858:, both retrograde (for events occurring before the treatment) and anterograde (for events occurring after the treatment). Memory loss and confusion are more pronounced with bilateral electrode placement rather than unilateral, and with outdated sine-wave rather than brief-pulse currents. The use of either constant or pulsing electrical impulses also varied the memory loss results in patients. Patients who received pulsing electrical impulses, as opposed to a steady flow, seemed to incur less memory loss. The vast majority of modern treatment uses brief pulse currents. A greater number of treatments and higher electrical charges (stimulus charges) have also been associated with a greater risk of memory impairment.
1354:
opportunity to accept or reject the treatment. The form states how many treatments are recommended and also makes the patient aware that consent may be revoked and treatment discontinued at any time during a course of ECT. The US Surgeon
General's Report on Mental Health states that patients should be warned that the benefits of ECT are short-lived without active continuation treatment in the form of drugs or further ECT, and that there may be some risk of permanent, severe memory loss after ECT. The report advises psychiatrists to involve patients in discussion, possibly with the aid of leaflets or videos, both before and during a course of ECT.
1507:. However, ECT is often only used as a treatment of last resort. To be considered for ECT, often testing such as an EKG and lab tests are required, in addition to a physical and neurological exam. Certain medications and conditions, such as cardiac conditions or hypertension, may disqualify a patient from ECT. Patients should give proper informed consent before ECT is performed. In the United States, ECT is performed under general anesthesia. Both trained health professionals with experience in ECT administration as well as a specifically trained and certified anesthesiologist should administer the procedure and anesthesia respectively.
894:, stated in a 2007 interview that, "There are a number of well-designed studies that show ECT does not cause brain damage and numerous reports of patients who have received a large number of treatments over their lifetime and have suffered no significant problems due to ECT." Kellner cites a study purporting to show an absence of cognitive impairment in eight subjects after more than 100 lifetime ECT treatments. Kellner stated "Rather than cause brain damage, there is evidence that ECT may reverse some of the damaging effects of serious psychiatric illness." Two meta-analyses find that ECT is associated with brain matter growth.
1125:
1243:
or maintenance ECT with further treatments at weekly, fortnightly or monthly intervals. A few psychiatrists in the US use multiple-monitored ECT (MMECT), where patients receive more than one treatment per anesthetic. Electroconvulsive therapy is not a required subject in US medical schools and not a required skill in psychiatric residency training. Privileging for ECT practice at institutions is a local option: no national certification standards are established, and no ECT-specific continuing training experiences are required of ECT practitioners.
974:
464:(APA) task force report on electroconvulsive therapy (to be followed by further reports in 1990 and 2001). The report endorsed the use of ECT in the treatment of depression. The decade also saw criticism of ECT. Specifically, critics pointed to shortcomings such as noted side effects, the procedure being used as a form of abuse, and uneven application of ECT. The use of ECT declined until the 1980s, "when use began to increase amid growing awareness of its benefits and cost-effectiveness for treating severe depression". In 1985, the
1963:. Prepared for the January 27–28, 2011 meeting of the Neurological Devices Panel Meeting to Discuss the Classification of Electroconvulsive Therapy Devices (ECT). Quote, p. 38: "Three major practice guidelines have been published on ECT. These guidelines include: APA Task Force on ECT (2001); Third report of the Royal College of Psychiatrists' Special Committee on ECT (2004); National Institute for Health and Clinical Excellence (NICE 2003; NICE 2009). There is significant agreement between the three sets of recommendations."
1333:
2011 vote by the FDA's
Neurological Devices Advisory Panel to recommend that FDA maintain ECT devices in the Class III device category for high risk devices, except for patients with catatonia, major depressive disorder, and bipolar disorder. This may result in the manufacturers of such devices having to do controlled trials on their safety and efficacy for the first time. In justifying their position, panelists referred to the memory loss associated with ECT and the lack of long-term data.
377:. Cerletti had noted a shock to the head produced convulsions in dogs. The idea to use electroshock on humans came to Cerletti when he saw how pigs were given an electric shock before being butchered to put them in an anesthetized state. Cerletti and Bini practiced until they felt they had the right parameters needed to have a successful human trial. Once they started trials on patients, they found that after 10–20 treatments the results were significant. Patients had much improved.
1062:
1429:
62 of the Act, if the treating psychiatrist says the need for treatment is urgent they may start a course of ECT without authorization. From 2003 to 2005, about 2,000 people a year in
England and Wales were treated without their consent under the Mental Health Act. Concerns have been raised by the official regulator that psychiatrists are too readily assuming that patients have the capacity to consent to their treatments, and that there is a worrying lack of independent
1283:
Psychiatrists, with a later survey in 1998 finding that minimum standards were largely adhered to, but that two-thirds of clinics still fell short of current guidelines, particularly in the training and supervision of junior doctors involved in the procedure. A voluntary accreditation scheme, ECTAS, was set up in 2004 by the Royal
College, and as of 2017 the vast majority of ECT clinics in England, Wales, Northern Ireland and the Republic of Ireland have signed up.
1772:
395:. Through the 1940s and 1950s, the use of ECT became widespread. At the time the ECT device was patented and commercialized abroad, the two Italian inventors had competitive tensions that damaged their relationship. In the 1960s, despite a climate of condemnation, the original Cerletti-Bini ECT apparatus prototype was contended by scientific museums between Italy and the US. The ECT apparatus prototype is now owned and displayed by the Sapienza
49:
958:
245:
1476:, ECT has been heavily restricted since 2014, after a bill passed with bipartisan support introducing restrictions on ECT, which were welcomed by mental health experts. Children under 14 are prohibited from receiving ECT, while those aged 14 to 18 must have informed consent approval from the Mental Health Tribunal. The law imposes a $ 15,000 fine on anyone who performs ECT on a child under the age of 14.
1133:
1012:"). Some psychiatrists use dose titration, some still use "fixed dose" (that is, all patients are given the same dose) and others compromise by roughly estimating a patient's threshold according to age and sex. Older men tend to have higher thresholds than younger women, but it is not a hard and fast rule, and other factors, for example drugs, affect seizure threshold.
419:(succinylcholine), a safer synthetic alternative to curare, in 1951 led to the more widespread use of "modified" ECT. A short-acting anesthetic was usually given in addition to the muscle relaxant in order to spare patients the terrifying feeling of suffocation that can be experienced with muscle relaxants.
1737:
Two analyses of large numbers of films using ECT scenes found that almost all presented fictional settings that were unrelated to real treatment routines and were apparently aimed at stigmatizing ECT as a tool of repression and of mind and behavior control - having effects of memory-erosion, pain and
1458:
petitioned the FDA to reclassify ECT devices from Class III (high-risk) to Class II (medium-risk). A similar reclassification proposal in 2010 did not pass. In 2018, the FDA re-classified ECT devices as Class II devices when used to treat catatonia or a severe major depressive episode associated with
1428:
refusing ECT then they should not be given it; and even if they do not have an advance decision, the psychiatrist must obtain an independent second opinion (which is also the case if the patient is under age of consent). However, there is an exception regardless of consent and capacity; under
Section
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Approximately a third did not feel they had freely consented to ECT even when they had signed a consent form. The proportion who feel they did not freely choose the treatment has actually increased over time. The same themes arise whether the patient had received treatment a year ago or 30 years ago.
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Most modern ECT devices deliver a brief-pulse current, which is thought to cause fewer cognitive effects than the sine-wave currents which were originally used in ECT. A small minority of psychiatrists in the US still use sine-wave stimuli. Sine-wave is no longer used in the UK or
Ireland. Typically,
1115:
In the US, the medical team performing the procedure typically consists of a psychiatrist, an anesthetist, an ECT treatment nurse or qualified assistant, and one or more recovery nurses. Medical trainees may assist, but only under the direct supervision of credentialed attending physicians and staff.
886:
Considerable controversy exists over the effects of ECT on brain tissue, although a number of mental health associations—including the APA—have concluded that there is no evidence that ECT causes structural brain damage. A 1999 report by the US Surgeon
General states: "The fears that ECT causes gross
1543:
indicated that more than 60% of respondents had some knowledge about the main aspects of ECT. Participants were generally opposed to the use of ECT on depressed individuals with psychosocial issues, on children, and on involuntary patients. Public perceptions of ECT were found to be mainly negative.
1332:
Surveys of public opinion, the testimony of former patients, legal restrictions on the use of ECT and disputes as to the efficacy, ethics and adverse effects of ECT within the psychiatric and wider medical community indicate that the use of ECT remains controversial. This is reflected in the
January
1290:
allows people to be treated against their will. This law has extra protections regarding ECT. A patient capable of making the decision can decline the treatment, and in that case treatment cannot be given unless it will save that patient's life or is immediately necessary to prevent deterioration of
1242:
In the United States, ECT is usually given three times a week; in the United
Kingdom, it is usually given twice a week. Occasionally it is given on a daily basis. A course usually consists of 6–12 treatments, but may be more or fewer. Following a course of ECT some patients may be given continuation
1238:
In the mid-1990s in Texas, ECT was used in about one third of psychiatric facilities and given to about 1,650 people annually. Usage of ECT has since declined slightly; in 2000–01 ECT was given to about 1,500 people aged from 16 to 97 (in Texas it is illegal to give ECT to anyone under sixteen). ECT
1039:
to inhibit salivation.. Studies have shown that adding ketamine, an NMDA receptor antagonist, to the anesthesia regimen produced greater decreases in depression scores when compared to propofol, methohexital, and thiopental alone. In a minority of countries such as Japan, India, and
Nigeria, ECT may
481:
were introduced and the use of unilateral electrode placement was recommended. The 1985 NIMH Consensus Conference confirmed the therapeutic role of ECT in certain circumstances. The American Psychiatric Association released its second task force report in 1990 where specific details on the delivery,
410:
In the 1940s and early 1950s, ECT was usually given in an "unmodified" form, without muscle relaxants, and the seizure resulted in a full-scale convulsion. A rare but serious complication of unmodified ECT was fracture or dislocation of the long bones. In the 1940s, psychiatrists began to experiment
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had ECT as a teenager to "cure" his homosexuality. He later claimed it had induced multiple personality disorder, and resulted in his hatred of psychiatrists. After Reed's death, his sister denied the ECT treatments were intended to suppress his "homosexual urges", asserting that their parents were
1402:
In most states in the US, a judicial order following a formal hearing is needed before a patient can be forced to undergo involuntary ECT. However, ECT can also be involuntarily administered in situations with less immediate danger. Suicidal intent is a common justification for its involuntary use,
1365:
In the UK, in order for consent to be valid it requires an explanation in "broad terms" of the nature of the procedure and its likely effects. One review from 2005 found that only about half of patients felt they were given sufficient information about ECT and its adverse effects and another survey
1234:
Accurate statistics about the frequency, context and circumstances of ECT in the US are difficult to obtain because only a few states have reporting laws that require the treating facility to supply state authorities with this information. In 13 of the 50 states, the practice of ECT is regulated by
1007:
The electrodes deliver an electrical stimulus. The stimulus levels recommended for ECT are in excess of an individual's seizure threshold: about one and a half times seizure threshold for bilateral ECT and up to 12 times for unilateral ECT. Below these levels treatment may not be effective in spite
923:
are recommended. In many instances of active mood disorder during pregnancy, the risks of untreated symptoms may outweigh the risks of ECT. Potential complications of ECT during pregnancy can be minimized by modifications in technique. The use of ECT during pregnancy requires thorough evaluation of
705:
who do not respond to other treatments, but is a first-line treatment for severe or life-threatening catatonia. There is a plethora of evidence for its efficacy, notwithstanding a lack of randomised controlled trials, such that "the excellent efficacy of ECT in catatonia is generally acknowledged".
1251:
In the UK in 1980, an estimated 50,000 people received ECT annually, with use declining steadily since then to about 12,000 per annum in 2002. It is still used in nearly all psychiatric hospitals, with a survey of ECT use from 2002 finding that 71 percent of patients were women and 46 percent were
999:
In bilateral ECT, the two electrodes are placed on opposite sides of the head. Usually bitemporal placement is used, whereby the electrodes are placed on the temples. Uncommonly bifrontal placement is used; this involves positioning the electrodes on the patient's forehead, roughly above each eye.
865:
usually resolves 2–4 weeks after treatment, whereas retrograde amnesia (which develops gradually after repeated treatments in the initial course) usually takes weeks to months to resolve, and amnesia rarely persist for more than 1 year. Retrograde amnesia after ECT usually affects autobiographical
661:
Other estimates regarding the response rate in treatment resistant depression vary between 60–80%, with a remission rate of 50–60%. In addition to reducing symptoms of depression and inducing relapse, ECT has also been shown to reduce the risk of suicide, improve functional outcomes and quality of
1596:
had a nervous breakdown and spent time in and out of psychiatric hospitals between 1961 and 1963. He was diagnosed with paranoid schizophrenia and clinical depression as a result of an evaluation conducted by psychoanalysts, and was treated with electroconvulsive therapy on numerous occasions, a
1353:
In the US, this doctrine places a legal obligation on a doctor to make a patient aware of the reason for treatment, the risks and benefits of a proposed treatment, the risks and benefits of alternative treatment, and the risks and benefits of receiving no treatment. The patient is then given the
1209:
There is wide variation in ECT use between different countries, different hospitals, and different psychiatrists. International practice varies considerably from widespread use of the therapy in many Western countries to a small minority of countries that do not use ECT at all, such as Slovenia.
1264:
in England and Wales, issued guidance on the use of ECT. Its use was recommended "only to achieve rapid and short-term improvement of severe symptoms after an adequate trial of treatment options has proven ineffective and/or when the condition is considered to be potentially life-threatening in
1230:
would reduce a patient to a more manageable submissive state, ECT helped to improve mood in those with severe depression. A survey of psychiatric practice in the late 1980s found that an estimated 100,000 people received ECT annually, with wide variation between metropolitan statistical areas.
