Eight Banners - Knowledge

1814:(baoyi) origin and they served in Manchu company registers as detached household Manchus and the Qing imperial court found this out in 1729. Manchu Bannermen who needed money helped falsify registration for Han Chinese servants being adopted into the Manchu banners and Manchu families who lacked sons were allowed to adopt their servant's sons or servants themselves. The Manchu families were paid to adopt Han Chinese sons from bondservant families by those families. The Qing Imperial Guard captain Batu was furious at the Manchus who adopted Han Chinese as their sons from slave and bondservant families in exchange for money and expressed his displeasure at them adopting Han Chinese instead of other Manchus. These Han Chinese who infiltrated the Manchu Banners by adoption were known as "secondary-status bannermen" and "false Manchus" or "separate-register Manchus", and there were eventually so many of these Han Chinese that they took over military positions in the Banners which previously were reserved for Jurchen Manchus. Han Chinese foster-son and separate register bannermen made up 800 out of 1,600 soldiers of the Mongol Banners and Manchu Banners of Hangzhou in 1740 which was nearly 50%. Han Chinese foster-son made up 220 out of 1,600 unsalaried troops at Jingzhou in 1747 and an assortment of Han Chinese separate-register, Mongol, and Manchu bannermen were the remainder. Han Chinese secondary status bannermen made up 180 of 3,600 troop households in Ningxia while Han Chinese separate registers made up 380 out of 2,700 Manchu soldiers in Liangzhou. The result of these Han Manchus taking up military positions resulted in many Jurchen Manchus being deprived of their traditional positions as soldiers in the Banner armies, resulting in the Han Manchus supplanting Jurchen Manchus economic and social status.These Han Manchus were said to be good military troops and their skills at marching and archery were up to par so that the Zhapu lieutenant general couldn't differentiate them from Jurchen Manchus in terms of military skills. Manchu Banners contained a lot of "false Manchus" who were from Han Chinese civilian families but were adopted by Manchu bannermen after the Yongzheng reign. The Jingkou and Jiangning Mongol banners and Manchu Banners had 1,795 adopted Han Chinese and the Beijing Mongol Banners and Manchu Banners had 2,400 adopted Han Chinese in statistics taken from the 1821 census. Despite Qing attempts to differentiate adopted Han Chinese from normal Manchu bannermen the differences between them became hazy. These adopted Han Chinese bondservants who managed to get themselves onto Manchu banner roles were called kaihu ren (開戶人) in Chinese and dangse faksalaha urse in Manchu. Normal Manchus were called jingkini Manjusa. 955:, who fought better than them against the rebels and this was noted by the Kangxi Emperor, leading him to task Generals Sun Sike, Wang Jinbao, and Zhao Liangdong to lead Green Standard soldiers to crush the rebels. The Qing thought that Han were superior at battling other Han people and so used the Green Standard Army as the dominant and majority army in crushing the rebels instead of Bannermen. In northwestern China against Wang Fuchen, the Qing put Bannermen in the rear as reserves while they used Han Green Standard Army soldiers and Han Generals like Zhang Liangdong, Wang Jinbao, and Zhang Yong as the primary military forces, considering Han troops as better at fighting other Han people, and these Han generals achieved victory over the rebels. Sichuan and southern Shaanxi were retaken by the Han Green Standard Army under Wang Jinbao and Zhao Liangdong in 1680, with Manchus only participating in dealing with logistics and provisions. 400,000 Green Standard Army soldiers and 150,000 Bannermen served on the Qing side during the war. 213 Han Banner companies, and 527 companies of Mongol and Manchu Banners were mobilized by the Qing during the revolt. 1166: 853:

privileges in addition to being acculturated to Manchu culture. So many Han defected to the Qing and swelled up the ranks of the Eight Banners that ethnic Manchus became a minority within the Banners, making up only 16% in 1648, with Han bannermen dominating with 75% and Mongol bannermen making up the rest. It was this multi-ethnic force, in which Manchus were only a minority, which conquered the Central Plain for the Qing. Hong Taiji recognized that Han defectors were needed by the Qing in order to assist in the conquest of the Ming, explaining to other Manchus why he needed to treat the Ming defector General Hung Ch'eng-ch'ou leniently.

136: 1788:) in Chinese. They would be transferred to the "upper three" Manchu Banners. It was a policy of the Qing to transfer to immediate families (the brothers, father) of the mother of an Emperor into the upper three Manchu Banners and having "giya" 佳 appended to the end of their surname to Manchufy it. It typically occurred in cases of intermarriage with the Qing Aisin Gioro Imperial family, and the close relatives (fathers and brothers) of the concubine or Empress would get promoted from the Han Banner to the Manchu Banner and become Manchu. The Han Bannerwoman 615:

households. Five companies made up a battalion, and ten battalions a banner. Four banners were originally created: Yellow, White, Red, and Blue, each named after the color of its flag. By 1614, the number of companies had grown to around 400. In 1615, the number of banners was doubled through the creation of "bordered" banners. The troops of each of the original four banners would be split between a plain and a bordered banner. The bordered variant of each flag was to have a red border, except for the Bordered Red Banner, which had a white border instead.

936: 928: 1064: 1060:, a Scots missionary who served in Manchuria in the 19th century, wrote of the bannermen, "Their claim to be military men is based on their descent rather than on their skill in arms; and their pay is given them because of their fathers' prowess, and not at all from any hopes of their efficiency as soldiers. Their soldierly qualities are included in the accomplishments of idleness, riding, and the use of the bow and arrow, at which they practice on a few rare occasions each year." 1345: 1526: 1661: 1571: 1391: 919:

entirely irrelevant claim that alleged fear of the water on part of the Manchus had to do with the coastal evacuation and clearances. Even though a poem refers to the soldiers carrying out massacres in Fujian as "barbarian", both Han Green Standard Army and Han Bannermen were involved in the fighting for the Qing side and carried out the worst slaughter. 400,000 Green Standard Army soldiers were used against the Three Feudatories besides 200,000 Bannermen.

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instituted, ranks standardized, and the Eight Banners became a sort of hereditary military caste, though with a strong ethnic inflection. Banner soldiers took up permanent positions, either as defenders of the capital, Beijing, where roughly half of them lived with their families, or in the provinces, where some eighteen garrisons were established. The largest banner garrisons throughout most of the Qing dynasty were at

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the Eight Banners by both capture and defection, Ming artillery was responsible for many victories against the Qing, so the Qing established an artillery corps made out of Han soldiers in 1641 and the swelling of Han numbers in the Eight Banners led in 1642 of all Eight Han Banners being created. It was defected Han armies which conquered southern China for the Qing.

1156:) were under the nominal command of the emperor himself, whereas the five "lower" banners were commanded by others. The banners were also split into a "left wing" and a "right wing" according to how they would be arrayed in battle. In Beijing, the left wing occupied the eastern banner neighborhoods and the right wing occupied the western ones. 857:

southern China from the Ming were Shang Kexi, Geng Zhongming, and Kong Youde and they governed southern China autonomously as viceroys for the Qing after their conquests. Normally the Manchu Bannermen acted as reserve forces while the Qing foremost used defected Han troops to fight as the vanguard during their conquest of the Central Plain.

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transfrontiersmen soldiers acculturated to Manchu culture and used Manchu names. Manchus lived in cities with walls surrounded by villages and adopted Han-style agriculture before the Qing conquest of the Ming. The Han transfrontismen abandoned their Han names and identities and Nurhaci's secretary Dahai might have been one of them.

