Electromagnetic radiation

1475:). Both wave and particle characteristics have been confirmed in many experiments. Wave characteristics are more apparent when EM radiation is measured over relatively large timescales and over large distances while particle characteristics are more evident when measuring small timescales and distances. For example, when electromagnetic radiation is absorbed by matter, particle-like properties will be more obvious when the average number of photons in the cube of the relevant wavelength is much smaller than 1. It is not so difficult to experimentally observe non-uniform deposition of energy when light is absorbed, however this alone is not evidence of "particulate" behavior. Rather, it reflects the quantum nature of 2034:, of the light. Furthermore, below a certain minimum frequency, which depended on the particular metal, no current would flow regardless of the intensity. These observations appeared to contradict the wave theory, and for years physicists tried in vain to find an explanation. In 1905, Einstein explained this puzzle by resurrecting the particle theory of light to explain the observed effect. Because of the preponderance of evidence in favor of the wave theory, however, Einstein's ideas were met initially with great skepticism among established physicists. Eventually Einstein's explanation was accepted as new particle-like behavior of light was observed, such as the 2871: 1525: 1260: 2279: 9588: 68: 6420:; p319: "For historical reasons, different portions of the EM spectrum are given different names, although they are all the same kind of thing. Visible light constitutes a narrow range of the spectrum, from wavelengths of about 400-800 nm.... ;p 320 "An electromagnetic wave carries forward momentum... If the radiation is absorbed by a surface, the momentum drops to zero and a force is exerted on the surface... Thus the radiation pressure of an electromagnetic wave is (formula)." 33: 1188: 2394: 1740:. Two main classes of solutions are known, namely plane waves and spherical waves. The plane waves may be viewed as the limiting case of spherical waves at a very large (ideally infinite) distance from the source. Both types of waves can have a waveform which is an arbitrary time function (so long as it is sufficiently differentiable to conform to the wave equation). As with any time function, this can be decomposed by means of 2405: 3037:

effects are those due to radiation power alone, acting through heating when radiation is absorbed. For these thermal effects, frequency is important as it affects the intensity of the radiation and penetration into the organism (for example, microwaves penetrate better than infrared). It is widely accepted that low frequency fields that are too weak to cause significant heating could not possibly have any biological effect.

5024: 8757: 9920: 2057:(one that is on average farther from the nucleus). When an electron in an excited molecule or atom descends to a lower energy level, it emits a photon of light at a frequency corresponding to the energy difference. Since the energy levels of electrons in atoms are discrete, each element and each molecule emits and absorbs its own characteristic frequencies. Immediate photon emission is called 4341: 4781: 2113:, which is seen when an emitting gas glows due to excitation of the atoms from any mechanism, including heat. As electrons descend to lower energy levels, a spectrum is emitted that represents the jumps between the energy levels of the electrons, but lines are seen because again emission happens only at particular energies after excitation. An example is the 5632: 2805:(eV) corresponding with wavelengths smaller than 124 nm (some sources suggest a more realistic cutoff of 33 eV, which is the energy required to ionize water). This high end of the ultraviolet spectrum with energies in the approximate ionization range, is sometimes called "extreme UV." Ionizing UV is strongly filtered by the Earth's atmosphere. 5983: 4184: 2641:) results in absorption of the EMR, or else separations of charges that cause generation of new EMR (effective reflection of the EMR). An example is absorption or emission of radio waves by antennas, or absorption of microwaves by water or other molecules with an electric dipole moment, as for example inside a 1390: 4142: 6191:

From the viewpoint of an electromagnetic wave traveling forward, the electric field might be oscillating up and down, while the magnetic field oscillates right and left. This picture can be rotated with the electric field oscillating right and left and the magnetic field oscillating down and up. This

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The inverse or time-reversed process of absorption is thermal radiation. Much of the thermal energy in matter consists of random motion of charged particles, and this energy can be radiated away from the matter. The resulting radiation may subsequently be absorbed by another piece of matter, with the

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vector describes the energy flow...;" p 440: ... the electromagnetic wave must have the following properties: 1) The field pattern travels with speed c (speed of light); 2) At every point within the wave... the electric field strength E equals "c" times the magnetic field strength B; 3) The electric

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is the study of the interactions and effects of EM radiation on living organisms. The effects of electromagnetic radiation upon living cells, including those in humans, depends upon the radiation's power and frequency. For low-frequency radiation (radio waves to near ultraviolet) the best-understood

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Ionizing radiation creates high-speed electrons in a material and breaks chemical bonds, but after these electrons collide many times with other atoms eventually most of the energy becomes thermal energy all in a tiny fraction of a second. This process makes ionizing radiation far more dangerous per

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Like radio and microwave, infrared (IR) also is reflected by metals (and also most EMR, well into the ultraviolet range). However, unlike lower-frequency radio and microwave radiation, Infrared EMR commonly interacts with dipoles present in single molecules, which change as atoms vibrate at the ends

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Together, wave and particle effects fully explain the emission and absorption spectra of EM radiation. The matter-composition of the medium through which the light travels determines the nature of the absorption and emission spectrum. These bands correspond to the allowed energy levels in the atoms.

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with which they interact. Electromagnetic radiation is associated with those EM waves that are free to propagate themselves ("radiate") without the continuing influence of the moving charges that produced them, because they have achieved sufficient distance from those charges. Thus, EMR is sometimes

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More general forms of the second-order wave equations given above are available, allowing for both non-vacuum propagation media and sources. Many competing derivations exist, all with varying levels of approximation and intended applications. One very general example is a form of the electric field

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involves charged particles bound together. When electromagnetic radiation impinges on matter, it causes the charged particles to oscillate and gain energy. The ultimate fate of this energy depends on the context. It could be immediately re-radiated and appear as scattered, reflected, or transmitted

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measured their wavelengths, finding that they were similar to X-rays but with shorter wavelengths and higher frequency, although a 'cross-over' between X and gamma rays makes it possible to have X-rays with a higher energy (and hence shorter wavelength) than gamma rays and vice versa. The origin of

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formulation of the electric and magnetic fields due to motion of a single particle (according to Maxwell's equations), the terms associated with acceleration of the particle are those that are responsible for the part of the field that is regarded as electromagnetic radiation. By contrast, the term

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electromagnetic radiation. The far fields propagate (radiate) without allowing the transmitter to affect them. This causes them to be independent in the sense that their existence and their energy, after they have left the transmitter, is completely independent of both transmitter and receiver. Due

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can be characterized by either its frequency of oscillation or its wavelength. Electromagnetic waves of different frequency are called by different names since they have different sources and effects on matter. In order of increasing frequency and decreasing wavelength, the electromagnetic spectrum

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qualify. These are capable of the most severe types of molecular damage, which can happen in biology to any type of biomolecule, including mutation and cancer, and often at great depths below the skin, since the higher end of the X-ray spectrum, and all of the gamma ray spectrum, penetrate matter.

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is usually considered a form of heat, since it has an equivalent temperature and is associated with an entropy change per unit of thermal energy. However, "heat" is a technical term in physics and thermodynamics and is often confused with thermal energy. Any type of electromagnetic energy can be

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for ionizing radiations at far ultraviolet, X-ray and gamma radiation), absorbed electromagnetic radiation simply deposits its energy by heating the material. This happens for infrared, microwave and radio wave radiation. Intense radio waves can thermally burn living tissue and can cook food. In

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Interference is the superposition of two or more waves resulting in a new wave pattern. If the fields have components in the same direction, they constructively interfere, while opposite directions cause destructive interference. Additionally, multiple polarization signals can be combined (i.e.

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Electromagnetic waves can be imagined as a self-propagating transverse oscillating wave of electric and magnetic fields. This 3D animation shows a plane linearly polarized wave propagating from left to right. The electric and magnetic fields in such a wave are in-phase with each other, reaching

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Infrared radiation is divided into spectral subregions. While different subdivision schemes exist, the spectrum is commonly divided as near-infrared (0.75–1.4 μm), short-wavelength infrared (1.4–3 μm), mid-wavelength infrared (3–8 μm), long-wavelength infrared (8–15 μm) and

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developed equations for the electromagnetic field which suggested that waves in the field would travel with a speed that was very close to the known speed of light. Maxwell therefore suggested that visible light (as well as invisible infrared and ultraviolet rays by inference) all consisted of

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At higher frequencies (some of visible and beyond), the effects of individual photons begin to become important, as these now have enough energy individually to directly or indirectly damage biological molecules. All UV frequencies have been classed as Group 1 carcinogens by the World Health

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The behavior of EM radiation and its interaction with matter depends on its frequency, and changes qualitatively as the frequency changes. Lower frequencies have longer wavelengths, and higher frequencies have shorter wavelengths, and are associated with photons of higher energy. There is no

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in 1887, using electrical circuits calculated to produce oscillations at a much lower frequency than that of visible light, following recipes for producing oscillating charges and currents suggested by Maxwell's equations. Hertz also developed ways to detect these waves, and produced and

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that is free of the transmitter, in the sense that the transmitter requires the same power to send changes in the field out regardless of whether anything absorbs the signal, e.g. a radio station does not need to increase its power when more receivers use the signal. This far part of the

3996: 5019:{\displaystyle \Box =\nabla ^{2}-{\frac {1}{{c_{0}}^{2}}}{\frac {\partial ^{2}}{\partial t^{2}}}={\frac {\partial ^{2}}{\partial x^{2}}}+{\frac {\partial ^{2}}{\partial y^{2}}}+{\frac {\partial ^{2}}{\partial z^{2}}}-{\frac {1}{{c_{0}}^{2}}}{\frac {\partial ^{2}}{\partial t^{2}}}\ } 3895: 5842: 2748:

Visible light is able to affect only a tiny percentage of all molecules. Usually not in a permanent or damaging way, rather the photon excites an electron which then emits another photon when returning to its original position. This is the source of color produced by most dyes.

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in materials (including living tissue). Since such radiation can severely damage life at energy levels that produce little heating, it is considered far more dangerous (in terms of damage-produced per unit of energy, or power) than the rest of the electromagnetic spectrum.

2790:, this causes lasting damage. DNA is also indirectly damaged by reactive oxygen species produced by ultraviolet A (UVA), which has energy too low to damage DNA directly. This is why ultraviolet at all wavelengths can damage DNA, and is capable of causing cancer, and (for 2100:

are due to the atoms in an intervening medium between source and observer. The atoms absorb certain frequencies of the light between emitter and detector/eye, then emit them in all directions. A dark band appears to the detector, due to the radiation scattered out of the

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preparations more quickly than did the nearby violet light. Ritter's experiments were an early precursor to what would become photography. Ritter noted that the ultraviolet rays (which at first were called "chemical rays") were capable of causing chemical reactions.

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of a single chemical bond. It is consequently absorbed by a wide range of substances, causing them to increase in temperature as the vibrations dissipate as heat. The same process, run in reverse, causes bulk substances to radiate in the infrared spontaneously (see

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Absorption bands in the infrared are due to modes of vibrational excitation in water vapor. However, at energies too low to excite water vapor, the atmosphere becomes transparent again, allowing free transmission of most microwave and radio waves.

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Thus, at UV frequencies and higher, electromagnetic radiation does more damage to biological systems than simple heating predicts. This is most obvious in the "far" (or "extreme") ultraviolet. UV, with X-ray and gamma radiation, are referred to as

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unit of energy than non-ionizing radiation. This caveat also applies to UV, even though almost all of it is not ionizing, because UV can damage molecules due to electronic excitation, which is far greater per unit energy than heating effects.

5671: 4723: 4336:{\displaystyle \nabla \times \left(-{\frac {\partial \mathbf {B} }{\partial t}}\right)=-{\frac {\partial }{\partial t}}\left(\nabla \times \mathbf {B} \right)=-\mu _{0}\varepsilon _{0}{\frac {\partial ^{2}\mathbf {E} }{\partial t^{2}}}} 1666:

unit of frequency, where one hertz is equal to one oscillation per second. Light usually has multiple frequencies that sum to form the resultant wave. Different frequencies undergo different angles of refraction, a phenomenon known as

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electromagnetic fields (including weak ELF magnetic fields, although the latter does not strictly qualify as EM radiation) and modulated RF and microwave fields can have biological effects, though the significance of this is unclear.

1678:. Waves of the electromagnetic spectrum vary in size, from very long radio waves longer than a continent to very short gamma rays smaller than atom nuclei. Frequency is inversely proportional to wavelength, according to the equation: 6183:

on one side of these equations results in first-order spatial derivatives of the wave solution, while the time-derivative on the other side of the equations, which gives the other field, is first-order in time, resulting in the same

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of electromagnetic spectrum are produced. In homogeneous, isotropic media, the oscillations of the two fields are on average perpendicular to each other and perpendicular to the direction of energy and wave propagation, forming a

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far-fields in free space, which as wave solutions depend primarily on these two Maxwell equations, are in-phase with each other. This is guaranteed since the generic wave solution is first order in both space and time, and the

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associated with the changing static electric field of the particle and the magnetic term that results from the particle's uniform velocity are both associated with the near field, and do not comprise electromagnetic radiation.

1156:. The effect of non-ionizing radiation on chemical systems and living tissue is primarily simply heating, through the combined energy transfer of many photons. In contrast, high frequency ultraviolet, X-rays and gamma rays are 3808: 1372:

transport a conserved amount of energy over distances but instead fades with distance, with its energy (as noted) rapidly returning to the transmitter or absorbed by a nearby receiver (such as a transformer secondary coil).

2827:. (Many other kinds of ionizing radiation are made of non-EM particles). Electromagnetic-type ionizing radiation extends from the extreme ultraviolet to all higher frequencies and shorter wavelengths, which means that all 5438: 7483: 1333:) on the source. The near field does not propagate freely into space, carrying energy away without a distance limit, but rather oscillates, returning its energy to the transmitter if it is not absorbed by a receiver. 5627:{\displaystyle \nabla ^{2}f{\left({\hat {\mathbf {k} }}\cdot \mathbf {x} -c_{0}t\right)}={\frac {1}{{c_{0}}^{2}}}{\frac {\partial ^{2}}{\partial t^{2}}}f{\left({\hat {\mathbf {k} }}\cdot \mathbf {x} -c_{0}t\right)},} 1802:

that explained the observed spectrum. Planck's theory was based on the idea that black bodies emit light (and other electromagnetic radiation) only as discrete bundles or packets of energy. These packets were called

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discovered a third neutrally charged and especially penetrating type of radiation from radium, and after he described it, Rutherford realized it must be yet a third type of radiation, which in 1903 Rutherford named

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Browne, p 376: "Radiation is emitted or absorbed only when the electron jumps from one orbit to the other, and the frequency of radiation depends only upon on the energies of the electron in the initial and final

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Electromagnetic radiation phenomena with wavelengths ranging from as long as one meter to as short as one millimeter are called microwaves; with frequencies between 300 MHz (0.3 GHz) and 300 GHz.

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equation, which was factorized into a pair of explicitly directional wave equations, and then efficiently reduced into a single uni-directional wave equation by means of a simple slow-evolution approximation.

