Environmental impact of shipping

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through economic incentives “that provide motivation for the adoption of less environmentally damaging practices”, the second most common being “infrastructure investments and informative policies”. The most prominent and promising use of economic incentives are market-based measures (MBMs). The two main types of MBMs used are emission trading schemes and fuel levies. Both work through putting a price on GHG emissions providing economic incentives for taxed actors to improve their energy efficiency. However, these improvements are also accompanied by a short-term decline in industry profit. Some argue that the current use of MBMs in the EU Emission Trading Scheme could serve as a window of opportunity to reduce GHG emissions in the shipping sector without placing an unnecessarily high burden on the shipping sector. The challenges standing in the way of this – the “allocation of emissions, carbon leakage, permit allocation, treatment of the great variety in ship type, size and usage, and transaction cost” – are however hard to overcome without global market-based economies. Others incentive-based schemes for achieving decarbonization include pricing schemes or the incentivization of “front-runner ships that implement decarbonization technologies beyond regulations”. However, evaluation of current the incentive schemes reveals that the schemes are onerous and only taken up by shipping enterprises or ports to a limited degree. Further, these incentive schemes are not specifically focused on a reduction in GHG emissions and thus do not support decarbonization.

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in the case of negotiations around taxation of shipping fuels, international agreement around uniform regulation has not been reached, resulting instead in a deadlock. Overlaps of decision-making authority between central institutions can pose similar barriers, if central norm conflicts between them are large enough – as in the case of competing principles guiding the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) and the IMO. The UNFCCC is guided by the principle of Common but Differentiated Responsibilities (CBDR) which holds that since developed countries proportionately have contributed the most in terms of GHG emissions, they also take the largest responsibility for addressing the reduction of these emissions. The IMO in contrast is guided by principles of “non-discrimination and equal treatment and No More Favourable Treatment (NMFT) to all ships irrespective of their flag”. This has led to a conflict between central interests, since developed states support the NMFT principle, while developing states support the CBDR principle. The effect of this conflict is that we are left with no clear principle around which to regulate resulting in impeding the “legislation efficiency and consensus”.

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operate by a business-as-usual logic based on assumptions of uninterrupted growth where actors must only address “incremental challenges that can be adapted to in a piecemeal fashion”. However, the consequences of climate change might instead take place on a disruptive and uncontrollable level, “bringing starvation, destruction, migration disease and war” necessitating much more radical action. While Monios argues that the shipping industry has started to use the rhetoric of a logic of sustainability, the actions of shipping actors are still largely determined by the dominant business-as-usual logic, which block attempts at regulation from the IMO and leads to a loss of trust in and legitimacy of the system. Lastly, When MBMs become the primary means of addressing climate change at sea, Monios argues, this business-as-usual logic is strengthened, since they crowd out non-market norms and render invisible governance alternatives such as direct regulation and supply-side approaches.

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governance are still seen across different ports with the same uniform regulation underscoring the need for policy to also take local and sectoral factors into account, perhaps through tailor-made adaptation measures. The effectiveness of uniform regulation also depends on the use of MRV&E systems, which denote “technologies, policies and administrative processes that monitor, report, verify and enforce compliance with the regulations''. The current enforcement of regulations is lacking, and efforts need to be made to both “strengthen supervision and law enforcement and establish a global monitoring system”. The most common problems encountered with international shipping arise from paperwork errors and customs brokers not having the proper information about the items. Cruise ships, for example, are exempt from regulation under the US discharge permit system (NPDES, under the

2156:, much of the current regulations are considered inadequate. "In general, the treaties tend to emphasize the technical features of safety and pollution control measures without going to the root causes of sub-standard shipping, the absence of incentives for compliance and the lack of enforceability of measures." Where polycentric governance relies on positive relationships between major actors and conventions, one of the largest barriers to an effective environmental regulation of shipping arises from negative relationships between major actors and conventions, where ambiguous or overlapping jurisdictions result in a range of different issues such as a lack of effective enforcement and monitoring, inconsistent and unclear standards, and inadequate supervision resulting in blind spots in the high seas. 53: 1168:

prosper and ultimately to survive. Whales are starting to react to this in ways that are life-threatening. Despite sonar's military and civilian applications, it is destroying marine life. According to IFAW Animal Rescue Program Director Katie Moore, "There's different ways that sounds can affect animals. There's that underlying ambient noise level that's rising, and rising, and rising that interferes with communication and their movement patterns. And then there's the more acute kind of traumatic impact of sound, that's causing physical damage or a really strong behavioral response. It's fight or flight".