1000:, the banner armies fought alongside troops of the Green Standard Army, expanding the Qing empire to its greatest territorial extent. Though partly successful, the campaigns were a heavy financial burden on the Qing treasury, and exposed weaknesses in the Qing military. Many bannermen lost their lives in the 1143:

in Gansu started by Zhang Wenqing (張文慶) was defeated, Muslims like Ma Jinlu (馬進祿) were exiled to the Han Banner garrison in Guangzhou to become slaves to Han Banner officers. The Qing code regulating Mongols in Mongolia sentenced Mongol criminals to exile and to become slaves to Han bannermen in Han

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The Qing relied on the Green Standard soldiers, made out of defected Ming military forces who joined the Qing, in order to help rule northern China. It was Green Standard Han troops who actively military governed China locally while Han Bannermen, Mongol Bannermen, and Manchu Bannermen who were only

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The Qing showed in propaganda targeted towards the Ming military that the Qing valued military skills to get them to defect to the Qing, since the Ming civilian political system discriminated against the military. The three Liaodong Han Bannermen officers who played a massive role in the conquest of

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Initially, Han troops were incorporated into the existing Manchu Banners. When Hong Taiji captured Yongping in 1629, a contingent of artillerymen surrendered to him. In 1631, these troops were organized into the so-called Old Han Army under the Han commander Tong Yangxing. These artillery units were

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There were not enough ethnic Manchus to conquer the Central Plain, so they relied on defeating and absorbing Mongols, and more importantly, adding Han to the Eight Banners. The Qing had to create an entire "Jiu Han jun" (Old Han Army) due to the massive number of Han soldiers who were absorbed into

1798:

Select groups of Han Chinese bannermen were mass transferred into Manchu Banners by the Qing, changing their ethnicity from Han Chinese to Manchu. Han Chinese bannermen of Tai Nikan 台尼堪 (watchpost Chinese) and Fusi Nikan 撫順尼堪 (Fushun Chinese) backgrounds into the Manchu banners in 1740 by order of

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allowed Han civilian men to marry Manchu women from the Banners with the permission of the Board of Revenue if they were registered daughters of officials or commoners or the permission of their banner company captain if they were unregistered commoners. It was only later in the dynasty that these

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1789 Mongol Code (Ch. 蒙履 Menggu lüli , Mo. Mongγol čaγaǰin-u bičig ), (Ch. 南省，給駐防爲 , Mo. emün-e-tü muji-dur čölegüljü sergeyilen sakiγči quyaγ-ud-tur boγul bolγ-a ). Mongol Code 蒙例 (Beijing: Lifan yuan, 1789; reprinted Taipei: Chengwen chubanshe, 1968), p. 124. Batsukhin Bayarsaikhan,

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From the time China was brought under the rule of the Qing dynasty, the banner soldiers became more professional and bureaucratized. Once the Manchus took over governing, they could no longer satisfy the material needs of soldiers by garnishing and distributing booty; instead, a salary system was

860:

The Liaodong Han military frontiersmen were prone to mixing and acculturating with (non-Han) tribesmen. The Mongol officer Mangui served in the Ming military and fought the Manchus, dying in battle against a Manchu raid. The Manchus accepted and assimilated Han soldiers who defected. Liaodong Han

618:

The banner armies expanded rapidly after a string of military victories under Nurhaci and his successors. Beginning in the late 1620s, the Jurchens incorporated allied and conquered Mongol tribes into the Eight Banner system. In 1635, Hong Taiji, son of Nurhaci, renamed his people from Jurchen to

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The Qing forces were crushed by Wu from 1673 to 1674. The Qing had the support of the majority of Han soldiers and Han elite against the Three Feudatories, since they refused to join Wu Sangui in the revolt, while the Eight Banners and Manchu officers fared poorly against Wu Sangui, so the Qing

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forcing people to evacuated the coast in order to deprive Koxinga's Ming loyalists of resources, this has led to a myth that it was because Manchus were "afraid of water". In Fujian, it was Han Bannermen who were the ones carrying out the fighting and killing for the Qing and this disproved the

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while the ordinary soldiers who defected were given non-royal Manchu women as wives. The Qing differentiated between Han bannermen and ordinary Han civilians. Han bannermen were made out of ethnic Han who defected to the Qing up to 1644 and joined the Eight Banners, giving them social and legal

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Initially, Nurhaci's forces were organized into small hunting parties of about a dozen men related by blood, marriage, clan, or place of residence, as was the typical Jurchen custom. In 1601, with the number of men under his command growing, Nurhaci reorganized his troops into companies of 300

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in the 17th century, they began to fall behind rising Western powers in the 18th century. By the 1730s, the traditional martial spirit had been lost, as the well-paid Bannerman spent their time gambling and theatergoing. Subsidizing the 1.5 million men, women and children in the system was an

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When Dorgon ordered Han civilians to vacate Beijing's inner city and move to the outskirts, he resettled the inner city with the Bannermen, including Han bannermen, later, some exceptions were made to allowing to reside in the inner city Han civilians who held government or commercial jobs.

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Initially, the banner armies were primarily made up of individuals from the various Manchu tribes. As new populations were incorporated into the empire, the armies were expanded to accommodate troops of different ethnicities. The banner armies would eventually encompass three principal

879:

The Manchu Prince Regent Dorgon gave a Manchu woman as a wife to the Han official Feng Quan, who had defected from the Ming to the Qing. The Manchu queue hairstyle was willingly adopted by Feng Quan before it was enforced on the Han population and Feng learned the Manchu language.

1828:

In the late 19th century and early 1900s, intermarriage between Manchus and Han bannermen in the northeast increased as Manchu families were more willing to marry their daughters to sons from well off Han families to trade their ethnic status for higher financial status.

1803:. It was between 1618-1629 when the Han Chinese from Liaodong who later became the Fushun Nikan and Tai Nikan defected to the Jurchens (Manchus). These Han Chinese origin Manchu clans continue to use their original Han surnames and are marked as of Han origin on 1748:

When the Jurchens were reorganized by Nurhaci into the Eight Banners, many Manchu clans were artificially created as a group of unrelated people founded a new Manchu clan (mukun) using a geographic origin name such as a toponym for their hala (clan name).

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expensive proposition, compounded by embezzlement and corruption. Destitution in the northeastern garrisons led many Manchu Bannermen to abandon their posts and in response the Qing government either sentenced them with penal slavery or death.

813:, commander of the Solid White Banner, became regent. He quickly purged his rivals and took control over Hong Taiji's Solid Blue Banner. By 1644, an estimated two million people were living in the Eight Banners system. That year, rebels led by 959:

responded with using a massive army of more than 900,000 Han (non-Banner) instead of the Eight Banners, to fight and crush the Three Feudatories. Wu Sangui's forces were crushed by the Green Standard Army, made out of defected Ming soldiers.

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during Qianlong's late reign. He fled his position due to fear of being punished for being a bannerman marrying a commoner woman. He was sentenced to death for leaving his official post but the sentence was commuted and he was not executed.

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There were stories of Han migrating to the Jurchens and assimilating into Manchu Jurchen society and Nikan Wailan may have been an example of this. The Manchu Cuigiya 崔佳氏 clan claimed that a Han Chinese founded their clan. The Tohoro 托和啰

1122:

In addition to sending Han exiles convicted of crimes to Xinjiang to be slaves of Banner garrisons there, the Qing also practiced reverse exile, exiling Inner Asian (Mongol, Russian and Muslim criminals from Mongolia and Inner Asia) to

589:. Membership in the banners became hereditary, and bannermen were granted land and income. After the defeat of the Ming dynasty, Qing emperors continued to rely on the Eight Banners in their subsequent military campaigns. After the 1104:

units based on Western training, equipment and organization. Nevertheless, the banner system remained in existence until the fall of the Qing in 1912, and even beyond, with a rump organization continuing to function until 1924.

1087:. However, many Manchu Bannermen in Beijing supported the Boxers and shared their anti-foreign sentiment. The pro-Boxer Bannermen sustained heavy casualties and subsequently were driven into desperate poverty. 4680: 1172: 550:

households were placed. In war, the Eight Banners functioned as armies, but the banner system was also the basic organizational framework of all of Manchu society. Created in the early 17th century by

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were created alongside the original Manchu banners. The banner armies were considered the elite forces of the Qing military, while the remainder of imperial troops were incorporated into the vast

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Under the Kangxi and Qianlong emperors, the Eight Banners participated in a series of military campaigns to subdue Ming loyalists and neighboring states. In the Qianlong Emperor's celebrated

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The Qing said that "Manchu and Han are one house" 滿漢一家 and said that the difference was "not between Manchu and Han, but instead between Bannerman and civilian" 不分滿漢，但問旗民 or 但問旗民，不問滿漢.

803:). Although still called the "Eight Banners" in name, there were now effectively twenty-four banner armies, eight for each of the three main ethnic groups (Manchu, Mongol, and Han). 5300: 4578: 1817:

Commoner Manchu bannermen who were not nobility were called irgen which meant common, in contrast to the Manchu nobility o the "Eight Great Houses" who held noble titles.

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in the Korean Peninsula first in 1627 and again in 1636. As a consequence, Joseon was forced to end its relationship with the Ming and become a Qing tributary instead.

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and her entire family were transferred to the Manchu Banners due to her status as the mother of an Emperor and their surname was change from Wei 魏 to Weigiya 魏佳.

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of the mid-19th century ruined their reputation. By the late 19th century the task of defending the empire had largely fallen upon regional armies such as the

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Mongol Code (Mongγol čaγaǰin - u bičig), Monumenta Mongolia IV (Ulaanbaatar: Centre for Mongol Studies, National University of Mongolia, 2004), p. 142.

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The Eight Banners in formation for the Qianlong Emperor's Grand Review. Left wing banners are depicted on the viewer's right side, right wing on the left.