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of the random process. Random electromagnetic radiation requiring this kind of analysis is, for example, encountered in the interior of stars, and in certain other very wideband forms of radiation such as the

2121:. Rapidly moving electrons are most sharply accelerated when they encounter a region of force, so they are responsible for producing much of the highest frequency electromagnetic radiation observed in nature. 1752:. A monochromatic electromagnetic wave can be characterized by its frequency or wavelength, its peak amplitude, its phase relative to some reference phase, its direction of propagation, and its polarization. 2375:

the ray differentiates them, gamma rays tend to be natural phenomena originating from the unstable nucleus of an atom and X-rays are electrically generated (and hence man-made) unless they are as a result of

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These phenomena can aid various chemical determinations for the composition of gases lit from behind (absorption spectra) and for glowing gases (emission spectra). Spectroscopy (for example) determines what

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As frequency increases into the visible range, photons have enough energy to change the bond structure of some individual molecules. It is not a coincidence that this happens in the visible range, as the

2318:. After experimenting with high voltages applied to an evacuated tube on 8 November 1895, he noticed a fluorescence on a nearby plate of coated glass. In one month, he discovered X-rays' main properties. 6522: 1785:

An anomaly arose in the late 19th century involving a contradiction between the wave theory of light and measurements of the electromagnetic spectra that were being emitted by thermal radiators known as

3652: 3613: 5837: 3777: 1543: 3323: 1356:, the amount of power passing through any spherical surface drawn around the source is the same. Because such a surface has an area proportional to the square of its distance from the source, the 5978:{\displaystyle \nabla \times \mathbf {E} ={\hat {\mathbf {k} }}\times \mathbf {E} _{0}f'{\left({\hat {\mathbf {k} }}\cdot \mathbf {x} -c_{0}t\right)}=-{\frac {\partial \mathbf {B} }{\partial t}}} 1757: 1548: 1275:

of power, such that the total energy that crosses through an imaginary sphere surrounding the source is the same regardless of the size of the sphere. Electromagnetic radiation thus reaches the

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The heat ray is an application of EMR that makes use of microwave frequencies to create an unpleasant heating effect in the upper layer of the skin. A publicly known heat ray weapon called the

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fields are also in phase, with both reaching maxima and minima at the same points in space (see illustrations). In the far-field EM radiation which is described by the two source-free Maxwell

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These are only two equations versus the original four, so more information pertains to these waves hidden within Maxwell's equations. A generic vector wave for the electric field has the form

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At the higher end of the ultraviolet range, the energy of photons becomes large enough to impart enough energy to electrons to cause them to be liberated from the atom, in a process called

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in an experiment similar to Herschel's, using sunlight and a glass prism. Ritter noted that invisible rays near the violet edge of a solar spectrum dispersed by a triangular prism darkened

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and perceived as visible light. Other wavelengths, especially nearby infrared (longer than 700 nm) and ultraviolet (shorter than 400 nm) are also sometimes referred to as light.

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The electromagnetic fields of light are not affected by traveling through static electric or magnetic fields in a linear medium such as a vacuum. However, in nonlinear media, such as some

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The source of Einstein's proposal that light was composed of particles (or could act as particles in some circumstances) was an experimental anomaly not explained by the wave theory: the

4484: 3300: 3174: 1311:–type that dies out with distance from the current. In a similar manner, moving charges pushed apart in a conductor by a changing electrical potential (such as in an antenna) produce an 4381: 3544: 6081: 3512: 1710: 1402:. Thus, a field due to any particular particle or time-varying electric or magnetic field contributes to the fields present in the same space due to other causes. Further, as they are 8572: 5663: 5344: 4635: 7346: 2912:

Finally, at radio wavelengths longer than 10 m or so (about 30 MHz), the air in the lower atmosphere remains transparent to radio, but plasma in certain layers of the

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Electromagnetic radiation composed of photons that carry minimum-ionization energy, or more, (which includes the entire spectrum with shorter wavelengths), is therefore termed

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field. Neither of these behaviours is responsible for EM radiation. Instead, they only efficiently transfer energy to a receiver very close to the source, such as inside a

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Cleary, S. F.; Liu, L. M.; Merchant, R. E. (1990). "In vitro lymphocyte proliferation induced by radio-frequency electromagnetic radiation under isothermal conditions".

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prior to the development of Maxwell's electrodynamics, however Maxwell was the first to produce a field theory consistent with waves traveling at the speed of light.

4610: 4137:{\displaystyle \nabla \times \left(\nabla \times \mathbf {E} \right)=\nabla \left(\nabla \cdot \mathbf {E} \right)-\nabla ^{2}\mathbf {E} =-\nabla ^{2}\mathbf {E} .} 1674:

A monochromatic wave (a wave of a single frequency) consists of successive troughs and crests, and the distance between two adjacent crests or troughs is called the

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Infrared, microwaves and radio waves are known to damage molecules and biological tissue only by bulk heating, not excitation from single photons of the radiation.

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At radio and microwave frequencies, EMR interacts with matter largely as a bulk collection of charges which are spread out over large numbers of affected atoms. In

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is a theoretical weapon that delivers heat ray based on electromagnetic energy at levels that are capable of injuring human tissue. An inventor of a death ray,

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which implies that the electric field is orthogonal to the direction the wave propagates. The second of Maxwell's equations yields the magnetic field, namely,

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The electric and magnetic field waves in the far-field travel at the speed of light. They have a special restricted orientation and proportional magnitudes,

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X-radiation caused by the interaction of fast moving particles (such as beta particles) colliding with certain materials, usually of higher atomic numbers.

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is a different solution that is traveling in the same direction. This arbitrariness in the orientation with respect to propagation direction is known as

598: 8801: 6431: 1368:. This is in contrast to dipole parts of the EM field, the near field, which varies in intensity according to an inverse cube power law, and thus does 5785:{\displaystyle \nabla \cdot \mathbf {E} ={\hat {\mathbf {k} }}\cdot \mathbf {E} _{0}f'{\left({\hat {\mathbf {k} }}\cdot \mathbf {x} -c_{0}t\right)}=0} 2222: 610: 8066: 6743:

Chen, Szu-yuan; Maksimchuk, Anatoly; Umstadter, Donald (17 December 1998). "Experimental observation of relativistic nonlinear Thomson scattering".

6458: 5373: 7368: 6974: 6545: 6605: 5797: 9331: 8006: 6140:. The electric field, magnetic field, and direction of wave propagation are all orthogonal, and the wave propagates in the same direction as 3991:{\displaystyle \nabla \times \left(\nabla \times \mathbf {E} \right)=\nabla \times \left(-{\frac {\partial \mathbf {B} }{\partial t}}\right)} 3741: 2357:

through simple experimentation in 1899, but these proved to be charged particulate types of radiation. However, in 1900 the French scientist

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and detected invisible rays that caused heating beyond the red part of the spectrum, through an increase in the temperature recorded with a

1524: 9744: 9561: 1748:, or individual sinusoidal components, each of which contains a single frequency, amplitude and phase. Such a component wave is said to be 9316: 8304: 6919: 1444:

upon entering the new medium. The ratio of the refractive indices of the media determines the degree of refraction, and is summarized by

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begin to block incoming radiowaves from space, when their frequency is less than about 10 MHz (wavelength longer than about 30 m).

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Electromagnetic radiation of wavelengths other than those of visible light were discovered in the early 19th century. The discovery of

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Purcell, p442: "Any number of electromagnetic waves can propagate through the same region without affecting one another. The field

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an electric current on the conductor surface by moving the electrons of the conducting material in correlated bunches of charge.

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is the theory of how EMR interacts with matter on an atomic level. Quantum effects provide additional sources of EMR, such as the

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The electromagnetic radiation in an opaque cavity at thermal equilibrium is effectively a form of thermal energy, having maximum

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fundamental limit known to these wavelengths or energies, at either end of the spectrum, although photons with energies near the

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is the wavelength. As waves cross boundaries between different media, their speeds change but their frequencies remain constant.

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p 430: "These waves... require no medium to support their propagation. Traveling electromagnetic waves carry energy, and... the

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at the mid-range of UV. Only 30% of the Sun's ultraviolet light reaches the ground, and almost all of this is well transmitted.

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are considered, depending on frequency and application. Both of these are ratios of the speed in a medium to speed in a vacuum.

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Some experiments display both the wave and particle natures of electromagnetic waves, such as the self-interference of a single

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The electric and magnetic parts of the field in an electromagnetic wave stand in a fixed ratio of strengths to satisfy the two

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equations, a time-change in one type of field is proportional to the curl of the other. These derivatives require that the

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make use of small packets of water that change temperature, in an essentially thermal process that involves many photons.

8944: 6274: 1007:, and these waves can subsequently interact with other charged particles, exerting force on them. EM waves carry energy, 8478: 9944: 9424: 9260: 7004: 2295:

propagating disturbances (or radiation) in the electromagnetic field. Radio waves were first produced deliberately by

8787: 7460: 6143: 3053: 2218: 2069:). Many other fluorescent emissions are known in spectral bands other than visible light. Delayed emission is called 1837: 1479:. Demonstrating that the light itself is quantized, not merely its interaction with matter, is a more subtle affair. 92: 4568:{\displaystyle \nabla ^{2}\mathbf {B} =\mu _{0}\varepsilon _{0}{\frac {\partial ^{2}\mathbf {B} }{\partial t^{2}}}.} 2794:) skin burns (sunburn) that are far worse than would be produced by simple heating (temperature increase) effects. 2333:

salts caused fogging of an unexposed photographic plate through a covering paper in a manner similar to X-rays, and

1536:, meaning that its oscillations are perpendicular to the direction of energy transfer and travel. It comes from the 1377: 1254: 360: 9326: 8036: 6936: 4462:{\displaystyle \nabla ^{2}\mathbf {E} =\mu _{0}\varepsilon _{0}{\frac {\partial ^{2}\mathbf {E} }{\partial t^{2}}}} 3086: 6515:"Electromagnetic Spectrum facts, information, pictures | Encyclopedia.com articles about Electromagnetic Spectrum" 3129:. There are nontrivial solutions of the homogeneous Maxwell's equations (without charges or currents), describing 8726: 3688: 2575:, and then spectral analysis must be done by slightly different mathematical techniques appropriate to random or 2400:

with visible light highlighted. The bottom graph (visible spectrum) shows wavelength in units of nanometres (nm).

2022:. Experimental measurements demonstrated that the energy of individual ejected electrons was proportional to the 1411: 275: 3521: 2129:

comprise a particular star. Spectroscopy is also used in the determination of the distance of a star, using the

1604:{\displaystyle {\begin{aligned}\nabla \cdot \mathbf {E} &=0\\\nabla \cdot \mathbf {B} &=0\end{aligned}}} 1501:

of the interaction between electromagnetic radiation and matter such as electrons is described by the theory of

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yield a resultant irradiance deviating from the sum of the component irradiances of the individual light waves.

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discovered that only certain elements gave off these rays of energy, soon discovering the intense radiation of

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at a space time point is the vector sum of the electric fields of the individual waves, and the same goes for

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field and the magnetic field are perpendicular to one another and to the direction of travel, or propagation."

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is a function of time and location, which gives the amplitude of the wave at some time at a certain location:

3386:{\displaystyle \nabla \times \mathbf {B} =\mu _{0}\varepsilon _{0}{\frac {\partial \mathbf {E} }{\partial t}}} 1421:, interactions can occur between light and static electric and magnetic fields—these interactions include the 9392: 4478:) results in a similar differential equation for a magnetic field solving the homogeneous Maxwell equations: 3120: 2764:

are created by visible light in skin, and that these may have some role in photoaging, in the same manner as

2757:, and requires a protein to convert it back, i.e. reset it to be able to function as a light detector again. 1737: 1537: 1218: 635: 340: 9665: 8321: 6335: 5637: 5318: 5257:{\displaystyle \mathbf {E} =\mathbf {E} _{0}f{\left({\hat {\mathbf {k} }}\cdot \mathbf {x} -c_{0}t\right)}} 1923: 1088: 500: 240: 107: 5028:

Comparing the terms for the speed of propagation, yields in the case of the electric and magnetic fields:

2920:). This property allows some longer wavelengths (100 m or 3 MHz) to be reflected and results in 2600:

or exceeding it (far too high to have ever been observed) will require new physical theories to describe.

1410:. For example, in optics two or more coherent light waves may interact and by constructive or destructive 1325:. The near field has strong effects its source, with any energy withdrawn by a receiver causing increased 230: 9539: 9148: 8219: 8077: 7984: 7702: 7511:"Experiments on the Refrangibility of the Invisible Rays of the Sun. By William Herschel, LL. D. F. R. S" 6627: 2733: 1811:

proposed that light quanta be regarded as real particles. Later the particle of light was given the name

1790:. Physicists struggled with this problem unsuccessfully for many years, and it later became known as the 1654:

fields in EMR are in-phase (see mathematics section below). An important aspect of light's nature is its

793: 668: 565: 540: 460: 6966: 3103:, claimed to have lost sight in his left eye while working on his death ray weapon based on a microwave 9882: 9587: 9380: 9235: 9208: 7263: 3780: 2739: 1528:

Representation of the electric field vector of a wave of circularly polarized electromagnetic radiation

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demonstrated that gamma rays are electromagnetic radiation, not particles, and in 1914 Rutherford and

9544: 9265: 8342:"Irradiation of skin with visible light induces reactive oxygen species and matrix-degrading enzymes" 7811:"Irradiation of Skin with Visible Light Induces Reactive Oxygen Species and Matrix-Degrading Enzymes" 3049: 2623: 2244: 2082: 1134:

The effects of EMR upon chemical compounds and biological organisms depend both upon the radiation's

1033: 847: 808: 325: 265: 260: 200: 7916: 6597: 5349: 9203: 9113: 8977: 7229: 7055: 6244: 3553: 3056:– possibly carcinogenic. This group contains possible carcinogens such as lead, DDT, and styrene. 2451: 2397: 2388: 1449: 964: 345: 8640:

Physics for Scientists and Engineers: Electricity, Magnetism, Light, and Elementary Modern Physics

8114: 8014: 7746: 6484: 3786: 3437: 3415: 3095:

was developed by the US military as an experimental weapon to deny the enemy access to an area. A

2087:

The modern theory that explains the nature of light includes the notion of wave–particle duality.

778: 280: 9949: 9877: 9657: 9448: 9433: 9143: 8937: 8845: 8810: 8373: 6264: 3125:

Electromagnetic waves are predicted by the classical laws of electricity and magnetism, known as

3100: 2960: 2761: 2565: 2517: 2240: 2202: 2097: 1791: 1502: 1399: 1128: 1068: 1037: 658: 185: 175: 170: 8740: 8376:

generated in skin. This happens also with UVA. With UVB, the damage to DNA becomes direct, with

2736:, to prevent reactions that would otherwise interfere with photosynthesis at high light levels. 1937:

of a photon is also proportional to its frequency and inversely proportional to its wavelength:

783: 753: 9869: 9417: 9384: 9295: 8969: 8883: 6653: 6547:

Physics for Scientists and Engineers: Vol. 1: Mechanics, Oscillations and Waves, Thermodynamics

4775: 3126: 2972: 2732:

act to quench electronically excited chlorophyll produced by visible light in a process called

2584: 1776: 1631: 1353: 1307:

near them that do not radiate. Currents directly produce magnetic fields, but such fields of a

1200: 1144: 1084: 605: 375: 150: 8301: 7777: 7178: 6888: 5132: 3663: 1897: 9529: 9476: 9461: 9388: 9123: 8906: 8443:

Saladi, RN; Persaud, AN (January 2005). "The causes of skin cancer: a comprehensive review".

7903: 7383: 7267: 7257: 7204: 6796: 6234: 4718:{\displaystyle \nabla ^{2}f={\frac {1}{{c_{0}}^{2}}}{\frac {\partial ^{2}f}{\partial t^{2}}}} 4372: 2951:

radiation. It may get dissipated into other microscopic motions within the matter, coming to

2786:

or more) to excite certain doubly bonded molecules into permanent chemical rearrangement. In

2263: 2148: 1634:

that specify how one is produced from the other. In dissipation-less (lossless) media, these

1472: 1364:

source decreases with the inverse square of the distance from the source; this is called the

1304: 1287: 1268: 1064: 891: 703: 390: 380: 330: 320: 8503: 8113:. Repiev, A & Edelev, M (translators from Russian). San Diego: Academic Press. pp. 8106: 7769: 7221: 6862: 6800: 4585: 1930:) the energy of the photons is thus directly proportional to the frequency of the EMR wave. 9534: 9245: 9133: 9090: 9040: 8547: 7781: 7522: 7103: 6903: 6887:

Thorn, J. J.; Neel, M. S.; Donato, V. W.; Bergreen, G. S.; Davies, R. E.; Beck, M. (2004).