846:
will be incomplete, and evidence has shown that ECT can result in persistent or permanent memory loss". It is the purported effects of ECT on long-term memory that give rise to much of the concern surrounding its use. However, the methods used to measure memory loss are non-specific, and their
1299:
ECT was introduced in China in the early 1950s and while it was originally practiced without anesthesia, as of 2012 almost all procedures were conducted with it. As of 2012, there are approximately 400 ECT machines in China, and 150,000 ECT treatments are performed each year. Chinese national
573:, despite a Canadian guideline and some experts arguing for using ECT as a first line treatment, ECT is generally used only when one or other treatments have failed, or in emergencies, such as imminent suicide. ECT has also been used in selected cases of depression occurring in the setting of
1282:
editorial points out, is only a policy statement and psychiatrists may deviate from it if they see fit. Adherence to standards has not been universal in the past. A survey of ECT use in 1980 found that more than half of ECT clinics failed to meet minimum standards set by the Royal College of
670:
There is little agreement on the most appropriate follow-up to ECT for people with major depressive disorder. The initial course of ECT is then transitioned to maintenance ECT, pharmacotherapy or both. When ECT is stopped abruptly, without a bridge to maintenance ECT or medications (usually
456:
In 1976, Dr. Blatchley demonstrated the effectiveness of his constant current, brief pulse device ECT. This device eventually largely replaced earlier devices because of the reduction in cognitive side effects, although as of 2012 some ECT clinics still were using sine-wave devices.
5173:
Sicignano DJ, Kantesaria R, Mastropietro M, et al. The Impact of Ketamine-Based Versus Non-Ketamine-Based ECT Anesthesia Regimens on the Severity of Patients’ Depression and Occurrence of Adverse Events: A Systematic Review with Meta-Analysis. Annals of Pharmacotherapy. 2024;0(0).
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of 82 studies found that the rate of major adverse cardiac events with ECT was 1 in 39 patients or about 1 in 200 to 500 procedures. The risk of death with ECT however is low. If death does occur, cardiovascular complications are considered as causal in about 30% of individuals.
229:. ECT can differ in its application in three ways: electrode placement, treatment frequency, and the electrical waveform of the stimulus. These treatment parameters can pose significant differences in both adverse side effects and symptom remission in the treated patient.
493:
Though ECT use declined with the advent of modern antidepressants, there has been a resurgence of ECT with new modern technologies and techniques. Modern shock voltage is given for a shorter duration of 0.5 milliseconds where conventional brief pulse is 1.5 milliseconds.
1106:
ECT is usually done from 6 to 12 times in 2 to 4 weeks but can sometimes exceed 12 rounds. It is also recommended to not do ECT more than 3 times per week. Evidence suggest that ECTs for depression may be stopped if there is no improvement during the first six sessions.
1357:
According to the US Surgeon General, involuntary treatment is uncommon in the US and is typically used only in cases of great extremity, and only when all other treatment options have been exhausted. The use of ECT is believed to be a potentially life-saving treatment.
2120:
1556:
found that the psychiatry trainees were more knowledgeable and had more favorable opinions of ECT than did the other groups. More members of the general public believed that ECT was used for control or punishment purposes than medical students or psychiatry trainees.
1375:
described patients' perspectives on the adequacy of informed consent before ECT. The study found that "About half (45–55%) of patients reported they were given an adequate explanation of ECT, implying a similar percentage felt they were not." The authors also stated:
1152:
In the US, ECT devices are manufactured by two companies, Somatics, which is owned by psychiatrists Richard Abrams and Conrad Swartz, and Mecta. In the UK, the market for ECT devices was long monopolized by Ectron Ltd, which was set up by psychiatrist Robert Russell.
1040:
be used without anesthesia. The Union Health Ministry of India recommended a ban on ECT without anesthesia in India's Mental Health Care Bill of 2010 and the Mental Health Care Bill of 2013. The practice was abolished in Turkey's largest psychiatric hospital in 2008.
1074:
Neuroimaging prior to ECT may be useful for detecting intracranial pressure or mass given that patients respond less when one of these conditions exist. Nonetheless, it is not indicated due to high cost and low prevalence of these conditions in patients needing ECT.
1361:
In one of the few jurisdictions where recent statistics on ECT usage are available, a national audit of ECT by the Scottish ECT Accreditation Network indicated that 77% of patients who received the treatment in 2008 were capable of giving informed consent.
1217:
In Sweden, which has a complete register of all ECT treatments in the country, in 2013 the rate of persons treated in that year per 100,000 inhabitants was 41. Almost the same rate had already been present in 1975 with 42 patients per 100,000 inhabitants.
1579:
in 1960. He is reported to have said to his biographer, "Well, what is the sense of ruining my head and erasing my memory, which is my capital, and putting me out of business? It was a brilliant cure but we lost the patient." However, the same biographer
679:, about 50% of people relapsed by 12 months following successful initial treatment with ECT, with about 37% relapsing within the first 6 months. About twice as many relapsed with no antidepressants. Most of the evidence for continuation therapy is with
472:
convened a consensus development conference on ECT and concluded that, while ECT was the most controversial treatment in psychiatry and had significant side-effects, it had been shown to be effective for a narrow range of severe psychiatric disorders.
675:), it is associated with a relapse rate of 84%. There is no defined schedule for maintenance ECT, however it is usually started weekly with intervals extended permissibly with the goal of maintaining remission. When ECT is followed by treatment with
902:
If steps are taken to decrease potential risks, ECT is generally accepted to be relatively safe during all trimesters of pregnancy, particularly when compared to pharmacological treatments. Suggested preparation for ECT during pregnancy includes a
874:
and colleagues found that bilateral ECT left patients with more persistently impaired memory of public events as compared to right unilateral ECT. However, bilateral ECT may be more efficacious than unilateral in the treatment of mood disorders.
1008:
of a seizure, while doses massively above threshold level, especially with bilateral ECT, expose patients to the risk of more severe cognitive impairment without additional therapeutic gains. Seizure threshold is determined by trial and error ("
1646:
is another notable person who has undergone ECT. In his 40s, his depression became so severe that he had to be institutionalized. After exhausting all treatment options, a young resident assigned to his case suggested ECT, which ended up being
1213:
About 70 percent of ECT patients are women. This may be because women are more likely to be diagnosed with depression. Older and more affluent patients are also more likely to receive ECT. The use of ECT is not as common in ethnic minorities.
870:. One published review summarizing the results of questionnaires about subjective memory loss found that between 29% and 55% of respondents believed they experienced long-lasting or permanent memory changes. In 2000, American psychiatrist
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the patient's condition. A patient may not be capable of making the decision (they "lack capacity"), and in that situation ECT can be given if it is appropriate and also if there are no advance directives that prevent the use of ECT.
782:
after ECT. Other common adverse effects after ECT include headache, jaw soreness, nausea, vomiting and fatigue. These side effects are transient and respond to treatment. There is evidence and rationale to support giving low doses of
1423:
which took effect in 2007, ECT may not generally be given to a patient who has capacity and refuses it, irrespective of his or her detention under the Act. In fact, even if a patient is deemed to lack capacity, if they made a valid
1449:
required the FDA to retrospectively review already existing devices, classify them, and determine whether clinical trials were needed to prove efficacy and safety. The FDA initially classified the devices used to administer ECT as
7273:
2081:
829:
A meta-analysis from 2017 found that the death rate of ECT was around 2.1 per 100,000 procedures. A review from 2011 reported an estimate of the mortality rate associated with ECT as less than 1 death per 73,440 treatments.
190:
to 6 seconds, either from temple to temple (bilateral ECT) or from front to back of one side of the head (unilateral ECT). However, only about 1% of the electrical current crosses the bony skull into the brain because skull
476:
Because of the backlash noted previously, national institutions reviewed past practices and set new standards. In 1978, the American Psychiatric Association released its first task force report in which new standards for
1165:
studies based on a global data collaboration resulted in a model of temporary disruption of neural circuits followed by augmented neuroplasticity and rewiring. Other brain changes observed after ECT include increased
1003:
Unilateral ECT is thought to cause fewer cognitive effects than bilateral treatment, but is less effective unless administered at higher doses. Most patients in the US and almost all in the UK receive bilateral ECT.
5270:
Ikeji OC, Ohaeri JU, Osahon RO, Agidee RO (1999). "Naturalistic comparative study of outcome and cognitive effects of unmodified electro-convulsive therapy in schizophrenia, mania and severe depression in Nigeria".
7744:
486:, and the expanded role that the procedure has in modern medicine. By 2017, ECT was routinely covered by insurance companies for providing the "biggest bang for the buck" for otherwise intractable cases of severe
1300:
practice guidelines recommend ECT for the treatment of schizophrenia, depressive disorders, and bipolar disorder and in the Chinese literature, ECT is an effective treatment for schizophrenia and mood disorders.
6150:
2747:
Blaine JD, Clark SM (1986). "Report of the NIMH-NIH Consensus Development Conference on electroconvulsive therapy--statement of the Consensus Development Panel--statement of the Consensus Development Panel".
402:
In the early 1940s, in an attempt to reduce the memory disturbance and confusion associated with treatment, two modifications were introduced: the use of unilateral electrode placement and the replacement of
202:. Immediately following treatment, the most common adverse effects are confusion and transient memory loss. Among treatments for severely depressed pregnant women, ECT is one of the least harmful to the
3959:
Gallegos J, Vaidya P, D'Agati D, Jayaram G, Nguyen T, Tripathi A, et al. (June 2012). "Decreasing adverse outcomes of unmodified electroconvulsive therapy: suggestions and possibilities".
6005:
4922:
225:. The usual course of ECT involves multiple administrations, typically given two or three times per week until the patient no longer has symptoms. ECT is administered under anesthesia with a
4160:
Watts BV, Groft A, Bagian JP, Mills PD (June 2011). "An examination of mortality and other adverse events related to electroconvulsive therapy using a national adverse event report system".
2533:
Sirgiovanni, E, Aruta, A (2020) "The Electroshock Triangle: Disputes about the ECT Apparatus Prototype and its Display in the 1960s, History of Psychiatry. First Published April 20, 2020:
621:
rate for patients given a round of ECT treatment was 50.9% for those with unipolar depression and 53.2% for those with bipolar depression. Most severely depressed patients respond to ECT.
3648:
Leroy A, Naudet F, Vaiva G, Francis A, Thomas P, Amad A (October 2018). "Is electroconvulsive therapy an evidence-based treatment for catatonia? A systematic review and meta-analysis".
6829:
3916:
Penders TM, Lang MC, Pagano JJ, Gooding ZS (December 2013). "Electroconvulsive therapy improves persistent psychosis after repeated use of methylenedioxypyrovalerone ("bath salts")".
662:
life as well as reduce the risk of re-hospitalization. Efficacy does not depend on depression subtype. With regards to treatment resistant schizophrenia, the response rate is 40–70%.
482:
education, and training of ECT were documented. Finally, in 2001 the American Psychiatric Association released its latest task force report. This report emphasizes the importance of
6862:
4562:
Osler M, Rozing MP, Christensen GT, Andersen PK, Jørgensen MB (April 2018). "Electroconvulsive therapy and risk of dementia in patients with affective disorders: a cohort study".
5643:
890:
Many expert proponents of ECT maintain that the procedure is safe and does not cause brain damage. Dr. Charles Kellner, a prominent ECT researcher and former chief editor of the
6798:
533:, and in conditions where "there is a need for rapid, definitive response because of the severity of a psychiatric or medical condition (e.g., when illness is characterized by
7338:
6594:"FDA In Brief: FDA takes action to ensure regulation of electroconvulsive therapy devices better protects patients, reflects current understanding of safety and effectiveness"
3305:
Dierckx B, Heijnen WT, van den Broek WW, Birkenhäger TK (March 2012). "Efficacy of electroconvulsive therapy in bipolar versus unipolar major depression: a meta-analysis".
6593:
3436:"Comparing the effects of repetitive transcranial magnetic stimulation and electroconvulsive therapy in the treatment of depression: a systematic review and meta-analysis"
266:
As early as the 16th century, agents to induce seizures were used to treat psychiatric conditions. In 1785, the therapeutic use of seizure induction was documented in the
6993:
1083:
Whether psychiatric medications are terminated prior to treatment or maintained, varies. However, drugs that are known to cause toxicity in combination with ECT, such as
232:
Placement can be bilateral, where the electric current is passed from one side of the brain to the other, or unilateral, in which the current is solely passed across one
1566:
296:
to treat patients with various mental disorders. G.B.C. Duchenne, the mid-19th century "Father of Electrotherapy", said its use was integral to a neurological practice.
6660:
4445:
Semkovska M, McLoughlin DM (June 2013). "Measuring retrograde autobiographical amnesia following electroconvulsive therapy: historical perspective and current issues".
257:
4117:
Tørring N, Sanghani SN, Petrides G, Kellner CH, Østergaard SD (May 2017). "The mortality rate of electroconvulsive therapy: a systematic review and pooled analysis".
1519:(FDA) implemented a rule previously drafted in 2016 banning the use of ECT to treat disabilities. This ban specifically had major complications for the controversial
1303:
Although the Chinese government stopped classifying homosexuality as an illness in 2001, electroconvulsive therapy is still used by some establishments as a form of "
6608:
996:
In unilateral ECT, both electrodes are placed on the same side of the patient's head. Unilateral ECT may be used first to minimize side effects such as memory loss.
261:
236:
of the brain. High-dose unilateral ECT has some cognitive advantages compared to moderate-dose bilateral ECT while showing no difference in antidepressant efficacy.
2018:
Pompili M, Dominici G, Giordano G, Longo L, Serafini G, Lester D, et al. (December 2014). "Electroconvulsive treatment during pregnancy: a systematic review".
4410:
Lisanby SH, Maddox JH, Prudic J, Devanand DP, Sackeim HA (June 2000). "The effects of electroconvulsive therapy on memory of autobiographical and public events".
3691:
DeJong H, Bunton P, Hare DJ (September 2014). "A systematic review of interventions used to treat catatonic symptoms in people with autistic spectrum disorders".
1588:, 1987) emphasized - according to a review from 2008 - "that Hemingway’s serious mental illness and plans for suicide significantly predated his ECT treatments."
1226:
ECT became popular in the US in the 1940s. At the time, psychiatric hospitals were overrun with patients whom doctors were desperate to treat and cure. Whereas
252:, a device "for giving general electric treatment for psychological effect, in psycho-neurotic cases", according to original photo description. World War I era.
1627:
as the party's vice presidential candidate after it was revealed that he had received electroshock treatment in the past for depression. Presidential nominee
1350:(2005) advises that ECT should be used only with the informed consent of the patient (or their guardian if their incapacity to consent has been established).
7466:
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387:
ECT soon replaced metrazol therapy all over the world because it was cheaper, less frightening and more convenient. Cerletti and Bini were nominated for a
7319:
2136:
2082:"Bitemporal v. high-dose right unilateral electroconvulsive therapy for depression: a systematic review and meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials"
6886:
7048:
McFarquhar TF, Thompson J (December 2008). "Knowledge and attitudes regarding electroconvulsive therapy among medical students and the general public".