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The Guangzhou massacre of Ming loyalist Han forces and civilians in 1650 by Qing forces, was entirely carried out by Han Bannermen led by Han generals

4148: 5019: 1139:(Oros. Ulet. Hoise jergi weilengge niyalma) such as Yakov and Dmitri were exiled to the Han banner garrison in Guangzhou. In the 1780s, after the 4759: 4099: 3093: 5609: 5164: 5135: 4754: 4210: 4158: 1152:

At the highest level, the eight banners were categorized according to two groupings. The three "upper" banners (both Yellow Banners and the

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Bannermen accompanying an Imperial hunting party. Hunting served as a military exercise and to improve coordination between military units.

4375: 2744:Šande 善德 , MWLFZZ, FHA 03-0193-3238-046, QL 54.5.6 (May 30, 1789) and Šande , MWLFZZ, FHA 03-0193-3248-028, QL 54.6.30 (August 20, 1789). 2929: 4717: 3866: 2657: 2029: 4824: 4809: 4511: 1987: 3923: 2924: 1108:

At the end of the Qing dynasty, all members of the Eight Banners, regardless of their original ethnicity, were considered by the

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Chen, Bijia, et al. “Interethnic Marriage in Northeast China, 1866–1913.” Demographic Research, vol. 38, 2018, p. 953. JSTOR,

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Among the Banners gunpowder weapons, such as muskets and artillery, were specifically wielded by the Han Banners.

5481: 4724: 4411: 4297: 3067: 3058: 3050: 948: 214: 601:. Over time, the Eight Banners became synonymous with Manchu identity even as their military strength vanished. 5065: 4931: 4699: 4446: 4385: 4355: 4345: 3882: 3771: 3650: 3440: 3322: 2541:[Sealords live in vain : Fujian and the making of a maritime frontier in seventeenth-century China p. 307. 2532:[Sealords live in vain : Fujian and the making of a maritime frontier in seventeenth-century China p. 206. 2523:[Sealords live in vain : Fujian and the making of a maritime frontier in seventeenth-century China p. 198. 2514:[Sealords live in vain : Fujian and the making of a maritime frontier in seventeenth-century China p. 135. 1223: 1185: 778: 738: 72: 43: 39: 5499: 5274: 5130: 4814: 4804: 4789: 4784: 4616: 4566: 4546: 4486: 4320: 3794:, Paul Bushkovitch, Nicholas Canny, Pamela Kyle Crossley, Arthur Eckstein, Frank Ninkovich, Loren J. Samons, 1982: 1718: 1711: 990: 1957:– Ming dynasty frontier commander. Inducted into the Chinese Plain Yellow Banner after surrendering to Qing. 715:

natives who had surrendered at Yongping, Fushun, Dalinghe, etc., were organized into the Han Eight Banners (

266: 5258: 5036: 4903: 4769: 4663: 4273: 4263: 4196: 1972: 1013: 694: 668: 188: 3356: 1922:– Ming dynasty frontier commander. Inducted into the Chinese Plain Blue Banner after surrendering to Qing. 54: 5175: 5158: 4668: 4643: 4606: 4516: 4476: 4228: 3916: 3598: 2325: 1820:

Jiang Xingzhou 姜興舟, a Han bannerman lieutenant from the Bordered Yellow Banner married a Muslim woman in

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Manchus and Han: Ethnic Relations and Political Power in Late Qing and Early Republican China, 1861–1928

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Manchus and Han: Ethnic Relations and Political Power in Late Qing and Early Republican China, 1861–1928

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were instructed to raise their own forces from the civilian population, leading to the creation of the

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The Headless State: Aristocratic Orders, Kinship Society, and Misrepresentations of Nomadic Inner Asia

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forces were incorporated into the growing Qing military establishment, the Mongol Eight Banners and

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Michael, Franz. "Military organization and power structure of China during the Taiping Rebellion."

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Franz Michael, "Military organization and power structure of China during the Taiping Rebellion."

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Franz Michael, "Military organization and power structure of China during the Taiping Rebellion."

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Crossley, Pamela Kyle (1989), "The Qianlong Retrospect on the Chinese-martial (hanjun) Banners",

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of the mid-18th century the quality of the banner armies declined. Their failure to suppress the

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Sealords Live in Vain: Fujian and the Making of a Maritime Frontier in Seventeenth-century China

5614: 5466: 5354: 5235: 5060: 4278: 3953: 3909: 1916:– Ming dynasty warlord. Inducted into the Chinese Plain Yellow Banner after submitting to Qing. 1352: 1079:, 1899–1901, the European powers recruited 10,000 Bannermen from the Metropolitan Banners into 1057: 1020:

In the 19th century, the Eight Banners and Green Standard troops proved unable to put down the

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Manchu Generals and Bannermen were initially put to shame by the better performance of the Han

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The Great Enterprise: The Manchu Reconstruction of Imperial Order in Seventeenth-century China

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Han-Mongol Encounters and Missionary Endeavors: A History of Scheut in Ordos (Hetao) 1874-1911

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policies allowing intermarriage were done away with. The decree was formulated by Dorgon.

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party, which would be armed with bows and arrows. 15 companies (4,500 men) made up one

1203: 1153: 796: 763:). The original Eight Banners were thereafter referred to as the Manchu Eight Banners ( 756: 712: 705: 652: 527: 199: 3829:

Im, Kaye Soon. "The Development of the Eight Banner System and its Social Structure,"

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and the suppression of the Jinchuan hill peoples. Member of the Plain Blue Banner.

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brought into emergency situations where there was sustained military resistance.

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that same year. In 1636, Hong Taiji proclaimed the creation of the Qing dynasty.

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Manchu. That same year the Mongols were separated into the Mongol Eight Banners (

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means "arrow" in the Manchu language, and was originally the Manchu name for a

1025: 982: 935: 838: 825:, committed suicide. Dorgon and his bannermen joined forces with Ming defector 555: 517: 343: 3461:(2nd enlarged ed.), Cambridge: MA; London, England: The Belknap Press of 2944: 927: 914:'s Ming loyalists in Fujian. The Qing carried out massive depopulation policy 5603: 5563: 5529: 5494: 5110: 5100: 4307: 3722: 3436:

Empire at the Margins: Culture, Ethnicity, and Frontier in Early Modern China

3317:(illustrated, reprint ed.). University of California Press. p. 66. 3202: 1903: 1785: 1780:) to Manchu Banners, switching their ethnicity from Han to Manchu was called 1063: 547: 3412:

The Manchu Way: The Eight Banners and Ethnic Identity in Late Imperial China

2917: 1054:) who finally succeeded in restoring Qing control in this turbulent period. 5583: 5280: 5222: 4911: 4893: 4749: 4219: 4059: 4043: 3751: 3399: 1944: 1941: 1757:'s clan) claimed Han Chinese origin. The Han Chinese Banner Tong 佟 clan of 1124: 567: 543: 357: 329: 156: 141: 3814:

Banner Legacy: The Rise of the Fengtian Local Elite at the End of the Qing

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Banner Legacy: The Rise of the Fengtian Local Elite at the End of the Qing

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falsely claimed to be related to the Jurchen Manchu Tunggiya 佟佳 clan of

1525: 876:

Manchu Aisin Gioro princesses were also married to Han official's sons.

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The Manchus: or The reigning dynasty of China; their rise and progress

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The Last Emperors: A Social History of Qing Imperial Institutions

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Ming defectors played a major role in the Qing conquest of the

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and his troops were incorporated into the Eight Banners. His

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shield soldiers (Tengpaiying) 藤牌营 were used against the

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The smallest unit in a banner army was the company, or

