Ecosystem management

543: 20: 473: 635:. Natural resource management aims to fulfill the societal demand for a given resource without causing harm to the ecosystem, or jeopardizing the future of the resource. Due to its focus on natural resources, socioeconomic factors significantly affect this management approach. Natural resource managers initially measure the overall condition of an ecosystem, and if the ecosystem's resources are healthy, the ideal degree of resource extraction is determined, which leaves enough to allow the resource to replenish itself for subsequent harvests. The condition of each resource in an ecosystem is subject to change at different spatial and time scales, and ecosystem attributes, such as 284: 498:. The former group was concerned about sustaining their livelihoods, while the latter was concerned about the environmental impacts of livestock grazing. The groups found common ground around conserving and restoring rangeland, and diverse stakeholders, including ranchers, environmental groups, scientists, and government agencies, were engaged in management discussions. In 1994, the rancher-led Malpai Borderlands Group was created to collaboratively pursue the goals of ecosystem protection, management, and restoration. 756: 617: 95: 728:, possibly because ecosystem managers may not be equipped with the decision-making skills needed to undertake an adaptive management methodology. Additionally, economic, social, and political priorities can interfere with adaptive management decisions. For this reason, for adaptive management to be successful it must be a social and scientific process, focusing on institutional strategies while implementing experimental management techniques. 106: 412: 355:, which drove a decline in populations of fire-tolerant species and a buildup of fuel, leading to higher intensity fires. Additionally, these approaches to managing natural systems tended to (a) be site- and species-specific, rather than considering all components of an ecosystem collectively, (b) employ a “command and control” approach, and (c) exclude stakeholders from management decisions. 159:, ecosystem management remains both ambiguous and controversial, in part because some of its formulations rest on contested policy and scientific assertions. These assertions are important for understanding much of the conflict surrounding ecosystem management. For instance, some allege that professional natural resource managers, typically operating from within 662:. To achieve these goals, ecosystem managers can be appointed to balance natural resource extraction and conservation over a long-term timeframe. Partnerships between ecosystem managers, natural resource managers, and stakeholders should be encouraged in order to promote the sustainable use of limited natural resources. 152:, while Norman Christensen and coauthors emphasize that it is motivated by defined goals, employs adaptive practices, and accounts for the complexities of ecological systems. Peter Brussard and colleagues emphasize that ecosystem management balances preserving ecosystem health while sustaining human needs. 589:. Thus, by controlling ecosystems to limit natural variation and increase predictability, command and control management often leads to a decline the resilience of ecological, social, and economic systems, termed the “pathology of natural resource management”. In this “pathology”, an initially successful 786:

needs at a broader landscape scale when implementing conservation initiatives. By considering broad-scale, interconnected ecological systems, landscape-level conservation acknowledges the full scope of an environmental problem. Implementation of landscape-scale conservation is carried out in a number

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and management practices should have the ability to change based on new experience and insights. In an adaptive management strategy, a hypotheses about an ecosystem and its functioning is formed, and then management techniques to test these hypotheses are implemented. The implemented methods are then

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encourages the establishment of goals that will sustain an ecosystem while keeping socioeconomic and politically relevant policy drivers in mind. This approach differs from other types of ecosystem management because it emphasizes stakeholders' involvement, relying on their input to develop the best

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utilizes a linear problem solving approach, in which a perceived problem is resolved through controlling devices such as laws, threats, contracts, and/or agreements. This top-down approach is used across many disciplines, and it is best suited for addressing relatively simple, well-defined problems,

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Christensen, Norman L.; Bartuska, Ann M.; Brown, James H.; Carpenter, Stephen; D'Antonio, Carla; Francis, Robert; Franklin, Jerry F.; MacMahon, James A.; Noss, Reed F.; Parsons, David J.; Peterson, Charles H.; Turner, Monica G.; Woodmansee, Robert G. (1996). "The Report of the Ecological Society of