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1980s has been characterized by intergovernmental decision-making centralized around the IMO. However, this picture has been changing since the 1980s when regional initiatives in the EU and its member states began to play a larger role, partly due to an increasing dissatisfaction with the lacking regulation and enforcement efforts of the IMO. This has led to a new synergy developing between the EU and the IMO and other regional actors, broadly characterized as a

7681: 6165: 1208:, of which 400 or fewer remain. The greatest danger to the North Atlantic right whale is injury sustained from ship strikes. Between 1970 and 1999, 35.5% of recorded deaths were attributed to collisions. From 1999 to 2003, incidents of mortality and serious injury attributed to ship strikes averaged one per year. From 2004 to 2006, that number increased to 2.6. Deaths from collisions has become an extinction threat. The United States' 1821:

Environment Protection Committee (MEPC). In 2018, the industry discussed in London placing limits to cut levels from a benchmark of 2008 carbon dioxide emissions by 50% by the year 2050. Some methods of reducing emissions of the industry include lowering speeds of shipping (which can be potentially problematic for perishable goods) as well as changes to fuel standards. In 2019, international shipping organizations, including the

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engine exhaust, thus leaving a sludge that contains soot and various acidic compounds (or neutralized compounds, if alkaline substances are mixed in with the scrubbing liquid beforehand). This material can then be either treated via an on-board device (closed-loop system), or it can simply be dumped overboard (open-loop system). The discharged material can be harmful to marine life, especially in nearshore settings.

7710: 7702: 7694: 6154: 1177: 1406:, a higher amount of nitrous oxides will be produced at higher combustion temperatures. However, other pollutants, particularly unburned or partially burnt hydrocarbons (also known as hyperfine particulates or soot), will be more common at lower combustion temperatures, so there is a trade-off between nitrogen oxides and soot. 2250:

EC-IMO Energy Efficiency Project. The 4-year project aims to establish Maritime Technology Cooperation Centres in 5 regions: Africa, Asia, the Caribbean, Latin America and the Pacific. Through technical assistance and capacity-building, the centres will promote the uptake of low carbon technologies

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It is expected that, (from 2004) "...shipping traffic to and from the United States is projected to double by 2020." However, many shipping companies and port operators in North America (Canada and the United States) have adopted the Green Marine Environmental Program to limit operational impacts on

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facilities, and many ships dump their waste at sea Due to complexities of shipping trade and the difficulties involved in regulating this business, a comprehensive and generally acceptable regulatory framework on corporate responsibility for reducing GHG emissions is unlikely to be achieved soon. As

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mode of governance. The polycentric synergy of the EU and IMO has largely been driven by the active and leading role taken by the EU in both implementing and influencing IMO conventions. Four regional initiatives in this context are notable: “the use of special areas in IMO Conventions, the adoption

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Bluewater Network, "Cruising for Trouble: Stemming the Tide of Cruise Ship Pollution," March 2000, p. 5. A report prepared for an industry group estimated that a 3,000-person cruise ship generates 1.1 million US gallons (4,200 m) of graywater during a seven-day cruise. Don K. Kim, "Cruise

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of solid waste are generated during a one-week cruise. It has been estimated that 24% of the solid waste generated by vessels worldwide (by weight) comes from cruise ships. Most cruise ship garbage is treated on board (incinerated, pulped, or ground up) for discharge overboard. When garbage must be

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in 2008. It was tasked with developing the technical basis for the reduction mechanisms that may form part of a future IMO regime to control greenhouse gas emissions from international shipping, and a draft of the actual reduction mechanisms themselves, for further consideration by the IMO's Marine