4972:
6223:
3280:
Murray ED, Buttner N, Price BH (2012). "Depression and Psychosis in Neurological Practice". In Bradley WG, Daroff RB, Fenichel GM, Jankovic J (eds.).
1451:
5906:
4622:
3391:
UK ECT Review Group (March 2003). "Efficacy and safety of electroconvulsive therapy in depressive disorders: a systematic review and meta-analysis".
1257:
802:
While there are no absolute contraindications for ECT, there is increased risk for patients who have unstable or severe cardiovascular conditions or
5700:
Euba R, Saiz A (2006). "A comparison of the ethnic distribution in the depressed inpatient population and in the electroconvulsive therapy clinic".
4693:
Gbyl K, Videbech P (September 2018). "Electroconvulsive therapy increases brain volume in major depression: a systematic review and meta-analysis".
2496:
Sirgiovanni E, Aruta A (April 23, 2020). "From the Madhouse to the Docu-Museum: The Enigma Surrounding the Cerletti-Bini ECT Apparatus Prototype".
1895:
1239:
is more commonly used in private psychiatric hospitals than in public hospitals, and minority patients are underrepresented in the ECT statistics.
687:
has also been shown to reduce relapse rates. Maintenance ECT may safely continue indefinitely, with no set maximum treatment interval established.
1661:
experienced both insulin coma therapy and ECT (but without the use of anesthesia or muscle relaxants). She wrote about this in her autobiography,
1381:
Neither current nor proposed safeguards for patients are sufficient to ensure informed consent with respect to ECT, at least in England and Wales.
6363:
Philpot M, Treloar A, Gormley N, Gustafson L (March 2002). "Barriers to the use of electroconvulsive therapy in the elderly: a European survey".
5227:
Chanpattana W, Kunigiri G, Kramer BA, Gangadhar BN (2005). "Survey of the practice of electroconvulsive therapy in teaching hospitals in India".
7716:
7648:
Matthews AM, Rosenquist PB, McCall WV (September 2016). "Representations of ECT in English-Language Film and Television in the New Millennium".
5927:
4496:
624:
In 2004, a meta-analysis found in terms of efficacy, "a significant superiority of ECT in all comparisons: ECT versus simulated ECT, ECT versus
88:
6021:
2064:
7775:
7025:
2950:
6546:
Teh SP, Helmes E, Drake DG (May 2007). "A Western Australian survey on public attitudes toward and knowledge of electroconvulsive therapy".
651:
501:
studies based on a global data collaboration ECT was suggested to work via a temporary disruption of neural circuits followed by augmented
5184:
Motohashi N, Awata S, Higuchi T (2004). "A questionnaire survey of ECT practice in university hospitals and national hospitals in Japan".
1095:, are either discontinued, a benzodiazepine antagonist is administered at each ECT session, or the ECT treatment is adjusted accordingly.
272:. As to its earliest antecedents one doctor claims 1744 as the dawn of electricity's therapeutic use, as documented in the first issue of
6858:
3539:"Does lithium prevent relapse following successful electroconvulsive therapy for major depression? A systematic review and meta-analysis"
2234:
426:
use along with negative depictions of ECT in the mass media led to a marked decline in the use of ECT during the 1950s to the 1970s. The
7418:
5361:
2852:"The Neurobiological Effects of Electroconvulsive Therapy Studied Through Magnetic Resonance: What Have We Learned, and Where Do We Go?"
5640:
4074:
Benson NM, Seiner SJ (2019). "Electroconvulsive Therapy in Children and Adolescents: Clinical Indications and Special Considerations".
3266:
1870:
1726:
1531:, which uses various methods of ECT. Specifically, it is believed by many that most of the cases at JRC do not require the use of ECT.
778:" to its use. Immediately following treatment, the most common adverse effects are confusion and memory loss. Some patients experience
6795:
391:
but did not receive one. By 1940, the procedure was introduced to both England and the US. In Germany and Austria, it was promoted by
7346:
1985:
1599:
1433:. In Scotland, the Mental Health (Care and Treatment) (Scotland) Act 2003 also gives patients with capacity the right to refuse ECT.
440:
6475:
4658:, Verma AK, Tirumalasetti F, Sackeim HA (July 1991). "Absence of cognitive impairment after more than 100 lifetime ECT treatments".
2574:
654:(rTMS) for people with treatment-resistant major depressive disorder, ECT relieves depression as shown by reducing the score on the
7790:
1624:
1700:
Electroconvulsive therapy has been depicted in fiction, including fictional works partly based on true experiences. These include
643:
and antidepressant drugs. This meta-analysis demonstrated a large effect size (high efficacy relative to the mean in terms of the
434:
was routinely given, and that "these now-antiquated practices contributed to the negative portrayal of ECT in the popular media."
5298:
3873:
Penders TM, Gestring RE, Vilensky DA (November 2012). "Intoxication delirium following use of synthetic cathinone derivatives".
7795:
7000:
5435:"Adjunctive psychotropic medications during electroconvulsive therapy in the treatment of depression, mania, and schizophrenia"
1986:
American Psychiatric Association, Committee on Electroconvulsive Therapy, Richard D. Weiner (chairperson), et al. (2001).
6761:
Lutchman RD, et al. (2001). "Mental health professionals' attitudes towards and knowledge of electroconvulsive therapy".
887:
structural brain pathology have not been supported by decades of methodologically sound research in both humans and animals."
350:
in use at the time. Cerletti, who had been using electric shocks to produce seizures in animal experiments, and his assistant
7589:
7534:
7501:
7222:
7102:
6415:
4874:"Major Adverse Cardiac Events and Mortality Associated with Electroconvulsive Therapy: A Systematic Review and Meta-analysis"
3289:
3165:
1997:
2235:"Electricity: a history of its use in the treatment of mental illness in Britain during the second half of the 19th century"
6502:
6431:
Golenkov A, Ungvari GS, Gazdag G (May 2012). "Public attitudes towards electroconvulsive therapy in the Chuvash Republic".
821:
In adolescents, ECT is highly efficient for several psychiatric disorders, with few and relatively benign adverse effects.
771:
754:, whether excited or stuporous. There are also case reports of ECT improving persistent psychotic symptoms associated with
655:
561:
in adults with an intellectual disability, yet findings from a systematic review found this an unestablished intervention.
427:
7297:
6626:
6320:
Fisher P (December 2012). "Psychological factors related to the experience of and reaction to electroconvulsive therapy".
726:
recommends it only in life-threatening situations or when other treatments have failed and as a second-line treatment for
6911:
6818:
5877:
5483:
465:
384:. It was because of this side effect that patients could not remember the treatments and had no ill feelings toward it.
268:
6162:
3216:
Fitzgerald PB (September 2013). "Non-pharmacological biological treatment approaches to difficult-to-treat depression".
2215:
7770:
6697:
5365:
5100:
4010:
993:
The placement of electrodes, as well as the dose and duration of the stimulation is determined on a per-patient basis.
7238:
Healy D, Charlton BG (May 2009). "Electroshock in Zen and the Art of Motorcycle Maintenance--fictional, not factual".
6090:
7780:
2599:
1795:
1256:; schizophrenia was the next most common diagnosis. Sixteen percent were treated without their consent. In 2003, the
743:
396:
285:
299:
In the second half of the 19th century, such efforts were frequent enough in British asylums as to make it notable.
7800:
7748:
6179:
Tang YL, et al. (Dec 2012). "Electroconvulsive therapy in China: clinical practice and research on efficacy".
4973:"Electroconvulsive Therapy for Depression: A Review of the Quality of ECT versus Sham ECT Trials and Meta-Analyses"
1620:
1455:
839:
461:
7605:
Sienaert P (2016). "Based on a True Story? The Portrayal of ECT in International Movies and Television Programs".
3348:
Pagnin D, de Queiroz V, Pini S, Cassano GB (March 2004). "Efficacy of ECT in depression: a meta-analytic review".
1198:. Changes in sleep architecture due to the induced seizures have also been hypothesized as a mechanism of action.
750:; there is comprehensive research evidence for such practice. It is useful in the case of severe exacerbations of
2899:
Beloucif S (April 2013). "Informed consent for special procedures: electroconvulsive therapy and psychosurgery".
1715:
7691:
1960:
7126:
5576:
2721:
2558:
2428:
1275:
1098:
A 2009 RCT provides some evidence indicating that concurrent use of some antidepressant improves ECT efficacy.
335:
71:
7140:
7141:"History, power, and electricity: American popular magazine accounts of electroconvulsive therapy, 1940-2005"
6980:"#StopTheShock: The Judge Rotenberg Center, Torture, and How We can Stop It - Autistic Self Advocacy Network"
6744:
1446:
1425:
1371:
683:; evidence for relapse prevention with newer antidepressants is lacking. Adjunct maintenance ECT paired with
469:
33:
2683:
Friedberg J (September 1977). "Shock treatment, brain damage, and memory loss: a neurological perspective".
7274:"50 years ago: Sen.Thomas Eagleton discloses electric shock treatments and changes a presidential campaign"
5665:
Reid WH, Keller S, Leatherman M, Mason M (January 1998). "ECT in Texas: 19 months of mandatory reporting".
4600:
3537:
Lambrichts S, Detraux J, Vansteelandt K, Nordenskjöld A, Obbels J, Schrijvers D, et al. (April 2021).
1516:
1480:
1442:
684:
617:
responded to other medical treatments very differently, both groups responded equally well to ECT. Overall
17:
5362:"Abusive practice of "unmodified" electroshock treatment abolished at main psychiatric facility of Turkey"
4634:
2440:
Rudorfer MV, Henry ME, Sackheim HA (1997). "Electroconvulsive therapy". In Tasman A, Lieberman JA (eds.).
1749:
1308:
1161:
Despite decades of research, the exact mechanism of action of ECT remains elusive. A review from 2022 of
629:
590:
438:
described the public's negative perception of ECT as being caused mainly by one movie: "For Big Nurse in
4311:"A randomized controlled trial of brief and ultrabrief pulse right unilateral electroconvulsive therapy"
1888:
818:), or who have severe pulmonary conditions, or who are generally at high risk for receiving anesthesia.
7754:
6979:
4738:"Hippocampal volume changes following electroconvulsive therapy: a systematic review and meta-analysis"
1058:
ECT is usually administered three times a week, on alternate days, over a course of two to four weeks.
415:, the muscle-paralysing South American poison, in order to modify the convulsions. The introduction of
347:
2298:
Berrios GE (March 1997). "The scientific origins of electroconvulsive therapy: a conceptual history".
5924:
5070:
5026:
Prudic J, Olfson M, Sackeim HA (July 2001). "Electro-convulsive therapy practices in the community".
4491:
1691:
but had been told by his doctors that ECT was necessary to treat Reed's mental and behavioral issues.
1347:
707:
680:
609:
on the effectiveness of ECT in unipolar and bipolar depression indicated that although patients with
570:
518:
210:
7564:
6242:
6018:
2776:
2061:
333:
was held in Switzerland by the Swiss psychiatrist Max Müller. The proceedings were published in the
7785:
7030:
5794:"Effects of Hesel-coil deep transcranial magnetic stimulation for depression - a systematic review"
5093:
The ECT Handbook: The Third Report of the Royal College of Psychiatrists' Special Committee of ECT.
2945:
2149:
1989:
The practice of electroconvulsive therapy: recommendations for treatment, training, and privileging
1800:
911:
medication, uterine tocodynamometry, intravenous hydration, and administration of a nonparticulate
95:
6740:"Information, consent and perceived coercion: patients' perspectives on electroconvulsive therapy"
3842:
Tharyan P, Adams CE (April 2005). Tharyan P (ed.). "Electroconvulsive therapy for schizophrenia".
3263:"Depression in adults: The treatment and management of depression in adults. NICE guidelines CG90"
557:, or life-threatening physical exhaustion associated with mania)." It has also been used to treat
6833:
6806:
5564:
1261:
766:
Aside from effects in the brain, the general physical risks of ECT are similar to those of brief
751:
586:
546:
198:
Aside from effects on the brain, the general physical risks of ECT are similar to those of brief
1930:
861:
Retrograde amnesia is most marked for events occurring in the weeks or months before treatment.
3799:
Malhi GS, Tanious M, Berk M (December 2012). "Mania: diagnosis and treatment recommendations".
1520:
1420:
1412:
1287:
582:
578:
392:
7579:
5743:
Nordanskog P, Hultén M, Landén M, Lundberg J, von Knorring L, Nordenskjöld A (December 2015).
3490:"Relapse following successful electroconvulsive therapy for major depression: a meta-analysis"
3031:
Benevides TW, Shore SM, Andresen ML, Caplan R, Cook B, Gassner DL, et al. (August 2020).
2273:
915:. During ECT, elevation of the pregnant woman's right hip, external fetal cardiac monitoring,
490:, was receiving favorable media coverage, and was being provided in regional medical centers.
5841:
Hermann R, Dorwart R, Hoover C, Brody J (1995). "Variation in ECT use in the United States".
5369:
4603:. Mental Health: A Report of the Surgeon General (Report). Office of the Surgeon General (US)
4023:
Lima NN, Nascimento VB, Peixoto JA, Moreira MM, Neto ML, Almeida JC, et al. (May 2013).
3752:"Guideline for treatment of bipolar disorder by the Japanese Society of Mood Disorders, 2012"
3530:
2850:
Ousdal OT, Brancati GE, Kessler U, Erchinger V, Dale AM, Abbott C, et al. (March 2022).
2179:
The Canadian Journal of Neurological Sciences. Le Journal Canadien des Sciences Neurologiques
1612:
1524:
811:
6408:
Mad in America: bad science, bad medicine, and the enduring mistreatment of the mentally ill
5603:"How does ECT work? A new explanatory model and suggestions for non-convulsive applications"
4358:
Kellner CH, Knapp R, Husain MM, Rasmussen K, Sampson S, Cullum M, et al. (March 2010).
1859:
1752:", which is based on true events, the character of Saman Kaur receives ECT following a deep
851:
related to the depression, including problems with memory, may further limit their utility.
358:
in convulsive therapy and, in 1938, experimented for the first time on a person affected by
6284:
5745:"Electroconvulsive Therapy in Sweden 2013: Data From the National Quality Register for ECT"
4623:"In Session with Charles H. Kellner, MD: Current Developments in Electroconvulsive Therapy"
4309:
Loo CK, Katalinic N, Smith DJ, Ingram A, Dowling N, Martin D, et al. (December 2014).