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are individuals or groups who are affected by or have an interest in ecosystem management decisions and actions. Stakeholders may also have power to influence the goals, policies, and outcomes of management. Ecosystem management stakeholders fall into the following groups based on their diverse

433:. Due to these complexities, effective ecosystem management is flexible and develops reciprocal trust around issues of common interest, with the objective of creating mutually beneficial partnerships. Key attributes of successful participatory ecosystem management efforts have been identified: 375:”. Thus, the outcome of natural resource management's "evolution" over the course of the 20th century is ecosystem management, which explicitly recognizes that technical and scientific knowledge, though necessary in all approaches to natural resource management, are insufficient in themselves. 175:

of the production of goods and services by ecosystems, as "intergenerational sustainability a precondition for management, not an afterthought." Ideally, there should be clear, publicly stated goals with respect to future trajectories and behaviors of the system being managed. Other important

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play in ecosystems. In sum, ecosystems were increasingly seen as complex systems shaped by non-linear and stochastic processes, and thus, they could not be managed to achieve single, fully predictable outcomes. As a result of these complexities and often unforeseeable feedback from management

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is assessed to identify the best strategies for protecting the ecosystem and the species. However, simultaneously addressing the habitat requirements of multiple species in an ecosystem can be difficult, and as a result, more comprehensive approaches have been considered in landscape-level

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becomes reliant on the system in its controlled state. Consequently, there has been a transition away from command and control management, and increased focus on more holistic adaptive management approaches and on arriving at management solutions through partnerships between stakeholders.

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management strategy for an ecosystem. Similar to other methods of ecosystem management, strategic management prioritizes evaluating and reviewing any impacts of management intervention on an ecosystem, and flexibility in adapting management protocols as a result of new information.

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have employed sustainable ecosystem management approaches implicitly for millennia, ecosystem management emerged explicitly as a formal concept in the 1990s from a growing appreciation of the complexity of ecosystems and of humans' reliance and influence on natural systems (e.g.,

312:. In TEK, cultures acquire knowledge of their environment over time and this information is passed on to future generations through cultural customs including folklore, religion, and taboos. Traditional management strategies vary by region; examples include the burning of the 713:

analyzed to evaluate if ecosystem health improved or declined, and further analysis allows for the modification of methods until they successfully meet the needs of the ecosystem. Thus, adaptive management is an iterative approach, encouraging “informed trial-and-error”.

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Stakeholders implementing sustainability by planting trees in an area of deforestation. This is important to the stakeholder label due to the fact that stakeholders are individuals or groups who are affected by or have an interest in ecosystem management decisions and

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has typically assumed a view that each ecosystem has a single best equilibrium and that minimizing variation around this equilibrium results in more dependable, greater yields of natural resources. For example, this perspective informed the long-held belief in

137:. Robertson stated, “By ecosystem management, we mean an ecological approach… must blend the needs of people and environmental values in such a way that the National Forests and Grasslands represent diverse, healthy, productive and sustainable ecosystems.” 446:

is performed to ensure parties are appropriately represented. This involves determining the stakeholders involved in the management issue; categorizing stakeholders based on their interest in and influence on the issue; and evaluating relationships between

69:, ecosystem management integrates ecological, socioeconomic, and institutional knowledge and priorities through diverse stakeholder participation. In contrast to command and control approaches to natural resource management, which often lead to declines in 561:

which have a clear cause and effect, and for which there is broad societal agreement as to policy and management goals. In the context of natural systems, command and control management attempts to control nature in order to improve natural

514:, faced an imminent tipping point. In 1989, led by a municipal organization, a collaborative management strategy was adopted, involving diverse stakeholders concerned with the ecological, social, and economic facets of the ecosystem. The 176:

requirements include a sound ecological understanding of the system including ecological dynamics and the context in which the system is embedded. An understanding of the role of humans as components of the ecosystems and the use of

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Reed, M.S.; Graves, A.; Dandy, N.; Posthumus, H.; Hubacek, K.; Morris, J.; Prell, C.; Quinn, C.H.; Stinger, L.C. (2009). "Who's in and why? A typology of stakeholder analysis methods for natural resource management".