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A third option entails the use of wet scrubbers that essentially spray seawater through the exhaust column as it is pumped through a chamber. Depending on the detailed engineering-design attributes of the wet scrubber, these devices can wash out the sulfur oxides, soot and nitrogen oxides from the

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A 2016 journal article recommends that under current circumstances, it is necessary for states, the shipping industry and global organizations to explore and discuss market-based mechanisms (MBMs) for vessel-sourced GHG emissions reduction. MBMs are part of a broader category of mechanisms working

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Effective regulation of international shipping thus requires more international coordination. If states regulate emissions unilaterally, this leads to an overall increase in net emissions, whereas coordinated and uniform regulation between states reduces net emissions. However, varying patterns of

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area, and that percentage is expected to increase to 61 percent by 2015. Again, there is little cruise-industry specific data on this issue. They comprise only a small fraction of the world shipping fleet, but cruise ship emissions may exert significant impacts on a local scale in specific coastal

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One source of environmental stresses on maritime vessels recently has come from states and localities, as they assess the contribution of commercial marine vessels to regional air quality problems when ships are docked at port. For instance, large marine diesel engines are believed to contribute 7

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Further, these approaches are not without their critics. Lars Stemmler is critical towards the attitude that both environmental and social consequences of climate change can be mitigated through “ever more efficiencies in shipping”. Jason Monios similarly argues that the shipping sector generally

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Some of the major international efforts in the form of treaties are the Marine Pollution Treaty, Honolulu, which deals with regulating marine pollution from ships, and the UN Convention on Law of the Sea, which deals with marine species and pollution. Maritime governance from the 1950s up to the

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article on Sonic Sea Journeys Deep into the Ocean over the last century, extremely loud noise from commercial ships, oil and gas exploration, naval sonar exercises and other sources has transformed the ocean's delicate acoustic habitat, challenging the ability of whales and other marine life to

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and dental waste. Sampling done by EPA and the state of Alaska found that untreated greywater from cruise ships can contain pollutants at variable strengths and that it can contain levels of fecal coliform bacteria several times greater than is typically found in untreated domestic wastewater.

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of water. EPA estimates that large marine diesel engines accounted for about 1.6 percent of mobile source nitrogen oxide emissions and 2.8 percent of mobile source particulate emissions in the United States in 2000. Contributions of marine diesel engines can be higher on a port-specific basis.

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contents. As of 2006, almost all of the petroleum-based diesel fuel available in Europe and North America is of a ULSD type. However, bunker oil is still available, and large marine engines are able to switch between the two types simply by opening and closing the respective valves from two

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in these areas, the bilge spaces need to be flushed and periodically pumped dry. However, before a bilge can be cleared out and the water discharged, the oil that has been accumulated needs to be extracted from the bilge water, after which the extracted oil can be reused, incinerated, and/or

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materials, in particular. Greywater is typically the largest source of liquid waste generated by cruise ships (90 to 95 percent of the total). Estimates of greywater range from 110 to 320 liters per day per person, or 330,000 to 960,000 liters per day for a 3,000-person cruise ship.

2830:"Discovery Channel's Sonic Sea Journeys Deep Into the Ocean Uncovering the Devastating Impact Man-Made Noise Has on Marine Life and What Can Be Done to Stop the Damage to These Creatures Who Are a Crucial Part of the Circle of Life – Discovery, Inc" 4383:

Ng, Adolf K.Y.; Zhang, Huiying; Afenyo, Mawuli; Becker, Austin; Cahoon, Stephen; Chen, Shu-ling; Esteban, Miguel; Ferrari, Claudio; Lau, Yui-yip; Lee, Paul Tae-Woo; Monios, Jason; Tei, Alessio; Yang, Zaili; Acciaro, Michele (4 May 2018).