6762: 6369: 6193: 5164: 4757: 3092: 3060:

Organization. Ultraviolet radiation from sun exposure is the primary cause of skin cancer.

2710:, which absorbs a single photon. The change in retinal causes a change in the shape of the 2634: 2619: 2457: 2065:. An example is visible light emitted from fluorescent paints, in response to ultraviolet ( 2011: 1509: 1490:, it passes through both paths, interfering with itself, as waves do, yet is detected by a 1330: 1237:, Maxwell concluded that light itself is an EM wave. Maxwell's equations were confirmed by 1233:. Because the speed of EM waves predicted by the wave equation coincided with the measured 1080: 828: 728: 693: 445: 310: 210: 195: 130: 8504:"Effects on the human body: Extremely low frequency RF | Radio Frequency | Radio Spectrum" 7720: 7147: 2782:

As frequency increases into the ultraviolet, photons now carry enough energy (about three

67: 8: 9851: 9692: 9466: 9362: 9240: 9153: 8896: 8107: 7222: 6219: 6214: 6197: 5127: 5097: 3655: 3033: 2976: 2968: 2952: 2583:

content, and the phase information is not preserved. Such a representation is called the

2511: 2505: 2470: 2464: 2367: 2291: 2282: 2152: 2030: 2014:, in which light striking a metal surface ejected electrons from the surface, causing an 1668: 1461: 1214: 1174:

and damage living cells beyond simply heating, and can be a health hazard and dangerous.

1052: 788: 768: 763: 570: 555: 440: 410: 305: 235: 37: 9321: 8551: 8302:

IARC classifies Radiofrequency Electromagnetic Fields as possibly carcinogenic to humans

7785: 7526: 7107: 6907: 6766: 6373: 9954: 9924: 9864: 9803: 9687: 9609: 9357: 9178: 9158: 9138: 9022: 8930: 8830: 8537: 8425: 8164: 8148:"Embryological changes induced by weak, extremely low frequency electromagnetic fields" 8147: 7955: 7676: 7592: 7559: 7540: 7124: 7093: 7081: 6778: 6752: 6385: 6360:

Maxwell, J. Clerk (1 January 1865). "A Dynamical Theory of the Electromagnetic Field".

6269: 6254: 6200:. The direction of the polarization is defined as the direction of the electric field. 6180: 6044:{\displaystyle \mathbf {B} ={\frac {1}{c_{0}}}{\hat {\mathbf {k} }}\times \mathbf {E} } 5298: 4615: 3547: 3243:{\displaystyle \nabla \times \mathbf {E} =-{\frac {\partial \mathbf {B} }{\partial t}}} 3065: 2861: 2824: 2579:. In such cases, the individual frequency components are represented in terms of their 2576: 2525: 2494: 1927: 1745: 1643: 1468: 1464:); that is, each component wave within the composite light is bent a different amount. 1403: 1365: 1338: 1317: 1315:–type electrical field, but this also declines with distance. These fields make up the 1277: 1272: 1263:

In electromagnetic radiation (such as microwaves from an antenna, shown here) the term

1250: 1230: 1204: 1158: 1025: 1021: 663: 403: 205: 165: 8779: 8767: 2870: 2311: 485: 9891: 9790: 9739: 9714: 9670: 9652: 9596: 9524: 9410: 9250: 9128: 9065: 9030: 8706: 8684: 8662: 8643: 8624: 8618: 8603: 8460: 8417: 8412: 8395: 8381: 8363: 8284: 8249: 8208: 8169: 8128: 8118: 7959: 7947: 7863: 7832: 7789: 7770: 7680: 7668: 7615: 7597: 7579: 7489: 7432: 7389: 7362: 7321: 7296: 7271: 7233: 7184: 7129: 7035: 6551: 6464: 6437: 6409: 6389: 6306: 6259: 5168: 2937: 2661: 2354: 2062: 1498: 1171: 1044: 723: 8429: 8226:

Aalto, S.; Haarala, C.; Brück, A.; Sipilä, H.; Hämäläinen, H.; Rinne, J. O. (2006).

6782: 2524:

EM radiation (the designation 'radiation' excludes static electric and magnetic and

1191:

The relative wavelengths of the electromagnetic waves of three different colours of

9830: 9781: 9634: 9514: 9481: 9255: 8901: 8855: 8850: 8555: 8452: 8407: 8353: 8276: 8239: 8200: 8159: 7939: 7855: 7822: 7658: 7587: 7571: 7530: 7424: 7119: 7111: 6911: 6770: 6377: 2875: 2638: 2589: 2557: 2541: 2482: 2236: 2206: 2126: 2015: 1815:, to correspond with other particles being described around this time, such as the 1741: 1453: 1139: 1029: 1012: 1000: 957: 823: 738: 698: 688: 575: 530: 513: 430: 365: 135: 59: 9677: 8573:"Light: Electromagnetic waves, the electromagnetic spectrum and photons (article)" 2984:, sufficiently intense visible and ultraviolet lasers can easily set paper afire. 2724:

becomes possible in this range as well, for the same reason. A single molecule of

9896: 9856: 9846: 9818: 9761: 9697: 9566: 9367: 9352: 9168: 9080: 9070: 8922: 8456: 8308: 7854:. Advances in Optics and Optoelectronics. Springer, Singapore. pp. 111–188. 7253: 6824: 6137: 3658:(rate of change in time, with location fixed) of the magnetic and electric field; 3111:

creates a tissue damaging cooking effect inside the oven at around 2 kV/m).

2963:, in the material. With a few exceptions related to high-energy photons (such as 2941: 2921: 2849: 2798: 2714:

protein it is contained in, which starts the biochemical process that causes the

2500: 2326: 2271: 2191: 2070: 1891: 1808: 1612: 1533: 1491: 1407: 1312: 1308: 1226: 1135: 1113: 950: 758: 683: 678: 545: 420: 385: 245: 145: 8750: 7930:

Dabas, R S (July 2000). "Ionosphere and its influence on radio communications".

7859: 3133:

of changing electric and magnetic fields. Beginning with Maxwell's equations in

2568:), which in turn can each be classified into these regions of the EMR spectrum. 2155:, electromagnetic radiation is propagated at the same frequency as the current. 798: 9771: 9734: 9498: 9471: 9215: 9173: 9163: 9085: 9075: 9045: 8703:

Computational Electrodynamics: The Finite-Difference Time-Domain Method, 3rd ed

8559: 8377: 7850:

Tao, Jiasheng (2023). "Radiation Source and Optical Atmospheric Transmission".

5093: 3473: 3457: 3108: 3001: 2956: 2925: 2902: 2890:, and then (for wavelengths in the upper UV) from the electronic excitation of 2865: 2721: 2642: 2476: 2376: 2371: 2346: 2296: 2226: 2159: 2142: 2109:

are due to the atoms in the star's atmosphere. A similar phenomenon occurs for

2035: 1919: 1780: 1764: 1720: 1487: 1457: 1445: 1422: 1238: 1234: 1222: 1138:

and its frequency. EMR of lower energy ultraviolet or lower frequencies (i.e.,

933: 925: 921: 903: 718: 713: 535: 425: 350: 300: 250: 223: 180: 155: 125: 118: 45: 41: 7663: 7646: 7428: 5433:{\displaystyle f{\left({\hat {\mathbf {k} }}\cdot \mathbf {x} -c_{0}t\right)}} 2754: 2686:

Natural sources produce EM radiation across the spectrum. EM radiation with a

2278: 1259: 9938: 9808: 9766: 9756: 9629: 9624: 9604: 9290: 9050: 9035: 8838: 8698: 8528:

Kinsler, P. (2010). "Optical pulse propagation with minimal approximations".

8244: 8227: 7951: 7672: 7583: 4579: 2802: 2783: 2765: 2728:

is excited by a single photon. In plant tissues that conduct photosynthesis,

2703: 2597: 2488: 2434: 2350: 2322: 2046: 1448:. Light of composite wavelengths (natural sunlight) disperses into a visible 1357: 1192: 1167: 1153: 981: 833: 818: 803: 743: 455: 370: 355: 270: 255: 160: 8132: 6996: 1195:(blue, green, and red) with a distance scale in micrometers along the x-axis 9901: 9825: 9751: 9709: 9682: 9614: 9556: 9493: 9270: 9230: 9095: 8464: 8421: 8367: 8280: 8253: 7836: 7601: 7535: 7510: 7316:

Ling, Samuel J.; Sanny, Jeff; Moebs, William (2016). "The Compton Effect".

7133: 6381: 3727: 3696: 3481: 3477: 3073: 2964: 2669: 2358: 2058: 2054: 1076: 1004: 813: 708: 673: 615: 550: 470: 435: 315: 190: 9519: 8288: 8212: 8173: 7452: 6654:"Electromagnetic radiation | Spectrum, Examples, & Types | Britannica" 2931: 2571:

For certain classes of EM waves, the waveform is most usefully treated as

1406:

fields, all magnetic and electric field vectors add together according to

956:

Electromagnetic radiation is commonly referred to as "light", EM, EMR, or

9729: 9702: 9619: 9571: 9012: 8878: 8358: 8341: 7827: 7810: 7698: 7419:

Hunter, Tim B.; Dobek, Gerald O. (19 July 2023). "Nebulae: An Overview".

6723:"PV Performance Modeling Collaborative | Plane of Array (POA) Irradiance" 6185: 2845: 2777: 2729: 2725: 2545: 2427: 2342: 2334: 2321:

The last portion of the EM spectrum to be discovered was associated with

2267: 2256: 2090: 1513: 1426: 1322: 985: 969: 945: 917: 733: 585: 415: 77: 32: 8751:

The Feynman Lectures on Physics Vol. I Ch. 28: Electromagnetic Radiation

8340:

Liebel, F; Kaur, S; Ruvolo, E; Kollias, N; Southall, M. D. (July 2012).

7575: 6889:"Observing the quantum behavior of light in an undergraduate laboratory" 6757: 2645:. These interactions produce either electric currents or heat, or both. 1658:. The frequency of a wave is its rate of oscillation and is measured in 1389: 1187: 9813: 9719: 9060: 9007: 7943: 7809:

Liebel, F.; Kaur, S.; Ruvolo, E.; Kollias, N.; Southall, M. D. (2012).

3515: 2992: 2913: 2879: 2857: 2832: 2818: 2687: 2609: 2561: 2553: 2529: 2301: 2175: 2163: 2102: 2066: 1795: 1787: 1675: 1433: 1163: 1149: 993: 973: 450: 8656: 8205:

10.1002/(SICI)1521-186X(1997)18:8<555::AID-BEM4>3.0.CO;2-1

7544: 7115: 6915: 6300: 2393: 1281:

part of the electromagnetic field around a transmitter. A part of the

9724: 9347: 9220: 9055: 9002: 8992: 8953: 6861:. Quantum Optics Theory Group, University of Auckland. Archived from 6224: 4166:) by exchanging the sequence of derivatives and inserting the fourth 3104: 3096: 2711: 2695: 2691: 2613: 2533: 2413: 2363: 2305: 2167: 2130: 2024: 1655: 1056: 941: 773: 748: 560: 82: 8188: 6280:

Sinusoidal plane-wave solutions of the electromagnetic wave equation

5083:{\displaystyle c_{0}={\frac {1}{\sqrt {\mu _{0}\varepsilon _{0}}}}.} 8997: 8982: 8911: 8479:"DVIDS – News – New Marine Corps non-lethal weapon heats things up" 8146:

Delgado, J. M.; Leal, J.; Monteagudo, J. L.; Gracia, M. G. (1982).

7098: 6229: 5163:, via the above equation. This relationship had been discovered by 4375:

for the electric field, solving the homogeneous Maxwell equations:

3000:

electromagnetic radiation can "heat" (in the sense of increase the

2891: 2887: 2654: 2537: 2441: 2232: 2174:. Each has an energy related to the frequency of the wave given by 2050: 1816: 1736:

Electromagnetic waves in free space must be solutions of Maxwell's

1441: 1361: 1015:

away from their source particle and can impart those quantities to

1008: 977: 899: 525: 520: 140: 8697: 8542: 6774: 2996:

transformed into thermal energy in interaction with matter. Thus,

2886:

Most UV and X-rays are blocked by absorption first from molecular

1756:

interfered) to form new states of polarization, which is known as

1611:

These equations predicate that any electromagnetic wave must be a

1162:– individual photons of such high frequency have enough energy to 1116:. Thus, higher frequency photons have more energy. For example, a 9275: 8862: 8814: 8037:"Thermodynamics Part 1: Work, Heat, Internal Energy and Enthalpy" 7647:"Pioneers in Optics: Johann Wilhelm Ritter and Ernest Rutherford" 6572: 3469: 3465: 3012: 2917: 2901:

Visible light is well transmitted in air, a property known as an

2853: 2750: 2707: 2404: 2330: 2248: 2019: 1804: 1437: 1418: 1271:

that radiate into infinite space and decrease in intensity by an

1060: 875: 495: 6433:

An Introduction to Electromagnetic Wave Propagation and Antennas

2874:

Rough plot of Earth's atmospheric absorption and scattering (or

1532:

In homogeneous, isotropic media, electromagnetic radiation is a

1299:

Maxwell's equations established that some charges and currents (

9549: 9402: 8756: 3134: 2947: 2828: 2814: 2715: 2338: 2315: 2171: 2118: 1820: 1812: 1483: 1048: 1016: 989: 929: 580: 87: 7976: 2801:. The energy required for this is always larger than about 10 2000:{\displaystyle p={E \over c}={hf \over c}={h \over \lambda }.} 1148:

because its photons do not individually have enough energy to

40:

electromagnetic wave going in the z-axis, with E denoting the

9100: 8987: 8822: 6485:"The Dual Nature of Light as Reflected in the Nobel Archives" 3731: 2981: 2895: 2681: 2549: 2419: 2105:. For instance, dark bands in the light emitted by a distant 1659: 1627:

are both perpendicular to the direction of wave propagation.

1452:

passing through a prism, because of the wavelength-dependent

895: 6053:

The remaining equations will be satisfied by this choice of

5440:

is a generic solution to the wave equation. In other words,

3052:

has classified radio frequency electromagnetic radiation as

8145: 6805:. Society for promoting Christian knowledge. pp. 54–57 3647:{\displaystyle {\frac {\partial \mathbf {E} }{\partial t}}} 3608:{\displaystyle {\frac {\partial \mathbf {B} }{\partial t}}} 3461: 3068:

due to the ability of photons of this radiation to produce

2106: 2042: 1142:, visible light, infrared, microwaves, and radio waves) is 887: 8773: 8393: 1436:, a wave crossing from one medium to another of different 8657:

Reitz, John; Milford, Frederick; Christy, Robert (1992).