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Rowe (15 February 2010). 2925:Eminent Chinese of the Ch'ing Period 2672: 979:Koxinga's former followers on Taiwan 44:adding citations to reliable sources 15: 5548:History of Qing (People's Republic) 2973:China's Last Empire: The Great Qing 1940:Zhu Zhiliang – a descendant of the 13: 5265:Sacred Edict of the Kangxi Emperor 4634:Chinese expedition to Tibet (1910) 4627:1909 Provincial Assembly elections 4507:Japanese invasion of Taiwan (1874) 4331:Chinese expedition to Tibet (1720) 3731: 3673:, University of California Press, 3546:, University of Washington Press, 3439:, Studies on China, vol. 28, 3397: 3012:David E. Mungello (January 1994). 1862:and at strategic points along the 1832: 1659: 1614: 1569: 1524: 1479: 1434: 1389: 1343: 1144:Banner garrisons in China proper. 546:dynasties of China into which all 14: 5631: 5554:Imperial hunt of the Qing dynasty 5395:Treaty of Saint Petersburg (1881) 5270:Shamanism during the Qing dynasty 4422:Dogra–Tibetan war (Sino-Sikh war) 3931: 3069:Handbook of Christianity in China 2858:Patrick Taveirne (January 2004). 5365:Sino-Portuguese Treaty of Peking 4681:Articles of Favourable Treatment 4437:Red Turban Rebellion (1854–1856) 3710: 3485:. University Press of Kentucky. 1164: 1007: 609: 251: 134: 20: 4412:Eight Trigrams uprising of 1813 4298:Revolt of the Three Feudatories 3349: 3340: 3331: 3304: 3209: 3195: 3181: 3167: 3117: 3086: 3066:N. Standaert (1 January 2001). 2959: 2936: 2906: 2890: 2812: 2796: 2769: 2747: 2738: 2729: 2643: 2568: 2556: 2544: 2535: 2526: 2517: 2508: 2481: 2318: 2282: 2270: 2258: 2232: 1147: 1040:, among others. Along with the 949:Revolt of the Three Feudatories 923:Revolt of the Three Feudatories 373: 215:Revolt of the Three Feudatories 31:needs additional citations for 5066:Guest House of Imperial Envoys 4356:Revolt of the Altishahr Khojas 3883:University of California Press 3772:University of California Press 3651:University of California Press 3441:University of California Press 3374:Crossley, Pamela Kyle (1990), 2943:Crossley, Pamela (June 1983). 2015: 1270: 1236: 1227: 1198: 1189: 791: 782: 751: 742: 647: 512: 435: 349: 335: 305: 1: 5500:Banknotes of the Da Qing Bank 5275:Islam during the Qing dynasty 5131:Zhao Mausoleum (Qing dynasty) 4815:Provincial military commander 4805:Nine Gates Infantry Commander 4790:Imperial Household Department 4617:Preparative Constitutionalism 4321:Sino-Russian border conflicts 3540:Rhoads, Edward J. M. (2000), 3175:"我姓阎,满族正黄旗,请问我的满姓可能是什么~_百度知道" 2003: 1983:Identity in the Eight Banners 1712:Identity in the Eight Banners 5259:Researches on Manchu Origins 4664:Mongolian Revolution of 1911 4274:Transition from Ming to Qing 4264:Later Jin invasion of Joseon 2995:. 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(1998), 3833:(1991), Issue 69, pp 59–93 3816:, University of Michigan, 3625:The Fall of Imperial China 3604:W. W. Norton & Company 3518:Rawski, Evelyn S. (1991), 3382:Princeton University Press 3366: 3311:Rawski, Evelyn S. (2001). 1805:Qing lists of Manchu clans 1709: 1309: 1304: 1299: 966: 837:was then enthroned in the 809:After Hong Taiji's death, 768: 729: 720: 692: 666: 624: 604: 488: 457: 5569:Names of the Qing dynasty 5512: 5480: 5437: 5430: 5299: 5217:Manchu Han Imperial Feast 5144: 5076: 4997: 4902: 4698: 4589: 4547:Dungan Revolt (1895–1896) 4542:Gongche Shangshu movement 4487:Dungan Revolt (1862–1877) 4399: 4336:Chinese Rites controversy 4306: 4236: 4227: 4141: 4133:Han Chinese Eight Banners 4115: 4108: 4071: 4012: 3972: 3946: 3939: 3860:Pacific Historical Review 3504:, Yale University Press, 3417:Stanford University Press 3409:Elliott, Mark C. (2001), 3398:Ho, Dahpon David (2011). 2968:, pp. 113–115, 115– 2651:Pacific Historical Review 2023:Pacific Historical Review 1978:Banners of Inner Mongolia 1949:Marquis of Extended Grace 1279: 1261: 1245: 1207: 1071:; the left is a Bannerman 977:. After the surrender of 800: 760: 656: 638: 531: 501: 473: 463: 451: 446: 428: 423: 419: 410: 403: 396: 389: 384: 363: 356: 342: 328: 321: 316: 312: 298: 293: 289: 284: 184: 162: 148: 128: 123: 5490:Great Qing Treasure Note 5310:Treaty of Kyakhta (1727) 5020:Administrative divisions 4837:Administrative divisions 4765:Flag of the Qing dynasty 3812:Enatsu, Yoshiki (2004), 3796:Harvard University Press 3463:Harvard University Press 5086:Chengde Mountain Resort 4887:Three Eastern Provinces 4537:First Sino-Japanese War 4512:Northern Chinese Famine 4371:Lin Shuangwen rebellion 4269:Qing invasion of Joseon 4128:Mongolian Eight Banners 4039:(Bordered White Banner) 3766:—— (1999), 3667:Walthall, Anne (2008), 3645:—— (1985), 3596:—— (1990), 2709:Yoshiki Enatsu (2004). 2626:Graff & Higham 2012 2614:Graff & Higham 2012 2602:Graff & Higham 2012 2401:Graff & Higham 2012 2389:Graff & Higham 2012 2377:Graff & Higham 2012 1600:köbegetü ulaɣan qosiɣu 1046:Frederick Townsend Ward 673:Qing invasion of Joseon 211:Qing invasion of Joseon 5467:Great Qing Copper Coin 5355:Convention of Tientsin 5288:Annotated Bibliography 5236:Qing official headwear 4279:Battle of Shanhai Pass 4063:(Bordered Blue Banner) 3954:Bordered Yellow Banner 3752:10.1353/late.1989.0004 3500:Naquin, Susan (1987), 3072:. Brill. p. 444. 2776:Sneath, David (2007). 1886:– participated in the 1842: 1664: 1619: 1574: 1555:köbegetü čaɣan qosiɣu 1545:kubuhe šanggiyan gūsa 1529: 1510:siluɣun ulaɣan qosiɣu 1484: 1439: 1394: 1375:köbegetü sir-a qosiɣu 1353:Bordered Yellow Banner 1348: 1072: 944: 932: 931:Battle of Qurman, 1759 888: 831:Battle of Shanhai Pass 259:This article contains 205:Battle of Shanhai Pass 5541:Draft History of Qing 5400:Treaty of Shimonoseki 5181:performance criticism 4785:Imperial Commissioner 4775:Great Qing Legal Code 4574:Eight-Nation Alliance 4557:Third plague pandemic 4467:Punti–Hakka Clan Wars 4391:White Lotus Rebellion 4047:(Bordered Red Banner) 4023:(Upper Three Banners) 3985:Bordered White Banner 3862:18.4 (1949): 469-483 3837:Lococo, Paul (2012), 3725:in the United States. 