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releases yet more carbon dioxide into the atmosphere. While this stream is comparatively small in relation to carbon-dioxide emissions caused by combustion of fossil fuels, it needs to be taken into account as well, as part of a complete

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material, oil and other chemicals. A typically large cruise ship will generate an average of 8 tonnes of oily bilge water for each 24 hours of operation. To maintain ship stability and eliminate potentially hazardous conditions from oil

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emission due to methane slip through the LNG supply-chain. Methane is a much more powerful greenhouse gas than carbon dioxide per unit volume, and is only slowly broken down in the environment by various chemical, photochemical and

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see some of the heaviest shipping traffic, which has left local officials desperately trying to clean up the air. Increasing trade between the United States and China is helping to increase the number of vessels navigating the

1534:, primarily carbon dioxide. According to the World Bank, in 2022, the shipping industry's 3% of global greenhouse gas emissions make it "the sixth largest greenhouse gas emitter worldwide, ranking between Japan and Germany." 1082:

to move a given mass of cargo a given distance, the sheer size of the industry means that it has a significant effect on the environment. The annual increasing amount of shipping overwhelms gains in efficiency, such as from

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and operations in maritime transport in the less developed countries in the respective region. This will also support the implementation of the internationally agreed energy efficiency rules and standards (EEDI and SEEMP).

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offloaded in port. If a separator, which is normally used to extract the oil, is faulty or is deliberately bypassed, untreated oily bilge water could be discharged directly into the ocean, where it can damage marine life.

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In July 2023, the IMO set a series of non-binding targets for cutting emissions, marking a significant step forward from the earlier 2018 plan. These targets, however, still fall short of complete alignment with the 2015

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in 2008, which expired in 2013. However, in 2017 an unprecedented mortality event occurred, resulting in the deaths of 17 North Atlantic right whales caused primarily from ship-strikes and entanglement in fishing gear.

1217: 1885:(GHG) intensity of ship fuel and is planning to implement the world’s first global, mandatory charge on GHG emissions by 2027. This charge is intended to incentivize the reduction of emissions across the global fleet. 2084:

off-loaded (for example, because glass and aluminium cannot be incinerated), cruise ships can put a strain on port reception facilities, which are rarely adequate to the task of serving a large passenger vessel.

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areas that are visited repeatedly. Shipboard incinerators also burn large volumes of garbage, plastics, and other waste, producing ash that must be disposed of. Incinerators may release toxic emissions as well.

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has identified ocean noise as a potential threat to marine life. The disruption of whales' ability to communicate with one another is an extreme threat and is affecting their ability to survive. According to a

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at least two pounds of non-hazardous solid waste per day. With large cruise ships carrying several thousand passengers, the amount of waste generated in a day can be massive. For a large cruise ship, about 8

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and marine environment. Marine species constantly exposed to PAHs can exhibit developmental problems, susceptibility to disease, and abnormal reproductive cycles. One of the more widely known spills was the

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Solid waste generated on a ship includes glass, paper, cardboard, aluminium and steel cans, and plastics. It can be either non-hazardous or hazardous in nature. Solid waste that enters the ocean may become

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of the Paris Memorandum of Understanding (MoU) on Port State Control, the development of the European Union shipping policy domain and the emergence of market-based initiatives by ports and cargo-owners”.

2007:

A large cruise ship (3,000 passengers and crew) generates an estimated 55,000 to 110,000 liters per day of blackwater waste. The cruise line industry dumps 970,000 litres (255,000 US gal) of

1425:, carbon dioxide and water. However, both those options add cost and weight. Furthermore, the urea in diesel exhaust fluid is usually derived from fossil fuels, and therefore it is not carbon neutral. 2796: 1143:. These materials often include non-native, nuisance, invasive, exotic species that can cause extensive ecological and economic damage to aquatic ecosystems along with serious human health problems. 3119: 4544:"Unilaterally removing implicit subsidies for maritime fuels: A mechanism to unilaterally tax maritime emissions while satisfying extraterritoriality, tax competition and political constraints" 1109: 2470:

Walker TR, Adebambo O, Del Aguila Feijoo MC, Elhaimer E, Hossain T, Edwards SJ, Morrison CE, Romo J, Sharma N, Taylor S, Zomorodi S (2019). "Environmental Effects of Marine Transportation".

1155:. The noise produced by ships can travel long distances, and marine species who may rely on sound for their orientation, communication, and feeding, can be harmed by this sound pollution. 1522:

monitoring on the smokestacks as well as recorded measuring via opacity meter while some are also using clean burning gas turbines for electrical loads and propulsion in sensitive areas.

