:
1723:
1719:
1712:
1696:
1692:
1687:
1683:
1674:
1670:
1661:
1657:
1648:
1644:
1635:
1631:
1622:
1618:
1613:
1609:
1604:
1600:
1591:
1587:
1578:
1574:
1565:
1561:
1552:
1548:
1539:
1535:
1526:
1519:
1514:
1510:
1501:
1497:
1493:64(8): 719–724.
1488:
1484:
1475:
1471:
1462:
1458:
1449:
1442:
1433:
1429:
1420:
1416:
1407:
1403:
1398:
1394:
1385:
1381:
1372:
1368:
1359:
1355:
1346:
1342:
1333:
1329:
1316:
1312:
1303:
1299:
1290:
1286:
1277:
1273:
1264:
1260:
1251:
1247:
1241:Aquatic Ecology
1238:
1234:
1225:
1214:
1205:
1201:
1192:
1185:
1176:
1172:
1123:
1119:
1070:(7): e0200382.
1056:
1052:
1043:
1036:
1027:
1023:
1018:
1014:
1008:
1004:
995:
991:
982:
978:
969:
962:
953:
946:
937:
933:
924:
917:
908:
904:
895:
891:
882:
875:
866:
862:
853:
849:
840:
836:
827:
823:
814:
810:
801:
784:
775:
771:
762:
758:
749:
745:
734:
730:
721:
717:
708:
697:
688:
684:
675:
668:
659:
655:
626:
613:
604:
597:
593:
557:
501:
482:as humans have
365:
339:, that is high
286:levels. Rising
284:carbon monoxide
259:
104:
92:
80:chemical spills
25:
12:
11:
5:
1849:
1839:
1838:
1833:
1828:
1823:
1818:
1813:
1798:
1797:
1790:
1772:
1759:
1746:
1730:
1717:
1710:
1690:
1681:
1668:
1655:
1642:
1629:
1616:
1607:
1598:
1585:
1572:
1559:
1546:
1542:Terra Research
1533:
1517:
1508:
1495:
1482:
1469:
1456:
1440:
1427:
1414:
1401:
1392:
1379:
1366:
1353:
1340:
1327:
1310:
1297:
1284:
1271:
1258:
1245:
1232:
1212:
1199:
1183:
1170:
1133:(3): 647–663.
1117:
1050:
1034:
1021:
1012:
1002:
989:
987:333:1750-1752.
976:
960:
944:
931:
915:
902:
889:
873:
860:
847:
834:
832:12: 2402–2413.
821:
808:
782:
769:
756:
743:
728:
715:
695:
682:
680:336:1393-1394.
666:
653:
640:(6): 437–443.
611:
594:
592:
589:
568:urban planning
556:
553:
544:
543:
539:
535:
532:
528:
525:
518:
514:
510:
500:
497:
476:Protectionists
364:
361:
292:eutrophication
280:mortality rate
258:
255:
237:." Ecological
218:
217:
210:
204:
135:
134:
131:
128:
125:
119:
117:native species
103:
100:
91:
88:
60:climate change
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
1848:
1837:
1836:Public health
1834:
1832:
1829:
1827:
1824:
1822:
1819:
1817:
1814:
1812:
1809:
1808:
1806:
1793:
1791:9781597262453
1787:
1783:
1776:
1769:
1763:
1756:
1750:
1743:
1737:
1735:
1727:
1721:
1713:
1707:
1703:
1702:
1694:
1685:
1678:
1672:
1665:
1659:
1652:
1649:Anon (1995).
1646:
1639:
1633:
1626:
1620:
1611:
1602:
1595:
1589:
1582:
1576:
1569:
1563:
1556:
1550:
1543:
1537:
1530:
1524:
1522:
1512:
1505:
1499:
1492:
1486:
1479:
1473:
1466:
1460:
1453:
1447:
1445:
1437:
1431:
1424:
1418:
1412:408:2425–2434
1411:
1405:
1396:
1389:
1383:
1376:
1370:
1363:
1357:
1350:
1344:
1337:
1331:
1325:s 60:223-230.
1324:
1320:
1314:
1307:
1301:
1294:
1288:
1281:
1275:
1268:
1262:
1255:
1249:
1242:
1236:
1229:
1223:
1221:
1219:
1217:
1209:
1203:
1196:
1190:
1188:
1180:
1179:Acta Biotheor
1174:
1166:
1162:
1158:
1154:
1150:
1146:
1141:
1136:
1132:
1128:
1121:
1113:
1109:
1104:
1099:
1095:
1091:
1086:
1081:
1077:
1073:
1069:
1065:
1061:
1054:
1048:12:1533-1539.
1047:
1041:
1039:
1031:
1025:
1016:
1006:
999:
993:
986:
980:
973:
967:
965:
957:
951:
949:
941:
935:
928:
922:
920:
912:
911:Scholar Works
906:
899:
893:
886:
880:
878:
870:
864:
857:
851:
844:
838:
831:
825:
818:
812:
805:
799:
797:
795:
793:
791:
789:
787:
779:
773:
766:
760:
754:2(5):337-338.
753:
747:
740:
739:
732:
726:21(1): 12-17.
725:
719:
712:
706:
704:
702:
700:
692:
686:
679:
673:
671:
663:
657:
648:
643:
639:
635:
631:
624:
622:
620:
618:
616:
608:
602:
600:
595:
588:
586:
582:
578:
574:
569:
565:
564:public health
561:
555:Related terms
552:
548:
540:
536:
533:
531:environment."