7719:. Instituts für Umform- und Hochleistungs. Archived from 7515:

Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London

6362:

Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London

5832:{\displaystyle \mathbf {E} \cdot {\hat {\mathbf {k} }}=0} 4578:

Both differential equations have the form of the general

3114: 3069: 2791: 2787: 2252: 1047:, an alternate way of viewing EMR is that it consists of 7343:"7 Differences between Fluorescence and Phosphorescence" 1763:

The energy in electromagnetic waves is sometimes called

8809: 8339: 8225: 7808: 6886: 6742: 6460:

A Course in Classical Physics, Vol. 4 – Waves and Light

6436:. Springer Science and Business Media. pp. 28–33. 3772:{\displaystyle \mathbf {E} =\mathbf {B} =\mathbf {0} ,} 2932:

Thermal and electromagnetic radiation as a form of heat

2755:

retinal permanently changes structure from cis to trans

1663: 1285:

field (close to the transmitter) includes the changing

8372:

for evidence of quantum damage from visible light via

6305:(3rd ed.). Cambridge University Press, New York. 5346:

is a unit vector in the direction of propagation, and

2556:. Arbitrary electromagnetic waves can be expressed by 2091:

Wave and particle effects of electromagnetic radiation

8616: 8394:

Narayanan, DL; Saladi, RN; Fox, JL (September 2010).

7028:"Chapter V Plane waves in unbounded, isotropic media" 6146: 6092: 6059: 5993: 5845: 5800: 5674: 5640: 5446: 5376: 5352: 5321: 5301: 5272: 5180: 5135: 5105: 5034: 4784: 4760: 4731: 4638: 4618: 4588: 4487: 4384: 4187: 4037: 3916: 3811: 3789: 3744: 3705: 3666: 3621: 3582: 3556: 3524: 3492: 3440: 3418: 3326: 3274: 3200: 3148: 2991:

Infrared radiation in the spectral distribution of a

2706:

involves the change in bonding of a single molecule,

2259:. These "calorific rays" were later termed infrared. 2158:

As a wave, light is characterized by a velocity (the

2147:

When any wire (or other conducting object such as an

1946: 1900: 1840: 1688: 1687: 1546: 8228:"Mobile phone affects cerebral blood flow in humans" 2622:, they couple to the conductor, travel along it and 1770: 1398:

Electric and magnetic fields obey the properties of

1067:, responsible for all electromagnetic interactions. 3779:useful solutions can be derived with the following 963:The position of an electromagnetic wave within the 8952: 7382:Meredith, W. J.; Massey, J. B. (22 October 2013). 6162: 6128: 6075: 6043: 5977: 5831: 5784: 5657: 5626: 5432: 5362: 5338: 5307: 5287: 5256: 5148: 5118: 5082: 5018: 4766: 4746: 4717: 4624: 4604: 4567: 4461: 4335: 4136: 3990: 3889: 3797: 3771: 3718: 3679: 3646: 3607: 3567: 3538: 3506: 3448: 3426: 3385: 3294: 3242: 3168: 1999: 1906: 1875: 1704: 1603: 999:Electromagnetic waves are emitted by electrically 8442: 8266: 7560:"The Other End of the Rainbow: Infrared and Skin" 7180:The Earth Around Us: Maintaining A Livable Planet 4020:) with the above identity and simplifying using ( 3004:temperature of) a material, when it is absorbed. 2223:Timeline of electromagnetism and classical optics 1872: 9936: 7293:Quantum Mechanics; An Experimentalist's Approach 6188:for both fields in each mathematical operation. 5096:in vacuum. Thus Maxwell's equations connect the 4472:Taking the curl of the fourth Maxwell equation ( 3899:Taking the curl of the second Maxwell equation ( 3087:Directed energy weapons § Microwave weapons 2753:is an exception. When a photon is absorbed, the 1219:wave form of the electric and magnetic equations 8232:Journal of Cerebral Blood Flow & Metabolism 7219: 6628:"Maxwell's equations and the secrets of nature" 6403: 6301:Purcell and Morin, Harvard University. (2013). 6163:{\displaystyle \mathbf {E} \times \mathbf {B} } 2839: 2239:, who published his results in 1800 before the 1876:{\displaystyle E=hf={\frac {hc}{\lambda }}\,\!} 1467:EM radiation exhibits both wave properties and 8769:Electromagnetic Waves from Maxwell's Equations 8186: 7381: 7315: 6997:"Wave Behaviors | Science Mission Directorate" 6408:(2nd ed.). McGraw Hill/Schaum, New York. 5668:From the first of Maxwell's equations, we get 4778:, which in Cartesian coordinates is given as: 9418: 8938: 8795: 6789: 855: 8617:Serway, Raymond A.; Jewett, John W. (2004). 8322:"Trouble with cell phone radiation standard" 8109:Magnetobiology: Underlying Physical Problems 7772:Unexploded Ordnance Detection and Mitigation 7557: 7502: 7367:: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list ( 7176: 7080:She, Alan; Capasso, Federico (17 May 2016). 2694:and 700 nm is directly detected by the 8527: 8521: 7418: 6802:The life and discoveries of Michael Faraday 3295:{\displaystyle \nabla \cdot \mathbf {B} =0} 3169:{\displaystyle \nabla \cdot \mathbf {E} =0} 2382: 1087:and proportional to frequency according to 9425: 9411: 8945: 8931: 8802: 8788: 7558:Holzer, Aton M.; Elmets, Craig A. (2010). 7485:RFID in Logistics A Practical Introduction 7284: 7079: 7034:. McGraw-Hill Book Company, New York, NY. 6598:"The Impact of James Clerk Maxwell's Work" 3539:{\displaystyle \nabla \times \mathbf {X} } 1486:. When a single photon is sent through an 1221:, thus uncovering the wave-like nature of 1032:that directly produced them, specifically 862: 848: 66: 8541: 8411: 8357: 8243: 8163: 7826: 7662: 7591: 7534: 7123: 7097: 6756: 6406:Physics for Engineering and Science, p427 6196:. On a quantum level, it is described as 6136:, which can be seen immediately from the 6076:{\displaystyle \mathbf {E} ,\mathbf {B} } 3507:{\displaystyle \nabla \cdot \mathbf {X} } 2916:begins to interact with radio waves (see 2637:, such induced bulk movement of charges ( 1871: 1705:{\displaystyle \displaystyle v=f\lambda } 1028:refers to EM fields near the charges and 8436: 8311:. World Health Organization. 31 May 2011 7694: 7692: 7690: 7644: 7564:The Journal of Investigative Dermatology 7508: 7252: 7082:"Parallel Polarization State Generation" 7025: 6795: 2924:beyond line-of-sight. However, certain 2869: 2808: 2403: 2392: 2277: 2076: 1523: 1388: 1258: 1186: 1083:. The energy of an individual photon is 912:, electromagnetic radiation consists of 31: 8683:(3rd ed.). John Wiley & Sons. 8675: 8396:"Ultraviolet radiation and skin cancer" 8187:Harland, J. D.; Liburdy, R. P. (1997). 8100: 8098: 7882: 7290: 6856:"Einstein and the Photoelectric Effect" 6456: 6359: 5315:is any second differentiable function, 3008:deposited energy heating the material. 2212: 1494:or other sensitive detector only once. 611:Electromagnetism and special relativity 14: 9937: 9487:Psychological and sociological effects 9286:Wireless electronic devices and health 8637: 7767: 7761: 6853: 6608:from the original on 17 September 2017 6543: 6450: 6429: 3730:of a vacuum (8.85 × 10 3115:Derivation from electromagnetic theory 2603: 1758:parallel polarization state generation 1244: 1241:through experiments with radio waves. 1209: 932:, electromagnetic waves travel at the 9406: 8926: 8783: 8659:Foundations of Electromagnetic Theory 8597: 8104: 7971: 7969: 7929: 7714: 7687: 7481: 7349:from the original on 4 September 2017 7158:from the original on 4 September 2017 6977:from the original on 4 September 2017 6925:from the original on 1 February 2016. 6537: 6423: 5658:{\displaystyle {\hat {\mathbf {k} }}} 5339:{\displaystyle {\hat {\mathbf {k} }}} 3018: 2718:of the human eye to sense the light. 2300:characterized what were later termed 2170:. As particles, light is a stream of 1725:in a vacuum or less in other media), 1516:, and can interfere with each other. 631:Maxwell equations in curved spacetime 9312:List of civilian radiation accidents 9281:Wireless device radiation and health 9276:Biological dose units and quantities 9226:Electromagnetic radiation and health 8620:Physics for Scientists and Engineers 8400:International Journal of Dermatology 8095: 7815:Journal of Investigative Dermatology 7509:Herschel, William (1 January 1800). 7463:from the original on 1 February 2017 7177:Schneiderman, Jill (27 March 2000). 7148:"What Is Electromagnetic Radiation?" 7056:"Electromagnetic Radiation | COSMOS" 6336:"What Is Electromagnetic Radiation?" 6330: 6328: 6250:Finite-difference time-domain method 6240:Electromagnetic radiation and health 5634:for a generic wave traveling in the 4178: 4028: 3907: 3317: 3265: 3191: 3139: 3029:Wireless device radiation and health 3025:Electromagnetic radiation and health 2760:Limited evidence indicate that some 2345:was differentiated into alpha rays ( 2235:radiation is ascribed to astronomer 2136: 1108:is the frequency of the photon, and 27:Physical model of propagating energy 8602:(4th ed.). Pearson Education. 7849: 7645:Davidson, Michael W. (March 2014). 6680:"10.1: Liénard-Wiechert Potentials" 6275:Health effects of sunlight exposure 4160:Evaluating the right hand side of ( 3040:Some research suggests that weaker 2528:) is classified by wavelength into 24: 9261:Radioactivity in the life sciences 8591: 8047:from the original on 24 March 2017 7987:from the original on 20 April 2017 7966: 7802: 7341:Haneef, Deena T. Kochunni, Jazir. 7340: 5966: 5956: 5846: 5675: 5552: 5542: 5448: 4997: 4987: 4939: 4929: 4907: 4897: 4875: 4865: 4843: 4833: 4792: 4699: 4685: 4640: 4546: 4530: 4489: 4443: 4427: 4386: 4317: 4301: 4255: 4241: 4237: 4215: 4205: 4188: 4117: 4096: 4076: 4068: 4049: 4038: 4014:Evaluating the left hand side of ( 3974: 3964: 3947: 3928: 3917: 3870: 3850: 3842: 3823: 3812: 3635: 3625: 3596: 3586: 3525: 3493: 3374: 3364: 3327: 3275: 3231: 3221: 3201: 3149: 3080: 1576: 1551: 1291:, but that is not electromagnetic 25: 9966: 8720: 7626:from the original on 1 March 2021 7421:The Barnard Objects: Then and Now 6570: 6525:from the original on 13 June 2017 6495:from the original on 15 July 2017 6325: 4582:for waves propagating with speed 2219:History of electromagnetic theory 2201:In a medium (other than vacuum), 1922:. This is sometimes known as the 1827:, proportional to its frequency, 1771:Particle model and quantum theory 1471:properties at the same time (see 1267:applies only to the parts of the 9918: 9586: 9432: 8755: 8661:(4th ed.). Addison Wesley. 8413:10.1111/j.1365-4632.2010.04474.x 8328:from the original on 9 May 2013. 7385:Fundamental Physics of Radiology 7007:from the original on 14 May 2017 6947:from the original on 12 May 2015 6156: 6148: 6129:{\displaystyle E_{0}=c_{0}B_{0}} 6069: 6061: 6037: 6023: 5995: 5960: 5921: 5907: 5879: 5864: 5853: 5813: 5802: 5750: 5736: 5708: 5693: 5682: 5645: 5595: 5581: 5484: 5470: 5404: 5390: 5355: 5326: 5288:{\displaystyle \mathbf {E} _{0}} 5275: 5228: 5214: 5191: 5182: 5119:{\displaystyle \varepsilon _{0}} 4540: 4499: 4437: 4396: 4311: 4262: 4209: 4127: 4106: 4083: 4056: 3968: 3935: 3880: 3857: 3830: 3791: 3762: 3754: 3746: 3719:{\displaystyle \varepsilon _{0}} 3629: 3590: 3558: 3532: 3500: 3442: 3420: 3368: 3334: 3282: 3225: 3208: 3156: 2675: 2618:When radio waves impinge upon a 1583: 1558: 8642:(5th ed.). W. H. Freeman. 8496: 8471: 8387: 8332: 8314: 8295: 8260: 8180: 8139: 8059: 8029: 7999: 7923: 7883:Chaplin, Martin (15 May 2013). 7876: 7843: 7735: 7708: 7638: 7608: 7551: 7475: 7445: 7412: 7402: 7375: 7334: 7309: 7246: 7228:. John Wiley and Sons. p. 7213: 7197: 7170: 7140: 7073: 7048: 7026:Stratton, Julius Adams (1941). 7019: 6989: 6959: 6929: 6880: 6847: 6817: 6736: 6715: 6698: 6672: 6646: 6620: 6590: 6564: 6303:Electricity and Magnetism, 820p 4371:) again, gives a vector-valued 2592:of the electromagnetic vacuum. 1170:. Ionizing radiation can cause 1152:atoms or molecules or to break 7703:The Growth of Physical Science 7295:. Cambridge University Press. 6507: 6477: 6463:. Springer. pp. 95, 103. 6396: 6353: 6293: 6027: 5911: 5868: 5817: 5740: 5697: 5649: 5585: 5474: 5394: 5363:{\displaystyle {\mathbf {x} }} 5330: 5218: 2771: 2198:is the frequency of the wave. 2041:As a photon is absorbed by an 13: 1: 8701:and Susan C. Hagness (2005). 8623:(6th ed.). Brooks Cole. 6286: 3738:Besides the trivial solution 3568:{\displaystyle \mathbf {X} ;} 3121:Electromagnetic wave equation 2186:is the energy of the photon, 1738:electromagnetic wave equation 1519: 1508:Electromagnetic waves can be 1384: 636:Relativistic electromagnetism 44:and perpendicular B denoting 8457:10.1358/dot.2005.41.1.875777 7852:Space Optical Remote Sensing 7743:"Near, Mid and Far-Infrared" 7705:. Cambridge University Press 7318:University physics. Volume 3 7259:The Quantum Theory of Fields 6457:Bettini, Alessandro (2016). 3798:{\displaystyle \mathbf {A} } 3449:{\displaystyle \mathbf {B} } 3427:{\displaystyle \mathbf {E} } 2882:of electromagnetic radiation 2840:Atmosphere and magnetosphere 2740:Animals that detect infrared 2366:. In 1910 British physicist 7: 9149:Cosmic background radiation 8705:. Artech House Publishers. 7860:10.1007/978-981-99-3318-1_4 7745:. NASA IPAC. Archived from 7717:"Wavelength considerations" 6896:American Journal of Physics 6831:. Spectroscopy-09-01-2008. 6207: 4474: 4367: 4361: 4349: 4170: 4162: 4150: 4022: 4016: 4004: 3901: 3399: 3308: 3256: 3182: 2734:non-photochemical quenching 2648: 1615:, where the electric field 1512:, reflected, refracted, or 1394:minima and maxima together. 10: 9971: 9378: 9236:Lasers and aviation safety 8560:10.1103/PhysRevA.81.013819 8105:Binhi, Vladimir N (2002). 7488:. CRC Press. p. 437. 7264:Cambridge University Press 7183:. Henry Holt and Company. 6602:clerkmaxwellfoundation.org 6550:. MacMillan. p. 454. 5156:, and the speed of light, 3118: 3084: 3022: 2955:and manifesting itself as 2935: 2843: 2812: 2775: 2690:between approximately 400 2679: 2652: 2607: 2386: 2262:In 1801, German physicist 2227:Radiation § Discovery 2216: 2140: 2080: 2018:to flow across an applied 1823:. A photon has an energy, 1798:developed a new theory of 1774: 1719:is the speed of the wave ( 1378:Liénard–Wiechert potential 1255:Liénard–Wiechert potential 1248: 1198: 1177: 1104:is the energy per photon, 944:of oscillation, different 940:. There, depending on the 894:, which propagate through 892:electromagnetic (EM) field 361:Liénard–Wiechert potential 9945:Electromagnetic radiation 9914: 9839: 9789: 9780: 9645: 9595: 9584: 9507: 9447: 9440: 9376: 9340: 9304: 9266:Radioactive contamination 9191: 9119:Electromagnetic radiation 9109: 9021: 8968: 8961: 8892: 8871: 8821: 8762:Electromagnetic radiation 8741:Resources in your library 8732:Electromagnetic radiation 8681:Classical Electrodynamics 7664:10.1017/S1551929514000029 7457:National Redshift Project 7429:10.1007/978-3-031-31485-8 7388:. Butterworth-Heinemann. 6941:galileo.phys.virginia.edu 6577:The Physics Hypertextbook 4725:This is also written as: 3107:from the 1920s (a normal 3050:World Health Organization 1926:. In quantum theory (see 1182: 1034:electromagnetic induction 916:, which are synchronized 880:electromagnetic radiation 626:Mathematical descriptions 336:Electromagnetic radiation 326:Electromagnetic induction 266:Magnetic vector potential 261:Magnetic scalar potential 9379:See also the categories 9317:1996 Costa Rica accident 8978:Acoustic radiation force 8811:Fundamental interactions 8245:10.1038/sj.jcbfm.9600279 7291:Commins, Eugene (2014). 7220:Paul M. S. Monk (2004). 6971:www-jcsu.jesus.cam.ac.uk 6544:Tipler, Paul A. (1999). 6404:Browne, Michael (2013). 