1409:

Other than replacing ambient air with pure oxygen or some other oxidizing agent, the only ways to significantly reduce the nitrogen oxide emissions are via passing flue gasses through a

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United Nations Environment Programme in collaboration with GEF, the University of Kalmar, the Municipality of Kalmar, Sweden, and the Governments of Sweden, Finland and Norway. (2006).

2046:, and can then pose a threat to marine organisms, humans, coastal communities, and industries that utilize marine waters. Cruise ships typically manage solid waste by a combination of 7430: 5688: 5397: 772: 7655: 1859: 951: 7650: 3446:

Schrooten L, De Vlieger I, Int Panis L, Styns K, Torfs R (2008). "Inventory and forecasting of maritime emissions in the Belgian sea territory, an activity-based emission model".

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In a recent study, the future of ship emissions has been investigated and reported that the growth of carbon dioxide emissions do not change with most common alternatives such as

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or unload cargo, and discharged at the next port of call, wherever more cargo is loaded. Ballast water discharge typically contains a variety of biological materials, including

4648:"Reconciling common but differentiated responsibilities principle and no more favourable treatment principle in regulating greenhouse gas emissions from international shipping" 1275:, carbon dioxide, and hydrocarbons which again leads to the formation of aerosols and secondary chemicals reactions including formations of HCHO, Ozone etc. in the atmosphere. 3186:

US Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), Washington, DC. "Control of Emissions From New Marine Compression-Ignition Engines at or Above 30 Liters Per Cylinder." Final rule.

1123:. Cruise ships, large tankers, and bulk cargo carriers use a huge amount of ballast water, which is often taken on in the coastal waters in one region after ships discharge 4803:"Designing a climate change policy for the international maritime transport sector: Market-based measures and technological options for global and regional policy actions" 3649: 3526: 3864: 1506:. Ships can also have a significant impact in areas without large commercial ports: they contribute about 37 percent of total area nitrogen oxide emissions in the 2074:, and birds can be injured or killed from entanglement with plastics and other solid waste that may be released or disposed off of cruise ships. On average, each 2026: 5390: 2658: 2303: 5586: 5353: 3729: 2362: 1919:. The ship ran aground and dumped a massive amount of oil into the ocean in March 1989. Despite efforts of scientists, managers and volunteers, over 400,000 2805: 5564: 3883: 2566: 5527: 3807:

Ship Waste Dispersion Analysis Report on the Analysis of Graywater Discharge," presented to the International Council of Cruise Lines, 14 September 2000.

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goal of limiting global warming to 1.5 degrees Celsius above pre-industrial levels. The IMO is also developing new regulations aiming to reduce the

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is high in sulfur and cheaper to buy compared to the fuel used for domestic land use. "A ship lets out around 50 times more sulfur than a lorry per

5347: 3120:"Endangered Fish and Wildlife; Final Rule To Implement Speed Restrictions to Reduce the Threat of Ship Collisions With North Atlantic Right Whales" 2021:

annex IV was brought into force September 2003 strictly limiting untreated waste discharge. Modern cruise ships are most commonly installed with a

1898:. While less frequent than the pollution that occurs from daily operations, oil spills have devastating effects. While being toxic to marine life, 1087:. The growth in tonne-kilometers of sea shipment has averaged 4 percent yearly since the 1990s, and it has grown by a factor of 5 since the 1970s. 3571: 3623: 2347: 2100:

of the ship. Though bilge water is filtered and cleaned before being discharged, oil in even minute concentrations can kill fish or have various

1213: 4010:"The External Dimension of European Union Marine Governance: Institutional Interplay between the EU and the International Maritime Organization" 7668: 5601: 5596: 5569: 2685: 1193:, such as whales and manatees, risk being struck by ships, causing injury and death. For example, a collision with a ship traveling at only 15 956: 6403: 5554: 5502: 4441:"Regulating international maritime shipping's air polluting emissions monitoring, reporting, verifying and enforcing regulatory compliance" 3758:

Panetta, L. E. (Chair) (2003). "America's living oceans: charting a course for sea change." Electronic Version, CD. Pew Oceans Commission.

