Effects of climate change on the water cycle

19: 448:. Another advantage is that oceanic salinity is stable on very long time scales, which makes small changes due to anthropogenic forcing easier to track. The oceanic salinity is not homogeneously distributed over the globe, there are regional differences that show a clear pattern. The tropic regions are relatively fresh, since these regions are dominated by rainfall. The subtropics are more saline, since these are dominated by evaporation, these regions are also known as the 'desert latitudes'. The latitudes close to the polar regions are then again less saline, with the lowest salinity values found in these regions. This is because there is a low amount of evaporation in this region, and a high amount of fresh meltwater entering the Arctic Ocean. 408: 619:. This is because climate change leads to increased hydrological variability and extremes. Climate change has many impacts on the water cycle. These result in higher climatic and hydrological variability, which can threaten water security. Changes in the water cycle threaten existing and future water infrastructure. It will be harder to plan investments for future water infrastructure as there are so many uncertainties about future variability for the water cycle. This makes societies more exposed to risks of extreme events linked to water and therefore reduces water security. 545:. The benefits of CPMs have also been demonstrated in other regions, including a more realistic representation of the precipitation structure and extremes. A convection-permitting (4.5 km grid-spacing) model over an Africa-wide domain shows future increases in dry spell length during the wet season over western and central Africa. The scientists concludes that, with the more accurate representation of convection, projected changes in both wet and dry extremes over Africa may be more severe. In other words: "both ends of Africa's weather extremes will get more severe". 432: 324: 503:(often noted as P-E) shows the local influence of the water cycle. Changes in the magnitude of P-E are often used to show changes in the water cycle. But robust conclusions about changes in the amount of precipitation and evaporation are complex. About 85% of the earth's evaporation and 78% of the precipitation happens over the ocean surface, where measurements are difficult. Precipitation on the one hand, only has long term accurate observation records over land surfaces where the amount of rainfall can be measured locally (called 153: 258: 2473: 4853: 4841: 4877: 4865: 713:. Agriculture suffers as a result. This means even regions where overall rainfall is expected to remain relatively stable will experience these impacts. These regions include central and northern Europe. Without climate change mitigation, around one third of land areas are likely to experience moderate or more severe drought by 2100. Due to global warming droughts are more frequent and intense than in the past. 3184: 3159: 1031: 452:

increase in salinity shows that evaporation is increasing even more. The same goes for regions of low salinity that are become less saline, which indicates that precipitation is intensifying only more. This spatial pattern is similar to the spatial pattern of evaporation minus precipitation. The amplification of the salinity patterns is therefore indirect evidence for an intensifying water cycle.

672:. Climate change could also boost demand for irrigation systems in agriculture. There is now ample evidence that greater hydrologic variability and climate change have had a profound impact on the water sector, and will continue to do so. This will show up in the hydrologic cycle, water availability, water demand, and water allocation at the global, regional, basin, and local levels. 249:

more than just the total amount: it is also about the intensity (how hard it rains or snows), frequency (how often), duration (how long), and type (whether rain or snow). Scientists have researched the characteristics of precipitation and found that it is the frequency and intensity that matter for extremes, and those are difficult to calculate in climate models.

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of an intensified global water cycle with salty areas becoming more saline and fresher areas becoming more fresh over the period. IPCC indicates there is high confidence that heavy precipitation events associated with both tropical and extratropical cyclones, and atmospheric moisture transport and heavy precipitation events will intensify.

218:. The saturation vapor pressure of air rises along with its temperature, which means that warmer air can contain more water vapor. Transfers of heat to land, ocean and ice surfaces additionally promote more evaporation. The greater amount of water in the troposphere then increases the chances for more intense rainfall events. 468:

1990, and 3.3% (±0.4%) from 1991 to 2017. Amplification of the pattern is weaker below the surface. This is because ocean warming increases near-surface stratification, subsurface layer is still in equilibrium with the colder climate. This causes the surface amplification to be stronger than older models predicted.

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The scientific understanding of the likelihood of such abrupt changes to the water cycle is not yet clear. Sudden changes in the water cycle due to human activity are a possibility that cannot be ruled out, with current scientific knowledge. However, the likelihood that such changes will occur during

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which in turn affect groundwater in several ways: There can be a decline in groundwater storage, and reduction in groundwater recharge and water quality deterioration due to extreme weather events. In the tropics intense precipitation and flooding events appear to lead to more groundwater recharge.

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A metric to capture the difference in salinity between high and low salinity regions in the top 2000 meters of the ocean is captured in the SC2000 metric. The observed increase of this metric is 5.2% (±0.6%) from 1960 to 2017. But this trend is accelerating, as it increased 1.9% (±0.6%) from 1960 to

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Several characteristics of the water cycle have the potential to cause sudden (abrupt) changes of the water cycle. The definition for "abrupt change" is: a regional to global scale change in the climate system that happens more quickly than it has in the past, indicating that the climate response is

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has been warming rapidly and expanding during the recent decades, largely in response to increased carbon emissions from fossil fuel burning. The warm pool expanded to almost double its size, from an area of 22 million km during 1900–1980, to an area of 40 million km during 1981–2018. This expansion

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The human influence on the water cycle can be observed by analyzing the ocean's surface salinity and the "precipitation minus evaporation (P–E)" patterns over the ocean. Both are elevated. Research published in 2012 based on surface ocean salinity over the period 1950 to 2000 confirm this projection

179:. This causes changes in precipitation patterns with regards to frequency and intensity, as well as changes in groundwater and soil moisture. Taken together, these changes are often referred to as an "intensification and acceleration" of the water cycle. Key processes that will also be affected are 1119:

Arias, P.A., N. Bellouin, E. Coppola, R.G. Jones, G. Krinner, J. Marotzke, V. Naik, M.D. Palmer, G.-K. Plattner, J. Rogelj, M. Rojas, J. Sillmann, T. Storelvmo, P.W. Thorne, B. Trewin, K. Achuta Rao, B. Adhikary, R.P. Allan, K. Armour, G. Bala, R. Barimalala, S. Berger, J.G. Canadell, C. Cassou, A.

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again. Warming over land increases the severity and frequency of droughts around much of the world. In some tropical and subtropical regions of the world, there will probably be less rain due to global warming. This will make them more prone to drought. Droughts are set to worsen in many regions of

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has so far restricted the ability of scientists to accurately simulate African weather extremes, limiting climate change predictions. Convection-permitting models (CPMs) are able to better simulate the diurnal cycle of tropical convection, the vertical cloud structure and the coupling between moist

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The availability of water plays a major role in determining where the extra heat goes. It can go either into evaporation or into air temperature increases. If water is available (like over the oceans and the tropics), extra heat goes mostly into evaporation. If water is not available (like over dry

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The long-term observation records show a clear trend: the global salinity patterns are amplifying in this period. This means that the high saline regions have become more saline, and regions of low salinity have become less saline. The regions of high salinity are dominated by evaporation, and the

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Research into desertification is complex, and there is no single metric which can define all aspects. However, more intense climate change is still expected to increase the current extent of drylands on the Earth's continents: from 38% in late 20th century to 50% or 56% by the end of the century,

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states that by 2025 1.9 billion people will live in countries or regions with absolute water scarcity. It says two thirds of the world's population could be under stress conditions. The World Bank says that climate change could profoundly alter future patterns of water availability and use. This

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The global pattern of the oceanic surface salinity. It can be seen how the by evaporation dominated subtropics are relatively saline. The tropics and higher latitudes are less saline. When comparing with the map above it can be seen how the high salinity regions match the by evaporation dominated

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is a difficult quantity to deal with because it is inherently intermittent. Often, only the average amount is considered. People tend to use the term "precipitation" as if it was the same as "precipitation amount". What actually matters when describing changes to Earth's precipitation patterns is

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However, the exact impacts of climate change on groundwater are still under investigation. This is because scientific data derived from groundwater monitoring is still missing, such as changes in space and time, abstraction data and "numerical representations of groundwater recharge processes".

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confidence as well. There have been limited changes in regional monsoon precipitation observed over the 20th century because increases caused by global warming have been neutralized by cooling effects of anthropogenic aerosols. Different regional climate models project changes in monsoon

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The strength of the water cycle and its changes over time are of considerable interest, especially as the climate changes. The hydrological cycle is a system whereby the evaporation of moisture in one place leads to precipitation (rain or snow) in another place. For example, evaporation always

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Seawater consists of fresh water and salt, and the concentration of salt in seawater is called salinity. Salt does not evaporate, thus the precipitation and evaporation of freshwater influences salinity strongly. Changes in the water cycle are therefore strongly visible in surface salinity

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Cherchi, W. Collins, W.D. Collins, S.L. Connors, S. Corti, F. Cruz, F.J. Dentener, C. Dereczynski, A. Di Luca, A. Diongue Niang, F.J. Doblas-Reyes, A. Dosio, H. Douville, F. Engelbrecht, V. Eyring, E. Fischer, P. Forster, B. Fox-Kemper, J.S. Fuglestvedt, J.C. Fyfe, et al., 2021:

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Bindoff, N.L.; W.W.L. Cheung; J.G. Kairo; J. Arístegui; V.A. Guinder; R. Hallberg; N. Hilmi; N. Jiao; M.S. Karim; L. Levin; S. O'Donoghue; S.R. Purca Cuicapusa; B. Rinkevich; T. Suga; A. Tagliabue; P. Williamson (2019). "Changing Ocean, Marine Ecosystems, and Dependent Communities.".