6245:Evanescent wave coupling 5149:{\displaystyle \mu _{0}} 4747:{\displaystyle \Box f=0} 3783:, valid for all vectors 3680:{\displaystyle \mu _{0}} 2452:Extremely high frequency 2398:Electromagnetic spectrum 2389:Electromagnetic spectrum 2383:Electromagnetic spectrum 2243:. Herschel used a glass 1924:Planck–Einstein equation 1907:{\displaystyle \lambda } 1360:of EM radiation from an 965:electromagnetic spectrum 18:Electromagnetic emission 9291:Radiation heat-transfer 9144:Gravitational radiation 8846:Electroweak interaction 8374:reactive oxygen species 6573:"Electromagnetic Waves" 6265:Impedance of free space 3101:Harry Grindell Matthews 2973:photochemical reactions 2946:The basic structure of 2762:reactive oxygen species 2566:monochromatic radiation 2518:Extremely low frequency 2241:Royal Society of London 2049:the atom, elevating an 1933:Likewise, the momentum 1792:ultraviolet catastrophe 1621:and the magnetic field 1503:quantum electrodynamics 1129:extremely low frequency 1073:transition of electrons 1069:Quantum electrodynamics 1038:electrostatic induction 176:Electrostatic induction 171:Electrostatic discharge 9925:Outer space portal 9332:1990 Zaragoza accident 9327:1984 Moroccan accident 9296:Linear energy transfer 8970:Non-ionizing radiation 8598:Hecht, Eugene (2001). 8281:10.1002/bem.2250110107 7911:Cite journal requires 7885:"Infared Spectroscopy" 7768:Byrnes, James (2009). 7616:"Ultraviolet | COSMOS" 7536:10.1098/rstl.1800.0015 7032:Electromagnetic Theory 6797:Crowther, James Arnold 6430:Cloude, Shane (1995). 6382:10.1098/rstl.1865.0008 6164: 6130: 6077: 6045: 5979: 5833: 5786: 5659: 5628: 5434: 5370:is a position vector. 5364: 5340: 5309: 5295:is a constant vector, 5289: 5258: 5150: 5120: 5084: 5020: 4774:denotes the so-called 4768: 4748: 4719: 4626: 4606: 4605:{\displaystyle c_{0},} 4569: 4463: 4337: 4138: 3992: 3891: 3805:in some vector field: 3799: 3773: 3720: 3681: 3648: 3609: 3569: 3540: 3508: 3450: 3428: 3387: 3296: 3244: 3170: 2883: 2585:power spectral density 2521: 2431:NUV = Near-ultraviolet 2401: 2287: 2194:, 6.626 × 10 J·s, and 2001: 1914:is the wavelength and 1908: 1877: 1777:Quantization (physics) 1706: 1605: 1529: 1395: 1354:conservation of energy 1347:electromagnetic field 1305:electromagnetic fields 1296: 1196: 1124:times the energy of a 606:Electromagnetic tensor 48: 9557:Extraterrestrial life 9322:1987 Goiânia accident 9124:Synchrotron radiation 9114:Earth's energy budget 9096:Radioactive materials 9091:Particle accelerators 8907:Philosophy of physics 8638:Tipler, Paul (2004). 8041:www2.southeastern.edu 8007:"Blackbody Radiation" 7776:. Springer. pp. 7620:astronomy.swin.edu.au 7482:Jones, Erick (2007). 7209:. UM Libraries. 1960. 7060:astronomy.swin.edu.au 6235:Electromagnetic pulse 6165: 6131: 6078: 6046: 5980: 5834: 5787: 5660: 5629: 5435: 5365: 5341: 5310: 5290: 5259: 5151: 5121: 5085: 5021: 4769: 4767:{\displaystyle \Box } 4749: 4720: 4627: 4607: 4570: 4464: 4373:differential equation 4338: 4139: 3993: 3892: 3800: 3774: 3721: 3695: × 10 3682: 3649: 3610: 3570: 3541: 3509: 3451: 3429: 3388: 3297: 3245: 3171: 2980:addition to infrared 2873: 2809:X-rays and gamma rays 2635:electrical conductors 2590:Zero point wave field 2407: 2396: 2341:. The radiation from 2314:discovered and named 2281: 2264:Johann Wilhelm Ritter 2083:Wave–particle duality 2077:Wave–particle duality 2002: 1909: 1878: 1729:is the frequency and 1707: 1606: 1527: 1473:wave-particle duality 1392: 1342:field is composed of 1288:electromagnetic field 1269:electromagnetic field 1262: 1190: 1120:gamma ray photon has 1065:electromagnetic field 914:electromagnetic waves 599:Covariant formulation 391:Synchrotron radiation 331:Electromagnetic pulse 321:Electromagnetic field 35: 9393:Radiation protection 9246:Radiation protection 9134:Black-body radiation 9041:Background radiation 8956:(physics and health) 8764:at Wikimedia Commons 8359:10.1038/jid.2011.476 7828:10.1038/jid.2011.476 7206:The Michigan Technic 6144: 6090: 6057: 5991: 5843: 5798: 5672: 5638: 5444: 5374: 5350: 5319: 5299: 5270: 5178: 5165:Wilhelm Eduard Weber 5133: 5103: 5032: 4782: 4758: 4729: 4636: 4616: 4586: 4485: 4382: 4185: 4035: 3914: 3809: 3787: 3742: 3703: 3664: 3619: 3580: 3554: 3522: 3490: 3438: 3416: 3324: 3272: 3198: 3146: 3093:Active Denial System 2577:stochastic processes 2458:Super-high frequency 2213:History of discovery 2012:photoelectric effect 1944: 1898: 1838: 1800:black-body radiation 1685: 1544: 1331:electrical reactance 1081:black-body radiation 1053:elementary particles 902:and electromagnetic 641:Stress–energy tensor 566:Reluctance (complex) 311:Displacement current 9363:Radiation hardening 9305:Radiation incidents 9241:Medical radiography 9200:Radiation syndrome 9154:Cherenkov radiation 8897:Glossary of physics 8872:Hypothetical forces 8677:Jackson, John David 8552:2010PhRvA..81a3819K 8346:J. Invest. Dermatol 8307:1 June 2011 at the 8269:Bioelectromagnetics 8193:Bioelectromagnetics 8083:on 30 November 2016 7786:2009uodm.book.....B 7576:10.1038/jid.2010.79 7527:1800RSPT...90..284H 7108:2016NatSR...626019S 6908:2004AmJPh..72.1210T 6835:(9). September 2008 6767:1998Natur.396..653C 6660:. 15 September 2023 6374:1865RSPT..155..459M 6220:Bioelectromagnetics 6215:Antenna measurement 6198:photon polarization 5128:vacuum permeability 5098:vacuum permittivity 4776:d'Alembert operator 3656:partial derivatives 3127:Maxwell's equations 3034:Bioelectromagnetics 2977:photovoltaic effect 2969:harmonic generation 2953:thermal equilibrium 2926:ionospheric effects 2704:mechanism of vision 2672:(15–1000 μm). 2604:Radio and microwave 2512:Super-low frequency 2506:Ultra-low frequency 2471:Very high frequency 2465:Ultrahigh frequency 2368:William Henry Bragg 2292:James Clerk Maxwell 2283:James Clerk Maxwell 2153:alternating current 2098:absorption spectrum 1538:following equations 1442:speed and direction 1245:Near and far fields 1215:James Clerk Maxwell 1210:Maxwell's equations 1201:Maxwell's equations 1166:molecules or break 1131:radio wave photon. 1020:referred to as the 936:, commonly denoted 556:Magnetomotive force 441:Electromotive force 411:Alternating current 346:Jefimenko equations 306:Cyclotron radiation 9840:Other technologies 9358:Radioactive source 9179:Radiation exposure 9159:Askaryan radiation 9139:Particle radiation 9023:Ionizing radiation 8831:Strong interaction 8152:Journal of Anatomy 7944:10.1007/bf02867245 7890:: water.lsbu.ac.uk 7723:on 28 October 2007 7224:Physical Chemistry 7086:Scientific Reports 6854:Carmichael, H. J. 6684:Physics LibreTexts 6658:www.britannica.com 6634:. 18 December 2015 6270:Radiation reaction 6255:Gravitational wave 6160: 6126: 6073: 6041: 5975: 5829: 5782: 5655: 5624: 5430: 5360: 5336: 5305: 5285: 5254: 5146: 5116: 5080: 5016: 4764: 4744: 4715: 4622: 4602: 4565: 4459: 4333: 4168:Maxwell equation ( 4134: 3988: 3887: 3795: 3769: 3716: 3677: 3644: 3605: 3565: 3550:of a vector field 3536: 3504: 3484:/m), respectively; 3446: 3424: 3383: 3292: 3240: 3166: 3066:ionizing radiation 3019:Biological effects 2903:atmospheric window 2884: 2862:atmospheric window 2825:ionizing radiation 2522: 2495:Very low frequency 2447:FIR = Far-infrared 2445:MIR = Mid-infrared 2402: 2288: 2096:Dark bands in the 2028:, rather than the 1997: 1928:first quantization 1904: 1873: 1746:frequency spectrum 1702: 1701: 1601: 1599: 1530: 1396: 1366:inverse-square law 1297: 1273:inverse-square law 1251:Near and far field 1205:Near and far field 1197: 1172:chemical reactions 404:Electrical network 241:Gauss magnetic law 206:Static electricity 166:Electric potential 49: 38:linearly polarized 9932: 9931: 9910: 9909: 9819:Carbonated drinks 9791:Human spaceflight 9671:of items in space 9582: 9581: 9400: 9399: 9381:Radiation effects 9251:Radiation therapy 9187: 9186: 9129:Thermal radiation 9066:Neutron radiation 9031:Radioactive decay 8920: 8919: 8760:Media related to 8727:Library resources 8712:978-1-58053-832-9 8690:978-0-471-30932-1 8668:978-0-201-52624-0 8649:978-0-7167-0810-0 8630:978-0-534-40842-8 8609:978-0-8053-8566-3 8382:pyrimidine dimers 8158:(Pt 3): 533–551. 8124:978-0-12-100071-4 7869:978-981-99-3318-1 7795:978-1-4020-9252-7 7495:978-0-367-38811-9 7438:978-3-031-31485-8 7423:. Springer Cham. 7395:978-1-4832-8435-4 7327:978-1-947172-22-7 7302:978-1-107-06399-0 7277:978-0-521-55001-7 7239:978-0-471-49180-4 7190:978-1-4668-1443-1 7116:10.1038/srep26019 7041:978-0-470-13153-4 6967:"Physics – Waves" 6916:10.1119/1.1737397 6751:(6712): 653–655. 6686:. 9 December 2021 6557:978-1-57259-491-3 6470:978-3-319-48329-0 6443:978-0-387-91501-2 6415:978-0-07-161399-6 6312:978-1-107-01402-2 6030: 6017: 5973: 5914: 5871: 5820: 5743: 5700: 5652: 5588: 5566: 5537: 5477: 5397: 5333: 5308:{\displaystyle f} 5221: 5169:Rudolf Kohlrausch 5075: 5074: 5015: 5011: 4982: 4953: 4921: 4889: 4857: 4828: 4713: 4679: 4625:{\displaystyle f} 4560: 4457: 4357: 4356: 4331: 4248: 4222: 4158: 4157: 4012: 4011: 3981: 3642: 3603: 3407: 3406: 3381: 3316: 3315: 3264: 3263: 3238: 3190: 3189: 3013:radiation entropy 2938:Thermal radiation 2662:thermal radiation 2639:electric currents 2355:Ernest Rutherford 2349:) and beta rays ( 2137:Propagation speed 2127:chemical elements 2063:photoluminescence 1992: 1979: 1961: 1869: 1632:Maxwell equations 1336:By contrast, the 1089:Planck's equation 1045:quantum mechanics 1001:charged particles 872: 871: 571:Reluctance (real) 541:Gyrator–capacitor 486:Resonant cavities 376:Maxwell equations 16:(Redirected from 9962: 9923: 9922: 9921: 9787: 9786: 9590: 9445: 9444: 9427: 9420: 9413: 9404: 9403: 9341:Related articles 9256:Radiation damage 9081:Nuclear reactors 8966: 8965: 8947: 8940: 8933: 8924: 8923: 8902:Particle physics 8856:electromagnetism 8851:weak interaction 8804: 8797: 8790: 8781: 8780: 8759: 8716: 8694: 8672: 8653: 8634: 8613: 8587: 8585: 8583: 8564: 8563: 8545: 8525: 8519: 8518: 8516: 8514: 8500: 8494: 8493: 8491: 8489: 8475: 8469: 8468: 8440: 8434: 8433: 8415: 8391: 8385: 8371: 8361: 8336: 8330: 8329: 8318: 8312: 8299: 8293: 8292: 8264: 8258: 8257: 8247: 8223: 8217: 8216: 8184: 8178: 8177: 8167: 8143: 8137: 8136: 8112: 8102: 8093: 8092: 8090: 8088: 8082: 8076:. Archived from 8071: 8063: 8057: 8056: 8054: 8052: 8033: 8027: 8026: 8024: 8022: 8017:on 8 August 2017 8013:. Archived from 8003: 7997: 7996: 7994: 7992: 7977:"CANDU textbook" 7973: 7964: 7963: 7927: 7921: 7920: 7914: 7909: 7907: 7899: 7897: 7895: 7889: 7880: 7874: 7873: 7847: 7841: 7840: 7830: 7821:(7): 1901–1907. 7806: 7800: 7799: 7775: 7765: 7759: 7758: 7756: 7754: 7739: 7733: 7732: 7730: 7728: 7715:Henderson, Roy. 7712: 7706: 7696: 7685: 7684: 7666: 7651:Microscopy Today 7642: 7636: 7635: 7633: 7631: 7612: 7606: 7605: 7595: 7570:(6): 1496–1499. 7555: 7549: 7548: 7538: 7506: 7500: 7499: 7479: 7473: 7472: 7470: 7468: 7449: 7443: 7442: 7416: 7410: 7406: 7400: 7399: 7379: 7373: 7372: 7366: 7358: 7356: 7354: 7338: 7332: 7331: 7313: 7307: 7306: 7288: 7282: 7281: 7250: 7244: 7243: 7227: 7217: 7211: 7210: 7201: 7195: 7194: 7174: 7168: 7167: 7165: 7163: 7144: 7138: 7137: 7127: 7101: 7077: 7071: 7070: 7068: 7066: 7052: 7046: 7045: 7023: 7017: 7016: 7014: 7012: 7001:science.nasa.gov 6993: 6987: 6986: 6984: 6982: 6963: 6957: 6956: 6954: 6952: 6933: 6927: 6926: 6924: 6893: 6884: 6878: 6877: 6875: 6873: 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3997: 3995: 3994: 3989: 3987: 3983: 3982: 3980: 3972: 3971: 3962: 3943: 3939: 3938: 3908: 3896: 3894: 3893: 3888: 3883: 3878: 3877: 3865: 3861: 3860: 3838: 3834: 3833: 3804: 3802: 3801: 3796: 3794: 3778: 3776: 3775: 3770: 3765: 3757: 3749: 3725: 3723: 3722: 3717: 3715: 3714: 3694: 3686: 3684: 3683: 3678: 3676: 3675: 3653: 3651: 3650: 3645: 3643: 3641: 3633: 3632: 3623: 3614: 3612: 3611: 3606: 3604: 3602: 3594: 3593: 3584: 3574: 3572: 3571: 3566: 3561: 3545: 3543: 3542: 3537: 3535: 3513: 3511: 3510: 3505: 3503: 3455: 3453: 3452: 3447: 3445: 3433: 3431: 3430: 3425: 3423: 3401: 3392: 3390: 3389: 3384: 3382: 3380: 3372: 3371: 3362: 3360: 3359: 3350: 3349: 3337: 3318: 3310: 3301: 3299: 3298: 3293: 3285: 3266: 3258: 3249: 3247: 3246: 3241: 3239: 3237: 3229: 3228: 3219: 3211: 3192: 3184: 3175: 3173: 3172: 3167: 3159: 3140: 2664:section below). 2558:Fourier analysis 2483:Medium frequency 2423:SX = Soft X-Rays 2237:William Herschel 2207:refractive index 2016:electric current 2006: 2004: 2003: 1998: 1993: 1985: 1980: 1975: 1967: 1962: 1954: 1913: 1911: 1910: 1905: 1882: 1880: 1879: 1874: 1870: 1865: 1857: 1742:Fourier analysis 1711: 1709: 1708: 1703: 1626: 1620: 1610: 1608: 1607: 1602: 1600: 1586: 1561: 1454:refractive index 1303:) produce local 1140:near ultraviolet 1127: 1123: 1119: 1099: 1013:angular momentum 864: 857: 850: 531:Electric machine 514:Magnetic circuit 476:Parallel circuit 466:Network analysis 431:Electric current 366:London equations 211:Triboelectricity 201:Potential energy 70: 60:Electromagnetism 51: 50: 21: 9970: 9969: 9965: 9964: 9963: 9961: 9960: 9959: 9935: 9934: 9933: 9928: 9919: 9917: 9906: 9835: 9776: 9641: 9591: 9578: 9503: 9436: 9431: 9401: 9396: 9395: 9372: 9368:Havana syndrome 9353:Nuclear physics 9336: 9300: 9193: 9183: 9169:Unruh radiation 9105: 9086:Nuclear weapons 9071:Nuclear fission 9017: 8957: 8951: 8921: 8916: 8888: 8867: 8823:Physical forces 8817: 8808: 8774:Project PHYSNET 8747: 8746: 8745: 8735: 8734: 8730: 8723: 8713: 8691: 8669: 8650: 8631: 8610: 8594: 8592:Further reading 8581: 8579: 8571: 8568: 8567: 8526: 8522: 8512: 8510: 8502: 8501: 8497: 8487: 8485: 8477: 8476: 8472: 8441: 8437: 8392: 8388: 8337: 8333: 8320: 8319: 8315: 8309:Wayback Machine 8300: 8296: 8265: 8261: 8224: 8220: 8185: 8181: 8144: 8140: 8125: 8103: 8096: 8086: 8084: 8080: 8069: 8065: 8064: 8060: 8050: 8048: 8035: 8034: 8030: 8020: 8018: 8005: 8004: 8000: 7990: 7988: 7975: 7974: 7967: 7928: 7924: 7912: 7910: 7901: 7900: 7893: 7891: 7887: 7881: 7877: 7870: 7848: 7844: 7807: 7803: 7796: 7766: 7762: 7752: 7750: 7741: 7740: 7736: 7726: 7724: 7713: 7709: 7697: 7688: 7643: 7639: 7629: 7627: 7614: 7613: 7609: 7556: 7552: 7507: 7503: 7496: 7480: 7476: 7466: 7464: 7451: 7450: 7446: 7439: 7417: 7413: 7407: 7403: 7396: 7380: 7376: 7360: 7359: 7352: 7350: 7339: 7335: 7328: 7314: 7310: 7303: 7289: 7285: 7278: 7262:. Vol. 1. 