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Schrooten L, De Vlieger I, Panis LI, Chiffi C, Pastori E (December 2009). "Emissions of maritime transport: a European reference system".

7363: 5576: 5549: 5522: 5497: 1103: 1034: 722: 5213: 3070:

Reilly SB, Bannister JL, Best PB, Brown M, Brownell Jr RL, Butterworth DS, Clapham PJ, Cooke J, Donovan GP, Urbán J, Zerbini AN (2010).

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Some shipping companies, including large cruise shipping lines, have sometimes violated regulations by illegally bypassing the onboard

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The Center for Environmental Leadership in Business, "A Shifting Tide, Environmental Challenges and Cruise Industry Responses," p. 14.

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emissions are primarily a function of combustion temperature. As air contains over 70% nitrogen by volume, some of it will react with

7752: 5908: 5648: 3921:"The regionalization of maritime governance: Towards a polycentric governance system for sustainable shipping in the European Union" 6178: 6173: 5893: 5517: 3364:

Schmidt, C., & Olicker, J. (20 April 2004). World in the Balance: China Revs Up . PBS: NOVA. Retrieved 26 November 2006, from

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solution) which would have to be disposed of, adding yet further cost. In addition, calcium hydroxide commonly being produced by

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emissions goals and limits. The First Intersessional Meeting of the IMO Working Group on Greenhouse Gas Emissions took place in

5898: 3017:

Ward-Geiger LI, Silber GK, Baumstark RD, Pulfer TL (2005). "Characterization of Ship Traffic in Right Whale Critical Habitat".

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On a ship, oil often leaks from engine and machinery spaces or from engine maintenance activities and mixes with water in the

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and is exacerbating multiple environmental problems. To maintain the level of growth China is experiencing, large amounts of

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Vanderlaan AS, Taggart CT (2007). "Vessel Collisions with Whales: The Probability of Lethal Injury Based on Vessel Speed".

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standards), as well as adverse health effects associated with ambient concentrations of particulate matter and visibility,

1280: 1185: 215: 3139:"A decade of satellite observations reveal significant increase in atmospheric formaldehyde from shipping in Indian Ocean" 6898: 6791: 6461: 5861: 5507: 5492: 5335: 4892:"Ports' role in shipping decarbonisation: A common port incentive scheme for shipping greenhouse gas emissions reduction" 4697:"Targeting the reduction of shipping emissions to air: A global review and taxonomy of policies, incentives and measures" 3076: 2288: 1855: 342: 262: 1328:

In 2016, the IMO adopted new sulfur-emissions regulations for implementation by larger ships beginning in January 2020.

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has a 79% chance of being lethal to a whale. Ship collisions may be one of the leading causes of population decline for

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Walker TR (April 2016). "Green Marine: An environmental program to establish sustainability in marine transportation".

3549: 2209: 936: 850: 292: 7705: 7452: 7338: 6832: 6827: 6183: 5792: 5777: 5611: 5559: 3779:

The Ocean Conservancy, "Cruise Control, A Report on How Cruise Ships Affect the Marine Environment," May 2002. - PDF

2342: 1822: 1347:. According to Irene Blooming, a spokeswoman for the European environmental coalition Seas at Risk, the fuel used in 1209: 792: 697: 2662: 2033:

bioreactors which produce near drinkable quality effluent to be re-used in the machinery spaces as technical water.

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is commonly employed. However, this would add weight and cost on ships and produce a further waste stream (usually

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Christodoulou, Anastasia; Gonzalez-Aregall, Marta; Linde, Tobias; Vierth, Inge; Cullinane, Kevin (18 March 2019).

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Of total global air emissions, marine shipping accounts for 18 to 30 percent of the nitrogen oxides and 9% of the

52: 7378: 7115: 6505: 5973: 5722: 5700: 5658: 5628: 5581: 5464: 5447: 5430: 5406: 4246:"Modeling the effects of unilateral and uniform emission regulations under shipping company and port competition" 4205:

Zhang, Shuanghong; Chen, Jihong; Wan, Zheng; Yu, Mingzhu; Shu, Yaqing; Tan, Zhijia; Liu, Jiaguo (November 2021).