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in the mid-1920s to reduce elk predation. Long-term studies of wolf, elk, and tree populations since wolf reintroduction in 1995 demonstrate that reintroduction has decreased elk populations, improving tree species

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Ecosystem services and Australian natural resource management (NRM) futures: Paper to the Natural Resource Policies and Programs Committee (NRPPC) and the Natural Resource Management Standing Committee

73:, ecosystem management is a holistic, adaptive method for evaluating and achieving resilience and sustainability. As such, implementation is context-dependent and may take a number of forms including 708:

is based on the concept that predicting future influences and disturbances to an ecosystem is limited and unclear. Therefore, an ecosystem should be managed to it maintain the greatest degree of

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The complexity of ecosystem management decisions, ranging from local to international scales, requires the participation of stakeholders with diverse understandings, perceptions, and values of

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emphasizes that ecosystem management is informed by ecological and social factors, is motivated by societal benefits, and is implemented over a specific timeframe and area.

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bureaucracies and professional organizations, mask debate over controversial assertions by depicting ecosystem management as an evolution of past management approaches.

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Kaufmann, M. R.; Graham, R. T.; Boyce, D. A.; Moir, W. H.; Perry, L.; Reynolds, R. T.; Bassett, R. L.; Mehlhop, P.; Edminster, C. B.; Block, W. M.; Corn, P. S. (1994).

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methods targeted at individual species may need to be modified to include the maintenance of habitats through the consideration of both human and ecological factors.

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Informed by natural resource management, the ecosystem management concept is based on the relationship between sustainable ecosystem maintenance and human demand for

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Social, economic, and ecological goals are equally weighed, and stakeholders are actively involved in decision making, which is arrived at by collective consensus.

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Grimble, Robin; Wellard, K. (1997). "Stakeholder methodologies in natural resource management: a review of principles, contexts, experiences and opportunities".

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In human-dominated landscapes, weighing the habitat requirements of wild flora and fauna versus the needs of humans presents challenges. Globally, human-induced

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Several strategies to implementing the maintenance and restoration of natural and human-modified ecosystem exist. Command and control management and traditional

346:'s shift away from sustaining ecosystem health and toward maximizing timber production to support residential development following World War II. Furthermore, 352: 238:

Broad ecological research and data collection is needed to inform effective management (e.g., species diversity, habitat types, disturbance regimes, etc.).

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Billgren, C.; Holmen, H. (2008). "Approaching reality: Comparing stakeholder analysis and cultural theory in the context of natural resource management".

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Stakeholders agree upon the aims of the participatory process from its beginning, and the means and extent of stakeholder participation are case-specific.

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As ecological boundaries often cross administrative boundaries, management often requires cooperation among a range of agencies and private stakeholders.

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Gen. Tech. Rep. RM-GTR-264. Fort Collins, CO: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Forest and Range Experiment Station. 669 P

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and for the intrinsic link between natural resources and overall ecosystem health. Simultaneously, there was acknowledgment of society's reliance on

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Kellert, Stephen R; Mehta, J. N.; Ebbin, S. A.; Lichtenfeld, L. L (2000). "Community Natural Resource Management: Promise, Rhetoric, and Reality".

2608: 542: 534:, strategic management, and landscape-level conservation are different methodologies and processes involved in implementing ecosystem management: 673:

and consequently, have accommodated the needs of future generations. As human populations grow, introducing new stressors to ecosystems, such as

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ecosystem, including eutrophication, bird population declines, and deterioration of flooded meadows areas. There was concern that the Helge å, a

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Multidisciplinary data are collected, reflecting multidisciplinary priorities, and decisions are informed by both local and scientific knowledge.