1663:
1651:
1441:
In the US, ECT devices came into existence prior to medical devices being regulated by the
1084:
878:
ECT has not been found to increase the risk of dementia nor cause structural brain damage.
690:
672:
618:
354:
at Sapienza University of Rome developed the idea of using electricity as a substitute for
192:
54:
7298:"Sherwin Nuland: How electroshock therapy changed me | Talk Subtitles and Transcript"
3298:
2459:
1315:
is also known to have been treated with ECT, sometimes without anestheia, most notably by
8:
7215:
Summary and Analysis of Zen and the Art of Motorcycle Maintenance: An Inquiry into Values
7189:
6647:
6479:
6107:
Duffett R, Lelliott P (May 1998). "Auditing electroconvulsive therapy. The third cycle".
4360:"Bifrontal, bitemporal and right unilateral electrode placement in ECT: randomised trial"
862:
755:
610:
277:
6288:
4254:"Multifactorial determinants of the neurocognitive effects of electroconvulsive therapy"
1654:
also received ECT for many years, beginning as a teenager, before his suicide at age 46.
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7673:
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7400:
7073:
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574:
522:
404:
381:
370:
330:
303:
199:
6875:
The Mental Health (Care and Treatment) (Scotland) Act 2003, Part 16, sections 237–239.
6376:
6006:
Electro convulsive therapy: survey covering the period from January 2002 to March 2002
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5944:
4575:
4539:
4514:
3404:
407:
with brief pulse. It took many years for brief-pulse equipment to be widely adopted.
365:
It was believed early on that inducing convulsions aided in helping those with severe
7677:
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7622:
7585:
7540:
7530:
7497:
7392:
7255:
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6859:"CQC says care for people treated under the Mental Health Act still needs to improve"
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5622:
5546:
5528:
5464:
5407:
5343:
5280:
5244:
5201:
5197:
5132:
5115:
Duffett R, Lelliott P (1998). "Auditing electroconvulsive therapy. The third cycle".
5096:
5043:
5003:
4957:
4945:
4903:
4849:
4806:
4767:
4710:
4675:
4579:
4544:
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4006:
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3538:
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3318:
3285:
3245:
3233:
3198:
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3064:
3033:"Interventions to address health outcomes among autistic adults: A systematic review"
3013:
2916:
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2757:
2727:
2717:
2700:
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2554:
2517:
2424:
2402:
2361:
2315:
2257:
2196:
2104:
2035:
1993:
1777:
1753:
1643:
1575:, an American author, died by suicide in 1961 half a year after ECT treatment at the
1473:
1391:
1265:
individuals with severe depressive illness, catatonia or a prolonged manic episode".
1092:
1015:
Immediately prior to treatment, a patient is given a short-acting anesthetic such as
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374:
281:
83:
7404:
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2116:
2047:
76:
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7247:
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7057:
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6555:
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6440:
6372:
6329:
6292:
6208:
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6116:
6059:
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5969:
5850:
5813:
5805:
5764:
5756:
5709:
5674:
5614:
5536:
5518:
5507:"Frequency and Duration of Course of ECT Sessions: An Appraisal of Recent Evidence"
5454:
5446:
5399:
5333:
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5256:
5236:
5193:
5124:
5035:
4987:
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4893:
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4216:
4169:
4126:
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3847:
3808:
3785:
3763:
3700:
3677:
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3610:
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3509:
3501:
3457:
3447:
3400:
3357:
3314:
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3044:
3005:
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2505:
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2027:
1785:
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1572:
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920:
727:
693:
has also been found to reduce the risk of relapse, especially in younger patients.
514:
483:
233:
6929:
5809:
4872:
Duma A, Maleczek M, Panjikaran B, Herkner H, Karrison T, Nagele P (January 2019).
4252:
McClintock SM, Choi J, Deng ZD, Appelbaum LG, Krystal AD, Lisanby SH (June 2014).
1206:
As of 2001, it was estimated that about one million people received ECT annually.
710:
who have catatonia, there is little published evidence about the efficacy of ECT.
127:
7661:
7491:
7061:
6802:
6333:
6247:
6192:
6163:"Additional safeguards for ECT introduced in new s58A – Mental Health Law Online"
6094:
6025:
5931:
5760:
5647:
5523:
5450:
5403:
4889:
4500:
4458:
4269:
4173:
4087:
3972:
3929:
3886:
3738:
Guidance on the use of electroconvulsive therapy. NICE technology appraisals TA59
3284:. Vol. 1 (6th ed.). Philadelphia: Elsevier/Saunders. pp. 114–115.
3090:
Lipsman N, Sankar T, Downar J, Kennedy SH, Lozano AM, Giacobbe P (January 2014).
2954:
2912:
2068:
2031:
1987:
1742:
1632:
1628:
1608:
1585:
1088:
962:
908:
867:
676:
502:
430:
stated there were problems with electroshock therapy in the initial years before
339:
and, within three years, cardiazol convulsive therapy was being used worldwide.
289:
284:
wrote that an electrostatic machine cured "a woman of hysterical fits." By 1801,
226:
175:
101:
6522:
5960:
Pippard J, Ellam L (1981). "Electroconvulsion treatment in Great Britain 1980".
5073:. Royal College of Psychiatrists' Special Committee on ECT and related treatment
4787:"The management of mood disorders in pregnancy: alternatives to antidepressants"
2806:"A case of schizophrenia successfully treated by m-ECT using 'long' brief pulse"
1268:
The guidance received a mixed reception. It was welcomed by an editorial in the
7519:
Literature, Neurology, and Neuroscience: Neurological and Psychiatric Disorders
7375:
the occasion, I wore my schizophrenic fancy dress" - the life of Janet Frame".
7251:
7114:
7090:
6734:
6732:
6730:
5792:
Nordenskjöld A, Mårtensson B, Pettersson A, Heintz E, Landén M (October 2016).
5618:
4753:
2397:
2380:
2311:
1674:
wrote about her experience with memory loss after ECT treatments in her memoir
1581:
1553:
1416:
1390:
Procedures for involuntary ECT vary from country to country depending on local
1009:
784:
487:
423:
7618:
6055:
5885:
5039:
4941:
4802:
4530:
4423:
4375:
3812:
3704:
3661:
2509:
2191:
2174:
2100:
1869:(Second ed.). Chichester: John Wiley & Sons Ltd. pp. 1865–1901.
628:, ECT versus antidepressants in general, ECT versus tricyclics and ECT versus
7764:
7388:
6559:
6444:
6297:
6270:
5602:
5532:
5328:
5007:
4999:
3615:
3049:
1790:
1671:
1636:
1593:
1528:
1504:
1366:
found that about fifty percent of psychiatrists and nurses agreed with them.
1260:, a government body which was set up to standardize treatment throughout the
1253:
1195:
1187:
1032:
945:
871:
747:
739:
606:
594:
554:
416:
366:
326:
307:
182:
are applied externally to the patient's head, resulting in approximately 800
114:
6727:
6686:
4991:
4041:
1061:
342:
The ECT procedure was first conducted in 1938 by Italian neuro-psychiatrist
7757:– information from mental health charity The Royal College of Psychiatrists
7669:
7626:
7544:
7444:
7396:
7259:
7175:
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6518:
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6384:
6341:
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6087:
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5721:
5626:
5550:
5468:
5411:
5347:
5284:
5248:
5205:
5047:
4949:
4907:
4832:
Miller LJ (May 1994). "Use of electroconvulsive therapy during pregnancy".
4810:
4771:
4714:
4583:
4548:
4466:
4431:
4393:
4344:
4295:
4238:
4181:
4138:
4095:
4060:
3980:
3937:
3894:
3859:
3820:
3777:
3712:
3669:
3634:
3572:
3523:
3471:
3412:
3369:
3326:
3237:
3202:
3125:
3068:
3017:
2920:
2885:
2791:"Electroconvulsive therapy: How modern techniques improve patient outcomes"
2777:"This mental health treatment isn't barbaric, it 'totally changed my life'"
2731:
2696:
2666:
2534:
2406:
2357:
2319:
2200:
2108:
2039:
1706:
1701:
1316:
1183:
1179:
1162:
1016:
982:
498:
343:
6128:
6120:
5981:
5862:
5854:
5686:
5390:
Narang P, Swenson A, Lippmann S (March 2019). "Neuroimaging Before ECT?".
5136:
5128:
4853:
4679:
4671:
4326:
3452:
3157:
3009:
2761:
2365:
2261:
2253:
7167:
5678:
3536:
3505:
2996:
Espinoza RT, Kellner CH (17 February 2022). "Electroconvulsive Therapy".
2704:
2484:
The Great Physiodynamic Therapies in Psychiatry: an historical appraisal.
2344:
Fink M (September 1984). "Meduna and the origins of convulsive therapy".
1658:
1576:
1312:
1171:
1167:
815:
534:
388:
302:
Convulsive therapy was introduced in 1934 by Hungarian neuropsychiatrist
187:
121:
27:
Medical procedure in which electrical current is passed through the brain
6944:"Electroconvulsive Therapy (ECT) Service | Treatment at McLean Hospital"
4845:
4515:"Patients' perspectives on electroconvulsive therapy: systematic review"
3737:
3597:
Sienaert P, Dhossche DM, Vancampfort D, De Hert M, Gazdag G (Dec 2014).
3262:
3229:
3107:
1491:
Many mental health facilities offer ECT for specific diagnoses, such as
742:, but in North America and Western Europe it is invariably used only in
322:(cardiazol). Meduna is thought to be the father of convulsive therapy.
186:
of direct current passing between the electrodes, for a duration of 100
7159:
6503:"Electroconvulsive therapy in New Zealand: terrifying or electrifying?"
6243:"This Man Was Sectioned in China for Being Gay. Now He's Fighting Back"
4706:
4277:
4130:
3554:
1688:
1227:
1028:
916:
842:(APA) report in 2001 acknowledges: "In some patients the recovery from
796:
431:
351:
171:
163:
5791:
3768:
3751:
3304:
2631:"Contemporary use and practice of electroconvulsive therapy worldwide"
137:
6271:"China Reins in Wilder Impulses in Treatment of 'Internet Addiction'"
2175:"Giovanni Aldini: from animal electricity to human brain stimulation"
1734:
as an orderly at a mental health facility in Menlo Park, California.
1721:
1711:
1540:
1500:
1479:
Similarly, ECT is also banned on children under the age of 12 in the
1191:
1024:
803:
702:
538:
526:
450:
293:
222:
48:
6088:
Appraisal of electroconvulsive therapy: decision of the appeal panel
5580:
4786:
3092:"Neuromodulation for treatment-refractory major depressive disorder"
2647:
2381:"How does electroconvulsive therapy work? Theories on its mechanism"
1415:
allowed the use of ECT on detained patients whether or not they had
7517:
Kellner C (2013). "Electroconvulsive Therapy (ECT) in Literature".
6224:"Chinese hospitals still offering gay 'cure' therapy, film reveals"
4025:"Electroconvulsive therapy use in adolescents: a systematic review"
1771:
1683:
1616:
1549:
1430:
1175:
1036:
1020:
937:
792:
550:
359:
355:
319:
311:
7581:
Narrative Prosthesis: Disability and the Dependencies of Discourse
6687:"The Scottish ECT Accreditation Network (SEÁN) Annual Report 2009"
5484:"Response Predictors in ECT: A discussion about Seizure Threshold"
5226:
3596:
2822:
6912:"Electroshock therapy on under-14s banned in WA after law passes"
6622:
4654:
1992:(2nd ed.). Washington, DC: American Psychiatric Publishing.
1757:
1270:
1142:
978:
966:
957:
912:
855:
779:
640:
625:
478:
315:
244:
183:
167:
109:
7467:"Lou Reed's Sister Sets the Record Straight About His Childhood"
6609:"The FDA Advisory Panel on the Reclassification of ECT Devices:
4513:
Rose D, Fleischmann P, Wykes T, Leese M, Bindman J (June 2003).
3958:
2947:
WHO Resource Book on Mental Health, Human Rights and Legislation
1319:. The practice was banned in 2009 after news on Yang broke out.
7521:. Progress in Brain Research. Vol. 206. pp. 219–228.
6591:
6410:(Rev. pbk. ed.). New York: Basic Books. pp. 102–106.
5907:"Electroconvulsive Therapy in Children | Psychology Today"
4490:
Benbow, SM (2004) "Adverse effects of ECT". In AIF Scott (ed.)
3148:
Tasman A, Kay J, Lieberman JA, First MB, Riba MB, eds. (2015).
1539:
A questionnaire survey of 379 members of the general public in
986:
807:
558:
542:
412:
218:
6362:
5742:
4742:
Biological Psychiatry. Cognitive Neuroscience and Neuroimaging
4561:
4116:
2849:
2628:
1745:
is typically interpreted as depicting someone undergoing ECT.
1132:
4871:
2691:(9). American Psychiatric Association Publishing: 1010–1014.
1496:
719:
530:
214:
203:
4022:
3030:
2017:
1730:; Kesey's novel is a direct product of his time working the
1252:
over 65 years of age. Eighty-one percent had a diagnosis of
932:
ECT can cause a lack of blood flow and oxygen to the heart,
7419:"Review/Film; 3 Novels Are Adapted For 'Angel at My Table'"
4409:
4357:
4251:
4205:"Deep brain stimulation for treatment-resistant depression"
3347:
1567:
List of people who have undergone electroconvulsive therapy
1545:
1278:
launched an unsuccessful appeal. The NICE guidance, as the
1146:
723:
647:) for ECT versus placebo, and versus antidepressant drugs.
179:
7745:
Position Statement on Electroconvulsive Therapy (ECT) 2015
7320:"Sherwin B. Nuland, Author of 'How We Die,' is Dead at 83"
6473:
5312:"Time to face new realities; mental health care bill-2013"
4923:"Depression: why drugs and electricity are not the answer"
3089:
2478:
Cerletti, U (1956). "Electroshock therapy". In AM Sackler
847:
application to people with depressive disorders, who have
258:
History of electroconvulsive therapy in the United Kingdom
7717:"The Real People and Cast of Mr Bates vs The Post Office"
7138:
7043:
7041:
5840:
5664:
4512:
3650:
European Archives of Psychiatry and Clinical Neuroscience
2553:. Melbourne: Blackwell Scientific Publications, 190–208.
1149:, and the current flows for between one and six seconds.