7251: 7247: 7240: 7218: 7214: 7203: 7202: 7198: 7191: 7175: 7171: 7161: 7159: 7146: 7145: 7141: 7078: 7074: 7064: 7062: 7054: 7053: 7049: 7042: 7024: 7020: 7010: 7008: 6995: 6994: 6990: 6980: 6978: 6965: 6964: 6960: 6950: 6948: 6935: 6934: 6930: 6922: 6891: 6885: 6881: 6871: 6869: 6868:on 27 June 2007 6865: 6858: 6852: 6848: 6838: 6836: 6823: 6822: 6818: 6808: 6806: 6794: 6790: 6758:physics/9810036 6741: 6737: 6727: 6725: 6721: 6720: 6716: 6703: 6699: 6689: 6687: 6678: 6677: 6673: 6663: 6661: 6652: 6651: 6647: 6637: 6635: 6626: 6625: 6621: 6611: 6609: 6596: 6595: 6591: 6581: 6579: 6569: 6565: 6558: 6542: 6538: 6528: 6526: 6513: 6512: 6508: 6498: 6496: 6483: 6482: 6478: 6471: 6455: 6451: 6444: 6428: 6424: 6416: 6401: 6397: 6358: 6354: 6344: 6342: 6334: 6333: 6326: 6313: 6298: 6294: 6289: 6284: 6210: 6155: 6147: 6145: 6142: 6141: 6138:Poynting vector 6120: 6116: 6110: 6106: 6097: 6093: 6091: 6088: 6087: 6068: 6060: 6058: 6055: 6054: 6036: 6022: 6020: 6019: 6011: 6007: 6002: 5994: 5992: 5989: 5988: 5965: 5959: 5955: 5953: 5932: 5928: 5920: 5906: 5904: 5903: 5902: 5898: 5897: 5889: 5883: 5878: 5877: 5863: 5861: 5860: 5852: 5844: 5841: 5840: 5812: 5810: 5809: 5801: 5799: 5796: 5795: 5761: 5757: 5749: 5735: 5733: 5732: 5731: 5727: 5726: 5718: 5712: 5707: 5706: 5692: 5690: 5689: 5681: 5673: 5670: 5669: 5644: 5642: 5641: 5639: 5636: 5635: 5606: 5602: 5594: 5580: 5578: 5577: 5576: 5572: 5571: 5559: 5555: 5551: 5545: 5541: 5539: 5531: 5524: 5520: 5519: 5518: 5513: 5495: 5491: 5483: 5469: 5467: 5466: 5465: 5461: 5460: 5451: 5447: 5445: 5442: 5441: 5415: 5411: 5403: 5389: 5387: 5386: 5385: 5381: 5380: 5375: 5372: 5371: 5354: 5353: 5351: 5348: 5347: 5325: 5323: 5322: 5320: 5317: 5316: 5300: 5297: 5296: 5279: 5274: 5273: 5271: 5268: 5267: 5239: 5235: 5227: 5213: 5211: 5210: 5209: 5205: 5204: 5195: 5190: 5189: 5181: 5179: 5176: 5175: 5162: 5140: 5136: 5134: 5131: 5130: 5110: 5106: 5104: 5101: 5100: 5068: 5064: 5058: 5054: 5048: 5039: 5035: 5033: 5030: 5029: 5004: 5000: 4996: 4990: 4986: 4984: 4976: 4969: 4965: 4964: 4963: 4958: 4946: 4942: 4938: 4932: 4928: 4926: 4914: 4910: 4906: 4900: 4896: 4894: 4882: 4878: 4874: 4868: 4864: 4862: 4850: 4846: 4842: 4836: 4832: 4830: 4822: 4815: 4811: 4810: 4809: 4804: 4795: 4791: 4783: 4780: 4779: 4759: 4756: 4755: 4730: 4727: 4726: 4706: 4702: 4698: 4688: 4684: 4683: 4681: 4673: 4666: 4662: 4661: 4660: 4655: 4643: 4639: 4637: 4634: 4633: 4617: 4614: 4613: 4593: 4589: 4587: 4584: 4583: 4576: 4553: 4549: 4545: 4539: 4533: 4529: 4528: 4526: 4520: 4516: 4510: 4506: 4498: 4492: 4488: 4486: 4483: 4482: 4470: 4450: 4446: 4442: 4436: 4430: 4426: 4425: 4423: 4417: 4413: 4407: 4403: 4395: 4389: 4385: 4383: 4380: 4379: 4324: 4320: 4316: 4310: 4304: 4300: 4299: 4297: 4291: 4287: 4281: 4277: 4261: 4254: 4250: 4240: 4235: 4214: 4208: 4204: 4202: 4198: 4194: 4186: 4183: 4182: 4167: 4126: 4120: 4116: 4105: 4099: 4095: 4082: 4075: 4071: 4055: 4048: 4044: 4036: 4033: 4032: 3973: 3967: 3963: 3961: 3957: 3953: 3934: 3927: 3923: 3915: 3912: 3911: 3879: 3873: 3869: 3856: 3849: 3845: 3829: 3822: 3818: 3810: 3807: 3806: 3790: 3788: 3785: 3784: 3781:vector identity 3761: 3753: 3745: 3743: 3740: 3739: 3710: 3706: 3704: 3701: 3700: 3692: 3671: 3667: 3665: 3662: 3661: 3634: 3628: 3624: 3622: 3620: 3617: 3616: 3595: 3589: 3585: 3583: 3581: 3578: 3577: 3557: 3555: 3552: 3551: 3531: 3523: 3520: 3519: 3499: 3491: 3488: 3487: 3441: 3439: 3436: 3435: 3419: 3417: 3414: 3413: 3373: 3367: 3363: 3361: 3355: 3351: 3345: 3341: 3333: 3325: 3322: 3321: 3281: 3273: 3270: 3269: 3230: 3224: 3220: 3218: 3207: 3199: 3196: 3195: 3155: 3147: 3144: 3143: 3123: 3117: 3089: 3083: 3081:Use as a weapon 3031: 3023:Main articles: 3021: 2944: 2936:Main articles: 2934: 2922:shortwave radio 2868: 2850:shortwave radio 2844:Main articles: 2842: 2821: 2813:Main articles: 2811: 2799:photoionisation 2780: 2774: 2684: 2678: 2657: 2651: 2616: 2608:Main articles: 2606: 2515: 2509: 2503: 2501:Voice frequency 2498: 2492: 2486: 2480: 2474: 2468: 2462: 2461: 2455: 2449: 2448: 2446: 2444: 2439: 2438: 2437:(colored bands) 2433: 2432: 2430: 2425: 2424: 2422: 2417: 2416: 2411: 2391: 2385: 2347:alpha particles 2327:Henri Becquerel 2312:Wilhelm Röntgen 2285: 2272:silver chloride 2251:light from the 2229: 2215: 2203:velocity factor 2192:Planck constant 2145: 2139: 2093: 2085: 2079: 2071:phosphorescence 1984: 1968: 1966: 1953: 1945: 1942: 1941: 1899: 1896: 1895: 1892:Planck constant 1858: 1856: 1839: 1836: 1835: 1809:Albert Einstein 1783: 1773: 1686: 1683: 1682: 1622: 1616: 1613:transverse wave 1598: 1597: 1587: 1582: 1573: 1572: 1562: 1557: 1547: 1545: 1542: 1541: 1534:transverse wave 1522: 1492:photomultiplier 1408:vector addition 1387: 1313:electric-dipole 1309:magnetic-dipole 1257: 1249:Main articles: 1247: 1227:magnetic fields 1212: 1207: 1199:Main articles: 1185: 1180: 1125: 1121: 1117: 1114:Planck constant 1091: 1079:in an atom and 958:electromagnetic 951:transverse wave 926:magnetic fields 868: 839: 838: 654: 646: 645: 601: 591: 590: 546:Induction motor 516: 506: 505: 421:Current density 406: 396: 395: 386:Poynting vector 296: 294:Electrodynamics 286: 285: 281:Right-hand rule 246:Magnetic dipole 236:Biot–Savart law 226: 216: 215: 151:Electric dipole 146:Electric charge 121: 28: 23: 22: 15: 12: 11: 5: 9968: 9958: 9957: 9952: 9950:Heinrich Hertz 9947: 9930: 9929: 9915: 9912: 9911: 9908: 9907: 9905: 9904: 9899: 9894: 9889: 9888: 9887: 9886: 9885: 9883:for spacecraft 9880: 9872: 9867: 9859: 9854: 9849: 9843: 9841: 9837: 9836: 9834: 9833: 9828: 9823: 9822: 9821: 9811: 9806: 9801: 9795: 9793: 9784: 9778: 9777: 9775: 9774: 9769: 9764: 9759: 9754: 9749: 9748: 9747: 9737: 9732: 9727: 9722: 9717: 9712: 9707: 9706: 9705: 9700: 9690: 9685: 9680: 9675: 9674: 9673: 9668: 9660: 9655: 9649: 9647: 9643: 9642: 9640: 9639: 9638: 9637: 9627: 9622: 9617: 9612: 9607: 9601: 9599: 9593: 9592: 9585: 9583: 9580: 9579: 9577: 9576: 9575: 9574: 9564: 9562:Microorganisms 9559: 9554: 9553: 9552: 9547: 9542: 9537: 9532: 9527: 9522: 9511: 9509: 9505: 9504: 9502: 9501: 9496: 9491: 9490: 9489: 9479: 9474: 9469: 9464: 9459: 9457:The human body 9453: 9451: 9442: 9438: 9437: 9430: 9429: 9422: 9415: 9407: 9398: 9397: 9377: 9374: 9373: 9371: 9370: 9365: 9360: 9355: 9350: 9344: 9342: 9338: 9337: 9335: 9334: 9329: 9324: 9319: 9314: 9308: 9306: 9302: 9301: 9299: 9298: 9293: 9288: 9283: 9278: 9273: 9268: 9263: 9258: 9253: 9248: 9243: 9238: 9233: 9228: 9223: 9218: 9216:Health physics 9213: 9212: 9211: 9206: 9197: 9195: 9189: 9188: 9185: 9184: 9182: 9181: 9176: 9174:Dark radiation 9171: 9166: 9164:Bremsstrahlung 9161: 9156: 9151: 9146: 9141: 9136: 9131: 9126: 9121: 9116: 9110: 9107: 9106: 9104: 9103: 9098: 9093: 9088: 9083: 9078: 9076:Nuclear fusion 9073: 9068: 9063: 9058: 9053: 9048: 9046:Alpha particle 9043: 9038: 9033: 9027: 9025: 9019: 9018: 9016: 9015: 9010: 9005: 9000: 8995: 8990: 8985: 8980: 8974: 8972: 8963: 8959: 8958: 8950: 8949: 8942: 8935: 8927: 8918: 8917: 8915: 8914: 8909: 8904: 8899: 8893: 8890: 8889: 8887: 8886: 8881: 8875: 8873: 8869: 8868: 8866: 8865: 8860: 8859: 8858: 8853: 8843: 8842: 8841: 8836: 8827: 8825: 8819: 8818: 8807: 8806: 8799: 8792: 8784: 8778: 8777: 8765: 8753: 8744: 8743: 8737: 8736: 8725: 8724: 8722: 8721:External links 8719: 8718: 8717: 8711: 8695: 8689: 8673: 8667: 8654: 8648: 8635: 8629: 8614: 8608: 8593: 8590: 8589: 8588: 8566: 8565: 8520: 8495: 8470: 8445:Drugs of Today 8435: 8386: 8331: 8313: 8294: 8259: 8238:(7): 885–890. 8218: 8199:(8): 555–562. 8179: 8138: 8123: 8094: 8067:"Planck's law" 8058: 8028: 7998: 7965: 7922: 7913:|journal= 7875: 7868: 7842: 7801: 7794: 7760: 7749:on 29 May 2012 7734: 7707: 7686: 7637: 7607: 7550: 7501: 7494: 7474: 7453:"Spectroscopy" 7444: 7437: 7411: 7401: 7394: 7374: 7333: 7326: 7308: 7301: 7283: 7276: 7245: 7238: 7212: 7196: 7189: 7169: 7139: 7072: 7047: 7040: 7018: 6988: 6958: 6928: 6879: 6846: 6816: 6788: 6735: 6714: 6697: 6671: 6645: 6632:plus.maths.org 6619: 6589: 6571:Elert, Glenn. 6563: 6556: 6536: 6506: 6489:nobelprize.org 6476: 6469: 6449: 6442: 6422: 6414: 6395: 6352: 6324: 6311: 6291: 6290: 6288: 6285: 6283: 6282: 6277: 6272: 6267: 6262: 6257: 6252: 6247: 6242: 6237: 6232: 6227: 6222: 6217: 6211: 6209: 6206: 6158: 6154: 6150: 6123: 6119: 6113: 6109: 6105: 6100: 6096: 6071: 6067: 6063: 6039: 6035: 6029: 6025: 6014: 6010: 6006: 6001: 5997: 5971: 5968: 5962: 5958: 5952: 5949: 5944: 5940: 5935: 5931: 5927: 5923: 5919: 5913: 5909: 5901: 5895: 5892: 5886: 5881: 5876: 5870: 5866: 5859: 5855: 5851: 5848: 5828: 5825: 5819: 5815: 5808: 5804: 5781: 5778: 5773: 5769: 5764: 5760: 5756: 5752: 5748: 5742: 5738: 5730: 5724: 5721: 5715: 5710: 5705: 5699: 5695: 5688: 5684: 5680: 5677: 5651: 5647: 5623: 5618: 5614: 5609: 5605: 5601: 5597: 5593: 5587: 5583: 5575: 5570: 5562: 5558: 5554: 5548: 5544: 5534: 5527: 5523: 5517: 5512: 5507: 5503: 5498: 5494: 5490: 5486: 5482: 5476: 5472: 5464: 5459: 5454: 5450: 5427: 5423: 5418: 5414: 5410: 5406: 5402: 5396: 5392: 5384: 5379: 5357: 5332: 5328: 5304: 5282: 5277: 5251: 5247: 5242: 5238: 5234: 5230: 5226: 5220: 5216: 5208: 5203: 5198: 5193: 5188: 5184: 5160: 5143: 5139: 5113: 5109: 5094:speed of light 5079: 5071: 5067: 5061: 5057: 5052: 5047: 5042: 5038: 5007: 5003: 4999: 4993: 4989: 4979: 4972: 4968: 4962: 4957: 4949: 4945: 4941: 4935: 4931: 4925: 4917: 4913: 4909: 4903: 4899: 4893: 4885: 4881: 4877: 4871: 4867: 4861: 4853: 4849: 4845: 4839: 4835: 4825: 4818: 4814: 4808: 4803: 4798: 4794: 4790: 4787: 4763: 4743: 4740: 4737: 4734: 4709: 4705: 4701: 4696: 4691: 4687: 4676: 4669: 4665: 4659: 4654: 4651: 4646: 4642: 4621: 4601: 4596: 4592: 4564: 4556: 4552: 4548: 4542: 4536: 4532: 4523: 4519: 4513: 4509: 4505: 4501: 4495: 4491: 4480: 4453: 4449: 4445: 4439: 4433: 4429: 4420: 4416: 4410: 4406: 4402: 4398: 4392: 4388: 4377: 4355: 4354: 4345: 4343: 4327: 4323: 4319: 4313: 4307: 4303: 4294: 4290: 4284: 4280: 4276: 4273: 4269: 4264: 4260: 4257: 4253: 4246: 4243: 4239: 4234: 4231: 4227: 4220: 4217: 4211: 4207: 4201: 4197: 4193: 4190: 4156: 4155: 4146: 4144: 4133: 4129: 4123: 4119: 4115: 4112: 4108: 4102: 4098: 4094: 4090: 4085: 4081: 4078: 4074: 4070: 4067: 4063: 4058: 4054: 4051: 4047: 4043: 4040: 4010: 4009: 4000: 3998: 3986: 3979: 3976: 3970: 3966: 3960: 3956: 3952: 3949: 3946: 3942: 3937: 3933: 3930: 3926: 3922: 3919: 3886: 3882: 3876: 3872: 3868: 3864: 3859: 3855: 3852: 3848: 3844: 3841: 3837: 3832: 3828: 3825: 3821: 3817: 3814: 3793: 3768: 3764: 3760: 3756: 3752: 3748: 3736: 3735: 3713: 3709: 3691:of a vacuum (4 3674: 3670: 3659: 3640: 3637: 3631: 3627: 3601: 3598: 3592: 3588: 3575: 3564: 3560: 3534: 3530: 3527: 3502: 3498: 3495: 3485: 3474:magnetic field 3458:electric field 3444: 3422: 3405: 3404: 3395: 3393: 3379: 3376: 3370: 3366: 3358: 3354: 3348: 3344: 3340: 3336: 3332: 3329: 3314: 3313: 3304: 3302: 3291: 3288: 3284: 3280: 3277: 3262: 3261: 3252: 3250: 3236: 3233: 3227: 3223: 3217: 3214: 3210: 3206: 3203: 3188: 3187: 3178: 3176: 3165: 3162: 3158: 3154: 3151: 3119:Main article: 3116: 3113: 3109:microwave oven 3082: 3079: 3020: 3017: 3002:thermal energy 2961:kinetic energy 2957:thermal energy 2933: 2930: 2866:optical window 2841: 2838: 2810: 2807: 2784:electron volts 2776:Main article: 2773: 2770: 2722:Photosynthesis 2680:Main article: 2677: 2674: 2653:Main article: 2650: 2647: 2643:microwave oven 2605: 2602: 2477:High frequency 2426:EUV = Extreme- 2387:Main article: 2384: 2381: 2377:bremsstrahlung 2372:Edward Andrade 2351:beta particles 2297:Heinrich Hertz 2214: 2211: 2160:speed of light 2143:Speed of light 2141:Main article: 2138: 2135: 2092: 2089: 2081:Main article: 2078: 2075: 2036:Compton effect 2008: 2007: 1996: 1991: 1988: 1983: 1978: 1974: 1971: 1965: 1960: 1957: 1952: 1949: 1920:speed of light 1903: 1884: 1883: 1868: 1864: 1861: 1855: 1852: 1849: 1846: 1843: 1781:Quantum optics 1772: 1769: 1765:radiant energy 1713: 1712: 1700: 1697: 1694: 1691: 1596: 1593: 1590: 1588: 1585: 1581: 1578: 1575: 1574: 1571: 1568: 1565: 1563: 1560: 1556: 1553: 1550: 1549: 1521: 1518: 1499:quantum theory 1488:interferometer 1423:Faraday effect 1386: 1383: 1246: 1243: 1239:Heinrich Hertz 1235:speed of light 1211: 1208: 1184: 1181: 1179: 1176: 1168:chemical bonds 1154:chemical bonds 1059:which are the 934:speed of light 904:radiant energy 886:) consists of 870: 869: 867: 866: 859: 852: 844: 841: 840: 837: 836: 831: 826: 821: 816: 811: 806: 801: 796: 791: 786: 781: 776: 771: 766: 761: 756: 751: 746: 741: 736: 731: 726: 721: 716: 711: 706: 701: 696: 691: 686: 681: 676: 671: 666: 661: 655: 652: 651: 648: 647: 644: 643: 638: 633: 628: 623: 621:Four-potential 618: 613: 608: 602: 597: 596: 593: 592: 589: 588: 583: 578: 573: 568: 563: 558: 553: 548: 543: 538: 536:Electric motor 533: 528: 523: 517: 512: 511: 508: 507: 504: 503: 498: 493: 491:Series circuit 488: 483: 478: 473: 468: 463: 461:Kirchhoff laws 458: 453: 448: 443: 438: 433: 428: 426:Direct current 423: 418: 413: 407: 402: 401: 398: 397: 394: 393: 388: 383: 381:Maxwell tensor 378: 373: 368: 363: 358: 353: 351:Larmor formula 348: 343: 338: 333: 328: 323: 318: 313: 308: 303: 301:Bremsstrahlung 297: 292: 291: 288: 287: 284: 283: 278: 273: 268: 263: 258: 253: 251:Magnetic field 248: 243: 238: 233: 227: 224:Magnetostatics 222: 221: 218: 217: 214: 213: 208: 203: 198: 193: 188: 183: 178: 173: 168: 163: 158: 156:Electric field 153: 148: 143: 138: 133: 128: 126:Charge density 122: 119:Electrostatics 117: 116: 113: 112: 111: 110: 105: 100: 95: 90: 85: 80: 72: 71: 63: 62: 56: 55: 54:Articles about 46:magnetic field 42:electric field 26: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 9967: 9956: 9953: 9951: 9948: 9946: 9943: 9942: 9940: 9927: 9926: 9913: 9903: 9900: 9898: 9895: 9893: 9890: 9884: 9881: 9879: 9876: 9875: 9873: 9871: 9868: 9866: 9863: 9862: 9860: 9858: 9855: 9853: 9852:Manufacturing 9850: 9848: 9845: 9844: 9842: 9838: 