1993:"Social-Ecological Transformation for Ecosystem Management: the Development of Adaptive Co-management of a Wetland Landscape in Southern Sweden" 795:. These implementations can be found crossing over or under highways to reduce segmentation. In other instances, the habitat requirements of a 1705: 665:

Historically, some ecosystems have experienced limited resource extraction and have been able to subsist naturally. Other ecosystems, such as

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Stakeholders who are not directly impacted, but have an interest in the ecosystem or its ecosystem services (e.g., NGOs, recreational groups)

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However, due to the complexities of ecological systems, command and control management may result in unintended consequences. For example,

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The latter half of the 20th century saw a paradigm shift in how ecosystems were viewed, with a growing appreciation for the importance of

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DeBano, Leonard H.; Ffolliott, Peter H.; Ortega-Rubio, Alfredo; Gottfried, Gerald J.; Hamre, Robert H.; Edminster, Carleton B. (1995).

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Humans play a key role in guiding management goals, which reflect a stage in the continuing evolution of social values and priorities.

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to improve crop yields; the culling of predators to protect game bird species; and the safeguarding of timber supply, by suppressing

321: 292: 772: 118:(top) and 7 months after the hurricane (bottom). Although ecosystem management goals often differ on their specifics, achieving 1957:"Biodiversity and management of the Madrean Archipelago: The Sky Islands of southwestern United States and northwestern Mexico" 1295: 1782:"Personal Commentaries on "Ecosystems and Human Well-being: Health Synthesis—A Report of the Millennium Ecosystem Assessment"" 973:

Berkes, Fikret; Colding, Johan; Folke, Carl (2000). "Rediscovery of Traditional Ecological Knowledge as Adaptive Management".

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is an increasing problem, which is why landscape-level approaches play an important role in ecosystem management. Traditional

19: 2930:"Climate change meets habitat fragmentation: linking landscape and biogeographical scale levels in research and conservation" 2544: 2431: 1503: 1462: 1217: 952: 829: 305: 148:

and co-authors emphasize that ecosystem management is guided by ecological science to ensure the long-term sustainability of

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Sustainable ecosystem management approaches have been used by societies throughout human history. Prior to colonization,

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Management is an iterative process in which methods are continuously reevaluated as new scientific knowledge is gained.

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Successful implementation of management requires shifts in the structure and operation of land management agencies.

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The impacts of management methods are tracked, allowing for their outcomes to be evaluated and modified, if needed.

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United States Department of Interior. Technical Guide: Chapter 1: What is Adaptive Management? Viewed 8 Sep. 2010.

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Mushove, P.; Vogel, C. (2005). "Heads or tails? Stakeholder analysis as a tool for conservation area management".

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Holling, C. S.; Meffe, Gary K. (1996). "Command and control and the pathology of natural resource management".

690: 2805:"Predicting Which Species Will Benefit from Corridors in Fragmented Landscapes from Population Growth Models" 834: 631:

is frequently used in relation to a particular resource for human use, rather than the management of a whole

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In industrialized Western society, ecosystems have been managed primarily to maximize yields of a particular

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In the early 1990s, there was ongoing conflict between the ranching and environmentalist communities in the

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Principles of ecosystem stewardship : resilience-based natural resource management in a changing world

1520:"Huna Tlingit Traditional Environmental Knowledge, Conservation, and the Management of a "Wilderness" Park" 779: 760: 750: 343: 134: 78: 2929: 2719:

Shmelev, S.E; Powell, J.R (2006). "Ecological-economic modeling for strategic regional waste management".

791:, for example, provides a connection between otherwise isolated habitat patches, presenting a solution to 895:

Brussard Peter, F; Reed Michael, J; Richard, Tracy C (1998). "Ecosystem Management: What is it really?".

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Vos, CC; Verboom, J; Opdam, PFM; Ter Braak, CJF (2001). "Toward Ecologically Scaled Landscape Indices".

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Pahl-Wostl (2007). "Transitions towards adaptive management of water facing climate and global change".

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Ascher, W (2001). "Coping with complexity and Organizational Interests in Natural Resource Management".

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Stakeholders are engaged early on, and their involvement continues beyond decision and into management.

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allows for timber extraction, while maintaining ecosystem structure and allowing forest regeneration.

