84:
220:
228:
199:. However, the scope of resource extraction projects carried out by local rural communities is dwarfed by multinational mining and agri-business interests, so even when local environmental defender communities are motivated by their own resource extraction agendas, the net effect is to preserve the environment. Thus, environmental defenders' involvement in conflicts over land and resources often explicitly promote environmental protection, but not always.
284:
While violence in environmental conflicts is commonly understood as discrete events (such as a disappearance, rape, or assassination), some studies indicate that complete understanding of violence against environmental defender communities requires a multidimensional approach. In addition to commonly
417:
dams are integral to many experts' plans for climate change mitigation, but they displace large numbers of people and are the most frequent causes of conflicts in the renewable energy sector. Siting of utility scale wind and solar projects also have environmental justice implications, as do resource
215:
suggest that industrialised economies continually require new frontiers for resource extraction, leading to increasing ecological distribution conflicts. The last strongholds of biodiversity protected by
Indigenous people are now being targeted for resource extraction. Several researchers and the UN
444:
points out that emphasis on the right to a healthy environment and environmental justice may presume a capitalistic commodification of land that is inconsistent with
Indigenous worldviews. UN special rapporteur John Knox has suggested that adoption of the right to a healthy environment has been led
378:
Although most academic sources and the United
Nations define environmental defenders to include groups of people, the media and advocacy groups typically report on individual defenders, resulting in the term having an individualizing effect on public perception of ecological distribution conflicts.
194:
and many others. Environmental conflicts in urban areas or middle to high income countries tend to draw terminology from the environmental justice framework. Conflicts in rural areas and low income countries often use terms related to environmentalism of the poor. Indigenous scholars point out that
50:
is broadly applied to a diverse range of environmental groups and leaders from different cultures that all employ different tactics and hold different agendas. Use of the term is contested, as it homogenizes such a wide range of groups and campaigns, many of whom do not self-identify with the term
275:
Global
Witness reported 1,922 murders of environmental defenders in 57 countries between 2002 and 2019, with indigenous people accounting for approximately one third of this total. On average, three defenders are killed every week. Documentation of this violence is also incomplete. The UN Special
239:
documents over 3500 ecological distribution conflicts globally. Studies drawing upon this database and other information sources have revealed a number of patterns that researchers are hoping will better enable understanding of global environmental justice trends and protection of environmental
128:
to describe people struggling to protect their land from pollution or dispossession, especially since the UN Declaration on Human Rights
Defenders in 1998. This increasing use of the term has been accompanied by expanded infrastructure to protect defenders engaging in this work. Environmental
391:
and cancellation of the project. However, martyrisation does not uniformly contribute to the success of ecological distribution conflicts. Under particularly repressive regimes, deaths of defenders may simply lead to attrition; in countries with high murder rates, deaths of defenders may pass
400:
Many ecological distribution conflicts result from resource extraction or land uses associated with renewable energy or conservation. Environmental defenders protecting their land from these dangers have been criticised for interfering with development that may be perceived necessary for
195:
they have been defending their lands for centuries, and describe their struggles in terms of settler colonialism. Environmental protection may not be the explicit agenda of some environmental defender communities who may be primarily motivated by issues of social justice or
422:
in the USA is an example of a conflict in the renewable energy sector where environmental defenders oppose an open-pit mine that other environmentalists believe necessary to supply lithium for electric car batteries to support a proposed climate change mitigation strategy.