1048:
1044:
981:
and used for example at the Asyl psychiatric hospital in
718:
ECT is used to treat people who have severe or prolonged
701:
ECT is generally a second-line treatment for people with
314:
were antagonistic disorders, induced seizures first with
262:
History of electroconvulsive therapy in the United States
7647:
7339:"The Lost Years & Last Days of David Foster Wallace"
6887:"Time Is Now to Support the ECT Reclassification Effort"
4503:
London: The Royal College of Psychiatrists, pp. 170–174.
3915:
3487:
3282:
Bradley's Neurology in Clinical Practice: Expert Consult
2421:
Geschichte der medikamentösen Therapie der Schizophrenie
2079:
6221:
5269:
4308:
3872:
3647:
3147:
2803:
658:
by about 15 points, while rTMS reduced it by 9 points.
7038:
6646:
Duff Wilson for the New York Times. January 28, 2011
5504:
5160:
Lock, T (1995). "Stimulus dosing". In C Freeman (ed.)
4735:
2629:
Leiknes KA, Jarosh-von Schweder L, Høie B (May 2012).
346:
and rapidly replaced less safe and effective forms of
6846:
In Place of Fear? eleventh biennial report, 2003–2005
6430:
5389:
5183:
4964:
4159:
4003:
Electroconvulsive Therapy in Children and Adolescents
3488:
Jelovac A, Kolshus E, McLoughlin DM (November 2013).
2768:
2439:
2137:
A History of Mental Institutions in the United States
2080:
Kolshus E, Jelovac A, McLoughlin DM (February 2017).
838:
Cognitive impairment sometimes occurs after ECT. The
7026:"UN Calls Shock Treatment at Mass. School 'Torture'"
5945:"Electroconvulsive therapy: Evidence and Challenges"
5299:
Electroshocks for mentally ill patients to be banned
4315:
The International Journal of Neuropsychopharmacology
3749:
3189:(1). Ovid Technologies (Wolters Kluwer Health): 51.
2216:"An Historical Review of Electro Convulsive Therapy"
1857:
1767:
1194:
neurotransmitters and increased neurogenesis in the
7493:
Please Kill Me: The Uncensored Oral History of Punk
5563:Corinne Slusher for MedScape. Updated: Jan 6, 2012
5025:
4444:
3390:
2624:
2622:
2620:
2575:"Federal Report Praising Electroshock Stirs Uproar"
2139:
which says electrostatic machines were used in 1773
1667:(1984), which was later adapted into a film (1990).
1065:
An illustration depicting electroconvulsive therapy
32:"Electroshock" redirects here. For other uses, see
7366:
7364:
7047:
4202:
4016:
3279:
1981:
1979:
1977:
1975:
1973:
1971:
1969:
1403:especially when other treatments are ineffective.
774:'s report says that there are "no absolute health
445:it was a tool of terror, and, in the public mind,
6724:, 5th edition. London: Sweet and Maxwell, p. 225.
5091:Royal College of Psychiatrists. Council Report.
5085:
4970:
4614:
3599:"A clinical review of the treatment of catatonia"
3483:
3481:
3181:Bolwig TG (March 2005). "First-line use of ECT".
2991:
2989:
2987:
2985:
2983:
2232:
1258:National Institute for Health and Care Excellence
1141:the electrical stimulus used in ECT is about 800
738:ECT is widely used worldwide in the treatment of
7762:
6738:Rose D, Wykes T, Bindman J, Fleischmann P (2005)
6222:Graham-Harrison E, Connaire S (8 October 2015).
5164:. London: Royal College of Psychiatrists, 72–87.
4438:
3798:
3750:Kanba S, Kato T, Terao T, Yamada K (July 2013).
3690:
3433:
3174:
3143:
3141:
3139:
3137:
3135:
2981:
2979:
2977:
2975:
2973:
2971:
2969:
2967:
2965:
2963:
2810:International Journal of Case Reports and Images
2617:
2495:
2013:
2011:
2009:
961:Electroconvulsive therapy machine on display at
799:, to patients to reduce adverse effects of ECT.
7361:
6106:
6001:
5999:
5878:"Patients often aren't informed of full danger"
5114:
4867:
4865:
4863:
4736:Wilkinson ST, Sanacora G, Bloch MH (May 2017).
4405:
4403:
3732:
3730:
3592:
3590:
2995:
2339:
2337:
1966:
1459:major depressive disorder or bipolar disorder.
1170:volume in the frontolimbic areas including the
195:is about 100 times higher than skin impedance.
174:) is electrically induced to manage refractory
7577:
6592:US Food and Drug Administration (2018-12-21).
6548:The International Journal of Social Psychiatry
6545:
6433:The International Journal of Social Psychiatry
5297:Teena Thacker for Indian Express. Mar 23 2011
4971:Read J, Kirsch I, McGrath L (1 October 2019).
3875:The American Journal of Drug and Alcohol Abuse
3478:
3152:. Chichester, UK: John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
2845:
2843:
2568:
2566:
1932:Mental Health: A Report of the Surgeon General
1635:, and later went on to lose by a landslide to
7641:
7598:
7584:. University of Michigan Press. p. 174.
7411:
7237:
7132:
6661:"FDA Regulation of ECT Devices in Transition"
5785:
5736:
4920:
4784:
3693:Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders
3132:
2960:
2006:
1078:
924:the patient's capacity for informed consent.
881:
635:In 2003, The UK ECT Review Group published a
453:'s novel: dangerous, inhumane and overused".
449:has retained the tarnished image given it by
7489:
7336:
6861:. Care Quality Commission. 8 December 2011.
6830:The Mental Health Act 1983 (updated version)
6796:The Mental Health Act 1983 (updated version)
6240:
6037:
5996:
5959:
5021:
5019:
5017:
4914:
4860:
4692:
4648:
4400:
4203:Holtzheimer PE, Mayberg HS (December 2010).
4153:
4073:
4067:
3952:
3841:
3727:
3587:
3341:
2600:"The Quiet Comeback of Electroshock Therapy"
2591:
2460:"The history of shock therapy in psychiatry"
2453:
2451:
2334:
2060:Margarita Tartakovsky (2012) Psych Central.
1955:
1953:
1951:
1949:
1947:
1945:
1943:
1941:
1069:
652:repetitive transcranial magnetic stimulation
564:
380:A positive side effect to the treatment was
325:In 1937, the first international meeting on
7370:
7212:
6819:ECT: Your rights about consent to treatment
6648:F.D.A. Panel Is Split on Electroshock Risks
6640:
6600:
6262:
6011:
5834:
3844:The Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews
3257:
3255:
2840:
2746:
2563:
2073:
1865:. In Tasman A, Kay J, Lieberman JA (eds.).
1853:
1851:
1849:
1847:
1845:
1843:
1841:
1839:
1837:
1835:
460:The 1970s saw the publication of the first
5505:Thirthalli J, Naik SS, Kunigiri G (2020).
5486:. British Journal of Medical Practitioners
5432:
5110:
5108:
4825:
4595:
4593:
4555:
3267:National Institute for Clinical Excellence
3215:
2940:
2938:
2804:Hiroaki I, Hirohiko H, Masanari I (2012).
2549:Kiloh, LG, Smith, JS, Johnson, GF (1988).
1858:Rudorfer MV, Henry ME, Sackeim HA (2003).
1833:
1831:
1829:
1827:
1825:
1823:
1821:
1819:
1817:
1815:
1642:American surgeon and award-winning author
47:
6754:
6684:
6478:. New York State Assembly. Archived from
6474:Committee on Mental Health (March 2002).
6296:
6063:
5937:
5817:
5768:
5600:
5540:
5522:
5482:Madhavan Seshadri, Nadeem Z Mazi-Kotwal.
5458:
5337:
5327:
5014:
4897:
4761:
4538:
4486:
4484:
4383:
4334:
4285:
4228:
4050:
4040:
3767:
3624:
3614:
3562:
3513:
3461:
3451:
3115:
3058:
3048:
2875:
2831:
2821:
2714:Electroshock: its brain-disabling effects
2682:
2656:
2646:
2448:
2396:
2233:Beveridge AW, Renvoize EB (August 1988).
2190:
1938:
1600:Zen and the Art of Motorcycle Maintenance
1510:
209:ECT is often used as an intervention for
7604:
6844:The Mental Health Act Commission (2005)
6760:
6405:
6174:
6172:
5699:
5660:
5658:
5656:
5511:Indian Journal of Psychological Medicine
5481:
5062:
4506:
3252:
2898:
2892:
2545:
2543:
2535:https://doi.org/10.1177/0957154X20916147
1625:1972 United States Presidential Election
1131:
1123:
1060:
972:
956:
243:
7516:
7371:Lim X, Galletly C (October 2019). ""To
7317:
6884:
6685:Fergusson G, et al., eds. (2009).
6606:
6541:
6539:
6500:
6149:Royal College of Psychiatrists (2017).
5875:
5156:
5154:
5105:
4980:Ethical Human Psychology and Psychiatry
4620:
4590:
4001:Neera Ghaziuddin, Garry Walter (eds.):
2935:
2711:
2597:
2297:
1812:
927:
897:
833:
369:but later found to be most useful with
14:
7763:
7692:"Electroconvulsive Therapy Is Torture"
7464:
7460:
7458:
6587:
6585:
6319:
5650:for information about ECT in Slovenia.
4831:
4785:Richards EM, Payne JL (October 2013).
4481:
3180:
2774:
2378:
2372:
2172:
1886:
1584:, 1966) and also a second biographer (
1322:
1156:
746:when symptoms show little response to
7445:"Wishful Drinking with Carrie Fisher"
6678:
6658:
6476:"Report on Electroconvulsive Therapy"
6268:
6169:
5653:
3756:Psychiatry and Clinical Neurosciences
2572:
2540:
2529:
2527:
2457:
1695:
1597:treatment he discusses in his novel,
1419:to consent to it. However, following
1411:Until 2007 in England and Wales, the
854:The acute effects of ECT can include
166:treatment during which a generalized
7776:Human subject research in psychiatry
7425:. 21 May 1991. Section C, p. 15
6536:
6178:
5498:
5433:Haskett RF, Loo C (September 2010).
5309:
5151:
2343:
1925:
1923:
1921:
1919:
1917:
1915:
1534:
1128:Vintage ECT machine from before 1960
1035:(succinylcholine), and occasionally
656:Hamilton Rating Scale for Depression
7455:
7330:
7097:. New York: Macmillan, pp 547–550.
6582:
5943:Fink, M. & Taylor, A.M. (2007)
5383:
4834:Hospital & Community Psychiatry
1406:
1341:
639:and meta-analysis comparing ECT to
466:National Institute of Mental Health
280:was documented eleven years later.
269:London Medical and Surgical Journal
24:
7527:10.1016/B978-0-444-63364-4.00029-6
7139:Hirshbein L, Sarvananda S (2008).
6694:Scottish ECT Accreditation Network
5714:10.1097/01.yct.0000235928.39279.52
5241:10.1097/01.yct.0000166634.73555.e6
5068:
4660:The American Journal of Psychiatry
4209:The American Journal of Psychiatry
3384:
3195:10.1097/01.yct.0000158271.45828.76
2944:World Health Organisation (2005).
2685:The American Journal of Psychiatry
2524:
2346:The American Journal of Psychiatry
2213:
2150:"Lind, James (1736–1812) on JSTOR"
2020:Expert Review of Neurotherapeutics
1486:
1397:
1385:
907:, discontinuation of nonessential
513:ECT is used, where possible, with
25:
7812:
7738:
7337:Lipsky, Dave (October 30, 2008).
7119:Papa Hemingway: A Personal Memoir
6962:"Electroconvulsive Therapy (ECT)"
6865:from the original on 21 May 2015.
6109:The British Journal of Psychiatry
5925:Electroconvulsive therapy reports
5923:Texas Department of State (2002)
5565:Electroconvulsive Therapy Machine
4921:Read J, Moncrieff J (June 2022).
4493:The ECT Handbook, second edition.
4364:The British Journal of Psychiatry
4005:, Oxford University Press, 2013,
3440:Depression Research and Treatment
2901:Current Opinion in Anesthesiology
2551:Physical Treatments in Psychiatry
2242:The British Journal of Psychiatry
1912:
1796:Transcranial magnetic stimulation
1246:
1110:
744:treatment resistant schizophrenia
397:Museum of the History of Medicine
7749:American Psychiatric Association
7709:
7684:
7571:
7510:
7483:
7437:
7311:
7290:
7266:
7231:
7206:
7182:
7108:
7084:
7018:
6986:
6972:
6954:
6936:
6922:
6904:
6891:American Psychiatric Association
6878:
6869:
6851:
6838:
6823:
6811:
6789:
6714:
6652:
6494:
6467:
6424:
6399:
6356:
6313:
6234:
6215:
6155:
6143:
6100:
6080:
6038:Carney S, Geddes J (June 2003).
6031:
5953:
5917:
5899:
5869:
5693:
5633:
5594:
5569:
5198:10.1097/00124509-200403000-00005
3362:10.1097/00124509-200403000-00004
3319:10.1111/j.1399-5618.2012.00997.x
3218:The Medical Journal of Australia
2486:New York: Hoeber-Harper, 91–120.
2126:from the original on 2021-06-16.
1876:from the original on 2007-08-10.
1770:
1741:The song “The Mind Electric” by
1704:'s semi-autobiographical novel,
1544:A sample of the general public,
1456:American Psychiatric Association
1221:
1055:are monitored during treatment.
840:American Psychiatric Association
824:
733:
462:American Psychiatric Association
7791:Physical psychiatric treatments
7578:Mitchell DT, Snyder SL (2000).
6817:Care Quality Commission (2010)
6703:from the original on 2011-04-29
6507:The New Zealand Medical Journal
6019:Electroconvulsive therapy (ECT)
5557:
5475:
5426:
5366:Disabled Peoples' International
5354:
5303:
5291:
5263:
5220:
5177:
5174:doi:10.1177/10600280241260754.
5167:
4778:
4729:
4686:
4351:
4302:
4245:
4196:
4110:
3995:
3909:
3866:
3835:
3792:
3743:
3684:
3641:
3427:
3273:
3209:
3083:
3024:
2998:New England Journal of Medicine
2797:
2783:
2740:
2673:
2489:
2472:
2433:
2413:
2291:
2226:
2220:Jefferson Journal of Psychiatry
2207:
2166:
2142:
1901:from the original on 2022-02-18
1727:One Flew Over the Cuckoo's Nest
1560:
1336:
441:One Flew Over the Cuckoo's Nest
306:who, believing mistakenly that
6241:Hannah Beech (June 13, 2016).