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Otosaka, Inès N.; Shepherd, Andrew; Ivins, Erik R.; Schlegel, Nicole-Jeanne; Amory, Charles; van den Broeke, Michiel R.; Horwath, Martin; Joughin, Ian; King, Michalea D.; Krinner, Gerhard; Nowicki, Sophie; Payne, Anthony J.; Rignot, Eric; Scambos, Ted; Simon, Karen M. (2023-04-20).

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as well as both the gradual and rapid ecosystem changes caused by land use. The study found that, between 1982 and 2015, 6% of the world’s drylands underwent desertification driven by unsustainable land use practices compounded by anthropogenic climate change. Despite an average

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are likely to become more severe when they do occur. The interactions between rainfall and flooding are complex. There are some regions in which flooding is expected to become rarer. This depends on several factors. These include changes in rain and snowmelt, but also

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simulate the global circulations and the effects of changes such as an intensifying water cycle. The outcome of multiple studies based on such models support the relationship between surface salinity changes and the amplifying precipitation minus evaporation patterns.

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Between 1994 and 2006, satellite observations showed an 18% increase in the flow of freshwater into the world's oceans, partly from melting ice sheets, especially Greenland and partly from increased precipitation driven by an increase in global ocean evaporation.

3211:. In Masson-Delmotte, V.; Zhai, P.; Pirani, A.; Connors, S.L.; Péan, C.; Berger, S.; Caud, N.; Chen, Y.; Goldfarb, L.; Gomis, M.I.; Huang, M.; Leitzell, K.; Lonnoy, E.; Matthews, J.B.R.; Maycock, T.K.; Waterfield, T.; Yelekçi, O.; Yu, R.; Zhou, B. (eds.). 419:

patterns may be altered by increasing amounts of freshwater released into oceans and, therefore, changing ocean salinity. Thermohaline circulation is responsible for bringing up cold, nutrient-rich water from the depths of the ocean, a process known as

803:. Climate change leaves soils drier in some areas, so they may absorb rainfall more quickly. This leads to less flooding. Dry soils can also become harder. In this case heavy rainfall runs off into rivers and lakes. This increases risks of flooding. 61:(also called hydrologic cycle). This effect has been observed since at least 1980. One example is when heavy rain events become even stronger. The effects of climate change on the water cycle have important negative effects on the availability of 136:

areas on land), the extra heat goes into raising air temperature. Also, the water holding capacity of the atmosphere increases proportionally with temperature increase. For these reasons, the temperature increases dominate in the Arctic (

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Douville, H., K. Raghavan, J. Renwick, R.P. Allan, P.A. Arias, M. Barlow, R. Cerezo-Mota, A. Cherchi, T.Y. Gan, J. Gergis, D. Jiang, A. Khan, W. Pokam Mba, D. Rosenfeld, J. Tierney, and O. Zolina, 2021:

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that are tied to water, affect people's water security on a daily basis. They include more frequent and intense heavy precipitation which affects the frequency, size and timing of floods. Also droughts can alter the total amount of

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Douville, H.; Raghavan, K.; Renwick, J.; Allan, R.P.; Arias, P.A.; Barlow, M.; Cerezo-Mota, R.; Cherchi, A.; Gan, T.Y.; Gergis, J.; Jiang, D.; Khan, A.; Pokam Mba, W.; Rosenfeld, D.; Tierney, J.; Zolina, O. (2021).

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Hegerl, Gabriele C.; Black, Emily; Allan, Richard P.; Ingram, William J.; Polson, Debbie; Trenberth, Kevin E.; Chadwick, Robin S.; Arkin, Phillip A.; Sarojini, Beena Balan; Becker, Andreas; Dai, Aiguo (2015-07-01).

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issues made worse by effects of climate change on the water cycle. Direct redistribution of water by human activities amounting to ~24,000 km per year is about double the global groundwater recharge each year.

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Several inherent characteristics have the potential to cause sudden (abrupt) changes in the water cycle. However, the likelihood that such changes will occur during the 21st century is currently regarded as low.

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the world. These include Central America, the Amazon and south-western South America. They also include West and Southern Africa. The Mediterranean and south-western Australia are also some of these regions.

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The yearly average distribution of precipitation minus evaporation. The image shows how the region around the equator is dominated by precipitation, and the subtropics are mainly dominated by evaporation.

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Vahid, Alavian; Qaddumi, Halla Maher; Dickson, Eric; Diez, Sylvia Michele; Danilenko, Alexander V.; Hirji, Rafik Fatehali; Puz, Gabrielle; Pizarro, Carolina; Jacobsen, Michael (November 1, 2009).

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and surface stations. The IPCC AR5 concludes that tropospheric water vapor has increased by 3.5% over the last 40 years, which is consistent with the observed temperature increase of 0.5 °C.

225:, which states that saturation pressure will increase by 7% when temperature rises by 1 °C. This is visible in measurements of the tropospheric water vapor, which are provided by satellites, 1600:

Roxy, M. K.; Dasgupta, Panini; McPhaden, Michael J.; Suematsu, Tamaki; Zhang, Chidong; Kim, Daehyun (November 2019). "Twofold expansion of the Indo-Pacific warm pool warps the MJO life cycle".

1167: 825:. There is an observed declined in groundwater storage in many parts of the world. This is due to more groundwater being used for irrigation activities in agriculture, particularly in 668:

in mountainous areas will also take place. Higher temperatures will also affect water quality in ways that scientists do not fully understand. Possible impacts include increased

507:). Evaporation on the other hand, has no long time accurate observation records at all. This prohibits confident conclusions about changes since the industrial revolution. The 3260:. In Pörtner, H.-O.; Roberts, D.C.; Tignor, M.; Poloczanska, E.S.; Mintenbeck, K.; Alegría, A.; Craig, M.; Langsdorf, S.; Löschke, S.; Möller, V.; Okem, A.; Rama, B. (eds.). 3253:

Caretta, M.A.; Mukherji, A.; Arfanuzzaman, M.; Betts, R.A.; Gelfan, A.; Hirabayashi, Y.; Lissner, T.K.; Liu, J.; Lopez Gunn, E.; Morgan, R.; Mwanga, S.; Supratid, S. (2022).

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Climate Change 2022: Impacts, Adaptation and Vulnerability. Contribution of Working Group II to the Sixth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change

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Climate Change 2022: Impacts, Adaptation and Vulnerability. Contribution of Working Group II to the Sixth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change

2071: 300:) has increased since at least the 1980s. It is expected that over the course of the 21st century, the annual global precipitation over land will increase due to a higher 660:

may become more frequent and more severe in different regions at different times. There will be generally less snowfall and more rainfall in a warmer climate. Changes in

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Caretta, M.A., A. Mukherji, M. Arfanuzzaman, R.A. Betts, A. Gelfan, Y. Hirabayashi, T.K. Lissner, J. Liu, E. Lopez Gunn, R. Morgan, S. Mwanga, and S. Supratid, 2022:

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Climate Change 2021: The Physical Science Basis. Contribution of Working Group I to the Sixth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change

773:, anthropogenic climate change has degraded 12.6% (5.43 million km) of drylands, contributing to desertification and affecting 213 million people, 93% of who live in 4753: 1792: 93:

is expected to be accompanied by changes in the water cycle for various reasons. For example, a warmer atmosphere can contain more water vapor which has effects on

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Predicted changes in average soil moisture for a scenario of 2°C global warming. This can disrupt agriculture and ecosystems. A reduction in soil moisture by one

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The report also found that: Precipitation over land has increased since 1950, and the rate of increase has become faster since the 1980s and in higher latitudes.

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not linear. There may be "rapid transitions between wet and dry states" as a result of non-linear interactions between the ocean, atmosphere, and land surface.

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Climate Change 2021: The Physical Science Basis. Contribution of Working Group I to the Sixth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change

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Climate Change 2021: The Physical Science Basis. Contribution of Working Group I to the Sixth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change

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Climate Change 2013: The Physical Science Basis. Contribution of Working Group I to the Fifth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change

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Climate Change 2021: The Physical Science Basis. Contribution of Working Group I to the Sixth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change

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Climate Change 2013: The Physical Science Basis. Contribution of Working Group I to the Fifth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change

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Climate Change 2021: The Physical Science Basis. Contribution of Working Group I to the Sixth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change

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through the evaporative cooling at the surface which provides latent heat to the atmosphere, as atmospheric systems play a primary role in moving heat upward.

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and are under threat of desertification. An observation-based attribution study of desertification was carried out in 2020 which accounted for climate change,

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4.5 and 8.5. Most of the expansion will be seen over regions such as "southwest North America, the northern fringe of Africa, southern Africa, and Australia".