382:
Individualisation of environmental defenders can also result in martyrisation. Martyrs can have the effect of broadening support for ecological distribution conflicts, consolidating alliances, and improve chances of success. For example in the
Philippines, the murder of
265:
Women may be disproportionally impacted by ecological distribution conflicts owing to gendered division of labor and unequal power distribution. Women environmental defenders also face gendered violence such as forced prostitution, rape, and disappearances of indigenous
1067:
247:
Low income countries have more conflicts in rural areas related to conservation, biomass, land use, and water management. High income countries have more conflicts in urban or semi-urban areas related to waste disposal, tourism,
412:
Land uses and infrastructure projects related to renewable energy frequently result in environmental conflict; there are several hundred conflicts listed on the EJAtlas related to renewable energy infrastructure. For example,
301:(1998) states that individuals have the right to access to environmental information, participate in environmental decision-making, and have access to justice. These consideration are also protected in article 10 of the
349:
Although environmental defenders rarely use potentially violent tactics, governments and others may criticise defender actions on the occasions when they do engage in property damage or similar actions. For example,
66:
reported 1,922 murders of environmental defenders in 57 countries between 2002 and 2019, with indigenous people accounting for approximately one third of this total. Documentation of this violence is incomplete. The
361:
There are also important critiques of the environmental defender concept or environmental defender communities based in historical context or moral ambiguities. These include individualisation of collective action,
431:
Association with the legal framework of universal human rights has led to criticism of the environmental defender concept as a colonial label imposed upon communities who do not identify with the concept or the
1189:
333:
Opposition to environmental defenders may take the form of criminalisation or political ostracisation that frames environmental defender actions in terms of larger political debates. For example, in
Colombia
255:
Indigenous people are most frequently mobilised against environmental harms and are involved in 41% of documented cases. Involvement of
Indigenous people is associated with much higher rates of assassination.
405:, protection of endangered species, or the "public good". These instances highlight moral ambiguities that may exist in struggles by environmental defender communities. For example, protection of the
1019:"Human Rights Council resolution 40/L.22: Recognizing the contribution of environmental human rights defenders to the enjoyment of human rights, environmental protection and sustainable development"
216:
Human Rights
Council have concluded that continued protection of these strongholds by environmental defenders may be indispensable to environmental protection and the mitigation of climate change.
289:(such as cumulative exposure to low-level toxins), and ecological violence (such as degradation of subsistence resources) all contribute to violence experienced by defender communities.
622:
Peter Bille Larsen; Philippe Le Billon; Mary Menton; José Aylwin; Jörg
Balsiger; David Boyd; Michel Forst; Fran Lambrick; Claudelice Santos; Hannah Storey; Susan Wilding (2021).
379:
This may obscure the collective nature of ecological distribution conflicts, further endanger individual leaders, and exacerbate internal conflicts among defender communities.
409:
in the Democratic Republic of the Congo has been militarized, and rangers have had conflicts with local Indigenous people, leading to criticism of 'militarized conservation'.
285:
reported direct violence, structural violence (embedded in social, political and economic structures), cultural violence (embedded in language, religion, or ideology),
276:
Rapporteur on human rights reported that as many as one hundred environmental defenders are intimidated, arrested or otherwise harassed for every one that is killed.
211:
contribute to a growing environmental justice framework that continually contributes new concepts to the narratives of environmental protection and social justice.
98:
There is a long history of people protecting their environment from the harms associated with economic production. This has previously been discussed in terms of
114:, and other theories that closely relate to the environmental defender framework. Academic papers, the media, and various NGOs have increasingly used the term
1216:"Indigenous environmental defenders and the legacy of Macli-ing Dulag: Anti-dam dissent, assassinations, and protests in the making of Philippine energyscape"
942:
Moore, Jason W (2000). "Sugar and the Expansion of the Early Modern World-Economy: Commodity Frontiers, Ecological Transformation, and Industrialization".
148:
The environmental defender framework is not evenly used across languages and may have different connotations in different regions. For example, the French
71:
on human rights reported that as many as one hundred environmental defenders are intimidated, arrested or otherwise harassed for every one that is killed.
714:
258:
Successful environmental justice campaigns (resulting in cancellation of a project or favorable legal ruling) typically utilise a wide variety of
306:
302:
94:, Hunkpapa Lakota - Cochiti Pueblo. Holding protest sign with image of Thunderbird Woman created by Isaac Murdoch, Serpent River First Nation.