3207: 2234: 1027: 737: 500: 82: 1999:

Greywater has potential to cause adverse environmental effects because of concentrations of nutrients and other

6209: 5678: 5673: 1268: 1079: 1982:, laundry, and cleaning activities aboard a ship. It can contain a variety of pollutant substances, including 1951:, and harmful nutrients. Discharges of untreated or inadequately treated sewage can cause bacterial and viral 1825:, proposed creating a $ 5 billion fund to support the research and technology necessary to cut GHG emissions. 7713: 7688: 6993: 6323: 5844: 5782: 4998:"Deep adaptation to climate change in the maritime transport sector – a new paradigm for maritime economics?" 3780: 3675: 2122: 972: 422: 5047:"Competing institutional logics and institutional erosion in environmental governance of maritime transport" 2722: 2249: 1452:

In inland-waters-based applications where sulfur cannot (fully) be removed from the fuel before combustion (

7164: 6913: 6893: 6645: 6311: 5440: 4207:"Challenges and countermeasures for international ship waste management: IMO, China, United States, and EU" 2589:"Regulating global shipping corporations' accountability for reducing greenhouse gas emissions in the seas" 2382: 2367: 510: 362: 337: 132: 5993: 5197:

Ewan McGaughey, 'Liability for climate damage and shipping' in S Baughan, B Soyer and A Tettenborn (eds),

7269: 6923: 6316: 6301: 6281: 5811: 5695: 5452: 3285: 2293: 1843: 1835: 621: 372: 3572:"Bold global action needed to decarbonize shipping and ensure a just transition: UNCTAD report | UNCTAD" 3233: 7697: 7597: 7520: 6928: 6758: 6588: 6306: 4842:"The Greening of Ports: A Comparison of Port Management Tools Used by Leading Ports in Asia and Europe" 3338: 2267: 2129:" have been prosecuted and resulted in large fines, but in other countries enforcement has been mixed. 1205: 1020: 377: 227: 4778: 3627: 7400: 7358: 7320: 6885: 6679: 6353: 6202: 6081: 6033: 5928: 5821: 5705: 4385: 3138: 2765:"Behavioral plasticity in larval reef fish: Orientation is influenced by recent acoustic experiences" 2308: 2255: 2239: 2000: 1507: 752: 717: 677: 330: 297: 147: 5988: 3039: 7757: 7395: 6918: 6859: 6770: 6388: 6086: 6041: 5943: 5668: 5484: 5342:

International Convention for the Control and Management of Ships' Ballast Water and Sediments, 2004

2704: 2109: 1531: 1457: 1072: 747: 367: 302: 239: 5096:"The Moral Limits of Market-Based Mechanisms: An Application to the International Maritime Sector" 4841: 2465: 2463: 2461: 2459: 2457: 2455: 2453: 2451: 2449: 7607: 7373: 6903: 6454: 6328: 6256: 6133: 6071: 5474: 4802: 4745: 4245: 4206: 4095: 4056: 3959: 3920: 3086: 3071: 2740: 1433: 1313: 777: 732: 352: 2896:"Global collision-risk hotspots of marine traffic and the world's largest fish, the whale shark" 7566: 6956: 6393: 6076: 5903: 4593:"Analysis of the governance architecture to regulate GHG emissions from international shipping" 3365: 3034: 2686:"The (non-) taxation of international aviation and maritime fuels: Anomalies and possibilities" 2446: 2377: 2331: 2125:

and discharging untreated oily wastewater. In the US these violations by means of a so-called "

2063: 1912: 1503: 1499: 1363: 915: 402: 5299: 5206: 3378: 7536: 7368: 7244: 7152: 6842: 6735: 6535: 5459: 5220: 4532:

Web Archives. Nairobi, Kenya: United Nations Environment Programme. Retrieved 5 January 2010.