3689:"Qing Imperial Women" 3580:Yale University Press 2914:Hummel, Arthur W. Sr. 2653:18.4 (1949): 469-483 2025:18.4 (1949): 469-483 1840: 1690:köbegetü köke qosiɣu 1663: 1618: 1590:kubuhe fulgiyan gūsa 1573: 1534:Bordered White Banner 1528: 1483: 1465:siluɣun čaɣan qosiɣu 1438: 1420:siluɣun sir-a qosiɣu 1393: 1347: 1066: 981:, Koxinga's grandson 963:Territorial expansion 938: 930: 886: 194:Qing conquest of Ming 5472:Great Qing Gold Coin 5405:Treaty of Tarbagatai 5350:Convention of Peking 5230:Pentaglot Dictionary 5212:Literary inquisition 4922:Ever Victorious Army 4755:Deliberative Council 4659:Xinhai Lhasa turmoil 4612:1905 Batang uprising 4552:Hundred Days' Reform 4442:Small Swords Society 4123:Manchu Eight Banners 4000:Bordered Blue Banner 3629:Simon & Schuster 3459:China: A New History 1947:. Granted the title 1669:Bordered Blue Banner 1645:siluɣun köke qosiɣu 1455:gulu šanggiyan gūsa 1365:kubuhe suwayan gūsa 1067:Chinese soldiers in 1042:Ever Victorious Army 829:to defeat Li at the 801:Манжийн Найман хошуу 40:improve this article 5525:Anti-Qing sentiment 5375:Treaty of the Bogue 5315:Treaty of Nerchinsk 5247:Complete Tang Poems 4927:Green Standard Army 4810:Provincial governor 4780:Imperial Clan Court 4760:Diplomatic missions 4735:Consultative Bureau 4482:Tongzhi Restoration 4361:Afaqi Khoja revolts 4341:Ten Great Campaigns 4249:Jurchen unification 4055:(Plain Blue Banner) 3990:Bordered Red Banner 3959:Plain Yellow Banner 3947:Upper Three Banners 3791:The Imperial Moment 3740:Late Imperial China 3687:Wang, Shuo (2008), 3572:Spence, Jonathan D. 3560:Ross, John (1891), 3289:, pp. 144–145. 3164:, pp. 103–105. 3060:Ch'ing-shih Wen-t'i 3052:Chʻing Shih Wen Tʻi 2949:Ch'ing-shih Wen-t'i 2899:Chʻing Shih Wen Tʻi 2805:Chʻing Shih Wen Tʻi 2628:, pp. 121–122. 2193:, pp. 257–313. 2100:, pp. 182–183. 2088:, pp. 168–169. 1906:– commander in the 1896:– commander in the 1878:Prominent Bannermen 1579:Bordered Red Banner 1500:gulu fulgiyan gūsa 1399:Plain Yellow Banner 998:Ten Great Campaigns 969:Ten Great Campaigns 953:Green Standard Army 657:Монгол найман хошуу 591:Ten Great Campaigns 587:Green Standard Army 219:Ten Great Campaigns 5410:Treaty of Tientsin 5121:Western Qing tombs 5116:Eastern Qing tombs 4942:Peking Field Force 4686:Manchu Restoration 4579:Declaration of war 4532:Jindandao incident 4351:Lhasa riot of 1750 4090:Regular households 4031:(Plain Red Banner) 4013:Supreme commanders 3973:Lower Five Banners 3964:Plain White Banner 3869:2022-09-25 at the 2660:2022-09-25 at the 2032:2022-09-25 at the 1843: 1790:Empress Xiaoyichun 1706:Ethnic composition 1680:kubuhe lamun gūsa 1665: 1620: 1575: 1530: 1485: 1444:Plain White Banner 1440: 1410:gulu suwayan gūsa 1395: 1349: 1154:Plain White Banner 1073: 945: 933: 889: 761:Хятад найман хошуу 663:Invasions of Korea 391:Mongolian Cyrillic 200:Battle of Ningyuan 5597: 5596: 5508: 5507: 5420:Treaty of Whampoa 5415:Treaty of Wanghia 5390:Treaty of Nanking 5360:Li–Lobanov Treaty 5335:Chefoo Convention 5330:Burlingame Treaty 5201:Kangxi Dictionary 5106:Old Summer Palace 4937:Firearm Battalion 4740:Cup of Solid Gold 4694: 4693: 4639:Manchurian plague 4602:Late Qing reforms 4593:(1901–1912) 4527:Sikkim expedition 4457:Panthay Rebellion 4427:Taiping Rebellion 4403:(1801–1900) 4381:Sino-Nepalese War 4326:Dzungar–Qing Wars 4312:(1683–1799) 4240:(1616–1683) 4186: 4185: 4182: 4181: 4008: 4007: 3995:Plain Blue Banner 3852:978-0-8131-4067-4 3839:"The Qing Empire" 3823:978-0-89264-165-9 3702:978-0-520-25444-2 3680:978-0-520-25444-2 3621:Wakeman, Frederic 3589:978-0-300-04277-1 3533:978-0-520-07124-7 3511:978-0-300-04602-1 3492:978-0-8131-3584-7 3232:Missing or empty 3079:978-90-04-11431-9 3044:978-0-520-92679-0 3025:978-0-8248-1540-0 3002:978-1-4331-0407-7 2983:978-0-674-05455-4 2919:"Tuan-fang" 2871:978-90-5867-365-7 2844:978-0-295-80412-5 2722:978-0-89264-165-9 2640:, pp. 56–57. 2251:978-0-521-24334-6 2147:978-0-520-92679-0 2047:, pp. 53–54. 1968:Han Eight Banners 1908:Sino-Nepalese War 1719:ethnic components 1703: 1702: 1624:Plain Blue Banner 1423:正黃旗 zhènghuángqí 1378:鑲黃旗 xiānghuángqí 1315: 1314: 1117:Fengtian province 1110:Republic of China 1022:Taiping Rebellion 706:siege of Dalinghe 704:'s forces at the 595:Taiping Rebellion 583:Han Eight Banners 477: 476: 442: 441: 380: 379: 323:Standard Mandarin 267:rendering support 244: 243: 239:Xinhai Revolution 231:Taiping Rebellion 116: 115: 108: 90: 5627: 5574:New Qing History 5457:Qianlong Tongbao 5435: 5434: 5380:Treaty of Canton 5320:Unequal treaties 5126:Fuling Mausoleum 4725:Advisory Council 4654:Wuchang Uprising 4594: 4497:Tianjin Massacre 4462:Second Opium War 4404: 4366:Sino-Burmese War 4313: 4291:Battle of Penghu 4259:Seven Grievances 4241: 4234: 4233: 4213: 4206: 4199: 4190: 4189: 4113: 4112: 4064: 4056: 4048: 4040: 4032: 4024: 3980:Plain Red Banner 3944: 3943: 3926: 3919: 3912: 3903: 3902: 3895: 3855: 3826: 3808: 3784: 3762: 3714: 3713: 3705: 3683: 3663: 3649:, Berkeley, CA: 3641: 3616: 3592: 3567: 3556: 3536: 3514: 3496: 3475: 3453: 3429: 3405: 3394: 3360: 3353: 3347: 3344: 3338: 3335: 3329: 3328: 3308: 3302: 3296: 3290: 3284: 3278: 3272: 3266: 3260: 3254: 3248: 3242: 3241: 3235: 3230: 3228: 3220: 3213: 3207: 3206: 3199: 3193: 3192: 3185: 3179: 3178: 3171: 3165: 3159: 3153: 3147: 3141: 3135: 3129: 3128: 3121: 3115: 3114: 3112: 3111: 3105: 3099:. 