83:
857:
Martinez-Alier, Joan; Anguelovski, Isabelle; Bond, Patrick; Del Bene, Daniela; Demaria, Federico; Gerber, Julien-Francois (2014).
1475:
678:
164:. Many front-line defenders do not self-identify with the term, preferring a very broad range of other identifications such as:
62:
face a wide range of threats from governments, local elites, and other powers that benefit from projects that defenders oppose.
858:
1424:
310:
43:
1291:"Movements shaping climate futures: A systematic mapping of protests against fossil fuel and low-carbon energy projects"
1261:
1220:
737:
593:
68:
859:"Between activism and science: grassroots concepts for sustainability coined by Environmental Justice Organizations"
1398:
624:"Understanding and responding to the environmental human rights defenders crisis: The case for conservation action"
107:
1157:. University of Barcelona, Faculty of Law in partnership with Stetson's Institute for Biodiversity Law and Policy.
1470:
355:
1465:
322:
142:
207:
Environmental defenders are on the front-lines of a global environmental justice movement in which individual
1455:
773:
305:. The right to a healthy environment is protected in several regional international agreements including the
161:
1068:"Gendered geographies of violence: a multiple case study analysis of murdered women environmental defenders"
673:
1399:"A rush to mine lithium in Nevada is pitting climate advocates and environmental groups against each other"
866:
318:
103:
418:
extraction for copper, lithium, and other critical minerals required for renewable energy infrastructure.
566:
501:
446:
236:
1372:
822:
1190:"Iowa climate activist sentenced to eight years in federal prison for Dakota Access pipeline sabotage"
1037:
895:"Ecological distribution conflicts as forces for sustainability: an overview and conceptual framework"
419:
402:
1174:
27:
388:
244:
Greater rates of assassinations are associated with conflicts in the mining and agrarian sectors.
16:
Individuals and groups who strive to protect and promote human rights relating to the environment
1460:
342:
radicals and targeted by paramilitary and government security forces. In the Global North, the
208:
196:
59:
1113:
406:
259:
130:
99:
691:
1302:
628:
433:
212:
621:
8:
441:
111:
31:
1306:
51:
and may not have explicit aims to protect the environment (being motivated primarily by
1320:
1239:
1162:
1133:
1089:
995:
970:
951:
919:
894:
839:
798:
695:
647:
599:
523:
496:
358:, and the judge applied additional time to her sentence in a 'terrorism enhancement'.
339:
39:
354:
was prosecuted in the USA for damaging construction equipment being used to build the
1324:
1243:
1152:
1137:
1093:
1018:
1000:
924:
843:
817:
790:
768:
733:
699:
651:
603:
589:
528:
298:
91:
1154:
Environmental human rights defenders and the protection of wildlife and biodiversity
802:
514:
1351:
1310:
1229:
1125:
1079:
990:
982:
914:
906:
875:
831:
782:
725:
687:
637:
581:
518:
510:
414:
367:
351:
314:
231:
Most environmental conflicts are in the mining, energy, and waste disposal sectors.
166:
157:
835:
437:
384:
219:
87:
1340:"Environmental Justice and Sustainability: What Is Environmental Assimilation?"
1315:
1290:
1234:
1215:
1114:"Violence in environmental conflicts: the need for a multidimensional approach"
986:
816:
Martinez Alier, Joan; Temper, Leah; Del Bene, Daniela; Scheidel, Arnim (2016).
138:
63:
52:
35:
1129:
910:
786:
46:
unanimously recognised their importance to environmental protection. The term
1449:
729:
458:
343:
286:
249:
124:
585:
1004:
928:
794:
715:"Our ancestors' dystopia now: indigenous conservation and the Anthropocene"
532:
134:
1112:
Navas, Grettel; Mingorria, Sara; Aguilar-Gonzalwz, Bernardo (March 2018).
971:"Threats to land and environmental defenders in nature's last strongholds"
227:
574:
Environmental and Land Defenders: Deadly Struggles for Life and Territory
363:
1084:
955:
879:
567:"'Environmental defenders': the power / disempowerment of a loaded term"
1356:
1339:
642:
623:
366:
origins of the term, and complex situations involving conservation or
346:
has resulted in increased criminalization of environmental defenders.