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Climate Change 2021 – The Physical Science Basis: Working Group I Contribution to the Sixth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change

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Cheng, Lijing; Trenberth, Kevin E.; Gruber, Nicolas; Abraham, John P.; Fasullo, John T.; Li, Guancheng; Mann, Michael E.; Zhao, Xuanming; Zhu, Jiang (2020).

18: 1408:

Trenberth, Kevin E.; Zhang, Yongxin; Gehne, Maria (2017). "Intermittency in Precipitation: Duration, Frequency, Intensity, and Amounts Using Hourly Data".

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Drylands cover 41% of the earth’s land surface and include 45% of the world’s agricultural land. These regions are among the most vulnerable ecosystems to

128:. The runoff from the land flows into streams and rivers and discharges into the ocean, which completes the global cycle. The water cycle is a key part of 4030: 3846: 4025: 124:

exceeds precipitation over the oceans. This allows moisture to be transported by the atmosphere from the oceans onto land where precipitation exceeds

3893: 770: 2097: 3873: 3820: 3000: 2264: 2491:

Kendon, Elizabeth J.; Stratton, Rachel A.; Tucker, Simon; Marsham, John H.; Berthou, Ségolène; Rowell, David P.; Senior, Catherine A. (2019).

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Kendon, Elizabeth J.; Stratton, Rachel A.; Tucker, Simon; Marsham, John H.; Berthou, Ségolène; Rowell, David P.; Senior, Catherine A. (2019).

3529: 3646: 361: 2180:"Satellite-based global-ocean mass balance estimates of interannual variability and emerging trends in continental freshwater discharge" 368:

could also result in abrupt changes in the water cycle.There could also be abrupt water cycle responses to changes in the land surface:

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groundwater recharge in many environments. But more intense drought periods could result in soil drying-out and compaction which would

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creates an overview of the available literature on a topic, and labels the topic then on scientific understanding. They assign only

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The impacts of climate change on groundwater may be greatest through its indirect effects on irrigation water demand via increased

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Several impacts make their impacts worse. These are increased water demand, population growth and urban expansion in many areas.

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could have different impacts on groundwater storage: The expected more intense (but fewer) major rainfall events could lead to

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To further investigate the relation between ocean salinity and the water cycle, models play a large role in current research.

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The human-caused changes to the water cycle will increase hydrologic variability and therefore have a profound impact on the

315:, water cycle variability and accompanying extremes are anticipated to rise more quickly than the changes of average values. 2776: 615:

Global climate change will probably make it more complex and expensive to ensure water security. It creates new threats and

4811: 3757: 3752: 924:. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, United Kingdom and New York, NY, US, pp. 1055–1210, doi:10.1017/9781009157896.010. 743: 311:

patterns. This will affect the regions and frequency for these extremes to occur. In most parts of the world and under all

1800: 4292: 4070: 3888: 3810: 3800: 3783: 3690: 3497: 869: 402: 3815: 2548: 1128:. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, United Kingdom and New York, NY, US, pp. 33−144. doi:10.1017/9781009157896.002. 4903: 4721: 4582: 4539: 4035: 3073: 523:

confidence after 1951, because of the scarcity of data. These changes are attributed to human influence, but only with

331:

means that average soil moisture will approximately match the ninth driest year between 1850 and 1900 at that location.

901:. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, United Kingdom and New York, NY, US, pp. 3−32, doi:10.1017/9781009157896.001. 4648: 4524: 4341: 3534: 640:

could have a big impact on water resources around the world because of the close connections between the climate and

2572: 4881: 4519: 4499: 4446: 4398: 3450: 3296: 3254: 2646: 4638: 4589: 4015: 3977: 3922: 3382: 3205: 2976: 917: 222: 2013:

Zika, Jan D; Skliris, Nikolaos; Blaker, Adam T; Marsh, Robert; Nurser, A J George; Josey, Simon A (2018-07-01).

364:(AMOC), if it did occur, could have large regional impacts on the water cycle. The initiation or termination of 4706: 3990: 3737: 1494:

Ficklin, Darren L.; Null, Sarah E.; Abatzoglou, John T.; Novick, Kimberly A.; Myers, Daniel T. (9 March 2022).

757: 613:. Reduction in water quality due to extreme events can also occur. Faster melting of glaciers can also occur. 2653:. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK and New York, NY, USA, pp. 551–712, doi:10.1017/9781009325844.006. 1283: 690: 4816: 4351: 3883: 2155: 440:

The advantage of using surface salinity is that it is well documented in the last 50 years, for example with

345: 266: 2797: 1371: 788: 285:

in 2021 predicted that these changes will continue to grow significantly at the global and regional level.

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A warming climate makes extremely wet and very dry occurrences more severe. There can also be changes in

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in the atmosphere increases by 7% when temperature rises by 1 °C. This relationship is known as the

2093: 4869: 4633: 4436: 4393: 4166: 4088: 3942: 1543:

Weller, Evan; Min, Seung-Ki; Cai, Wenju; Zwiers, Francis W.; Kim, Yeon-Hee; Lee, Donghyun (July 2016).

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Länderkundliche Forschung : Festschrift zur Vollendung des sechzigsten Lebensjahres Norbert Krebs

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Länderkundliche Forschung : Festschrift zur Vollendung des sechzigsten Lebensjahres Norbert Krebs

4738: 4413: 4388: 4361: 4323: 4240: 4058: 3905: 3858: 3608: 3377: 3372: 3367: 848: 679:

will make water stress and insecurity worse, at the global level and in sectors that depend on water.

616: 554: 456: 407: 113: 4253: 4748: 4743: 4733: 4674: 4514: 4020: 3985: 3868: 3795: 3636: 3465: 3401: 3362: 761: 710: 416: 312: 172: 129: 4908: 4857: 4779: 4689: 4431: 4403: 4083: 3732: 3710: 3317: 3179:

The United Nations World Water Development Report 2022: Groundwater: Making the invisible visible

2878:"Water and Climate Change: Understanding the Risks and Making Climate-Smart Investment Decisions" 2823:"Water and Climate Change: Understanding the Risks and Making Climate-Smart Investment Decisions" 1168:"Water and climate change: understanding the risks and making climate-smart investment decisions" 572: 308: 3109:"Anthropogenic climate change has driven over 5 million km2 of drylands towards desertification" 734: 4456: 4276: 4218: 4135: 4120: 4005: 3641: 3587: 3582: 3577: 3572: 3567: 3562: 3060: 340: 2908: 2360:"Estimates of the Global Water Budget and Its Annual Cycle Using Observational and Model Data" 1187:"Estimates of the Global Water Budget and Its Annual Cycle Using Observational and Model Data" 630: 589: 495:

Essential processes of the water cycle are precipitation and evaporation. The local amount of

4845: 4491: 4368: 4176: 3626: 3549: 2983:. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, United Kingdom and New York, NY, US, pp. 1055–1210, 2749: 2015:"Improved estimates of water cycle change from ocean salinity: the key role of ocean warming" 2493:"Enhanced future changes in wet and dry extremes over Africa at convection-permitting scale" 2424:"Enhanced future changes in wet and dry extremes over Africa at convection-permitting scale" 1964:

Williams, Paul D.; Guilyardi, Eric; Sutton, Rowan; Gregory, Jonathan; Madec, Gurvan (2007).

1909:"Fifty-Year Trends in Global Ocean Salinities and Their Relationship to Broad-Scale Warming" 4684: 4562: 4223: 3788: 3715: 3034: 2920: 2610: 2504: 2435: 2371: 2276: 2191: 2132: 2026: 1977: 1920: 1706: 1609: 1556: 1507: 1460: 1417: 1320: 1308: 1246: 1198: 1010: 966: 610: 528:

precipitation whereby more regions are projected with increases than those with decreases.

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Trenberth, Kevin E.; Smith, Lesley; Qian, Taotao; Dai, Aiguo; Fasullo, John (2007-08-01).

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Trenberth, Kevin E.; Smith, Lesley; Qian, Taotao; Dai, Aiguo; Fasullo, John (2007-08-01).

1035: 999:"Atmospheric Moisture Transports from Ocean to Land and Global Energy Flows in Reanalyses" 348:(MJO), which is the most dominant mode of weather fluctuation originating in the tropics. 8: 4701: 4476: 3700: 3695: 445: 344:

of the warm pool has altered global rainfall patterns, by changing the life cycle of the

176: 137: 3038: 2924: 2614: 2508: 2439: 2375: 2280: 2195: 2136: 2030: 1981: 1924: 1710: 1613: 1560: 1511: 1496:"Hydrological Intensification Will Increase the Complexity of Water Resource Management" 1464: 1421: 1324: 1259: 1250: 1234: 1202: 1014: 970: 814: 4913: 4529: 4461: 4378: 4228: 4193: 4150: 4145: 4140: 3705: 3143: 3108: 2944: 2599:"Drought and groundwater management: Interconnections, challenges, and policyresponses" 2525: 2492: 2456: 2423: 2389: 2304: 2214: 2179: 2044: 1995: 1759: 1641: 1577: 1544: 1525: 1433: 1352: 1309:"Ocean Salinities Reveal Strong Global Water Cycle Intensification During 1950 to 2000" 1216: 1077: 822: 774: 641: 328: 262: 125: 4763: 4426: 4171: 3937: 3720: 3683: 3470: 3424: 3275: 3226: 3178: 3148: 3130: 2936: 2780: 2753: 2719: 2628: 2597:

Petersen-Perlman, Jacob D.; Aguilar-Barajas, Ismael; Megdal, Sharon B. (2022-08-01).