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to shift their focus toward control, over time obscuring the ecosystem’s natural behavior, while the

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In the 1980s, local government agencies and environmental groups noted declines in the health of the

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Nature and people are intrinsically linked and humans shape, and are shaped by, ecological processes.

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is a technique used in ecosystem management. This indirectly benefits society via the maintenance of

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in an ecosystem (e.g., only conserving a specific species or only preserving ecosystem functioning).

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Reed, M.S. (2008). "Stakeholder participation for environmental management: A literature review".

1745:"Valuing ecosystem services using benefit transfer: separating credible and incredible approaches" 565:, establish predictability, and reduce threats. Command and control strategies include the use of 518:

was established in 2005 to promote the preservation of the ecosystem's socio-ecological services.

2748:"Old concepts, new challenges: adapting landscape-scale conservation to the twenty-first century" 367: 313: 205: 133:

The term “ecosystem management” was formalized in 1992 by F. Dale Robertson, former Chief of the

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since wolf return demonstrate the potential cascading impacts of command and control management.

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Stakeholder involvement is inclusive, equitable, and focused on trust-building and empowerment.

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Stakeholders concerned with the decision-making processes (e.g., environmental advocacy groups)

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Lambeck, Robert J (1997). "Focal species: a multi-species umbrella for nature conservation".

792: 686: 586: 550: 359: 229: 225: 123: 119: 70: 59: 55: 1201: 2609:"Deconstructing Adaptive Management: Criteria for Applications to Environmental Management" 1028: 812: 737: 717: 709: 443: 288: 221: 145: 465:

Economic incentives are provided to parties responsible for implementing management plans.

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Hunn, Eugene S.; Johnson, Darryll R.; Russell, Priscilla N.; Thornton, Thomas F. (2003).

1495: 721: 705: 669:, which in many regions provide considerable timber resources, have undergone successful 648: 620: 531: 177: 74: 2970:

Velázquez, Alejandro; Bocco, Gerardo; Romero, Francisco J.; Vega, Azucena Pérez (2003).

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by Native Americans in what is today the southeastern United States, the ban of seabird

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Kessler, Winifred B.; Salwasser, Hal; Cartwright, Charles W.; Caplan, James A. (1992).

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Ecosystem management : applications for sustainable forest and wildlife resources

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Ecological boundaries are clearly and formally defined, and management is place-based.

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This management approach has had mixed success in the field of ecosystem management,

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Management has a holistic perspective rather than focusing on a particular level of

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Lackey, Robert T (1999). "Radically contested assertions in ecosystem management".

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Leigh, G. J. (2004-09-09), "Nitrogen Fixation, Agriculture, and the Environment",

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To ensure long-term stakeholder involvement, participation is institutionalized.

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is also important. While ecosystem management can be used as part of a plan for

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A variety of additional definitions of ecosystem management exist. For example,

2260: 1781: 694: 674: 636: 372: 172: 2763: 2681: 2473: 2370: 2199:"Trophic cascades in Yellowstone: The first 15years after wolf reintroduction" 2051:

Olsson, Per; Folke, Carl; Galaz, Victor; Hahn, Thomas; Schultz, Lisen (2007).

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Meffe, Gary; Nielsen, Larry; Knight, Richard; Schenborn, Dennis, eds. (2013).

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sustainable harvest practices of glaucous-winged gull eggs by the Huna Tlingit

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can be used to monitor and evaluate natural resources and ecosystem health.

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often sustainably managed their natural resources through intergenerational

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were determined through active participation of diverse stakeholder groups.

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conservation, it can also be used in intensively managed ecosystems (e.g.,

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eggs maintains the species' population size, while preserving traditional

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Stakeholders funding management plans (e.g., taxpayers, funding agencies)

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http://www.doi.gov/initiatives/AdaptiveManagement/TechGuide/Chapter1.pdf

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Donaldson, Lynda; Wilson, Robert J.; Maclean, Ilya M. D. (2017-03-01).