262:
tactics. Project cancellation resulted in 26.7% of reported campaigns.
856:
577:
815:
1373:"The Lithium Gold Rush: Inside the Race to Power Electric Vehicles"
1262:"Green Power & Environmental Justice: Does Green Discriminate?"
950:(3). Research Foundation of State University of New York: 409–433.
769:"A global perspective is needed to protect environmental defenders"
720:. In Heise, Ursula; Christensen, Jon; Niemann, Michelle (eds.).
1111:
724:. Abingdon, Oxon; New York, NY: Routledge. pp. 222–231.
209:
place-based conflicts (ie, ecological distribution conflicts)
1041:
445:
by countries in the Global South and may contribute to the
497:"Environmental conflicts and defenders: A global overview"
133:
and are associated with the legal theory of fundamental
969:
Zeng, Yiwen; Twang, Fangqi; Carrasco, L. Roman (2022).
722:
The Routledge Companion to the Environmental Humanities
674:"Constructing the Human Right to a Healthy Environment"
1425:"What Environmental Justice Means in Indian Country"
395:
141:. They work to establish or protect the fundamental
818:"Is there a global environmental justice movement?"
766:
436:ideology that produced the human rights framework.
223:
Environmental defenders use a wide range of tactics
160:in general and be largely applied to people in the
1065:
968:
1447:
1397:Nilsen, Ella; Marsh, Rene (December 17, 2021).
1259:
338:(environmental leaders) are frequently cast as
1422:
1390:
767:Ghazoul, Jaboury; Kleinschroth, Fritz (2018).
129:defenders are typically viewed as a subset of
1150:
1066:Tran, Dalena; MingorrĂa, Sara; Navas (2020).
279:
270:
1364:
307:African Charter on Human and Peoples' Rights
150:
1396:
1288:
387:led to widespread mobilisation against the
1370:
1355:
1314:
1233:
1083:
994:
918:
641:
564:
522:
328:
252:, industrial and infrastructure projects.
1371:Penn, Ivan; Lipton, Eric (May 6, 2021).
892:
494:
226:
218:
82:
1416:
692:10.1146/annurev-lawsocsci-031720-074856
679:Annual Review of Law and Social Science
1448:
1423:Gilio-Whitaker, Dina (March 6, 2017).
1284:
1282:
1260:Zokovitch Paben, Jeanne Marie (2013).
1213:
1337:
1255:
1253:
1181:
1107:
1105:
1103:
1061:
1059:
1032:
1030:
1028:
941:
713:Whyte, Kyle Powys (January 6, 2017).
712:
617:
615:
613:
240:defenders. Salient patterns include:
762:
760:
758:
756:
671:
667:
665:
663:
661:
560:
558:
556:
554:
552:
550:
548:
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544:
542:
490:
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484:
482:
480:
478:
476:
474:
373:
58:Environmental defenders involved in
24:environmental human rights defenders
1331:
1279:
311:American Convention on Human Rights
120:environmental human rights defender
26:are individuals or collectives who
13:
1289:Temper, Leah; et al. (2020).
1250:
1221:Energy Research and Social Science
1207:
1100:
1056:
1025:
850:
672:Knox, John H. (October 13, 2020).
610:
292:
202:
14:
1487:
1187:
893:Scheidel, Arnim (December 2017).
809:
753:
658:
539:
471:
396:Renewable energy and conservation
323:ASEAN Declaration on Human Rights
108:ecological distribution conflicts
42:, or other dangers. In 2019, the
1144:
1011:
962:
944:Review (Fernand Braudel Center)
935:
515:10.1016/j.gloenvcha.2020.102104
90:- No Spiritual Surrender" with
1476:Right to a healthy environment
1295:Environmental Research Letters
1214:Delina, Laurence (July 2020).