2530: 2461: 2308: 2219: 2178:

Syed, T. H.; Famiglietti, J. S.; Chambers, D. P.; Willis, J. K.; Hilburn, K. (2010).

2160: 2120: 2048: 1887: 1864: 1664: 1645: 1633: 1625: 1582: 1529: 1476: 1385: 1356: 1344: 1336: 1264: 1081: 1067: 874: 648:

and lead to increases in precipitation. However there will be regional variations in

431: 109: 86: 81:. The water cycle is essential to life on Earth and plays a large role in the global 2948: 2393: 1999: 1437: 1220: 221:

This relation between temperature and saturation vapor pressure is described in the

214:

in the atmosphere leads to extra heating of the lower atmosphere, also known as the

4806: 4373: 4356: 4297: 4188: 3952: 3666: 3539: 3475: 3267: 3218: 3138: 3120: 3042: 2984: 2928: 2855: 2745: 2709: 2701: 2618: 2520: 2512: 2451: 2443: 2379: 2338: 2294: 2284: 2209: 2199: 2150: 2140: 2034: 1985: 1928: 1854: 1714: 1617: 1572: 1564: 1515: 1468: 1425: 1377: 1328: 1254: 1206: 1059: 1018: 974: 716: 323: 188: 3046: 1695:"Improved Estimates of Changes in Upper Ocean Salinity and the Hydrological Cycle" 436:

areas, and the lower salinity regions match the by precipitation dominated areas.

4758: 4679: 4643: 4572: 4546: 4534: 4451: 4383: 4258: 4115: 3727: 3678: 3656: 753: 564: 257: 204: 192: 22: 2623: 2598: 1951:

IPCC Special Report on the Ocean and Cryosphere in a Changing Climate . In press

1947: 104:

The underlying cause of the intensifying water cycle is the increased amount of

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Trenberth, Kevin E.; Zhang, Yongxin (2018). "How Often Does It Really Rain?".

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Regional weather patterns across the globe are also changing due to tropical

245: 241: 98: 78: 2343: 2326: 2204: 1429: 1332: 709:

Higher temperatures increase evaporation. This dries the soil and increases

4669: 4466: 4110: 4100: 3747: 3631: 3544: 3152: 2970: 2968: 2966: 2964: 2962: 2960: 2958: 2534: 2465: 2223: 1933: 1908: 1637: 1586: 1568: 1348: 1023: 998: 720: 568: 531: 3001:"Scientists confirm global floods and droughts worsened by climate change" 2907:

Cook, Benjamin I.; Mankin, Justin S.; Anchukaitis, Kevin J. (2018-05-12).

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convection and convergence and soil moisture-convection feedbacks in the

500: 297: 289: 278: 215: 168: 94: 62: 58: 34: 2955: 2705: 4728: 4105: 3059:

Daniel Tsegai, Miriam Medel, Patrick Augenstein, Zhuojing Huang (2022)

2714: 2299: 2239:"Oberflächensalzgehalt, Verdunstung und Niederschlag auf dem Weltmeere" 1736:"Oberflächensalzgehalt, Verdunstung und Niederschlag auf dem Weltmeere" 602: 479:

satellite Aquarius, launched in June 2011, measured global sea surface

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Brown, Oliver L. I. (August 1951). "The Clausius-Clapeyron equation".

921: 898: 3673: 3053: 2596: 2384: 2359: 1211: 1186: 665: 459:(GCMs) and more recently Atmosphere-Ocean General Circulation Models 421: 70: 30: 2238: 1735: 3025:

Mishra, A. K.; Singh, V. P. (2011). "Drought modeling – A review".

1843:"The role of Arctic Ocean freshwater during the past 200,000 years" 826: 661: 653: 649: 490: 480: 41:. These events will become more and more common as the Earth warms. 3061:

Drought in Numbers 2022 - restoration for readiness and resilience

1822:"Why it is so cold in the polar regions « World Ocean Review" 3651: 3309: 3198: 3196: 698: 504: 441: 200: 180: 108:

in the atmosphere, which lead to a warmer atmosphere through the

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Trenberth, Kevin E.; Fasullo, John T.; Mackaro, Jessica (2011).

4664: 1307:

Durack, P. J.; Wijffels, S. E.; Matear, R. J. (27 April 2012).

795: 719:

can help reduce the impact of droughts. One example of this is

657: 563:

and investment decisions. They will affect water availability (

373: 3193: 1966:"A new feedback on climate change from the hydrological cycle" 1963: 244:

do not simulate the water cycle very well. One reason is that

4578:

Cooperative Mechanisms under Article 6 of the Paris Agreement

3661: 3239: 3187:

Text was copied from this source, which is available under a

3183: 3162:

Text was copied from this source, which is available under a

3158: 3063:, United Nations Convention to Combat Desertification (UNCCD) 2735: 2733: 2265:"Challenges in Quantifying Changes in the Global Water Cycle" 2237:

Wüst, Georg (1936), Louis, Herbert; Panzer, Wolfgang (eds.),

2177: 1734:

Wüst, Georg (1936), Louis, Herbert; Panzer, Wolfgang (eds.),

1034:

Text was copied from this source, which is available under a

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measurements, which has already been known since the 1930s.

3074:"Explainer: Desertification and the role of climate change" 2771: 2769: 2639: 2490: 2421: 1692: 1493: 579:

and water allocation at regional, basin, and local levels.

381: 3102: 3100: 3098: 2730: 2665:"Glaciers May Melt Even Faster Than Expected, Study Finds" 2573:"Flooding and Climate Change: Everything You Need to Know" 701:. These include how much rain falls and how fast the rain 4754:

Illustrative model of greenhouse effect on climate change

2815: 2690:"Sink or Swim? Water security for growth and development" 2476: This article incorporates text available under the 675: 2766: 2681: 1370:

Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (2023-07-06).

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Convection-permitting models to predict weather extremes

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Spielhagen, Robert F.; Bauch, Henning A. (2015-11-24).

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Predicted changes in precipitation event intensity and

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confidence to precipitation changes before 1951, and

65:

resources, as well as other water reservoirs such as

3168: 3106: 1306: 829:. Some of this increase in irrigation can be due to 697:

Climate change affects many factors associated with

3066: 1407: 807: 273:Since the middle of the 20th century, human-caused 3217:. Cambridge University Press. pp. 1055–1210. 2739: 1907:Durack, Paul J.; Wijffels, Susan E. (2010-08-15). 1542: 415:Due to global warming and increased glacier melt, 2909:"Climate Change and Drought: From Past to Future" 2245:, Stuttgart, Germany: Engelhorn, pp. 347–359 2156:20.500.11820/f8253ecc-6fae-47ed-a142-e6fef2940af1 1742:, Stuttgart, Germany: Engelhorn, pp. 347–359 1284:"Climate Change 2007: The Physical Science Basis" 236: 4895: 4795:Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) 3266:. Cambridge University Press. pp. 551–712. 491:Salinity evidence for changes in the water cycle 171:. These include first and foremost an increased 2269:Bulletin of the American Meteorological Society 2184:Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 1840: 1545:"Human-caused Indo-Pacific warm pool expansion" 1453:Bulletin of the American Meteorological Society 1239:Bulletin of the American Meteorological Society 388:the 21st century is currently regarded as low. 252: 2688:Grey, David; Sadoff, Claudia W. (2007-12-01). 1906: 1450: 1170:. Washington, DC: World Bank. pp. 1–174. 351: 277:has included observable changes in the global 112:. Fundamental laws of physics explain how the 3530:History of climate change policy and politics 3325: 3297:"Climate-Change Adaptation & Groundwater" 1282:Alley, Richard; et al. (February 2007). 794:Due to an increase in heavy rainfall events, 396: 47:effects of climate change on the water cycle 3647:Atlantic meridional overturning circulation 3024: 2327:"Ocean Salinity and the Global Water Cycle" 1661:Global Warming: The Causes and Consequences 1487: 384:are all processes which could contribute. 362:Atlantic meridional overturning circulation 49:are profound and have been described as an 4876: 4864: 4321: 3332: 3318: 2687: 1376:(1 ed.). Cambridge University Press. 1300: 1058:(1 ed.). Cambridge University Press. 4616: 4422:Adaptation strategies on the German coast 3555:United Nations Climate Change conferences 3142: 3124: 2713: 2622: 2524: 2455: 2383: 2342: 2298: 2288: 2213: 2203: 2154: 2144: 2038: 1989: 1932: 1858: 1718: 1576: 1519: 1258: 1210: 1053: 1022: 4126:Co-benefits of climate change mitigation 430: 406: 322: 256: 163:leads to more energy cycling within its 151: 17: 4482:National Adaptation Programme of Action 4271:Land use, land-use change, and forestry 2055: 4896: 4131:Economics of climate change mitigation 4094:Gold Standard (carbon offset standard) 3607: 3435:Scientific consensus on climate change 2884:. 2009. pp. 21–24. 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Rising temperatures will increase 536:The representation of convection in 392:Measurement and modelling techniques 319:Changes to regional weather patterns 4583:Nationally determined contributions 4293:Individual action on climate change 3498:World energy supply and consumption 3294: 2484: 2315: 2094:"NASA's Aquarius Sees Salty Shifts" 1875: 1776: 1760:"NOAA Physical Sciences Laboratory" 1677: 1275: 1260:10.1175/2020BAMSStateoftheClimate.1 870:Effects of climate change on oceans 549:Impacts on water management aspects 403:Effects of climate change on oceans 33:) is one consequence of a changing 13: 4722:Fixed anvil temperature hypothesis 3339: 2825:. World Bank. 2009. 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Cambridge University Press. 631:Water scarcity § Climate change 590:Water security § Climate change 360:For example, a collapse of the 4707:Climate variability and change 4057: 3738:Retreat of glaciers since 1850 2977:Chapter 8: Water Cycle Changes 2913:Current Climate Change Reports 2019:Environmental Research Letters 1235:"State of the Climate in 2019" 1131: 887: 380:, amplification of drought by 237:Intermittency in precipitation 1: 4817:Shared Socioeconomic Pathways 4352:Climate emergency declaration 3047:10.1016/j.jhydrol.2011.03.049 1793:"Marine pollution, explained" 959:Journal of Chemical Education 880: 4800:IPCC Sixth Assessment Report 4026:Middle East and North Africa 3352: 3302:. Strategic Overview Series. 2848:"Hot issues: Water scarcity" 1970:Geophysical Research Letters 1799:. 2019-08-02. Archived from 1054:Trenberth, Kevin E. (2022). 859:infiltration to groundwater. 815:Groundwater § Climate change 372:and drying, greening of the 366:solar radiation modification 283:IPCC Sixth Assessment Report 253:Observations and predictions 7: 3874:Depopulation of settlements 3519: 2787:, United Nations University 2624:10.1016/j.coesh.2022.100364 2364:Journal of Hydrometeorology 2325:Durack, Paul (2015-03-01). 1410:Journal of Hydrometeorology 1191:Journal of Hydrometeorology 863: 683: 352:Potential for abrupt change 223:Clausius–Clapeyron equation 147: 118:Clausius-Clapeyron equation 10: 4930: 4634:Global surface temperature 4525:Popular culture depictions 4437:Ecosystem-based adaptation 4167:Carbon capture and storage 4089:Carbon offsets and credits 3400: 3126:10.1038/s41467-020-17710-7 2517:10.1038/s41467-019-09776-9 2448:10.1038/s41467-019-09776-9 1245:(8): S1–S429. 2020-08-12. 812: 786: 732: 688: 628: 609:storage, and reduction in 587: 552: 457:General Circulation Models 400: 302:global surface temperature 4904:Effects of climate change 4846:Climate change portal 4833: 4772: 4739:Extreme event attribution 4657: 4626: 4622: 4611: 4555: 4490: 4412: 4362:School Strike for Climate 4334: 4330: 4316: 4285: 4241:Climate-smart agriculture 4202: 4159: 4069: 4065: 4052: 3976: 3829: 3776: 3619: 3615: 3602: 3525: 3514: 3443: 3412: 3408: 3395: 3378:Climate change adaptation 3373:Climate change mitigation 3368:Effects of climate change 3358: 3347: 3272:10.1017/9781009325844.006 3223:10.1017/9781009157896.010 2989:10.1017/9781009157896.010 2933:10.1007/s40641-018-0093-2 2290:10.1175/BAMS-D-13-00212.1 2146:10.5194/essd-15-1597-2023 2125:Earth System Science Data 1860:10.1007/s41063-015-0013-9 1622:10.1038/s41586-019-1764-4 1382:10.1017/9781009157896.013 849:Effects of climate change 781: 555:Effects of climate change 397:Changes in ocean salinity 346:Madden Julian Oscillation 210:The increasing amount of 114:saturation vapor pressure 4749:Global warming potential 4556:International agreements 4203:Preserving and enhancing 3637:Arctic methane emissions 3559:Years in climate change 3466:Greenhouse gas emissions 3363:Causes of climate change 2040:10.1088/1748-9326/aace42 1886:. Paris: CNRS ÉDITIONS. 1720:10.1175/jcli-d-20-0366.1 1473:10.1175/BAMS-D-17-0107.1 895:Summary for Policymakers 417:thermohaline circulation 313:climate change scenarios 4780:Climate change scenario 4432:Disaster risk reduction 4084:Carbon emission trading 3894:U.S. insurance industry 3864:Civilizational collapse 3711:sea surface temperature 3206:"8 Water Cycle Changes" 2344:10.5670/oceanog.2015.03 2205:10.1073/pnas.1003292107 1659:Haldar, Ishita (2018). 