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that aims to ensure the long-term sustainability and persistence of an

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Loomis, John; Richardson, Leslie; Kroeger, Timm; Casey, Frank (2014).

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strategies, DeFries and Nagendra deemed ecosystem management to be a “

2152:"The Effectiveness of Removing Predators to Protect Bird Populations" 1241:

America Committee on the Scientific Basis for Ecosystem Management".

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while meeting socioeconomic, political, and cultural needs. Although

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Stakeholder participation is conducted through skilled facilitation.

2820: 2399:. Australian Department of Agriculture, Water and the Environment. 1577: 1560: 1536: 1519: 1455:

America's fires : a historical context for policy and practice

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Stakeholders representing public interest (e.g., public officials)

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Stakeholders continually monitor management plan’s effectiveness.

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Folke, Carl; Kofinas, Gary P.; Chapin, F. Stuart, eds. (2009).

1602:"New Perspectives for Sustainable Natural Resources Management" 666: 502:

Helge å River & Kristianstads Vattenrike Biosphere Reserve:

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A fundamental concern of ecosystem management is the long-term

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Brussard, Peter F.; J. Michael Reed; C. Richard Tracy (1998).

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Chapin, F. Stuart; Pamela A. Matson; Harold A. Mooney (2002).

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Management is focused on maintaining or reintroducing native

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Ecosystem Management: Adaptive, Community-Based Conservation

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10.1659/0276-4741(2003)023[0240:ALPOBC]2.0.CO;2

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10.1890/1051-0761(2006)016[2411:DAMCFA]2.0.CO;2

1087:"Achieving Integrative, Collaborative Ecosystem Management" 987:

10.1890/1051-0761(2000)010[1251:roteka]2.0.co;2

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Core principles and common themes of ecosystem management:

1706:"Be careful what you wish for: the legacy of Smokey Bear" 366:(beyond provisioning goods) and of the inextricable role 342:. This method for managing ecosystems can be seen in the 2969: 2892: 1831: 484: 395:

tied to the ecosystem (e.g., members of local community)

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10.1890/1540-9295(2007)5[73:BCWYWF]2.0.CO;2

1457:(Rev. ed.). Durham, N.C.: Forest History Society. 1179: 651:, need to be considered individually and collectively. 2972:"A Landscape Perspective on Biodiversity Conservation" 2745: 1404:"An Immune System Perspective on Ecosystem Management" 2197:

Ripple, William J.; Beschta, Robert L. (2012-01-01).

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wolves were extirpated from Yellowstone National Park

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intercropping approach (which is still used today).

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harvest during the breeding season by the Inca, the