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5385:Treaty of Kulja 5370:Treaty of Aigun 5303: 5295: 5194:History of Ming 5146: 5140: 5078: 5072: 4998:Special regions 4993: 4932:Imperial Guards 4898: 4690: 4649:1911 Revolution 4595: 4592: 4585: 4562:Boxer Rebellion 4522:Sino-French War 4472:Amur Annexation 4417:First Opium War 4405: 4402: 4395: 4314: 4311: 4302: 4286:Great Clearance 4242: 4239: 4223: 4217: 4187: 4178: 4149:Booi Manju Niru 4142:Inner Companies 4137: 4116:Outer Companies 4104: 4067: 4062: 4054: 4046: 4038: 4030: 4022: 4004: 3968: 3935: 3930: 3899: 3893: 3876: 3871:Wayback Machine 3853: 3836: 3824: 3811: 3806: 3787: 3782: 3737: 3734: 3732:Further reading 3729: 3711: 3703: 3681: 3661: 3639: 3614: 3590: 3554: 3534: 3512: 3493: 3473: 3451: 3427: 3392: 3369: 3364: 3363: 3354: 3350: 3345: 3341: 3336: 3332: 3325: 3309: 3305: 3297: 3293: 3285: 3281: 3273: 3269: 3261: 3257: 3249: 3245: 3233: 3231: 3222: 3221: 3215: 3214: 3210: 3201: 3200: 3196: 3187: 3186: 3182: 3173: 3172: 3168: 3160: 3156: 3148: 3144: 3136: 3132: 3123: 3122: 3118: 3109: 3107: 3103: 3096: 3092: 3091: 3087: 3080: 3057: 3049: 3045: 3026: 3010:, pp. 87– 3003: 2984: 2964: 2960: 2941: 2937: 2911: 2907: 2896: 2895: 2891: 2887:, pp. 48–. 2883: 2879: 2872: 2856: 2852: 2845: 2829: 2822: 2817: 2813: 2802: 2801: 2797: 2790: 2774: 2770: 2762: 2758: 2752: 2748: 2743: 2739: 2734: 2730: 2723: 2707: 2703: 2695: 2691: 2683: 2679: 2671: 2667: 2662:Wayback Machine 2648: 2644: 2636: 2632: 2624: 2620: 2612: 2608: 2600: 2596: 2588: 2581: 2573: 2569: 2561: 2557: 2549: 2545: 2540: 2536: 2531: 2527: 2522: 2518: 2513: 2509: 2497: 2493: 2486: 2482: 2474: 2470: 2462: 2458: 2450: 2446: 2438: 2434: 2426: 2422: 2414: 2407: 2399: 2395: 2387: 2383: 2375: 2371: 2367:, pp. 44–. 2363: 2359: 2355:, pp. 43–. 2351: 2347: 2343:, pp. 42–. 2339: 2335: 2327:Oriens extremus 2324: 2323: 2319: 2315:, pp. 41–. 2311: 2307: 2303:, pp. 39–. 2299: 2295: 2287: 2283: 2275: 2271: 2263: 2259: 2252: 2238: 2237: 2233: 2225: 2221: 2213: 2209: 2201: 2197: 2189: 2185: 2177: 2170: 2162: 2155: 2148: 2132: 2128: 2124:, pp. 84–. 2120: 2116: 2108: 2104: 2096: 2092: 2084: 2080: 2072: 2063: 2055: 2051: 2043: 2039: 2034:Wayback Machine 2020: 2016: 2011: 2006: 1964: 1945:Imperial Family 1880: 1835: 1833:Banner soldiers 1714: 1708: 1693:鑲藍旗 xiānglánqí 1687: 1685: 1683: 1677: 1675: 1673: 1648:正藍旗 zhènglánqí 1642: 1640: 1638: 1632: 1630: 1628: 1597: 1595: 1593: 1587: 1585: 1583: 1558:鑲白旗 xiāngbáiqí 1552: 1550: 1548: 1542: 1540: 1538: 1507: 1505: 1503: 1497: 1495: 1493: 1468:正白旗 zhèngbáiqí 1462: 1460: 1458: 1452: 1450: 1448: 1417: 1415: 1413: 1407: 1405: 1403: 1372: 1370: 1368: 1362: 1360: 1358: 1357: 1178: 1177: 1176: 1174: 1169: 1159: 1150: 1141:Jahriyya revolt 1077:Boxer Rebellion 1069:Boxer Rebellion 1010: 971: 965: 925: 893:Shunzhi Emperor 835:Shunzhi Emperor 770: 731: 722: 697: 691: 675: 667:Main articles: 665: 626: 612: 607: 534: 532: 490: 411: 280: 279: 278: 275:Manchu alphabet 265:Without proper 256: 252: 247: 235:Boxer Rebellion 233: 229: 225: 223:First Opium War 221: 217: 213: 191: 177: 173: 169: 155: 135: 133: 119: 112: 101: 95: 92: 55:"Eight Banners" 49: 47: 37: 25: 12: 11: 5: 5633: 5623: 5622: 5617: 5612: 5595: 5594: 5592: 5591: 5586: 5581: 5576: 5571: 5566: 5561: 5556: 5551: 5544: 5537: 5532: 5527: 5522: 5516: 5514: 5510: 5509: 5506: 5505: 5503: 5502: 5497: 5492: 5486: 5484: 5478: 5477: 5475: 5474: 5469: 5464: 5459: 5454: 5452:Kangxi Tongbao 5449: 5443: 5441: 5432: 5428: 5427: 5425: 5424: 5423: 5422: 5417: 5412: 5407: 5402: 5397: 5392: 5387: 5382: 5377: 5372: 5367: 5362: 5357: 5352: 5347: 5342: 5337: 5332: 5327: 5325:Boxer Protocol 5317: 5312: 5306: 5304: 5297: 5296: 5294: 5293: 5292: 5291: 5277: 5272: 5267: 5262: 5255: 5250: 5243: 5238: 5233: 5226: 5219: 5214: 5209: 5204: 5197: 5190: 5185: 5184: 5183: 5173: 5168: 5161: 5156: 5150: 5148: 5142: 5141: 5139: 5138: 5133: 5128: 5123: 5118: 5113: 5108: 5103: 5098: 5093: 5091:Forbidden City 5088: 5082: 5080: 5074: 5073: 5071: 5070: 5069: 5068: 5058: 5057: 5056: 5054:General of Ili 5051: 5041: 5040: 5039: 5037:List of ambans 5034: 5024: 5023: 5022: 5012: 5007: 5001: 4999: 4995: 4994: 4992: 4991: 4986: 4985: 4984: 4979: 4974: 4964: 4959: 4954: 4949: 4944: 4939: 4934: 4929: 4924: 4919: 4914: 4908: 4906: 4900: 4899: 4897: 4896: 4891: 4890: 4889: 4884: 4879: 4874: 4869: 4864: 4859: 4854: 4849: 4839: 4834: 4833: 4832: 4822: 4817: 4812: 4807: 4802: 4797: 4792: 4787: 4782: 4777: 4772: 4767: 4762: 4757: 4752: 4747: 4742: 4737: 4732: 4727: 4722: 4721: 4720: 4715: 4704: 4702: 4696: 4695: 4692: 4691: 4689: 4688: 4683: 4678: 4677: 4676: 4671: 4666: 4661: 4656: 4646: 4641: 4636: 4631: 4630: 4629: 4624: 4614: 4609: 4604: 4598: 4596: 4591: 4587: 4586: 4584: 4583: 4582: 4581: 4571: 4570: 4569: 4559: 4554: 4549: 4544: 4539: 4534: 4529: 4524: 4519: 4514: 4509: 4504: 4502:Margary Affair 4499: 4494: 4492:Mudan incident 4489: 4484: 4479: 4474: 4469: 4464: 4459: 4454: 4449: 4444: 4439: 4434: 4432:Nian Rebellion 4429: 4424: 4419: 4414: 4408: 4406: 4401: 4397: 4396: 4394: 4393: 4388: 4383: 4378: 4373: 4368: 4363: 4358: 4353: 4348: 4343: 4338: 4333: 4328: 4323: 4317: 4315: 4310: 4304: 4303: 4301: 4300: 4295: 4294: 4293: 4283: 4282: 4281: 4271: 4266: 4261: 4256: 4251: 4245: 4243: 4238: 4231: 4225: 4224: 4216: 4215: 4208: 4201: 4193: 4184: 4183: 4180: 4179: 4177: 4176: 4171: 4166: 4161: 4156: 4151: 4145: 4143: 4139: 4138: 4136: 4135: 4130: 4125: 4119: 4117: 4110: 4106: 4105: 4103: 4102: 4097: 4092: 4087: 4084: 4081: 4079:Emperor (Khan) 4075: 4073: 4069: 4068: 4066: 4065: 4057: 4049: 4041: 4033: 4025: 4016: 4014: 4010: 4009: 4006: 4005: 4003: 4002: 3997: 3992: 3987: 3982: 3976: 3974: 3970: 3969: 3967: 3966: 3961: 3956: 3950: 3948: 3941: 3937: 3936: 3929: 3928: 3921: 3914: 3906: 3897: 3896: 3891: 3874: 3856: 3851: 3834: 3827: 3822: 3809: 3805:978-0674054097 3804: 3785: 3780: 3763: 3733: 3730: 3728: 3727: 3708: 3707: 3706: 3701: 3679: 3664: 3659: 3642: 3637: 3617: 3612: 3593: 3588: 3568: 3557: 3552: 3537: 3532: 3515: 3510: 3497: 3491: 3476: 3471: 3454: 3449: 3430: 3425: 3406: 3395: 3390: 3370: 3368: 3365: 3362: 3361: 3348: 3339: 3330: 3323: 3303: 3291: 3279: 3277:, p. 325. 3267: 3265:, p. 331. 3255: 3253:, p. 324. 3243: 3208: 3203:"此博客只允许博主自己查看" 3194: 3180: 3166: 3154: 3152:, p. 128. 3142: 3130: 3116: 3085: 3078: 3043: 3024: 3001: 2982: 2958: 2935: 2916:, ed. (1943). 2905: 2889: 2877: 2870: 2850: 2843: 2820: 2811: 2795: 2789:978-0231511674 2788: 2768: 2756: 2746: 2737: 2728: 2721: 2701: 2689: 2687:, p. 174. 2677: 2675:, p. 683. 