1430:10.1175/JHM-D-16-0263.1 1333:10.1126/science.1212222 605:and cause a decline in 444:measurement systems as 309:atmospheric circulation 4773:Research and modelling 4457:Nature-based solutions 4277:Nature-based solutions 4219:Carbon dioxide removal 4136:Fossil fuel divestment 4121:Climate risk insurance 4031:Small island countries 3642:Arctic sea ice decline 3177:United Nations (2022) 1934:10.1175/2010JCLI3377.1 1882:Euzen, Agathe (2017). 1569:10.1126/sciadv.1501719 1024:10.1175/2011JCLI4171.1 437: 412: 341:Indo-Pacific warm pool 332: 270: 157: 42: 4734:Earth's energy budget 4617:Background and theory 4505:Climate crisis (term) 4177:Fossil fuel phase-out 4071:Economics and finance 4036:by individual country 3978:By country and region 3953:Security and conflict 3948:Psychological impacts 3627:Abrupt climate change 3550:Charles David Keeling 3383:By country and region 3113:Nature Communications 2497:Nature Communications 2428:Nature Communications 1064:10.1017/9781108979030 750:anthropogenic climate 617:adaptation challenges 434: 410: 326: 260: 155: 91:warming of our planet 21: 4563:Glasgow Climate Pact 4224:Carbon sequestration 3789:Mass mortality event 3027:Journal of Hydrology 1991:10.1029/2007GL029275 1521:10.1029/2021EF002487 1506:(3): e2021EF002487. 1296:on February 3, 2007. 775:developing economies 674:The United Nations' 611:groundwater recharge 370:Amazon deforestation 173:water vapor pressure 161:Heating of the Earth 130:Earth's energy cycle 4702:Climate sensitivity 4477:The Adaptation Fund 3933:Infectious diseases 3830:Social and economic 3039:2011JHyd..403..157M 2925:2018CCCR....4..164C 2706:10.2166/wp.2007.021 2669:Scientific American 2615:2022COESH..2800364P 2553:The Weather Channel 2509:2019NatCo..10.1794K 2440:2019NatCo..10.1794K 2376:2007JHyMe...8..758T 2281:2015BAMS...96.1097H 2196:2010PNAS..10717916S 2190:(42): 17916–17921. 2137:2023ESSD...15.1597O 2031:2018ERL....13g4036Z 1982:2007GeoRL..34.8706W 1925:2010JCli...23.4342D 1797:National Geographic 1711:2020JCli...3310357C 1705:(23): 10357–10381. 1614:2019Natur.575..647R 1561:2016SciA....2E1719W 1512:2022EaFut..1002487F 1465:2018BAMS...99..289T 1422:2017JHyMe..18.1393T 1325:2012Sci...336..455D 1251:2020BAMS..101S...1. 1203:2007JHyMe...8..758T 1015:2011JCli...24.4907T 971:1951JChEd..28..428B 918:Water Cycle Changes 758:climate variability 296:(in particular the 138:polar amplification 4273:(LULUCF and AFOLU) 4245:Forest management 4229:Direct air capture 4194:Sustainable energy 4151:Net zero emissions 4146:Low-carbon economy 4141:Green Climate Fund 3928:Indigenous peoples 3821:Plant biodiversity 3609:Effects and issues 2858:on 25 October 2012 2068:The New York Times 1913:Journal of Climate 1884:The ocean revealed 1699:Journal of Climate 1003:Journal of Climate 823:evapotranspiration 642:hydrological cycle 438: 413: 333: 329:standard deviation 271: 263:evapotranspiration 158: 126:evapotranspiration 43: 4891: 4890: 4829: 4828: 4825: 4824: 4764:Radiative forcing 4607: 4606: 4603: 4602: 4427:Adaptive capacity 4312: 4311: 4308: 4307: 4172:Energy transition 4048: 4047: 4044: 4043: 3758:Tropical cyclones 3684:Urban heat island 3598: 3597: 3510: 3509: 3506: 3505: 3471:Carbon accounting 3425:Greenhouse effect 3391: 3390: 3281:978-1-009-32584-4 3232:978-1-009-15789-6 2785:978-92-808-6038-2 2759:978-0-19-938941-4 2663:Harvey, Chelsea. 1919:(16): 4342–4362. 1893:978-2-271-11907-0 1670:978-81-935345-7-1 1608:(7784): 647–651. 1391:978-1-009-15789-6 1319:(6080): 455–458. 1122:Technical Summary 1073:978-1-108-97903-0 1009:(18): 4907–4924. 979:10.1021/ed028p428 875:Ocean temperature 189:tropical cyclones 110:greenhouse effect 87:ocean circulation 4921: 4879: 4878: 4867: 4866: 4855: 4854: 4844: 4843: 4842: 4807:Paleoclimatology 4624: 4623: 4613: 4612: 4374:Ecological grief 4357:Climate movement 4332: 4331: 4318: 4317: 4298:Plant-based diet 4189:Renewable energy 4067: 4066: 4054: 4053: 3889:Economic impacts 3811:Invasive species 3667:Coastal flooding 3617: 3616: 3604: 3603: 3540:Svante Arrhenius 3516: 3515: 3486:from agriculture 3476:Carbon footprint 3461:Greenhouse gases 3410: 3409: 3397: 3396: 3349: 3348: 3334: 3327: 3320: 3311: 3310: 3304: 3303: 3301: 3292: 3286: 3285: 3259: 3250: 3237: 3236: 3210: 3200: 3191: 3186: 3181:. 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Archived from 2844: 2838: 2837: 2835: 2834: 2819: 2813: 2812: 2810: 2809: 2794: 2788: 2775:UN-Water (2013) 2773: 2764: 2763: 2737: 2728: 2727: 2717: 2685: 2679: 2678: 2676: 2675: 2660: 2654: 2647:Chapter 4: Water 2643: 2637: 2636: 2626: 2594: 2588: 2587: 2585: 2584: 2569: 2563: 2562: 2560: 2559: 2545: 2539: 2538: 2528: 2488: 2482: 2475: 2469: 2459: 2419: 2413: 2412: 2404: 2398: 2397: 2387: 2385:10.1175/jhm600.1 2355: 2349: 2348: 2346: 2322: 2313: 2312: 2302: 2292: 2275:(7): 1097–1115. 2259: 2253: 2252: 2251: 2250: 2234: 2228: 2227: 2217: 2207: 2175: 2169: 2168: 2158: 2148: 2131:(4): 1597–1616. 2115: 2109: 2108: 2106: 2105: 2089: 2083: 2082: 2080: 2079: 2059: 2053: 2052: 2042: 2010: 2004: 2003: 1993: 1961: 1955: 1954: 1945: 1939: 1938: 1936: 1904: 1898: 1897: 1879: 1873: 1872: 1862: 1838: 1832: 1831: 1829: 1828: 1818: 1812: 1811: 1809: 1808: 1803:on June 28, 2017 1789: 1774: 1773: 1771: 1770: 1764:www.psl.noaa.gov 1756: 1750: 1749: 1748: 1747: 1731: 1725: 1724: 1722: 1690: 1675: 1674: 1656: 1650: 1649: 1597: 1591: 1590: 1580: 1549:Science Advances 1540: 1534: 1533: 1523: 1491: 1485: 1484: 1448: 1442: 1441: 1416:(5): 1393–1412. 1405: 1396: 1395: 1367: 1361: 1360: 1304: 1298: 1297: 1295: 1288: 1279: 1273: 1272: 1262: 1231: 1225: 1224: 1214: 1212:10.1175/jhm600.1 1182: 1176: 1175: 1163: 1150: 1149: 1147: 1146: 1135: 1129: 1117: 1086: 1085: 1051: 1038: 1033: 1028: 1026: 994: 983: 982: 954: 945: 944: 936: 925: 913: 902: 891: 717:Land restoration 212:greenhouse gases 106:greenhouse gases 4929: 4928: 4924: 4923: 4922: 4920: 4919: 4918: 4894: 4893: 4892: 4887: 4840: 4838: 4821: 4768: 4759:Orbital forcing 4653: 4618: 4599: 4573:Paris Agreement 4551: 4547:Warming stripes 4486: 4452:Managed retreat 4447:Loss and damage 4408: 4342:Business action 4326: 4304: 4281: 4204: 4198: 4155: 4116:Climate finance 4061: 4040: 3972: 3825: 3801:Extinction risk 3777:Flora and fauna 3772: 3733:Permafrost thaw 3728:Ozone depletion 3657:Extreme weather 3611: 3594: 3521: 3502: 3439: 3404: 3387: 3354: 3343: 3338: 3308: 3307: 3299: 3293: 3289: 3282: 3257: 3251: 3240: 3233: 3208: 3201: 3194: 3176: 3169: 3105: 3096: 3087: 3085: 3072: 3071: 3067: 3058: 3054: 3023: 3019: 3010: 3008: 2999: 2998: 2994: 2973: 2956: 2905: 2901: 2891: 2889: 2888:on 7 April 2012 2876: 2875: 2871: 2861: 2859: 2846: 2845: 2841: 2832: 2830: 2829:on 7 April 2012 2821: 2820: 2816: 2807: 2805: 2796: 2795: 2791: 2774: 2767: 2760: 2738: 2731: 2686: 2682: 2673: 2671: 2661: 2657: 2644: 2640: 2595: 2591: 2582: 2580: 2571: 2570: 2566: 2557: 2555: 2547: 2546: 2542: 2489: 2485: 2420: 2416: 2405: 2401: 2356: 2352: 2323: 2316: 2260: 2256: 2248: 2246: 2235: 2231: 2176: 2172: 2116: 2112: 2103: 2101: 2090: 2086: 2077: 2075: 2060: 2056: 2011: 2007: 1962: 1958: 1946: 1942: 1905: 1901: 1894: 1880: 1876: 1839: 1835: 1826: 1824: 1820: 1819: 1815: 1806: 1804: 1791: 1790: 1777: 1768: 1766: 1758: 1757: 1753: 1745: 1743: 1732: 1728: 1691: 1678: 1671: 1657: 1653: 1598: 1594: 1555:(7): e1501719. 