529:
526:
523:
519:
515:
511:
507:
506:
505:
496:
492:
489:
485:
481:
477:
473:
471:
470:crop failures
467:
463:
462:contamination
457:
455:
450:
446:
442:
437:
434:
429:
427:
423:
419:
416:removal, and
415:
411:
407:
403:
399:
395:
386:
382:
378:
374:
369:
360:
357:
356:invertebrates
352:
350:
346:
342:
338:
333:
331:
326:
323:
318:
314:
312:
308:
305:
299:
295:
293:
289:
288:chlorophyll-a
285:
281:
276:
271:
267:
264:
254:
251:
249:
243:
240:
236:
231:
228:
224:
215:
211:
208:
205:
202:
199:
198:
197:
194:
192:
188:
184:
180:
176:
172:
171:phytoplankton
167:
163:
162:Lake Superior
154:
150:
148:
142:
140:
132:
129:
126:
124:
120:
118:
114:
110:
109:
108:
99:
97:
87:
85:
81:
77:
73:
69:
65:
61:
57:
53:
49:
45:
41:
37:
29:
23:
19:
1781:
1775:
1767:
1762:
1754:
1749:
1741:
1725:
1720:
1700:
1693:
1684:
1676:
1671:
1663:
1658:
1650:
1645:
1637:
1632:
1624:
1619:
1610:
1601:
1596:16: 619-624.
1593:
1588:
1583:38:1202-1212
1580:
1575:
1567:
1562:
1554:
1549:
1541:
1536:
1528:
1511:
1503:
1498:
1490:
1485:
1480:454:515-518.
1477:
1472:
1464:
1459:
1451:
1435:
1430:
1422:
1417:
1409:
1404:
1395:
1387:
1382:
1377:300:282-286.
1374:
1369:
1361:
1356:
1348:
1343:
1335:
1330:
1322:
1318:
1313:
1308:124:391-398.
1305:
1300:
1292:
1287:
1279:
1274:
1266:
1261:
1253:
1248:
1240:
1235:
1227:
1207:
1202:
1197:82:3275–3284
1194:
1178:
1173:
1130:
1126:
1120:
1067:
1063:
1053:
1045:
1029:
1024:
1015:
1005:
997:
992:
984:
979:
974:73:997-1000.
971:
958:26:1039-1049
955:
939:
934:
926:
910:
905:
897:
892:
884:
868:
863:
855:
850:
842:
837:
829:
824:
816:
811:
803:
777:
772:
764:
759:
751:
746:
736:
731:
723:
718:
710:
690:
685:
677:
661:
656:
637:
633:
606:
558:
549:
545:
502:
493:
474:
458:
454:Homo sapiens
453:
445:human health
443:view treats
438:
430:
390:
353:
334:
327:
319:
315:
310:
304:successional
300:
296:
272:
268:
260:
252:
244:
232:
219:
214:biodiversity
201:productivity
195:
159:
143:
136:
105:
96:Aldo Leopold
93:
35:
34:
1679:27: 409–421
1653:, 18 pages.
1467:21:381-385.
1243:33: 105–115
819:61:764–777.
513:exception."
441:utilitarian
418:extirpation
349:correlative
345:specificity
341:sensitivity
235:coral reefs
175:zooplankton
121:Conserving
111:Conserving
52:extinctions
1805:Categories
1506:19:661–668
1491:BioScience
1425:4:193-194.
1390:63:241-242
1388:BioScience
1364:515, 27–28
1351:. Springer
1256:19:921–930
1230:10:584–593
1181:55:341–355
1140:1512.05259
1000:317:58-62.
942:88:119–152
900:5:540-548.
871:22:483–493
713:6: 213-222
693:16:439^447
634:BioScience
591:References
488:parasitism
484:demolished
449:well-being
406:irrigation
239:resilience
223:resilience
207:resilience
1625:Fisheries
1570:9:255-262
1157:1009-6124
1094:1932-6203
858:95:23-29.
780:38:46-64.
573:Ecohealth
400:-bearing
275:indicator
191:reshuffle
40:ecosystem
1770:10:1–12.
1627:27:18-21
1165:13747497
1112:30011317
1064:PLOS ONE
517:optimum.
410:farmland
402:wetlands
398:mosquito
44:flooding
1816:Ecology
1293:Science
1195:Ecology
1103:6047788
1072:Bibcode
1010:Science
998:Science
985:Science
887:8:27-38
778:Ecology
678:Science
664:1:15-24
394:damming
307:wetland
263:metrics
261:Health
102:Meaning
76:logging
72:farming
68:fishing
48:drought
1831:Nature
1788:
1708:
1557:1:1-5.
1478:Nature
1362:Nature
1282:. 1:72
1163:
1155:
1110:
1100:
1092:
426:wolves
422:tigers
414:timber
373:nature
322:biased
187:pollen
183:fossil
147:wolves
139:values
64:mining
1454:14:70
1306:Oikos
1269:111:3
1267:Oikos
1161:S2CID
1135:arXiv
209:, and
1786:ISBN
1706:ISBN
1153:ISSN
1108:PMID
1090:ISSN
579:and
447:and
439:The
311:same
185:and
1321:."
1145:doi
1098:PMC
1080:doi
642:doi
456:,"
420:of
273:An
115:of
74:or
66:,
20:or
1807::
1733:^
1520:^
1443:^
1215:^
1186:^
1159:.
1151:.
1143:.
1131:31
1129:.
1106:.
1096:.
1088:.
1078:.
1068:13
1066:.
1062:.
1037:^
963:^
947:^
918:^
876:^
785:^
698:^
669:^
638:51
636:.
632:.
614:^
598:^
464:,
428:.
412:,
383:,
379:,
375:,
294:.
216:).
173:,
86:.
78:,
70:,
62:,
58:,
54:,
50:,
46:,
1794:.
1714:.
1167:.
1147::
1137::
1114:.
1082::
1074::
650:.
644::
524:.
203:,
24:.
Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License. Additional terms may apply.
.jpg)
.jpg)