2665: 2642: 2630: 2618: 2606: 2594: 2579: 2567: 2555: 2543: 2534: 2525: 2516: 2507: 2491: 2480: 2468: 2456: 2444: 2432: 2420: 2405: 2393: 2381: 2369: 2357: 2345: 2333: 2317: 2305: 2293: 2281: 2269: 2257: 2250: 2231: 2229:, p. 175. 2219: 2217:, p. 146. 2207: 2205:, p. 141. 2195: 2183: 2168: 2153: 2146: 2126: 2114: 2102: 2090: 2078: 2061: 2049: 2037: 2013: 2012: 2010: 2007: 2005: 2002: 2001: 2000: 1995: 1990: 1985: 1980: 1975: 1970: 1963: 1960: 1959: 1958: 1952: 1938: 1933:– grandson of 1931:Zheng Keshuang 1928: 1923: 1917: 1914:Geng Zhongming 1911: 1901: 1891: 1879: 1876: 1850:, followed by 1834: 1831: 1771:Kangxi emperor 1710:Main article: 1707: 1704: 1701: 1700: 1697: 1694: 1691: 1681: 1671: 1666: 1656: 1655: 1652: 1649: 1646: 1636: 1626: 1621: 1611: 1610: 1607: 1604: 1601: 1591: 1581: 1576: 1566: 1565: 1562: 1559: 1556: 1546: 1536: 1531: 1521: 1520: 1517: 1514: 1511: 1501: 1491: 1486: 1476: 1475: 1472: 1469: 1466: 1456: 1446: 1441: 1431: 1430: 1427: 1424: 1421: 1411: 1401: 1396: 1386: 1385: 1382: 1379: 1376: 1366: 1355: 1350: 1340: 1339: 1336: 1333: 1330: 1327: 1324: 1321: 1313: 1312: 1307: 1302: 1296: 1295: 1292: 1289: 1252:constituted a 1171: 1170: 1163: 1162: 1161: 1149: 1146: 1112:to be Manchu. 1026:Nian Rebellion 1009: 1006: 1002:Burma campaign 983:Zheng Keshuang 967:Main article: 964: 961: 924: 921: 839:Forbidden City 693:Main article: 690: 687: 664: 661: 611: 608: 606: 603: 556:Jurchen people 475: 474: 471: 470: 467: 461: 460: 455: 449: 448: 444: 443: 440: 439: 436:naiman khoshuu 432: 426: 425: 424:Transcriptions 417: 416: 412:ᠨᠠᠶᠢᠮᠠᠨ ᠬᠣᠰᠢᠭᠤ 407: 401: 400: 393: 387: 386: 385:Mongolian name 382: 381: 378: 377: 370: 361: 360: 354: 353: 346: 340: 339: 332: 326: 325: 319: 318: 317:Transcriptions 310: 309: 302: 296: 295: 291: 290: 287: 286: 269:, you may see 257: 250: 249: 248: 245: 242: 241: 208: 207: 202: 186: 182: 181: 164: 160: 159: 150: 146: 145: 130: 126: 125: 117: 114: 113: 28: 26: 19: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 5632: 5621: 5618: 5616: 5615:Eight Banners 5613: 5611: 5608: 5607: 5605: 5590: 5587: 5585: 5582: 5580: 5577: 5575: 5572: 5570: 5567: 5565: 5564:Manchu people 5562: 5560: 5557: 5555: 5552: 5550: 5549: 5545: 5543: 5542: 5538: 5536: 5533: 5531: 5530:Canton System 5528: 5526: 5523: 5521: 5518: 5517: 5515: 5511: 5501: 5498: 5496: 5495:Hubu Guanpiao 5493: 5491: 5488: 5487: 5485: 5483: 5479: 5473: 5470: 5468: 5465: 5463: 5460: 5458: 5455: 5453: 5450: 5448: 5445: 5444: 5442: 5440: 5436: 5433: 5429: 5421: 5418: 5416: 5413: 5411: 5408: 5406: 5403: 5401: 5398: 5396: 5393: 5391: 5388: 5386: 5383: 5381: 5378: 5376: 5373: 5371: 5368: 5366: 5363: 5361: 5358: 5356: 5353: 5351: 5348: 5346: 5343: 5341: 5338: 5336: 5333: 5331: 5328: 5326: 5323: 5322: 5321: 5318: 5316: 5313: 5311: 5308: 5307: 5305: 5302: 5298: 5290: 5289: 5285: 5284: 5283: 5282: 5278: 5276: 5273: 5271: 5268: 5266: 5263: 5261: 5260: 5256: 5254: 5251: 5249: 5248: 5244: 5242: 5239: 5237: 5234: 5232: 5231: 5227: 5225: 5224: 5220: 5218: 5215: 5213: 5210: 5208: 5205: 5203: 5202: 5198: 5196: 5195: 5191: 5189: 5186: 5182: 5179: 5178: 5177: 5174: 5172: 5169: 5167: 5166: 5162: 5160: 5157: 5155: 5152: 5151: 5149: 5145:Society & 5143: 5137: 5134: 5132: 5129: 5127: 5124: 5122: 5119: 5117: 5114: 5112: 5111:Summer Palace 5109: 5107: 5104: 5102: 5101:Mukden Palace 5099: 5097: 5094: 5092: 5089: 5087: 5084: 5083: 5081: 5077:Palaces & 5075: 5067: 5064: 5063: 5062: 5059: 5055: 5052: 5050: 5047: 5046: 5045: 5042: 5038: 5035: 5033: 5030: 5029: 5028: 5025: 5021: 5018: 5017: 5016: 5013: 5011: 5008: 5006: 5003: 5002: 5000: 4996: 4990: 4987: 4983: 4980: 4978: 4975: 4973: 4970: 4969: 4968: 4965: 4963: 4960: 4958: 4955: 4953: 4950: 4948: 4945: 4943: 4940: 4938: 4935: 4933: 4930: 4928: 4925: 4923: 4920: 4918: 4917:Eight Banners 4915: 4913: 4910: 4909: 4907: 4905: 4901: 4895: 4892: 4888: 4885: 4883: 4880: 4878: 4875: 4873: 4870: 4868: 4865: 4863: 4860: 4858: 4855: 4853: 4850: 4848: 4845: 4844: 4843: 4840: 4838: 4835: 4831: 4828: 4827: 4826: 4823: 4821: 4818: 4816: 4813: 4811: 4808: 4806: 4803: 4801: 4798: 4796: 4793: 4791: 4788: 4786: 4783: 4781: 4778: 4776: 4773: 4771: 4770:Grand Council 4768: 4766: 4763: 4761: 4758: 4756: 4753: 4751: 4748: 4746: 4743: 4741: 4738: 4736: 4733: 4731: 4728: 4726: 4723: 4719: 4716: 4714: 4711: 4710: 4709: 4706: 4705: 4703: 4701: 4697: 4687: 4684: 4682: 4679: 4675: 4672: 4670: 4667: 4665: 4662: 4660: 4657: 4655: 4652: 4651: 4650: 4647: 4645: 4642: 4640: 4637: 4635: 4632: 4628: 4625: 4623: 4620: 4619: 4618: 4615: 4613: 4610: 4608: 4605: 4603: 4600: 4599: 4597: 4590:20th century 4588: 4580: 4577: 4576: 4575: 4572: 4568: 4565: 4564: 4563: 4560: 4558: 4555: 4553: 4550: 4548: 4545: 4543: 4540: 4538: 4535: 4533: 4530: 4528: 4525: 4523: 4520: 4518: 4515: 4513: 4510: 4508: 4505: 4503: 4500: 4498: 4495: 4493: 4490: 4488: 4485: 4483: 4480: 4478: 4475: 4473: 4470: 4468: 4465: 4463: 4460: 4458: 4455: 4453: 4450: 4448: 4445: 4443: 4440: 4438: 4435: 4433: 4430: 4428: 4425: 4423: 4420: 4418: 4415: 4413: 4410: 4409: 4407: 4400:19th century 4398: 4392: 4389: 4387: 4384: 4382: 4379: 4377: 4374: 4372: 4369: 4367: 4364: 4362: 4359: 4357: 4354: 4352: 4349: 4347: 4344: 4342: 4339: 4337: 4334: 4332: 4329: 4327: 4324: 4322: 4319: 4318: 4316: 4309: 4305: 4299: 4296: 4292: 4289: 4288: 4287: 4284: 4280: 4277: 4276: 4275: 4272: 4270: 4267: 4265: 4262: 4260: 4257: 4255: 4252: 4250: 4247: 4246: 4244: 4235: 4232: 4230: 4226: 4221: 4214: 4209: 4207: 4202: 4200: 4195: 4194: 4191: 4175: 4172: 4170: 4167: 4165: 4162: 4160: 4157: 4155: 4152: 4150: 4147: 4146: 4144: 4140: 4134: 4131: 4129: 4126: 4124: 4121: 4120: 4118: 4114: 4111: 4107: 4101: 4100:Banner slaves 4098: 4096: 4093: 4091: 4088: 4085: 4082: 4080: 4077: 4076: 4074: 4070: 4061: 4058: 4053: 4050: 4045: 4042: 4037: 4034: 4029: 4026: 4021: 4018: 4017: 4015: 4011: 4001: 3998: 3996: 3993: 3991: 3988: 3986: 3983: 3981: 3978: 3977: 3975: 3971: 3965: 3962: 3960: 3957: 3955: 3952: 3951: 3949: 3945: 3942: 3938: 3934: 3933:Eight Banners 3927: 