1541: 1537: 1492: 1488: 1449: 1445: 1406: 1399: 1392: 1368: 1364: 1305: 1301: 1293: 1286: 1280: 1276: 1233: 1232: 1228: 1183: 1179: 1164: 1153: 1144: 1142: 1137: 1136: 1132: 1118: 1089: 1074: 1052: 1041: 995: 986: 955: 948: 937: 928: 914: 905: 892: 888: 883: 866: 861: 860: 818: 810: 805: 804: 792: 784: 779: 778: 771:global greening 765: 754:land use change 738: 730: 728:Desertification 725: 724: 694: 686: 681: 680: 634: 626: 621: 620: 593: 585: 565:water resources 557: 551: 534: 493: 475:carried by the 405: 399: 394: 354: 321: 255: 239: 205:extreme weather 193:glacier retreat 156:The water cycle 150: 51:intensification 23:Extreme weather 12: 11: 5: 4927: 4917: 4916: 4911: 4909:Forms of water 4906: 4889: 4888: 4886: 4885: 4873: 4861: 4849: 4834: 4831: 4830: 4827: 4826: 4823: 4822: 4820: 4819: 4814: 4809: 4804: 4803: 4802: 4792: 4787: 4782: 4776: 4774: 4770: 4769: 4767: 4766: 4761: 4756: 4751: 4746: 4741: 4736: 4731: 4726: 4725: 4724: 4714: 4712:Cloud feedback 4709: 4704: 4699: 4694: 4693: 4692: 4687: 4682: 4677: 4667: 4661: 4659: 4655: 4654: 4652: 4651: 4646: 4641: 4636: 4630: 4628: 4620: 4619: 4609: 4608: 4605: 4604: 4601: 4600: 4598: 4597: 4592: 4587: 4586: 4585: 4580: 4570: 4568:Kyoto Protocol 4565: 4559: 4557: 4553: 4552: 4550: 4549: 4544: 4543: 4542: 4537: 4532: 4522: 4520:Media coverage 4517: 4512: 4510:Climate spiral 4507: 4502: 4496: 4494: 4488: 4487: 4485: 4484: 4479: 4474: 4469: 4464: 4459: 4454: 4449: 4444: 4439: 4434: 4429: 4424: 4418: 4416: 4410: 4409: 4407: 4406: 4401: 4399:Public opinion 4396: 4391: 4386: 4381: 4376: 4371: 4366: 4365: 4364: 4354: 4349: 4347:Climate action 4344: 4338: 4336: 4328: 4327: 4314: 4313: 4310: 4309: 4306: 4305: 4303: 4302: 4301: 4300: 4289: 4287: 4283: 4282: 4280: 4279: 4274: 4268: 4267: 4266: 4261: 4259:REDD and REDD+ 4256: 4251: 4243: 4238: 4236:Carbon farming 4233: 4232: 4231: 4226: 4216: 4210: 4208: 4200: 4199: 4197: 4196: 4191: 4186: 4181: 4180: 4179: 4169: 4163: 4161: 4157: 4156: 4154: 4153: 4148: 4143: 4138: 4133: 4128: 4123: 4118: 4113: 4108: 4103: 4098: 4097: 4096: 4086: 4081: 4075: 4073: 4063: 4062: 4050: 4049: 4046: 4045: 4042: 4041: 4039: 4038: 4033: 4028: 4023: 4018: 4013: 4008: 4003: 3998: 3993: 3988: 3982: 3980: 3974: 3973: 3971: 3970: 3968:Water security 3965: 3963:Water scarcity 3960: 3958:Urban flooding 3955: 3950: 3945: 3940: 3935: 3930: 3925: 3920: 3919: 3918: 3908: 3903: 3898: 3897: 3896: 3886: 3881: 3876: 3871: 3866: 3861: 3856: 3851: 3850: 3849: 3844: 3833: 3831: 3827: 3826: 3824: 3823: 3818: 3813: 3808: 3806:Forest dieback 3803: 3798: 3793: 3792: 3791: 3780: 3778: 3774: 3773: 3771: 3770: 3765: 3760: 3755: 3750: 3745: 3743:Sea level rise 3740: 3735: 3730: 3725: 3724: 3723: 3718: 3716:stratification 3713: 3708: 3703: 3698: 3688: 3687: 3686: 3681: 3671: 3670: 3669: 3659: 3654: 3649: 3644: 3639: 3634: 3629: 3623: 3621: 3613: 3612: 3600: 3599: 3596: 3595: 3593: 3592: 3591: 3590: 3585: 3580: 3575: 3570: 3565: 3557: 3552: 3547: 3542: 3537: 3532: 3526: 3523: 3522: 3512: 3511: 3508: 3507: 3504: 3503: 3501: 3500: 3495: 3494: 3493: 3488: 3483: 3481:Carbon leakage 3478: 3473: 3463: 3458: 3453: 3447: 3445: 3441: 3440: 3438: 3437: 3432: 3422: 3420:Climate system 3416: 3414: 3406: 3405: 3393: 3392: 3389: 3388: 3386: 3385: 3380: 3375: 3370: 3365: 3359: 3356: 3355: 3345: 3344: 3341:Climate change 3337: 3336: 3329: 3322: 3314: 3306: 3305: 3287: 3280: 3238: 3231: 3192: 3167: 3094: 3080:. 2019-08-06. 3065: 3052: 3017: 2992: 2954: 2919:(2): 164–179. 2899: 2869: 2839: 2814: 2789: 2765: 2758: 2729: 2700:(6): 545–571. 2680: 2655: 2638: 2589: 2564: 2540: 2483: 2414: 2399: 2370:(4): 758–769. 2350: 2314: 2254: 2229: 2170: 2110: 2084: 2054: 2005: 1956: 1940: 1899: 1892: 1874: 1833: 1813: 1775: 1751: 1726: 1676: 1669: 1651: 1592: 1535: 1500:Earth's Future 1486: 1459:(2): 289–298. 1443: 1397: 1390: 1362: 1299: 1274: 1226: 1197:(4): 758–769. 1177: 1151: 1130: 1087: 1072: 1039: 984: 946: 926: 903: 885: 884: 882: 879: 878: 877: 872: 865: 862: 831:water scarcity 819: 811: 809: 806: 793: 785: 783: 780: 763: 739: 731: 729: 726: 695: 687: 685: 682: 670:eutrophication 638:Climate change 635: 627: 625: 624:Water scarcity 622: 598:climate change 594: 586: 584: 583:Water security 581: 577:water security 550: 547: 538:climate models 533: 530: 492: 489: 398: 395: 393: 390: 353: 350: 320: 317: 275:climate change 254: 251: 242:Climate models 238: 235: 165:climate system 149: 146: 83:climate system 39:global warming 25:(heavy rains, 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 4926: 4915: 4912: 4910: 4907: 4905: 4902: 4901: 4899: 4884: 4883: 4874: 4872: 4871: 4862: 4860: 4859: 4850: 4848: 4847: 4836: 4835: 4832: 4818: 4815: 4813: 4810: 4808: 4805: 4801: 4798: 4797: 4796: 4793: 4791: 4788: 4786: 4785:Climate model 4783: 4781: 4778: 4777: 4775: 4771: 4765: 4762: 4760: 4757: 4755: 4752: 4750: 4747: 4745: 4742: 4740: 4737: 4735: 4732: 4730: 4727: 4723: 4720: 4719: 4718: 4717:Cloud forcing 4715: 4713: 4710: 4708: 4705: 4703: 4700: 4698: 4695: 4691: 4688: 4686: 4683: 4681: 4678: 4676: 4673: 4672: 4671: 4668: 4666: 4663: 4662: 4660: 4656: 4650: 4647: 4645: 4642: 4640: 4637: 4635: 4632: 4631: 4629: 4625: 4621: 4614: 4610: 4596: 4593: 4591: 4588: 4584: 4581: 4579: 4576: 4575: 4574: 4571: 4569: 4566: 4564: 4561: 4560: 4558: 4554: 4548: 4545: 4541: 4538: 4536: 4533: 4531: 4528: 4527: 4526: 4523: 4521: 4518: 4516: 4513: 4511: 4508: 4506: 4503: 4501: 4498: 4497: 4495: 4493: 4492:Communication 4489: 4483: 4480: 4478: 4475: 4473: 4472:Vulnerability 4470: 4468: 4465: 4463: 4460: 4458: 4455: 4453: 4450: 4448: 4445: 4443: 4442:Flood control 4440: 4438: 4435: 4433: 4430: 4428: 4425: 4423: 4420: 4419: 4417: 4415: 4411: 4405: 4402: 4400: 4397: 4395: 4392: 4390: 4387: 4385: 4382: 4380: 4377: 4375: 4372: 4370: 4367: 4363: 4360: 4359: 4358: 4355: 4353: 4350: 4348: 4345: 4343: 4340: 4339: 4337: 4333: 4329: 4325: 4319: 4315: 4299: 4296: 4295: 4294: 4291: 4290: 4288: 4284: 4278: 4275: 4272: 4269: 4265: 4264:reforestation 4262: 4260: 4257: 4255: 4252: 4250: 4249:afforestation 4247: 4246: 4244: 4242: 4239: 4237: 4234: 4230: 4227: 4225: 4222: 4221: 4220: 4217: 4215: 4212: 4211: 4209: 4207: 4201: 4195: 4192: 4190: 4187: 4185: 4184:Nuclear power 4182: 4178: 4175: 4174: 4173: 4170: 4168: 4165: 4164: 4162: 4158: 4152: 4149: 4147: 4144: 4142: 4139: 4137: 4134: 4132: 4129: 4127: 4124: 4122: 4119: 4117: 4114: 4112: 4109: 4107: 4104: 4102: 4099: 4095: 4092: 4091: 4090: 4087: 4085: 4082: 4080: 4079:Carbon budget 4077: 4076: 4074: 