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Observed increases in 476:Ecosystem management decisions for the 421:Strategies to stakeholder participation 3017: 2965: 2963: 2663: 2602: 2600: 2575: 2573: 2571: 2528: 2526: 2455: 2453: 2451: 2356: 2314: 2312: 2310: 2308: 2280: 2278: 2046: 2044: 1986: 1984: 1950: 1948: 1893: 1891: 1827: 1825: 1823: 1779: 1327: 1148: 700: 310:traditional ecological knowledge (TEK) 30:and the reduction of severe wildfires. 2352: 2350: 2242: 2240: 2106: 2104: 1699: 1697: 1661: 1659: 1657: 1655: 1653: 1651: 1485: 1080: 1078: 1076: 1074: 830:Ecosystem Management Decision Support 485:Examples of stakeholder participation 228:and other key processes that sustain 2426:(1st ed.). New York: Springer. 2325:. 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Lackey 126:is a common aim. 108: 97: 45:'s function and 3045: 3044: 3040: 3039: 3038: 3036: 3035: 3034: 3015: 3014: 3013: 2968: 2961: 2926: 2922: 2907:10.2307/3079086 2891: 2887: 2856: 2852: 2801: 2797: 2744: 2740: 2717: 2713: 2662: 2658: 2605: 2598: 2589: 2587: 2579: 2578: 2569: 2561: 2554: 2547: 2531: 2524: 2509: 2493: 2489: 2458: 2449: 2434: 2418: 2414: 2407: 2406:9780-64255-3874 2390: 2386: 2355: 2348: 2333: 2317: 2306: 2283: 2276: 2245: 2238: 2195: 2191: 2148: 2144: 2109: 2102: 2049: 2042: 1989: 1982: 1953: 1946: 1923: 1919: 1896: 1889: 1870:Land Use Policy 1866: 1862: 1830: 1821: 1778: 1774: 1767: 1741: 1737: 1702: 1695: 1664: 1649: 1618:10.2307/1941856 1598: 1594: 1571:(s1): e45–e54. 1557: 1553: 1516: 1512: 1506: 1484: 1480: 1465: 1451: 1447: 1400: 1396: 1353: 1349: 1326: 1322: 1298: 1292: 1288: 1265:10.2307/2269460 1256:10.1.1.404.4909 1238: 1227: 1220: 1198: 1191: 1178: 1174: 1147: 1136: 1083: 1072: 1013: 1002: 971: 962: 955: 937: 916: 893: 886: 859: 852: 848: 821: 753: 747: 734: 703: 683:land-use change 614: 608: 540: 524: 487: 423: 381: 336: 324:, and the Maya 302: 281: 169: 131: 130: 129: 128: 127: 116:Hurricane Maria 109: 100: 99: 98: 87: 17: 12: 11: 5: 3043: 3033: 3032: 3027: 3012: 3011: 2982:(3): 240–246. 2959: 2940:(3): 285–297. 2920: 2885: 2850: 2821:10.1086/374343 2815:(5): 808–820. 2795: 2758:(3): 527–552. 2738: 2727:(1): 115–130. 2711: 2656: 2596: 2567: 2552: 2545: 2522: 2507: 2487: 2447: 2432: 2412: 2405: 2384: 2365:(8): 742–757. 2346: 2331: 2304: 2293:(2): 173–193. 2274: 2255:(8): 705–715. 2236: 2209:(1): 205–213. 2189: 2162:(2): 395–405. 2142: 2123:(3): 676–678. 2100: 2040: 1980: 1944: 1933:(3): 184–198. 1917: 1887: 1876:(4): 550–562. 1860: 1819: 1792:(3): 136–140. 1772: 1765: 1735: 1693: 1647: 1612:(3): 221–225. 1592: 1578:10.1890/120344 1551: 1537:10.1086/377666 1510: 1504: 1478: 1463: 1445: 1394: 1347: 1336:(1–2): 21–34. 1320: 1286: 1249:(3): 665–691. 1225: 1218: 1189: 1172: 1161:(1–3): 21–30. 1134: 1070: 1000: 960: 953: 914: 884: 849: 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A 641:soil health 587:recruitment 242:Monitoring: 124:disturbance 56:disturbance 3025:Ecosystems 3019:Categories 2634:1794/22080 2590:2021-04-07 2359:Ecosystems 2078:10535/3208 2018:10535/2865 1431:10535/2615 846:References 658:and other 571:pesticides 567:herbicides 427:ecosystems 387:concerns: 230:resilience 182:wilderness 161:government 120:resilience 3006:134441393 2998:0276-4741 2954:0006-3207 2829:0003-0147 2772:1572-9710 2690:0364-152X 2643:1939-5582 2468:: 49–62. 2442:432702920 2269:219696057 2223:0006-3207 2176:1523-1739 2129:0091-7648 2087:1708-3087 2027:1708-3087 1806:1612-9202 1786:EcoHealth 1751:: 78–89. 1730:1540-9309 1626:1939-5582 1587:1540-9309 1546:0011-3204 1473:458891692 1440:1195-5449 1381:0888-8892 1251:CiteSeerX 1113:1523-1739 1049:0036-8075 995:1051-0761 649:abundance 637:watershed 633:ecosystem 627:The term 43:ecosystem 2880:17944751 2837:12858286 2790:32269427 2706:19511546 2698:12447573 2651:17205914 2517:13184654 2482:15441300 2379:37406535 2341:35174989 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