4695:Acta Psychiatrica Scandinavica
4412:Archives of General Psychiatry
4221:10.1176/appi.ajp.2010.10010141
4119:Acta Psychiatrica Scandinavica
3852:10.1002/14651858.CD000076.pub2
3543:Acta Psychiatrica Scandinavica
2868:10.1016/j.biopsych.2021.05.023
2833:10.5348/ijcri-2012-07-147-CR-8
2385:Canadian Journal of Psychiatry
2130:
2054:
1880:
1369:A 2005 study published in the
1327:
1276:Royal College of Psychiatrists
1145:and has up to several hundred
814:(for instance, due to a solid
336:American Journal of Psychiatry
13:
1:
7796:Treatment of bipolar disorder
6994:"US Report and Urgent Appeal"
6930:"Brutal Rise in Electroshock"
6848:, 236. The Stationery Office.
6745:British Journal of Psychiatry
6377:10.1016/S0924-9338(02)00620-X
5974:10.1016/s0140-6736(81)90602-4
5810:10.3109/08039488.2016.1166263
4576:10.1016/S2215-0366(18)30056-7
3740:. Published date: April 2003
3405:10.1016/S0140-6736(03)12705-5
1806:
1462:
1447:Medical Device Regulation Act
1436:
1372:British Journal of Psychiatry
919:, and avoidance of excessive
508:
470:National Institutes of Health
34:Electroshock (disambiguation)
7662:10.1097/YCT.0000000000000312
7062:10.1097/YCT.0b013e318168be4a
6334:10.3109/09638237.2012.734656
6193:10.1097/YCT.0b013e31825957b1
5950:Vol. 298 No. 3, pp. 330–332.
5798:Nordic Journal of Psychiatry
5761:10.1097/YCT.0000000000000243
5641:Slovenian government website
5524:10.4103/IJPSYM.IJPSYM_410_19
5451:10.1097/YCT.0b013e3181eee13f
5404:10.1097/YCT.0000000000000515
5316:Indian Journal of Psychiatry
4890:10.1097/ALN.0000000000002488
4459:10.1097/YCT.0b013e318279c2c9
4270:10.1097/YCT.0000000000000137
4174:10.1097/YCT.0b013e3181f6d17f
4088:10.1097/HRP.0000000000000236
4076:Harvard Review of Psychiatry
4029:Annals of General Psychiatry
3973:10.1097/YCT.0b013e3182359314
3930:10.1097/YCT.0b013e3182887bc2
3887:10.3109/00952990.2012.694535
2913:10.1097/ACO.0b013e32835e7380
2062:5 Outdated Beliefs About ECT
2032:10.1586/14737175.2014.972373
1517:Food and Drug Administration
1481:Australian Capital Territory
1467:
1443:Food and Drug Administration
1031:, a muscle relaxant such as
952:
696:
685:cognitive behavioral therapy
665:
630:monoamine oxidase inhibitors
7:
7490:McNeil L, McCain G (2006).
6040:"Electroconvulsive therapy"
5095:RCPsych Publications, 2005
3434:Micallef-Trigona B (2014).
2750:Psychopharmacology Bulletin
1889:"Electroconvulsive Therapy"
1860:"Electroconvulsive therapy"
1763:
1750:Mr Bates vs The Post Office
1311:(or general unruliness) in
989:from the 1960s to the 1980s
756:stimulant-induced psychosis
600:
591:arteriovenous malformations
57:(EEG) in a modern ECT suite
10:
7817:
7300:. TED.com. 30 October 2007
7252:10.1016/j.mehy.2008.12.026
6801:December 26, 2011, at the
6028:. Retrieved on 2007-12-29.
5619:10.1016/j.mehy.2020.110337
4754:10.1016/j.bpsc.2017.01.011
4633:(3): 34–37. Archived from
3801:Current Psychiatry Reports
2398:10.1177/070674371105600104
2379:Bolwig TG (January 2011).
2312:10.1177/0957154X9700802908
2173:Parent A (November 2004).
1748:In the television series "
1564:
1119:
1079:Concurrent pharmacotherapy
882:Effects on brain structure
806:; who have recently had a
787:or otherwise low doses of
761:
255:
239:
53:MECTA spECTrum 5000Q with
31:
7771:Electroconvulsive therapy
7619:10.1016/j.brs.2016.07.005
6607:Kellner CH (2012-07-05).
6056:10.1136/bmj.326.7403.1343
5040:10.1017/S0033291701003750
4942:10.1017/S0033291721005031
4803:10.1017/S1092852913000151
4531:10.1136/bmj.326.7403.1363
4424:10.1001/archpsyc.57.6.581
4376:10.1192/bjp.bp.109.066183
3813:10.1007/s11920-012-0324-5
3705:10.1007/s10803-014-2085-y
3662:10.1007/s00406-017-0819-5
3564:10067/1751810151162165141
2510:10.1163/18253911-03501013
2192:10.1017/s0317167100003851
2101:10.1017/S0033291716002737
1452:Class III medical devices
1348:World Health Organization
1101:
1070:Neuroimaging prior to ECT
708:autism spectrum disorders
681:tricyclic antidepressants
571:major depressive disorder
565:Major depressive disorder
519:major depressive disorder
497:In a review from 2022 of
211:major depressive disorder
148:Electroconvulsive therapy
134:
120:
108:
94:
82:
70:
62:
46:
42:Electroconvulsive therapy
41:
7781:Psychiatry controversies
7389:10.1177/1039856219839489
7318:Gellene D (2014-03-04).
6763:Journal of Mental Health
6722:Mental Health Act Manual
6665:Clinical Psychiatry News
6560:10.1177/0020764006074522
6445:10.1177/0020764010394282
6322:Journal of Mental Health
6298:10.1126/science.324_1630
5876:Cauchon D (1995-12-06).
5329:10.4103/0019-5545.117129
4793:(Submitted manuscript).
4621:Sussman N (March 2007).
3616:10.3389/fpsyt.2014.00181
3050:10.1177/1362361320913664
2598:Goleman D (1990-08-02).
1929:Surgeon General (1999).
1801:Magnetic seizure therapy
1294:
1087:, are discontinued, and
713:
276:. Treatment and cure of
274:Electricity and Medicine
7801:Treatment of depression
7465:Weiner J (2016-04-10).
7377:Australasian Psychiatry
6834:Care Quality Commission
6807:Care Quality Commission
6611:Unjustified Ambivalence
6501:Melding P (July 2006).
6008:. Department of Health.
5911:www.psychologytoday.com
4992:10.1891/EHPP-D-19-00014
4042:10.1186/1744-859X-12-17
3603:Frontiers in Psychiatry
3494:Neuropsychopharmacology
2775:Dutton A (2017-02-18).
1887:Solano J (2009-04-20).
1619:, was dropped from the
1280:British Medical Journal
1271:British Medical Journal
1262:National Health Service
977:ECT device produced by
863:Anterograde memory loss
752:catatonic schizophrenia
547:psychomotor retardation
517:in treatment-resistant
178:. Typically, 70 to 120
7095:Hemingway: A Biography
6948:www.mcleanhospital.org
6775:10.1080/09638230124779
6269:Stone R (2009-07-26).
4930:Psychological Medicine
2716:. New York: Springer.
2697:10.1176/ajp.134.9.1010
2573:Goode E (1999-10-06).
2358:10.1176/ajp.141.9.1034
2089:Psychological Medicine
1521:Judge Rotenberg Center
1511:Judge Rotenberg Center
1413:Mental Health Act 1983
1383:
1288:Mental Health Act 2007
1201:
1137:
1129:
1066:
990:
970:
529:, prolonged or severe
525:, treatment-resistant
393:Friedrich Meggendorfer
253:
55:electroencephalography
7190:"All About Heaven \e"
6966:Mental Health America
6832:Part IV, Section 62.
6805:Part IV, Section 58.
6121:10.1192/bjp.172.5.401
5855:10.1176/ajp.152.6.869
5129:10.1192/bjp.172.5.401
4672:10.1176/ajp.148.7.929
4564:The Lancet Psychiatry
3313:(2). Wiley: 146–150.
3158:10.1002/9781118753378
3010:10.1056/NEJMra2034954
2856:Biological Psychiatry
2444:. pp. 1535–1556.
2300:History of Psychiatry
2254:10.1192/bjp.153.2.157
1961:FDA Executive Summary
1613:United States Senator
1378:
1135:
1127:
1091:, which increase the
1064:
976:
960:
812:intracranial pressure
810:; who have increased
422:The steady growth of
348:biological treatments
256:Further information:
247:
7213:Worth Books (2017).
5679:10.4088/JCP.v59n0103
5601:Tsoukalas I (2020).
5071:"Information on ECT"
3506:10.1038/npp.2013.149
2306:(29 pt 1): 105–119.
2279:on 23 September 2015
1664:An Angel at My Table
1652:David Foster Wallace
928:Effects on the heart
898:Effects in pregnancy
866:memory, rather than
834:Cognitive impairment
671:antidepressants and
278:hysterical blindness
156:electroshock therapy
66:Electroshock therapy
7217:. Open Road Media.
6885:Levin S, Binder R.
6406:Whitaker R (2010).
6365:European Psychiatry
6289:2009Sci...324.1630S
6283:(5935): 1630–1631.
6050:(7403): 1343–1344.
5968:(8256): 1160–1161.
5577:"Ectron: Our story"
4846:10.1176/ps.45.5.444
4327:10.1093/ijnp/pyu045
3453:10.1155/2014/135049
3230:10.5694/mja12.10509
3108:10.1503/cmaj.121317
2712:Breggin PR (1979).
1657:New Zealand author
1323:Society and culture
1157:Mechanism of action
1053:blood oxygen levels
789:general anesthetics
611:unipolar depression
587:developmental delay
583:Huntington's chorea
579:Parkinson's disease
371:affective disorders
7650:The Journal of ECT
7423:The New York Times
7324:The New York Times
7240:Medical Hypotheses
7194:allaboutheaven.org
7160:10.1002/jhbs.20283
7050:The Journal of ECT
6932:. 4 December 2017.
6918:. 17 October 2014.
6093:2007-05-21 at the
6024:2008-09-08 at the
5930:2007-08-10 at the
5749:The Journal of ECT
5646:2007-08-08 at the
5607:Medical Hypotheses
5439:The Journal of ECT
5392:The Journal of ECT
4707:10.1111/acps.12884
4627:Primary Psychiatry
4499:2012-04-21 at the
4447:The Journal of ECT
4258:The Journal of ECT
4162:The Journal of ECT
4131:10.1111/acps.12721
3961:The Journal of ECT
3918:The Journal of ECT
3555:10.1111/acps.13277
3350:The Journal of ECT
3183:The Journal of ECT
2953:2006-12-06 at the
2635:Brain and Behavior
2604:The New York Times
2579:The New York Times
2067:2013-08-08 at the
1696:Fictional examples
1631:replaced him with
1493:chronic depression
1392:mental health laws
1309:Internet addiction
1305:conversion therapy
1138:
1136:Modern ECT machine
1130:
1067:
991:
971:
936:, and "persistent
905:pelvic examination
849:cognitive deficits
844:retrograde amnesia
772:US Surgeon General
768:general anesthesia
645:standard deviation
615:bipolar depression
575:multiple sclerosis
523:bipolar depression
436:The New York Times
405:sinusoidal current
382:retrograde amnesia
331:convulsive therapy
304:Ladislas J. Meduna
254:
200:general anesthesia
170:(without muscular
7747: – from the
7607:Brain Stimulation
7591:978-0-472-06748-0
7536:978-0-444-63364-4
7503:978-0-8021-4264-1
7224:978-1-5040-4641-1
7103:978-0-333-42126-0
6618:Psychiatric Times
6417:978-0-465-02014-0
5667:J Clin Psychiatry
4215:(12): 1437–1444.
3769:10.1111/pcn.12060
3500:(12): 2467–2474.
3399:(9360): 799–808.
3307:Bipolar Disorders
3291:978-1-4377-0434-1
3167:978-1-118-75337-8
2026:(12): 1377–1390.
1999:978-0-89042-206-9
1778:Psychiatry portal
1644:Sherwin B. Nuland
1621:Democratic ticket
1535:Public perception
1474:Western Australia
1190:lobes, increased
1093:seizure threshold
942:systematic review
776:contraindications
637:systematic review
282:Benjamin Franklin
145:
144:
110:OPS-301 code
16:(Redirected from
7808:
7733:
7732:
7730:
7728:
7713:
7707:
7706:
7704:
7703:
7688:
7682:
7681:
7645:
7639:
7638:
7602:
7596:
7595:
7575:
7569:
7568:
7562:
7558:
7556:
7548:
7514:
7508:
7507:
7487:
7481:
7480:
7478:
7477:
7462:
7453:
7452:
7441:
7435:
7434:
7432:
7430:
7415:
7409:
7408:
7368:
7359:
7358:
7356:
7354:
7345:. Archived from
7334:
7328:
7327:
7315:
7309:
7308:
7306:
7305:
7294:
7288:
7287:
7285:
7284:
7270:
7264:
7263:
7235:
7229:
7228:
7210:
7204:
7203:
7201:
7200:
7186:
7180:
7179:
7148:J Hist Behav Sci
7145:
7136:
7130:
7112:
7106:
7088:
7082:
7081:
7045:
7036:
7035:
7022:
7016:
7015:
7013:
7011:
7005:
6999:. Archived from
6998:
6990:
6984:
6983:
6976:
6970:
6969:
6958:
6952:
6951:
6940:
6934:
6933:
6926:
6920:
6919:
6908:
6902:
6901:
6899:
6897:
6882:
6876:
6873:
6867:
6866:
6855:
6849:
6842:
6836:
6827:
6821:
6815:
6809:
6793:
6787:
6786:
6758:
6752:
6736:
6725:
6720:Jones, R (1996)
6718:
6712:
6711:
6709:
6708:
6702:
6691:
6682:
6676:
6675:
6673:
6671:
6656:
6650:
6644:
6638:
6637:
6635:
6634:
6625:. Archived from
6604:
6598:
6597:
6596:(Press release).