4072: 4068: 4064: 4060: 4055: 4051: 4037: 4034: 4032: 4029: 4027: 4024: 4022: 4019: 4017: 4014: 4012: 4009: 4007: 4004: 4002: 3999: 3997: 3994: 3992: 3989: 3987: 3984: 3983: 3981: 3979: 3975: 3969: 3966: 3964: 3961: 3959: 3956: 3954: 3951: 3949: 3946: 3944: 3941: 3939: 3936: 3934: 3931: 3929: 3926: 3924: 3921: 3917: 3916:Mental health 3914: 3913: 3912: 3909: 3907: 3904: 3902: 3899: 3895: 3892: 3891: 3890: 3887: 3885: 3882: 3880: 3877: 3875: 3872: 3870: 3867: 3865: 3862: 3860: 3857: 3855: 3852: 3848: 3847:United States 3845: 3843: 3840: 3839: 3838: 3835: 3834: 3832: 3828: 3822: 3819: 3817: 3814: 3812: 3809: 3807: 3804: 3802: 3799: 3797: 3794: 3790: 3787: 3786: 3785: 3782: 3781: 3779: 3775: 3769: 3766: 3764: 3761: 3759: 3756: 3754: 3751: 3749: 3746: 3744: 3741: 3739: 3736: 3734: 3731: 3729: 3726: 3722: 3719: 3717: 3714: 3712: 3709: 3707: 3704: 3702: 3701:deoxygenation 3699: 3697: 3696:acidification 3694: 3693: 3692: 3689: 3685: 3682: 3680: 3677: 3676: 3675: 3672: 3668: 3665: 3664: 3663: 3660: 3658: 3655: 3653: 3650: 3648: 3645: 3643: 3640: 3638: 3635: 3633: 3630: 3628: 3625: 3624: 3622: 3618: 3614: 3610: 3605: 3601: 3589: 3586: 3584: 3581: 3579: 3576: 3574: 3571: 3569: 3566: 3564: 3561: 3560: 3558: 3556: 3553: 3551: 3548: 3546: 3543: 3541: 3538: 3536: 3533: 3531: 3528: 3527: 3524: 3517: 3513: 3499: 3496: 3492: 3491:from wetlands 3489: 3487: 3484: 3482: 3479: 3477: 3474: 3472: 3469: 3468: 3467: 3464: 3462: 3459: 3457: 3454: 3452: 3451:Deforestation 3449: 3448: 3446: 3442: 3436: 3433: 3430: 3426: 3423: 3421: 3418: 3417: 3415: 3411: 3407: 3403: 3398: 3394: 3384: 3381: 3379: 3376: 3374: 3371: 3369: 3366: 3364: 3361: 3360: 3357: 3350: 3346: 3342: 3335: 3330: 3328: 3323: 3321: 3316: 3315: 3312: 3298: 3291: 3283: 3277: 3273: 3269: 3265: 3264: 3256: 3249: 3247: 3245: 3243: 3234: 3228: 3224: 3220: 3216: 3215: 3207: 3199: 3197: 3190: 3185: 3180: 3174: 3172: 3165: 3160: 3154: 3150: 3145: 3140: 3136: 3132: 3127: 3122: 3118: 3114: 3110: 3103: 3101: 3099: 3083: 3079: 3075: 3069: 3062: 3056: 3048: 3044: 3040: 3036: 3032: 3028: 3021: 3006: 3002: 2996: 2990: 2986: 2982: 2978: 2971: 2969: 2967: 2965: 2963: 2961: 2959: 2950: 2946: 2942: 2938: 2934: 2930: 2926: 2922: 2918: 2914: 2910: 2903: 2887: 2883: 2879: 2873: 2857: 2853: 2849: 2843: 2828: 2824: 2818: 2803: 2799: 2793: 2786: 2782: 2778: 2772: 2770: 2761: 2755: 2751: 2747: 2743: 2736: 2734: 2725: 2721: 2716: 2711: 2707: 2703: 2699: 2695: 2691: 2684: 2670: 2666: 2659: 2652: 2648: 2642: 2634: 2630: 2625: 2620: 2616: 2612: 2608: 2604: 2600: 2593: 2578: 2574: 2568: 2554: 2550: 2544: 2536: 2532: 2527: 2522: 2518: 2514: 2510: 2506: 2502: 2498: 2494: 2487: 2481: 2479: 2474: 2467: 2463: 2458: 2453: 2449: 2445: 2441: 2437: 2433: 2429: 2425: 2418: 2410: 2407:IPCC (2013). 2403: 2395: 2391: 2386: 2381: 2377: 2373: 2369: 2365: 2361: 2354: 2345: 2340: 2336: 2332: 2328: 2321: 2319: 2310: 2306: 2301: 2296: 2291: 2286: 2282: 2278: 2274: 2270: 2266: 2258: 2244: 2240: 2233: 2225: 2221: 2216: 2211: 2206: 2201: 2197: 2193: 2189: 2185: 2181: 2174: 2166: 2162: 2157: 2152: 2147: 2142: 2138: 2134: 2130: 2126: 2122: 2114: 2099: 2095: 2088: 2073: 2069: 2065: 2058: 2050: 2046: 2041: 2036: 2032: 2028: 2025:(7): 074036. 2024: 2020: 2016: 2009: 2001: 1997: 1992: 1987: 1983: 1979: 1976:(8): L08706. 1975: 1971: 1967: 1960: 1952: 1944: 1935: 1930: 1926: 1922: 1918: 1914: 1910: 1903: 1895: 1889: 1885: 1878: 1870: 1866: 1861: 1856: 1852: 1848: 1844: 1837: 1823: 1817: 1802: 1798: 1794: 1788: 1786: 1784: 1782: 1780: 1765: 1761: 1755: 1741: 1737: 1730: 1721: 1716: 1712: 1708: 1704: 1700: 1696: 1689: 1687: 1685: 1683: 1681: 1672: 1666: 1662: 1655: 1647: 1643: 1639: 1635: 1631: 1627: 1623: 1619: 1615: 1611: 1607: 1603: 1596: 1588: 1584: 1579: 1574: 1570: 1566: 1562: 1558: 1554: 1550: 1546: 1539: 1531: 1527: 1522: 1517: 1513: 1509: 1505: 1501: 1497: 1490: 1482: 1478: 1474: 1470: 1466: 1462: 1458: 1454: 1447: 1439: 1435: 1431: 1427: 1423: 1419: 1415: 1411: 1404: 1402: 1393: 1387: 1383: 1379: 1375: 1374: 1366: 1358: 1354: 1350: 1346: 1342: 1338: 1334: 1330: 1326: 1322: 1318: 1314: 1310: 1303: 1292: 1285: 1278: 1270: 1266: 1261: 1256: 1252: 1248: 1244: 1240: 1236: 1230: 1222: 1218: 1213: 1208: 1204: 1200: 1196: 1192: 1188: 1181: 1173: 1169: 1162: 1160: 1158: 1156: 1140: 1134: 1127: 1123: 1116: 1114: 1112: 1110: 1108: 1106: 1104: 1102: 1100: 1098: 1096: 1094: 1092: 1083: 1079: 1075: 1069: 1065: 1061: 1057: 1050: 1048: 1046: 1044: 1037: 1032: 1025: 1020: 1016: 1012: 1008: 1004: 1000: 993: 991: 989: 980: 976: 972: 968: 964: 960: 953: 951: 942: 939:IPCC (2013). 935: 933: 931: 923: 919: 912: 910: 908: 900: 896: 890: 886: 876: 873: 871: 868: 867: 858: 854: 850: 847: 843: 840: 835: 832: 828: 824: 816: 802: 801:soil moisture 797: 790: 776: 772: 767: 766:fertilization 759: 755: 751: 747: 745: 736: 722: 718: 714: 712: 707: 704: 700: 692: 677: 673: 671: 667: 663: 659: 655: 651: 647: 643: 639: 632: 618: 614: 612: 608: 604: 599: 591: 580: 578: 574: 570: 566: 562: 556: 546: 544: 539: 529: 526: 522: 518: 514: 510: 506: 502: 498: 497:precipitation 488: 484: 482: 478: 474: 469: 465: 462: 458: 453: 449: 447: 443: 433: 429: 425: 423: 418: 409: 404: 389: 385: 383: 379: 375: 371: 367: 363: 358: 349: 347: 342: 338: 337:ocean warming 330: 325: 316: 314: 310: 305: 303: 299: 295: 291: 286: 284: 280: 276: 268: 264: 259: 250: 247: 246:precipitation 243: 234: 230: 228: 224: 219: 217: 213: 208: 206: 202: 198: 194: 190: 186: 182: 178: 174: 170: 166: 162: 154: 145: 141: 139: 133: 131: 127: 121: 119: 115: 111: 107: 102: 100: 96: 92: 88: 84: 80: 79:soil moisture 76: 72: 68: 64: 60: 56: 55:strengthening 52: 48: 40: 36: 32: 28: 24: 20: 16: 4880: 4868: 4856: 4837: 4670:Carbon cycle 4627:Measurements 4322:Society and 4206:carbon sinks 4111:Climate debt 4101:Carbon price 3923:Human rights 3762: 3748:Season creep 3706:heat content 3632:Anoxic event 3545:James Hansen 3295:IAH (2019). 3290: 3262: 3213: 3116: 3112: 3086:. Retrieved 3078:Carbon Brief 3077: 3068: 3055: 3030: 3026: 3020: 3009:. Retrieved 3007:. 2023-03-13 3005:PBS NewsHour 3004: 2995: 2916: 2912: 2902: 2890:. Retrieved 2886:the original 2881: 2872: 2860:. Retrieved 2856:the original 2851: 2842: 2831:. Retrieved 2827:the original 2817: 2806:. Retrieved 2804:. 2016-07-01 2801: 2792: 2741: 2697: 2694:Water Policy 2693: 2683: 2672:. Retrieved 2668: 2658: 2641: 2606: 2602: 2592: 2581:. Retrieved 2579:. 2019-04-10 2577:www.nrdc.org 2576: 2567: 2556:. Retrieved 2552: 2543: 2500: 2496: 2486: 2470: 2431: 2427: 2417: 2408: 2402: 2367: 2363: 2353: 2337:(1): 20–31. 2334: 2331:Oceanography 2330: 2272: 2268: 2257: 2247:, retrieved 2242: 2232: 2187: 2183: 2173: 2128: 2124: 2113: 2102:. Retrieved 2087: 2076:. Retrieved 2067: 2057: 2022: 2018: 2008: 1973: 1969: 1959: 1950: 1943: 1916: 1912: 1902: 1883: 1877: 1850: 1846: 1836: 1825:. Retrieved 1816: 1805:. Retrieved 1801:the original 1796: 1767:. 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