886:
774:Nature Ecology & Evolution
706:
426:
143:right to a healthy environment
1:
1151:Saura-Freixes, Nuria (2019).
836:10.1080/03066150.2016.1141198
495:Scheidel, Arnim (July 2020).
464:
152:défenseurs de l'environnement
78:
1072:Journal of Political Ecology
867:Journal of Political Ecology
319:Arab Charter on Human Rights
104:environmentalism of the poor
7:
502:Global Environmental Change
452:
237:Environmental Justice Atlas
172:grassroots environmentalist
38:, infrastructure projects,
10:
1492:
1235:10.1016/j.erss.2020.101463
987:10.1007/s13280-021-01557-3
823:Journal of Peasant Studies
565:Verweijen, Judith (2021).
280:Multi-dimensional violence
271:Violence against defenders
30:from harms resulting from
1140:– via SpringerLink.
1130:10.1007/s11625-018-0551-8
911:10.1007/s11625-017-0519-0
787:10.1038/s41559-018-0640-1
572:. In Menton, Mary (ed.).
420:Thacker Pass lithium mine
403:climate change mitigation
1316:10.1088/1748-9326/abc197
730:10.4324/9781315766355-32
36:hazardous waste disposal
1338:Tsuji, Stephen (2021).
586:10.4324/9781003127222-6
392:essentially unnoticed.
60:environmental conflicts
44:UN Human Rights Council
28:protect the environment
20:Environmental defenders
1471:Human rights activists
1118:Sustainability Science
899:Sustainability Science
356:Dakota Access Pipeline
329:Criticism and response
232:
224:
197:Indigenous land rights
151:
131:human rights defenders
116:environmental defender
95:
48:environmental defender
1466:Land rights movements
1269:Texas Tech Law Review
1021:. UN. March 21, 2019.
449:of human rights law.
434:Western enlightenment
407:Virunga National Park
230:
222:
213:Ecological economists
100:environmental justice
86:
69:UN Special Rapporteur
1456:Indigenous activists
1350:(15): Article 8382.
629:Conservation Letters
1307:2020ERL....15l3004T
1194:Des Moines Register
1085:10.2458/v27i1.23760
880:10.2458/v21i1.21124
442:Dina Gilio-Whitaker
336:lĂderes ambientales
112:settler colonialism
32:resource extraction
1377:The New York Times
1357:10.3390/su13158382
643:10.1111/conl.12777
580:. pp. 37–49.
233:
225:
96:
40:land appropriation
374:Individualisation
299:Aarhus Convention
192:community leader,
158:environmentalists
92:Floris White Bull
1483:
1440:
1439:
1437:
1435:
1420:
1414:
1413:
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1409:
1394:
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1200:
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1158:
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1142:
1141:
1109:
1098:
1097:
1087:
1078:(1): 1189–1212.
1063:
1054:
1053:
1051:
1049:
1044:on June 11, 2022
1040:. Archived from
1034:
1023:
1022:
1015:
1009:
1008:
998:
966:
960:
959:
939:
933:
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884:
883:
863:
854:
848:
847:
813:
807:
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781:(9): 1340–1342.
764:
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710:
704:
703:
669:
656:
655:
645:
619:
608:
607:
571:
562:
537:
536:
526:
492:
368:renewable energy
352:Jessica Reznicek
315:Escazu Agreement
188:environmentalist
154:
137:promoted by the
1491:
1490:
1486:
1485:
1484:
1482:
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1480:
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398:
389:Chico River dam
385:Macli-ing Dulag
376:
331:
303:Rio Declaration
295:
293:Legal framework
282:
273:
205:
203:Global movement
180:nature defender
167:water protector
88:Water protector
81:
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1344:Sustainability
1330:
1301:(12): 123004.
1278:
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1124:(3): 649–660.
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447:decolonisation
428:
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139:United Nations
80:
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64:Global Witness
53:social justice
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1488:
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1461:Land defender
1459:
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459:Eco-socialism
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