6589:
6580:
6579:
6543:
6534:
6533:
6531:
6530:
6521:. Archived from
6498:
6492:
6491:
6489:
6487:
6482:on 30 April 2011
6471:
6465:
6464:
6428:
6422:
6421:
6403:
6397:
6396:
6360:
6354:
6353:
6317:
6311:
6310:
6300:
6266:
6260:
6259:
6257:
6255:
6238:
6232:
6231:
6219:
6213:
6212:
6176:
6167:
6166:
6159:
6153:
6147:
6141:
6140:
6104:
6098:
6084:
6078:
6077:
6067:
6035:
6029:
6015:
6009:
6003:
5994:
5993:
5957:
5951:
5941:
5935:
5921:
5915:
5914:
5903:
5897:
5896:
5894:
5893:
5884:. Archived from
5873:
5867:
5866:
5838:
5832:
5831:
5821:
5789:
5783:
5782:
5772:
5740:
5734:
5733:
5697:
5691:
5690:
5662:
5651:
5637:
5631:
5630:
5598:
5592:
5591:
5589:
5588:
5579:. Archived from
5573:
5567:
5561:
5555:
5554:
5544:
5526:
5502:
5496:
5495:
5493:
5491:
5479:
5473:
5472:
5462:
5430:
5424:
5423:
5387:
5381:
5380:
5378:
5377:
5368:. Archived from
5358:
5352:
5351:
5341:
5331:
5307:
5301:
5295:
5289:
5288:
5267:
5261:
5260:
5224:
5218:
5217:
5181:
5175:
5171:
5165:
5162:The ECT Handbook
5158:
5149:
5148:
5112:
5103:
5089:
5083:
5082:
5080:
5078:
5066:
5060:
5059:
5023:
5012:
5011:
4977:
4968:
4962:
4961:
4936:(8): 1401–1410.
4927:
4918:
4912:
4911:
4901:
4869:
4858:
4857:
4829:
4823:
4822:
4782:
4776:
4775:
4765:
4733:
4727:
4726:
4690:
4684:
4683:
4652:
4646:
4645:
4643:
4642:
4618:
4612:
4611:
4609:
4608:
4597:
4588:
4587:
4559:
4553:
4552:
4542:
4525:(7403): 1363–0.
4510:
4504:
4488:
4479:
4478:
4442:
4436:
4435:
4407:
4398:
4397:
4387:
4355:
4349:
4348:
4338:
4306:
4300:
4299:
4289:
4249:
4243:
4242:
4232:
4200:
4194:
4193:
4157:
4151:
4150:
4114:
4108:
4107:
4071:
4065:
4064:
4054:
4044:
4020:
4014:
3999:
3993:
3992:
3956:
3950:
3949:
3913:
3907:
3906:
3870:
3864:
3863:
3839:
3833:
3832:
3796:
3790:
3789:
3771:
3747:
3741:
3734:
3725:
3724:
3699:(9): 2127–2136.
3688:
3682:
3681:
3645:
3639:
3638:
3628:
3618:
3594:
3585:
3584:
3566:
3534:
3528:
3527:
3517:
3485:
3476:
3475:
3465:
3455:
3431:
3425:
3424:
3388:
3382:
3381:
3345:
3339:
3338:
3302:
3296:
3295:
3277:
3271:
3270:
3259:
3250:
3249:
3213:
3207:
3206:
3178:
3172:
3171:
3145:
3130:
3129:
3119:
3087:
3081:
3080:
3062:
3052:
3043:(6): 1345–1359.
3028:
3022:
3021:
2993:
2958:
2942:
2933:
2932:
2896:
2890:
2889:
2879:
2847:
2838:
2837:
2835:
2825:
2801:
2795:
2794:
2787:
2781:
2780:
2772:
2766:
2765:
2744:
2738:
2735:
2708:
2677:
2671:
2670:
2660:
2650:
2626:
2615:
2614:
2612:
2611:
2595:
2589:
2588:
2586:
2585:
2570:
2561:
2547:
2538:
2531:
2522:
2521:
2493:
2487:
2476:
2470:
2469:
2467:
2466:
2455:
2446:
2445:
2437:
2431:
2423:. Berlin, 1992,
2417:
2411:
2410:
2400:
2376:
2370:
2369:
2352:(9): 1034–1041.
2341:
2332:
2331:
2295:
2289:
2288:
2286:
2284:
2278:
2272:. Archived from
2239:
2230:
2224:
2223:
2211:
2205:
2204:
2194:
2170:
2164:
2163:
2161:
2160:
2154:plants.jstor.org
2146:
2140:
2134:
2128:
2127:
2125:
2086:
2077:
2071:
2058:
2052:
2051:
2015:
2004:
2003:
1983:
1964:
1957:
1936:
1927:
1910:
1909:
1907:
1906:
1900:
1893:
1884:
1878:
1877:
1875:
1864:
1855:
1786:Neurostimulation
1780:
1775:
1774:
1677:Wishful Drinking
1573:Ernest Hemingway
1552:trainees in the
1546:medical students
1426:advance decision
1342:Informed consent
934:heart arrhythmia
921:hyperventilation
706:For people with
515:informed consent
484:informed consent
176:mental disorders
138:edit on Wikidata
130:
104:
51:
39:
38:
21:
7816:
7815:
7811:
7810:
7809:
7807:
7806:
7805:
7786:Neurotechnology
7761:
7760:
7741:
7736:
7726:
7724:
7715:
7714:
7710:
7701:
7699:
7690:
7689:
7685:
7646:
7642:
7603:
7599:
7592:
7576:
7572:
7560:
7559:
7550:
7549:
7537:
7515:
7511:
7504:
7496:. Grove Press.
7488:
7484:
7475:
7473:
7463:
7456:
7443:
7442:
7438:
7428:
7426:
7417:
7416:
7412:
7369:
7362:
7352:
7350:
7335:
7331:
7316:
7312:
7303:
7301:
7296:
7295:
7291:
7282:
7280:
7272:
7271:
7267:
7236:
7232:
7225:
7211:
7207:
7198:
7196:
7188:
7187:
7183:
7143:
7137:
7133:
7113:
7109:
7091:Meyers, Jeffrey
7089:
7085:
7046:
7039:
7024:
7023:
7019:
7009:
7007:
7003:
6996:
6992:
6991:
6987:
6982:. 25 June 2020.
6978:
6977:
6973:
6960:
6959:
6955:
6942:
6941:
6937:
6928:
6927:
6923:
6910:
6909:
6905:
6895:
6893:
6883:
6879:
6874:
6870:
6857:
6856:
6852:
6843:
6839:
6828:
6824:
6816:
6812:
6803:Wayback Machine
6794:
6790:
6769:(20): 141–150.
6759:
6755:
6737:
6728:
6719:
6715:
6706:
6704:
6700:
6689:
6683:
6679:
6669:
6667:
6657:
6653:
6645:
6641:
6632:
6630:
6605:
6601:
6590:
6583:
6544:
6537:
6528:
6526:
6513:(1237): U2051.
6499:
6495:
6485:
6483:
6472:
6468:
6429:
6425:
6418:
6404:
6400:
6361:
6357:
6318:
6314:
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6263:
6253:
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6220:
6216:
6177:
6170:
6161:
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6156:
6148:
6144:
6105:
6101:
6097:. London: NICE.
6095:Wayback Machine
6085:
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6036:
6032:
6026:Wayback Machine
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5958:
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5932:Wayback Machine
5922:
5918:
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5870:
5843:Am J Psychiatry
5839:
5835:
5790:
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5648:Wayback Machine
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5360:
5359:
5355:
5310:Kala A (2013).
5308:
5304:
5296:
5292:
5268:
5264:
5225:
5221:
5182:
5178:
5172:
5168:
5159:
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5117:Br J Psychiatry
5113:
5106:
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5015:
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4501:Wayback Machine
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4000:
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3224:(S6): S48–S51.
3214:
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3179:
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3088:
3084:
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2648:10.1002/brb3.37
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2069:Wayback Machine
2059:
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2016:
2007:
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1967:
1958:
1939:
1928:
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1809:
1776:
1769:
1766:
1743:Miracle Musical
1732:graveyard shift
1698:
1670:American actor
1633:Sargent Shriver
1629:George McGovern
1609:Thomas Eagleton
1569:
1563:
1537:
1513:
1489:
1470:
1465:
1454:. In 2014, the
1445:. In 1976, the
1439:
1409:
1400:
1388:
1386:Involuntary ECT
1344:
1339:
1330:
1325:
1297:
1249:
1224:
1204:
1159:
1122:
1113:
1104:
1089:benzodiazepines
1081:
1072:
963:Glenside Museum
955:
930:
909:anticholinergic
900:
884:
868:semantic memory
836:
827:
791:, which induce
785:benzodiazepines
780:muscle soreness
764:
736:
716:
699:
677:antidepressants
668:
603:
567:
511:
503:neuroplasticity
428:Surgeon General
290:Giovanni Aldini
264:
242:
227:muscle relaxant
141:
126:
100:
58:
37:
28:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
7814:
7804:
7803:
7798:
7793:
7788:
7783:
7778:
7773:
7759:
7758:
7752:
7740:
7739:External links
7737:
7735:
7734:
7708:
7683:
7656:(3): 187–191.
7640:
7613:(6): 882–891.
7597:
7590:
7570:
7561:|journal=
7535:
7509:
7502:
7482:
7454:
7436:
7410:
7383:(5): 469–471.
7360:
7349:on May 3, 2009
7329:
7310:
7289:
7265:
7246:(5): 485–486.
7230:
7223:
7205:
7181:
7131:
7115:A. E. Hotchner
7107:
7083:
7056:(4): 244–253.
7037:
7017:
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6753:
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6713:
6677:
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6554:(3): 247–273.
6535:
6493:
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6439:(3): 289–294.
6423:
6416:
6398:
6355:
6328:(6): 589–599.
6312:
6261:
6233:
6214:
6187:(4): 206–212.
6168:
6154:
6142:
6115:(5): 401–405.
6099:
6079:
6030:
6010:
5995:
5952:
5936:
5916:
5898:
5868:
5849:(6): 869–875.
5833:
5804:(7): 492–497.
5784:
5755:(4): 263–267.
5735:
5708:(4): 235–236.
5692:
5652:
5632:
5593:
5568:
5556:
5517:(3): 207–218.
5497:
5474:
5445:(3): 196–201.
5425:
5382:
5353:
5322:(3): 216–219.
5302:
5290:
5279:(11): 644–50.
5273:East Afr Med J
5262:
5235:(2): 100–104.
5219:
5176:
5166:
5150:
5123:(5): 401–405.
5104:
5101:978-1904671220
5084:
5061:
5034:(5): 929–934.
5013:
4963:
4913:
4878:Anesthesiology
4859:
4840:(5): 444–450.
4824:
4797:(5): 261–271.
4777:
4748:(4): 327–335.
4728:
4701:(3): 180–195.
4685:
4666:(7): 929–932.
4647:
4613:
4589:
4570:(4): 348–356.
4554:
4505:
4480:
4453:(2): 127–133.
4437:
4418:(6): 581–590.
4399:
4370:(3): 226–234.
4350:
4301:
4264:(2): 165–176.
4244:
4195:
4168:(2): 105–108.
4152:
4125:(5): 388–397.
4109:
4082:(6): 354–358.
4066:
4015:
4013:, pp. 161–280.
4011:978-0199937899
3994:
3951:
3924:(4): e59–e60.
3908:
3881:(6): 616–617.
3865:
3834:
3807:(6): 676–686.
3791:
3762:(5): 285–300.
3742:
3726:
3683:
3656:(7): 675–687.
3640:
3586:
3549:(4): 294–306.
3529:
3477:
3426:
3383:
3340:
3297:
3290:
3272:
3251:
3208:
3173:
3166:
3131:
3082:
3023:
3004:(7): 667–672.
2959:
2934:
2907:(2): 182–185.
2891:
2862:(6): 540–549.
2839:
2796:
2782:
2767:
2756:(2): 445–454.
2739:
2737:
2736:
2722:
2709:
2672:
2641:(3): 283–344.
2616:
2590:
2562:
2539:
2523:
2488:
2471:
2447:
2432:
2419:Bangen, Hans:
2412:
2371:
2333:
2290:
2248:(2): 157–162.
2225:
2206:
2185:(4): 576–584.
2165:
2141:
2129:
2095:(3): 518–530.
2072:
2053:
2005:
1998:
1965:
1937:
1911:
1879:
1810:
1808:
1805:
1804:
1803:
1798:
1793:
1788:
1782:
1781:
1765:
1762:
1756:and attempted
1697:
1694:
1693:
1692:
1681:
1668:
1655:
1648:
1640:
1605:
1604:
1590:
1589:
1565:Main article:
1562:
1559:
1554:United Kingdom
1536:
1533:
1512:
1509:
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1407:United Kingdom
1405:
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1324:
1321:
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1247:United Kingdom
1245:
1223:
1220:
1203:
1200:
1182:tracts in the
1158:
1155:
1121:
1118:
1112:
1111:Treatment team
1109:
1103:
1100:
1080:
1077:
1071:
1068:
1043:The patient's
1010:dose titration
954:
951:
929:
926:
899:
896:
892:Journal of ECT
883:
880:
835:
832:
826:
823:
763:
760:
748:antipsychotics
735:
732:
715:
712:
698:
695:
667:
664:
650:Compared with
602:
599:
566:
563:
555:hallucinations
510:
507:
505:and rewiring.
488:mental illness
424:antidepressant
250:Bergonic chair
241:
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143:
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135:
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118:
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7398:
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7390:
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7378:
7374:
7367:
7365:
7348:
7344:
7343:Rolling Stone
7340:
7333:
7325:
7321:
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7299:
7293:
7279:
7275:
7269:
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7257:
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7168:2027.42/57903
7165:
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7059:
7055:
7051:
7044:
7042:
7033:
7032:
7027:
7021:
7006:on 2013-01-08
7002:
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6735:
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6723:
6717:
6699:
6695:
6688:
6681:
6666:
6662:
6659:Mechcatie E.
6655:
6649:
6643:
6629:on 2012-08-21
6628:
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6619:
6614:
6612:
6603:
6595:
6588:
6586:
6577:
6573:
6569:
6565:
6561:
6557:
6553:
6549:
6542:
6540:
6525:on 2011-05-01
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6134:
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6126:
6122:
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6114:
6110:
6103:
6096:
6092:
6089:
6086:NICE (2003).