9832: 9829: 9827: 9824: 9820: 9817: 9816: 9815: 9812: 9810: 9807: 9805: 9802: 9800: 9797: 9796: 9794: 9792: 9788: 9785: 9783: 9779: 9773: 9770: 9768: 9765: 9763: 9760: 9758: 9755: 9753: 9750: 9746: 9743: 9742: 9741: 9738: 9736: 9733: 9731: 9728: 9726: 9723: 9721: 9718: 9716: 9713: 9711: 9708: 9704: 9701: 9699: 9696: 9695: 9694: 9691: 9689: 9686: 9684: 9681: 9679: 9676: 9672: 9669: 9667: 9664: 9663: 9661: 9659: 9656: 9654: 9651: 9650: 9648: 9644: 9636: 9633: 9632: 9631: 9628: 9626: 9625:Magnetosphere 9623: 9621: 9618: 9616: 9613: 9611: 9608: 9606: 9603: 9602: 9600: 9598: 9594: 9589: 9573: 9570: 9569: 9568: 9565: 9563: 9560: 9558: 9555: 9551: 9548: 9546: 9543: 9541: 9538: 9536: 9533: 9531: 9528: 9526: 9523: 9521: 9518: 9517: 9516: 9513: 9512: 9510: 9506: 9500: 9497: 9495: 9492: 9488: 9485: 9484: 9483: 9480: 9478: 9475: 9473: 9470: 9468: 9465: 9463: 9460: 9458: 9455: 9454: 9452: 9450: 9446: 9443: 9439: 9435: 9428: 9423: 9421: 9416: 9414: 9409: 9408: 9405: 9394: 9390: 9386: 9385:Radioactivity 9382: 9375: 9369: 9366: 9364: 9361: 9359: 9356: 9354: 9351: 9349: 9346: 9345: 9343: 9339: 9333: 9330: 9328: 9325: 9323: 9320: 9318: 9315: 9313: 9310: 9309: 9307: 9303: 9297: 9294: 9292: 9289: 9287: 9284: 9282: 9279: 9277: 9274: 9272: 9269: 9267: 9264: 9262: 9259: 9257: 9254: 9252: 9249: 9247: 9244: 9242: 9239: 9237: 9234: 9232: 9229: 9227: 9224: 9222: 9219: 9217: 9214: 9210: 9207: 9205: 9202: 9201: 9199: 9198: 9196: 9190: 9180: 9177: 9175: 9172: 9170: 9167: 9165: 9162: 9160: 9157: 9155: 9152: 9150: 9147: 9145: 9142: 9140: 9137: 9135: 9132: 9130: 9127: 9125: 9122: 9120: 9117: 9115: 9112: 9111: 9108: 9102: 9099: 9097: 9094: 9092: 9089: 9087: 9084: 9082: 9079: 9077: 9074: 9072: 9069: 9067: 9064: 9062: 9059: 9057: 9054: 9052: 9051:Beta particle 9049: 9047: 9044: 9042: 9039: 9037: 9036:Cluster decay 9034: 9032: 9029: 9028: 9026: 9024: 9020: 9014: 9011: 9009: 9006: 9004: 9001: 8999: 8996: 8994: 8991: 8989: 8986: 8984: 8981: 8979: 8976: 8975: 8973: 8971: 8967: 8964: 8962:Main articles 8960: 8955: 8948: 8943: 8941: 8936: 8934: 8929: 8928: 8925: 8913: 8910: 8908: 8905: 8903: 8900: 8898: 8895: 8894: 8891: 8885: 8882: 8880: 8877: 8876: 8874: 8870: 8864: 8861: 8857: 8854: 8852: 8849: 8848: 8847: 8844: 8840: 8837: 8834: 8833: 8832: 8829: 8828: 8826: 8824: 8820: 8816: 8812: 8805: 8800: 8798: 8793: 8791: 8786: 8785: 8782: 8775: 8771: 8770: 8766: 8763: 8758: 8754: 8752: 8749: 8748: 8742: 8739: 8738: 8733: 8728: 8714: 8708: 8704: 8700: 8699:Allen Taflove 8696: 8692: 8686: 8682: 8678: 8674: 8670: 8664: 8660: 8655: 8651: 8645: 8641: 8636: 8632: 8626: 8622: 8621: 8615: 8611: 8605: 8601: 8596: 8595: 8578: 8574: 8570: 8569: 8561: 8557: 8553: 8549: 8544: 8539: 8536:(1): 013819. 8535: 8531: 8524: 8509: 8505: 8499: 8484: 8480: 8474: 8466: 8462: 8458: 8454: 8450: 8446: 8439: 8431: 8427: 8423: 8419: 8414: 8409: 8406:(9): 978–86. 8405: 8401: 8397: 8390: 8383: 8380:formation of 8379: 8378:photochemical 8375: 8369: 8365: 8360: 8355: 8352:(7): 1901–7. 8351: 8347: 8343: 8335: 8327: 8323: 8317: 8310: 8306: 8303: 8298: 8290: 8286: 8282: 8278: 8274: 8270: 8263: 8255: 8251: 8246: 8241: 8237: 8233: 8229: 8222: 8214: 8210: 8206: 8202: 8198: 8194: 8190: 8183: 8175: 8171: 8166: 8161: 8157: 8153: 8149: 8142: 8134: 8130: 8126: 8120: 8116: 8111: 8110: 8101: 8099: 8079: 8075: 8068: 8062: 8046: 8042: 8038: 8032: 8016: 8012: 8008: 8002: 7986: 7982: 7978: 7972: 7970: 7961: 7957: 7953: 7949: 7945: 7941: 7937: 7933: 7926: 7918: 7905: 7886: 7879: 7871: 7865: 7861: 7857: 7853: 7846: 7838: 7834: 7829: 7824: 7820: 7816: 7812: 7805: 7797: 7791: 7787: 7783: 7779: 7774: 7773: 7764: 7748: 7744: 7738: 7722: 7718: 7711: 7704: 7700: 7695: 7693: 7691: 7682: 7678: 7674: 7670: 7665: 7660: 7656: 7652: 7648: 7641: 7625: 7621: 7617: 7611: 7603: 7599: 7594: 7589: 7585: 7581: 7577: 7573: 7569: 7565: 7561: 7554: 7546: 7542: 7537: 7532: 7528: 7524: 7520: 7516: 7512: 7505: 7497: 7491: 7487: 7486: 7478: 7462: 7458: 7454: 7448: 7440: 7434: 7430: 7426: 7422: 7415: 7405: 7397: 7391: 7387: 7386: 7378: 7370: 7364: 7348: 7344: 7337: 7329: 7323: 7319: 7312: 7304: 7298: 7294: 7287: 7279: 7273: 7269: 7265: 7261: 7260: 7255: 7249: 7241: 7235: 7231: 7226: 7225: 7216: 7208: 7207: 7200: 7192: 7186: 7182: 7181: 7173: 7157: 7153: 7149: 7143: 7135: 7131: 7126: 7121: 7117: 7113: 7109: 7105: 7100: 7095: 7091: 7087: 7083: 7076: 7061: 7057: 7051: 7043: 7037: 7033: 7029: 7022: 7006: 7002: 6998: 6992: 6976: 6972: 6968: 6962: 6946: 6942: 6938: 6932: 6921: 6917: 6913: 6909: 6905: 6901: 6897: 6890: 6883: 6864: 6857: 6850: 6834: 6830: 6826: 6820: 6804: 6803: 6798: 6792: 6784: 6780: 6776: 6775:10.1038/25303 6772: 6768: 6764: 6759: 6754: 6750: 6746: 6739: 6724: 6718: 6711: 6707: 6701: 6685: 6681: 6675: 6659: 6655: 6649: 6633: 6629: 6623: 6607: 6603: 6599: 6593: 6578: 6574: 6567: 6559: 6553: 6549: 6548: 6540: 6524: 6520: 6516: 6510: 6494: 6490: 6486: 6480: 6472: 6466: 6462: 6461: 6453: 6445: 6439: 6435: 6434: 6426: 6417: 6411: 6407: 6399: 6391: 6387: 6383: 6379: 6375: 6371: 6367: 6363: 6356: 6341: 6337: 6331: 6329: 6320: 6314: 6308: 6304: 6296: 6292: 6281: 6278: 6276: 6273: 6271: 6268: 6266: 6263: 6261: 6258: 6256: 6253: 6251: 6248: 6246: 6243: 6241: 6238: 6236: 6233: 6231: 6228: 6226: 6223: 6221: 6218: 6216: 6213: 6212: 6205: 6201: 6199: 6195: 6189: 6187: 6182: 6181:curl operator 6177: 6173: 6152: 6139: 6121: 6117: 6111: 6107: 6103: 6098: 6094: 6084: 6065: 6051: 6033: 6012: 6008: 6004: 5999: 5985: 5969: 5950: 5947: 5942: 5938: 5933: 5929: 5925: 5917: 5899: 5893: 5890: 5884: 5874: 5857: 5849: 5826: 5823: 5806: 5792: 5779: 5776: 5771: 5767: 5762: 5758: 5754: 5746: 5728: 5722: 5719: 5713: 5703: 5686: 5678: 5666: 5621: 5616: 5612: 5607: 5603: 5599: 5591: 5573: 5568: 5560: 5556: 5546: 5532: 5525: 5521: 5515: 5510: 5505: 5501: 5496: 5492: 5488: 5480: 5462: 5457: 5452: 5425: 5421: 5416: 5412: 5408: 5400: 5382: 5377: 5302: 5280: 5264: 5249: 5245: 5240: 5236: 5232: 5224: 5206: 5201: 5196: 5186: 5172: 5170: 5166: 5159: 5141: 5137: 5129: 5111: 5107: 5099: 5095: 5090: 5077: 5069: 5065: 5059: 5055: 5050: 5045: 5040: 5036: 5026: 5005: 5001: 4991: 4977: 4970: 4966: 4960: 4955: 4947: 4943: 4933: 4923: 4915: 4911: 4901: 4891: 4883: 4879: 4869: 4859: 4851: 4847: 4837: 4823: 4816: 4812: 4806: 4801: 4796: 4788: 4785: 4777: 4761: 4741: 4738: 4735: 4732: 4707: 4703: 4694: 4689: 4674: 4667: 4663: 4657: 4652: 4649: 4644: 4619: 4599: 4594: 4590: 4581: 4580:wave equation 4575: 4562: 4554: 4550: 4534: 4521: 4517: 4511: 4507: 4503: 4493: 4479: 4477: 4476: 4469: 4451: 4447: 4431: 4418: 4414: 4408: 4404: 4400: 4390: 4376: 4374: 4370: 4369: 4364: 4363: 4353: 4346: 4344: 4325: 4321: 4305: 4292: 4288: 4282: 4278: 4274: 4271: 4267: 4258: 4251: 4244: 4232: 4229: 4225: 4218: 4199: 4195: 4191: 4181: 4180: 4177: 4173: 4172: 4165: 4164: 4154: 4147: 4145: 4131: 4121: 4113: 4110: 4100: 4092: 4088: 4079: 4072: 4065: 4061: 4052: 4045: 4041: 4031: 4030: 4027: 4025: 4024: 4019: 4018: 4008: 4001: 3999: 3984: 3977: 3958: 3954: 3950: 3944: 3940: 3931: 3924: 3920: 3910: 3909: 3906: 3904: 3903: 3897: 3884: 3874: 3866: 3862: 3853: 3846: 3839: 3835: 3826: 3819: 3815: 3782: 3766: 3758: 3750: 3733: 3729: 3711: 3707: 3698: 3690: 3672: 3668: 3660: 3657: 3638: 3599: 3576: 3562: 3549: 3528: 3517: 3496: 3486: 3483: 3479: 3476:(measured in 3475: 3471: 3467: 3463: 3460:(measured in 3459: 3412: 3411: 3410: 3403: 3396: 3394: 3377: 3356: 3352: 3346: 3342: 3338: 3330: 3320: 3319: 3312: 3305: 3303: 3289: 3286: 3278: 3268: 3267: 3260: 3253: 3251: 3234: 3215: 3212: 3204: 3194: 3193: 3186: 3179: 3177: 3163: 3160: 3152: 3142: 3141: 3138: 3136: 3132: 3128: 3122: 3112: 3110: 3106: 3102: 3098: 3094: 3088: 3078: 3075: 3074:free radicals 3071: 3067: 3061: 3057: 3055: 3051: 3046: 3043: 3038: 3035: 3030: 3026: 3016: 3014: 3009: 3005: 3003: 2999: 2994: 2989: 2985: 2983: 2978: 2974: 2970: 2966: 2962: 2958: 2954: 2949: 2943: 2939: 2929: 2927: 2923: 2919: 2915: 2910: 2906: 2904: 2899: 2897: 2893: 2889: 2881: 2878:) of various 2877: 2872: 2867: 2863: 2859: 2855: 2851: 2847: 2837: 2834: 2830: 2826: 2820: 2816: 2806: 2804: 2803:electron volt 2800: 2795: 2793: 2789: 2785: 2779: 2769: 2767: 2766:ultraviolet A 2763: 2758: 2756: 2752: 2746: 2743: 2741: 2737: 2735: 2731: 2727: 2723: 2719: 2717: 2713: 2709: 2705: 2699: 2697: 2693: 2689: 2683: 2676:Visible light 2673: 2671: 2665: 2663: 2656: 2646: 2644: 2640: 2636: 2631: 2627: 2625: 2621: 2615: 2611: 2601: 2599: 2598:Planck energy 2593: 2591: 2586: 2582: 2578: 2574: 2569: 2567: 2563: 2559: 2555: 2551: 2547: 2543: 2539: 2535: 2531: 2527: 2519: 2513: 2507: 2502: 2496: 2490: 2489:Low frequency 2484: 2478: 2472: 2467:(radio waves) 2466: 2459: 2453: 2443: 2436: 2435:Visible light 2429: 2421: 2415: 2410: 2406: 2399: 2395: 2390: 2380: 2378: 2373: 2369: 2365: 2360: 2356: 2352: 2348: 2344: 2340: 2336: 2332: 2328: 2324: 2323:radioactivity 2319: 2317: 2313: 2309: 2307: 2303: 2298: 2293: 2284: 2280: 2276: 2273: 2269: 2265: 2260: 2258: 2254: 2250: 2246: 2242: 2238: 2234: 2228: 2224: 2220: 2210: 2208: 2204: 2199: 2197: 2193: 2189: 2185: 2181: 2177: 2173: 2169: 2165: 2161: 2156: 2154: 2150: 2144: 2134: 2132: 2128: 2122: 2120: 2116: 2112: 2108: 2104: 2099: 2088: 2084: 2074: 2072: 2068: 2064: 2060: 2056: 2052: 2048: 2044: 2039: 2037: 2033: 2032: 2027: 2026: 2021: 2017: 2013: 1994: 1989: 1986: 1981: 1976: 1972: 1969: 1963: 1958: 1955: 1950: 1947: 1940: 1939: 1938: 1936: 1931: 1929: 1925: 1921: 1917: 1901: 1893: 1889: 1866: 1862: 1859: 1853: 1850: 1847: 1844: 1841: 1834: 1833: 1832: 1830: 1826: 1822: 1818: 1814: 1810: 1806: 1801: 1797: 1793: 1789: 1782: 1778: 1768: 1766: 1761: 1759: 1753: 1751: 1750:monochromatic 1747: 1743: 1739: 1734: 1732: 1728: 1724: 1723: 1718: 1698: 1695: 1692: 1689: 1681: 1680: 1679: 1677: 1672: 1670: 1665: 1661: 1657: 1653: 1649: 1645: 1644:curl operator 1641: 1637: 1633: 1628: 1625: 1619: 1614: 1594: 1591: 1589: 1579: 1569: 1566: 1564: 1554: 1539: 1535: 1526: 1517: 1515: 1511: 1506: 1504: 1500: 1495: 1493: 1489: 1485: 1480: 1478: 1474: 1470: 1465: 1463: 1459: 1455: 1451: 1447: 1443: 1439: 1435: 1430: 1428: 1424: 1420: 1415: 1413: 1409: 1405: 1401: 1400:superposition 1391: 1382: 1379: 1374: 1371: 1367: 1363: 1359: 1358:power density 1355: 1350: 1345: 1341: 1340: 1334: 1332: 1328: 1324: 1320: 1319: 1314: 1310: 1306: 1302: 1294: 1290: 1289: 1284: 1280: 1279: 1274: 1270: 1266: 1261: 1256: 1252: 1242: 1240: 1236: 1232: 1228: 1224: 1220: 1216: 1206: 1202: 1194: 1189: 1175: 1173: 1169: 1165: 1161: 1160: 1155: 1151: 1147: 1146: 1141: 1137: 1132: 1130: 1115: 1111: 1107: 1103: 1098: 1094: 1090: 1086: 1082: 1078: 1077:energy levels 1074: 1070: 1066: 1062: 1058: 1054: 1050: 1046: 1041: 1039: 1035: 1031: 1027: 1023: 1018: 1014: 1010: 1006: 1002: 997: 995: 991: 987: 983: 982:visible light 979: 975: 971: 966: 961: 959: 954: 952: 947: 943: 939: 935: 931: 927: 923: 919: 915: 911: 907: 905: 901: 897: 893: 889: 885: 881: 877: 865: 860: 858: 853: 851: 846: 845: 843: 842: 835: 832: 830: 827: 825: 822: 820: 817: 815: 812: 810: 807: 805: 802: 800: 797: 795: 792: 790: 787: 785: 782: 780: 777: 775: 772: 770: 767: 765: 762: 760: 757: 755: 752: 750: 747: 745: 742: 740: 737: 735: 732: 730: 727: 725: 722: 720: 717: 715: 712: 710: 707: 705: 702: 700: 697: 695: 692: 690: 687: 685: 682: 680: 677: 675: 672: 670: 667: 665: 662: 660: 657: 656: 650: 649: 642: 639: 637: 634: 632: 629: 627: 624: 622: 619: 617: 614: 612: 609: 607: 604: 603: 600: 595: 594: 587: 584: 582: 579: 577: 574: 572: 569: 567: 564: 562: 559: 557: 554: 552: 549: 547: 544: 542: 539: 537: 534: 532: 529: 527: 524: 522: 519: 518: 515: 510: 509: 502: 499: 497: 494: 492: 489: 487: 484: 482: 479: 477: 474: 472: 469: 467: 464: 462: 459: 457: 456:Joule heating 454: 452: 449: 447: 444: 442: 439: 437: 434: 432: 429: 427: 424: 422: 419: 417: 414: 412: 409: 408: 405: 400: 399: 392: 389: 387: 384: 382: 379: 377: 374: 372: 371:Lorentz force 369: 367: 364: 362: 359: 357: 354: 352: 349: 347: 344: 342: 339: 337: 334: 332: 329: 327: 324: 322: 319: 317: 314: 312: 309: 307: 304: 302: 299: 298: 295: 290: 289: 282: 279: 277: 274: 272: 271:Magnetization 269: 267: 264: 262: 259: 257: 256:Magnetic flux 254: 252: 249: 247: 244: 242: 239: 237: 234: 232: 229: 228: 225: 220: 219: 212: 209: 207: 204: 202: 199: 197: 194: 192: 189: 187: 184: 182: 179: 177: 174: 172: 169: 167: 164: 162: 161:Electric flux 159: 157: 154: 152: 149: 147: 144: 142: 139: 137: 134: 132: 129: 127: 124: 123: 120: 115: 114: 109: 106: 104: 101: 99: 98:Computational 96: 94: 91: 89: 86: 84: 81: 79: 76: 75: 74: 73: 69: 65: 64: 61: 58: 57: 53: 52: 47: 43: 39: 34: 30: 19: 9916: 9804:Architecture 9688:Colonization 9662:Archaeology 9477:Neuroscience 9434:... in space 9389:Radiobiology 9271:Radiobiology 9231:Laser safety 9118: 8884:Quintessence 8768: 8731: 8702: 8680: 8658: 8639: 8619: 8599: 8580:. Retrieved 8577:Khan Academy 8576: 8533: 8530:Phys. Rev. A 8529: 8523: 8511:. Retrieved 8507: 8498: 8486:. Retrieved 8482: 8473: 8451:(1): 37–53. 8448: 8444: 8438: 8403: 8399: 8389: 8349: 8345: 8334: 8324:. CBS News. 8316: 8297: 8275:(1): 47–56. 8272: 8268: 8262: 8235: 8231: 8221: 8196: 8192: 8182: 8155: 8151: 8141: 8108: 8085:. Retrieved 8078:the original 8073: 8061: 8049:. Retrieved 8040: 8031: 8019:. Retrieved 8015:the original 8011:docs.kde.org 8010: 8001: 7989:. Retrieved 7980: 7938:(7): 28–43. 7935: 7931: 7925: 7904:cite journal 7892:. Retrieved 7878: 7851: 7845: 7818: 7814: 7804: 7771: 7763: 7751:. Retrieved 7747:the original 7737: 7725:. Retrieved 7721:the original 7710: 7699:Jeans, James 7657:(2): 48–51. 7654: 7650: 7640: 7630:29 September 7628:. Retrieved 7619: 7610: 7567: 7563: 7553: 7518: 7514: 7504: 7484: 7477: 7465:. Retrieved 7456: 7447: 7420: 7414: 7404: 7384: 7377: 7351:. Retrieved 7336: 7320:. 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