3922: 3920: 3915: 3913: 3908: 3907: 3904: 3900: 3894: 3892:0-520-92679-X 3888: 3884: 3880: 3875: 3872: 3868: 3865: 3861: 3857: 3854: 3848: 3844: 3840: 3835: 3832: 3828: 3825: 3819: 3815: 3810: 3807: 3801: 3797: 3793: 3792: 3786: 3783: 3781:0-520-92884-9 3777: 3773: 3769: 3764: 3761: 3757: 3753: 3749: 3746:(2): 63–107, 3745: 3741: 3736: 3735: 3726: 3724: 3723:public domain 3718: 3709: 3704: 3698: 3694: 3690: 3685: 3684: 3682: 3676: 3672: 3671: 3665: 3662: 3660:0-520-04804-0 3656: 3652: 3648: 3643: 3640: 3638:0-02-933680-5 3634: 3630: 3626: 3622: 3618: 3615: 3613:0-393-30780-8 3609: 3605: 3601: 3600: 3594: 3591: 3585: 3581: 3577: 3573: 3569: 3565: 3564: 3558: 3555: 3553:0-295-98040-0 3549: 3545: 3544: 3538: 3535: 3529: 3525: 3521: 3516: 3513: 3507: 3503: 3498: 3494: 3488: 3484: 3483: 3477: 3474: 3472:0-674-01828-1 3468: 3464: 3460: 3455: 3452: 3450:9780520230156 3446: 3442: 3438: 3437: 3431: 3428: 3426:9780804746847 3422: 3418: 3414: 3413: 3407: 3403: 3402: 3396: 3393: 3391:9780691008776 3387: 3383: 3379: 3378: 3372: 3371: 3358: 3352: 3343: 3334: 3326: 3320: 3316: 3315: 3307: 3301:, p. 14. 3300: 3299:Crossley 1990 3295: 3288: 3287:Walthall 2008 3283: 3276: 3271: 3264: 3259: 3252: 3247: 3239: 3226: 3218: 3212: 3204: 3198: 3190: 3184: 3176: 3170: 3163: 3162:Crossley 1999 3158: 3151: 3150:Crossley 1999 3146: 3140:, p. 84. 3139: 3134: 3126: 3120: 3106:on 2016-02-01 3102: 3095: 3094:"jds.cass.cn" 3089: 3081: 3075: 3071: 3070: 3062: 3061: 3054: 3053: 3046: 3040: 3036: 3035: 3027: 3021: 3017: 3016: 3009: 3004: 2998: 2994: 2993: 2985: 2979: 2975: 2974: 2967: 2966:Crossley 1999 2962: 2954: 2950: 2946: 2939: 2931: 2927: 2926: 2920: 2915: 2909: 2901: 2900: 2893: 2886: 2885:Crossley 1999 2881: 2873: 2867: 2863: 2862: 2854: 2846: 2840: 2836: 2835: 2827: 2825: 2815: 2807: 2806: 2799: 2791: 2785: 2781: 2780: 2772: 2766:, p. 79. 2765: 2760: 2750: 2741: 2732: 2724: 2718: 2714: 2713: 2705: 2699:, p. 80. 2698: 2693: 2686: 2685:Crossley 1990 2681: 2674: 2669: 2663: 2659: 2656: 2652: 2646: 2639: 2638:Crossley 1990 2634: 2627: 2622: 2615: 2610: 2603: 2598: 2591: 2590:Di Cosmo 2007 2586: 2584: 2576: 2575:Di Cosmo 2007 2571: 2564: 2563:Di Cosmo 2007 2559: 2552: 2551:Di Cosmo 2007 2547: 2538: 2529: 2520: 2511: 2504: 2500: 2499:Walthall 2008 2495: 2489: 2484: 2477: 2472: 2465: 2460: 2453: 2452:Walthall 2008 2448: 2441: 2436: 2429: 2424: 2417: 2412: 2410: 2402: 2397: 2390: 2385: 2378: 2373: 2366: 2361: 2354: 2349: 2342: 2337: 2329: 2328: 2321: 2314: 2309: 2302: 2297: 2290: 2289:Di Cosmo 2007 2285: 2278: 2277:Di Cosmo 2007 2273: 2266: 2265:Di Cosmo 2007 2261: 2253: 2247: 2243: 2242: 2235: 2228: 2223: 2216: 2211: 2204: 2199: 2192: 2187: 2181:, p. 30. 2180: 2175: 2173: 2165: 2164:Di Cosmo 2007 2160: 2158: 2149: 2143: 2139: 2138: 2130: 2123: 2118: 2112:, p. 43. 2111: 2106: 2099: 2094: 2087: 2082: 2076:, p. 59. 2075: 2070: 2068: 2066: 2059:, p. 54. 2058: 2053: 2046: 2041: 2035: 2031: 2028: 2024: 2018: 2014: 1999: 1996: 1994: 1991: 1989: 1986: 1984: 1981: 1979: 1976: 1974: 1971: 1969: 1966: 1965: 1956: 1953: 1950: 1946: 1943: 1939: 1936: 1932: 1929: 1927: 1924: 1921: 1918: 1915: 1912: 1909: 1905: 1902: 1899: 1895: 1892: 1889: 1885: 1882: 1881: 1875: 1873: 1869: 1868:Yangtze River 1865: 1861: 1857: 1853: 1849: 1839: 1830: 1826: 1823: 1818: 1815: 1813: 1808: 1806: 1802: 1796: 1793: 1791: 1787: 1783: 1779: 1774: 1772: 1768: 1764: 1760: 1756: 1750: 1746: 1744: 1740: 1736: 1732: 1728: 1724: 1720: 1713: 1698: 1695: 1692: 1682: 1672: 1670: 1667: 1662: 1658: 1657: 1653: 1650: 1647: 1637: 1627: 1625: 1622: 1617: 1613: 1612: 1608: 1605: 1602: 1592: 1582: 1580: 1577: 1572: 1568: 1567: 1563: 1560: 1557: 1547: 1537: 1535: 1532: 1527: 1523: 1522: 1518: 1515: 1512: 1502: 1492: 1490: 1487: 1482: 1478: 1477: 1473: 1470: 1467: 1457: 1447: 1445: 1442: 1437: 1433: 1432: 1428: 1425: 1422: 1412: 1402: 1400: 1397: 1392: 1388: 1387: 1383: 1380: 1377: 1367: 1356: 1354: 1351: 1346: 1342: 1341: 1337: 1334: 1331: 1328: 1325: 1322: 1319: 1318: 1308: 1303: 1298: 1297: 1293: 1290: 1287: 1286: 1283: 1277: 1273: 1267: 1259: 1255: 1251: 1243: 1239: 1233: 1225: 1221: 1217: 1213: 1205: 1201: 1195: 1187: 1183: 1173: 1167: 1160: 1157: 1155: 1145: 1142: 1138: 1134: 1130: 1126: 1120: 1118: 1113: 1111: 1106: 1103: 1098: 1096: 1092: 1088: 1086: 1082: 1078: 1070: 1065: 1061: 1059: 1055: 1053: 1052: 1047: 1043: 1039: 1035: 1031: 1027: 1023: 1018: 1015: 1008:Later history 1005: 1003: 999: 994: 992: 988: 984: 980: 976: 970: 960: 956: 954: 950: 942: 937: 929: 920: 917: 913: 908: 906: 902: 897: 894: 885: 881: 877: 874: 870: 866: 862: 858: 854: 851: 847: 846:Central Plain 842: 840: 836: 832: 828: 824: 820: 816: 812: 807: 804: 798: 794: 788: 780: 776: 766: 758: 754: 748: 740: 736: 727: 718: 714: 709: 707: 703: 696: 686: 684: 680: 674: 670: 660: 654: 650: 644: 636: 632: 622: 616: 610:Establishment 602: 600: 596: 592: 588: 584: 580: 576: 571: 569: 565: 561: 557: 553: 549: 545: 541: 529: 525: 519: 515: 509: 504: 499: 495: 486: 482: 481:Eight Banners 472: 468: 466: 462: 456: 454: 453:Manchu script 450: 445: 433: 431: 427: 422: 418: 408: 406: 402: 394: 392: 388: 383: 371: 369: 366: 362: 359: 355: 347: 345: 341: 333: 331: 327: 324: 320: 315: 311: 303: 301: 297: 292: 288: 285:Eight Banners 283: 276: 272: 268: 264: 262: 246:Military unit 240: 237: 236: 232: 228: 224: 220: 216: 212: 206: 203: 201: 198: 197: 196: 195: 190: 187: 183: 180: 176: 172: 168: 165: 161: 158: 154: 151: 147: 143: 131: 127: 124:Eight Banners 122: 110: 107: 99: 88: 85: 81: 78: 74: 71: 67: 64: 60: 57: – 56: 52: 51:Find sources: 45: 41: 35: 34: 29:This article 27: 23: 18: 17: 5584:Treaty ports 5546: 5539: 5513:Other topics 5286: 5279: 5257: 5245: 5228: 5223:Peiwen Yunfu 5221: 5199: 5192: 5163: 4916: 4912:Beiyang Army 4894:Zongli Yamen 4750:Da-Qing Bank 4567:Red Lanterns 4220:Qing dynasty 4086:Feudal lords 4083:Banner lords 4060:Prince Zheng 4044:Prince Keqin 3932: 3898: 3878: 3859: 3842: 3830: 3813: 3790: 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