6083:
6075:
6071:
6066:
6061:
6057:
6053:
6049:
6045:
6041:
6034:
6027:
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5963:
5956:
5949:
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5940:
5933:
5929:
5926:
5920:
5912:
5908:
5902:
5888:on 2008-01-15
5887:
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5688:
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5649:
5645:
5642:
5636:
5628:
5624:
5620:
5616:
5612:
5608:
5604:
5597:
5583:on 2014-10-27
5582:
5578:
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5548:
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5525:
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5456:
5452:
5448:
5444:
5440:
5436:
5429:
5421:
5417:
5413:
5409:
5405:
5401:
5397:
5393:
5386:
5372:on 2007-10-12
5371:
5367:
5363:
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5349:
5345:
5340:
5335:
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5321:
5317:
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5254:
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5211:
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5199:
5195:
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5187:
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5155:
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5142:
5138:
5134:
5130:
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5118:
5111:
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5102:
5098:
5094:
5088:
5072:
5065:
5057:
5053:
5049:
5045:
5041:
5037:
5033:
5029:
5022:
5020:
5018:
5009:
5005:
5001:
4997:
4993:
4989:
4986:(2): 64–103.
4985:
4981:
4974:
4967:
4959:
4955:
4951:
4947:
4943:
4939:
4935:
4931:
4924:
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4909:
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4851:
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4843:
4839:
4835:
4828:
4820:
4816:
4812:
4808:
4804:
4800:
4796:
4792:
4791:CNS Spectrums
4788:
4781:
4773:
4769:
4764:
4759:
4755:
4751:
4747:
4743:
4739:
4732:
4724:
4720:
4716:
4712:
4708:
4704:
4700:
4696:
4689:
4681:
4677:
4673:
4669:
4665:
4661:
4657:
4651:
4637:on 2011-05-16
4636:
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4602:
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4354:
4346:
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4337:
4332:
4328:
4324:
4321:(1): pyu045.
4320:
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2976:
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2972:
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2968:
2966:
2964:
2957:. Geneva, 64.
2956:
2952:
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2930:
2926:
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2492:
2485:
2481:
2475:
2461:
2458:Sabbatini R.
2454:
2452:
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2436:
2430:
2426:
2422:
2416:
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2399:
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2202:
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2188:
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2169:
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2110:
2106:
2102:
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2090:
2083:
2076:
2070:
2066:
2063:
2057:
2049:
2045:
2041:
2037:
2033:
2029:
2025:
2021:
2014:
2012:
2010:
2001:
1995:
1991:
1990:
1982:
1980:
1978:
1976:
1974:
1972:
1970:
1962:
1956:
1954:
1952:
1950:
1948:
1946:
1944:
1942:
1934:
1933:
1926:
1924:
1922:
1920:
1918:
1916:
1897:
1894:. p. 4.
1890:
1883:
1872:
1868:
1861:
1854:
1852:
1850:
1848:
1846:
1844:
1842:
1840:
1838:
1836:
1834:
1832:
1830:
1828:
1826:
1824:
1822:
1820:
1818:
1816:
1811:
1802:
1799:
1797:
1794:
1792:
1791:Psychosurgery
1789:
1787:
1784:
1783:
1779:
1773:
1768:
1761:
1759:
1755:
1751:
1746:
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1723:
1719:
1718:
1713:
1709:
1708:
1703:
1690:
1685:
1682:
1680:
1678:
1673:
1672:Carrie Fisher
1669:
1666:
1665:
1660:
1656:
1653:
1649:
1645:
1641:
1638:
1637:Richard Nixon
1634:
1630:
1626:
1622:
1618:
1614:
1610:
1607:
1606:
1602:
1601:
1595:
1594:Robert Pirsig
1592:
1591:
1587:
1583:
1578:
1574:
1571:
1570:
1568:
1558:
1555:
1551:
1547:
1542:
1532:
1530:
1529:Massachusetts
1526:
1522:
1518:
1508:
1506:
1505:schizophrenia
1502:
1498:
1494:
1487:United States
1484:
1482:
1477:
1475:
1460:
1457:
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1448:
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1398:United States
1395:
1393:
1382:
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1301:
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1272:
1266:
1263:
1259:
1255:
1254:mood disorder
1244:
1240:
1236:
1232:
1229:
1222:United States
1219:
1215:
1211:
1207:
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1197:
1196:dentate gyrus
1193:
1189:
1185:
1181:
1177:
1173:
1169:
1164:
1154:
1150:
1148:
1144:
1134:
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1108:
1099:
1096:
1094:
1090:
1086:
1076:
1063:
1059:
1056:
1054:
1050:
1046:
1041:
1038:
1034:
1033:suxamethonium
1030:
1026:
1022:
1018:
1013:
1011:
1005:
1001:
997:
994:
988:
984:
980:
975:
968:
964:
959:
950:
947:
946:meta-analysis
943:
939:
935:
925:
922:
918:
914:
910:
906:
895:
893:
888:
879:
876:
873:
872:Sarah Lisanby
869:
864:
859:
857:
852:
850:
845:
841:
831:
825:Risk of death
822:
819:
817:
813:
809:
805:
800:
798:
794:
790:
786:
781:
777:
773:
769:
759:
757:
753:
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740:schizophrenia
734:Schizophrenia
731:
729:
728:bipolar mania
725:
721:
711:
709:
704:
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692:
688:
686:
682:
678:
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657:
653:
648:
646:
642:
638:
633:
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627:
622:
620:
616:
612:
608:
607:meta-analysis
598:
596:
595:hydrocephalus
592:
588:
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580:
576:
572:
562:
560:
556:
552:
549:, depressive
548:
544:
540:
536:
532:
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524:
520:
516:
506:
504:
500:
495:
491:
489:
485:
480:
474:
471:
467:
463:
458:
454:
452:
448:
447:shock therapy
444:
442:
437:
433:
429:
425:
420:
418:
417:suxamethonium
414:
408:
406:
400:
398:
394:
390:
385:
383:
378:
376:
372:
368:
367:schizophrenia
363:
361:
357:
353:
349:
345:
340:
338:
337:
332:
328:
327:schizophrenia
323:
321:
317:
313:
309:
308:schizophrenia
305:
300:
297:
295:
291:
287:
283:
279:
275:
271:
270:
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259:
251:
246:
237:
235:
230:
228:
224:
220:
216:
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207:
205:
201:
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194:
189:
185:
181:
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173:
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165:
161:
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153:
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123:
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116:
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75:
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50:
45:
40:
35:
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19:
7725:. Retrieved
7720:
7711:
7700:. Retrieved
7698:. 2024-03-16
7695:
7686:
7653:
7649:
7643:
7610:
7606:
7600:
7580:
7573:
7518:
7512:
7492:
7485:
7474:. Retrieved
7470:
7448:
7439:
7427:. Retrieved
7422:
7413:
7380:
7376:
7372:
7351:. Retrieved
7347:the original
7342:
7332:
7323:
7313:
7302:. Retrieved
7292:
7281:. Retrieved
7278:STLtoday.com
7277:
7268:
7243:
7239:
7233:
7214:
7208:
7197:. Retrieved
7193:
7184:
7151:
7147:
7134:
7118:
7110:
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7086:
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7049:
7029:
7020:
7008:. Retrieved
7001:the original
6988:
6974:
6965:
6956:
6947:
6938:
6924:
6915:
6906:
6894:. Retrieved
6890:
6880:
6871:
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6845:
6840:
6825:
6813:
6791:
6766:
6762:
6756:
6748:
6743:
6721:
6716:
6705:. Retrieved
6693:
6680:
6668:. Retrieved
6664:
6654:
6642:
6631:. Retrieved
6627:the original
6616:
6610:
6602:
6551:
6547:
6527:. Retrieved
6523:the original
6510:
6506:
6496:
6484:. Retrieved
6480:the original
6469:
6436:
6432:
6426:
6407:
6401:
6371:(1): 41–45.
6368:
6364:
6358:
6325:
6321:
6315:
6280:
6274:
6264:
6252:. Retrieved
6246:
6236:
6228:The Guardian
6227:
6217:
6184:
6180:
6157:
6145:
6112:
6108:
6102:
6082:
6047:
6043:
6033:
6013:
5965:
5961:
5955:
5947:
5939:
5919:
5910:
5901:
5890:. Retrieved
5886:the original
5881:
5871:
5846:
5842:
5836:
5801:
5797:
5787:
5752:
5748:
5738:
5705:
5701:
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5670:
5666:
5635:
5610:
5606:
5596:
5585:. Retrieved
5581:the original
5571:
5559:
5514:
5510:
5500:
5488:. Retrieved
5477:
5442:
5438:
5428:
5398:(1): e5–e6.
5395:
5391:
5385:
5374:. Retrieved
5370:the original
5356:
5319:
5315:
5305:
5293:
5276:
5272:
5265:
5232:
5228:
5222:
5192:(1): 21–23.
5189:
5185:
5179:
5169:
5161:
5120:
5116:
5092:
5087:
5075:. Retrieved
5064:
5031:
5027:
4983:
4979:
4966:
4933:
4929:
4916:
4884:(1): 83–91.
4881:
4877:
4837:
4833:
4827:
4794:
4790:
4780:
4745:
4741:
4731:
4698:
4694:
4688:
4663:
4659:
4650:
4639:. Retrieved
4635:the original
4630:
4626:
4616:
4605:. Retrieved
4567:
4563:
4557:
4522:
4518:
4508:
4492:
4450:
4446:
4440:
4415:
4411:
4367:
4363:
4353:
4318:
4314:
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4261:
4257:
4247:
4212:
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4198:
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4161:
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4118:
4112:
4079:
4075:
4069:
4032:
4028:
4018:
4002:
3997:
3967:(2): 77–81.
3964:
3960:
3954:
3921:
3917:
3911:
3878:
3874:
3868:
3843:
3837:
3804:
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3759:
3755:
3745:
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3692:
3686:
3653:
3649:
3643:
3606:
3602:
3546:
3542:
3532:
3497:
3493:
3443:
3439:
3429:
3396:
3392:
3386:
3356:(1): 13–20.
3353:
3349:
3343:
3310:
3306:
3300:
3281:
3275:
3221:
3217:
3211:
3186:
3182:
3176:
3149:
3102:(1): 33–39.
3099:
3095:
3085:
3040:
3036:
3026:
3001:
2997:
2946:
2904:
2900:
2894:
2859:
2855:
2813:
2809:
2799:
2785:
2770:
2753:
2749:
2742:
2713:
2688:
2684:
2675:
2638:
2634:
2608:. Retrieved
2606:. p. B5
2603:
2593:
2582:. Retrieved
2578:
2550:
2501:
2497:
2491:
2483:
2479:
2474:
2463:. Retrieved
2441:
2435:
2420:
2415:
2391:(1): 13–18.
2388:
2384:
2374:
2349:
2345:
2303:
2299:
2293:
2281:. Retrieved
2274:the original
2245:
2241:
2228:
2219:
2209:
2182:
2178:
2168:
2157:. Retrieved
2153:
2144:
2132:
2092:
2088:
2075:
2056:
2023:
2019:
1988:
1935:, chapter 4.
1931:
1903:. Retrieved
1882:
1866:
1747:
1740:
1736:
1725:
1716:
1707:The Bell Jar
1705:
1702:Sylvia Plath
1699:
1675:
1662:
1598:
1561:Famous cases
1538:
1515:In 2020 the
1514:
1490:
1478:
1471:
1440:
1410:
1401:
1389:
1379:
1370:
1368:
1364:
1360:
1356:
1352:
1345:
1337:Legal status
1331:
1317:Yang Yongxin
1302:
1298:
1285:
1279:
1269:
1267:
1250:
1241:
1237:
1233:
1225:
1216:
1212:
1208:
1205:
1180:white matter
1178:, increased
1163:neuroimaging
1160:
1151:
1139:
1114:
1105:
1097:
1082:
1073:
1057:
1042:
1017:methohexital
1014:
1006:
1002:
998:
995:
992:
983:Kristiansand
931:
901:
891:
889:
885:
877:
860:
853:
837:
828:
820:
801:
765:
737:
717:
700:
689:
669:
660:
649:
634:
623:
604:
568:
512:
499:neuroimaging
496:
492:
475:
459:
455:
446:
439:
435:
421:
409:
401:
386:
379:
364:
344:Ugo Cerletti
341:
334:
324:
301:
298:
273:
267:
265:
249:
231:
208:
197:
188:milliseconds
184:milliamperes
159:
155:
151:
147:
146:
29:
18:Electroshock
7721:Masterpiece
7154:(1): 1–18.
7010:25 February
6254:October 20,
6017:NICE 2003.
5673:(1): 8–13.
5028:Psychol Med
4656:Devanand DP
4601:"Chapter 4"
4278:10161/10644
2283:28 December
2214:Wright BA.
1717:Family Life
1659:Janet Frame
1647:successful.
1577:Mayo Clinic
1328:Controversy
1313:adolescents
1307:". Alleged
1172:hippocampus
1168:gray matter
816:brain tumor
535:suicidality
389:Nobel Prize
288:as well as
172:convulsions
164:psychiatric
122:MedlinePlus
63:Other names
7765:Categories
7702:2024-03-16
7476:2023-08-17
7304:2015-05-19
7283:2023-02-27
7199:2019-12-30
7127:0786705922
7093:. (1985).
6707:2010-05-24
6633:2012-10-25
6623:UBM Medica
6529:2011-03-08
6152:2016–2017.
5892:2008-01-01
5613:(110337).
5587:2015-01-07
5376:2008-03-25
5077:3 November
5069:Barnes R.
4641:2009-10-17
4607:2007-12-29
3446:: 135049.
3150:Psychiatry
2723:082612710X
2610:2008-01-01
2584:2008-01-01
2559:0867931124
2504:(1): 141.
2465:2013-04-24
2442:Psychiatry
2429:3927408824
2159:2021-05-08
1905:2022-05-17
1867:Psychiatry
1807:References
1754:depression
1689:homophobic
1550:psychiatry
1463:By country
1437:Regulation
1421:amendments
1228:lobotomies
1029:thiopental
940:". A 2019
917:intubation
797:anesthesia
509:Modern use
432:anesthesia
375:depression
352:Lucio Bini
286:James Lind
234:hemisphere
72:ICD-10-PCS
7696:TV Tropes
7678:206144447
7635:206356310
7563:ignored (
7553:cite book
6783:218906587
5882:USA Today
5533:0253-7176
5008:1559-4343
5000:1938-9000
4958:246442707
4104:207934946
4035:(1): 17.
3903:207428569
3581:231759831
3246:204073048
3077:218586379
2823:1112.2072
2816:(7): 30.
2518:218991982
1724:'s novel
1722:Ken Kesey
1712:Ken Loach
1541:Australia
1523:(JRC) in
1501:catatonia
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