3601: 2859: 2432: 2357: 1478: 1437: 1344: 885: 727: 593: 505: 202: 2244: 7343: 6998: 6694: 6061: 5829: 5469: 5435: 5425: 5244: 5160: 5058: 4952: 4903: 4814: 4757: 4746:"Bunker levy schemes for greenhouse gas (GHG) emission reduction in international shipping" 4659: 4604: 4452: 4397: 4257: 4218: 4107: 4068: 3971: 3932: 3455: 3412: 3026: 2975: 2907: 2868: 2742:

Human Noise Pollution in Ocean Can Lead Fish Away from Good Habitats and Off to Their Death

2600: 2523: 2422: 2256:

MRV Monitoring, reporting and verification of CO2 emissions from large ships using EU ports

1414: 1152: 427: 160: 5358: 4522: 2630:, Final Report. Tyndall Centre for Climate Change Research, Univ. of Manchester, UK. 2014. 2066:

typically is discharged at sea, although some is landed ashore for disposal or recycling.

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are being shipped to China. The numbers of shipments are expected to continue increasing.

8: 7410: 7348: 7315: 7254: 7186: 7051: 7046: 7024: 6598: 6368: 6363: 6266: 6123: 6116: 6056: 5953: 5948: 5623: 4529: 4326:"Governing shipping externalities: Baltic ports in the process of SOx emission reduction" 2387: 2352: 2022: 1948: 1410: 762: 707: 672: 598: 525: 475: 470: 455: 112: 5248: 5164: 5062: 4956: 4907: 4818: 4761: 4663: 4608: 4456: 4401: 4261: 4222: 4111: 4072: 3975: 3936: 3700: 3459: 3416: 3101: 3030: 2979: 2911: 2872: 2604: 2527: 7723: 7684: 7617: 7592: 7587: 7405: 7282: 7076: 6948: 6712: 6583: 6510: 6447: 6378: 6358: 6251: 6138: 6096: 6091: 6051: 6003: 5767: 5663: 5539: 5268: 5128: 5095: 5076: 5027: 4978: 4921: 4869: 4783: 4726: 4677: 4628: 4573: 4478: 4421: 4365: 4037: 4009: 3987: 3471: 3428: 3166: 3052: 2999: 2938: 2895: 2547: 2493: 2479: 2402: 2392: 2051: 2012: 1851: 1120: 996: 757: 633: 395: 177: 117: 87: 36: 5219:(Report). Washington, D.C.: US Congressional Research Service. RL32450. Archived from 4941:"Shipping and a "Great Transformation"—some remarks for a new sustainability paradigm" 3194: 2338:

Convention on the Prevention of Marine Pollution by Dumping of Wastes and Other Matter

1287:. The agency recognizes that these emissions from marine diesel engines contribute to 7612: 7472: 7292: 7201: 7169: 7086: 7039: 6966: 6938: 6707: 6702: 6500: 6291: 6013: 5888: 5834: 5633: 5618: 5272: 5260: 5176: 5133: 5115: 5080: 5031: 5019: 4982: 4970: 4925: 4873: 4861: 4787: 4730: 4718: 4681: 4632: 4620: 4592: 4577: 4565: 4482: 4470: 4425: 4413: 4369: 4357: 4306: 4171: 4029: 3991: 3835: 3823:

Clean Ships, Clean Ports, Clean Oceans; Controlling Garbage and Plastic Wastes at Sea

3432: 3170: 3158: 2991: 2966: 2943: 2880: 2539: 2497: 2483: 2101: 2097: 1489: 1473: 1465: 1164: 645: 568: 561: 515: 382: 172: 167: 77: 5172: 4386:"Port Decision Maker Perceptions on the Effectiveness of Climate Adaptation Actions" 4230: 4041: 3944: 3475: 3056: 3003: 2535: 2152:

While plenty of local and international regulations have been introduced throughout

1218:

vessel speed restrictions to reduce ship collisions with North Atlantic right whales

7556: 7457: 7415: 7383: 7277: 7231: 7191: 7098: 7066: 7034: 7019: 7003: 6978: 6763: 6717: 6333: 6225: 5968: 5963: 5938: 5737: 5710: 5325: 5252: 5168: 5123: 5107: 5071: 5066: 5046: 5009: 4960: 4911: 4853: 4822: 4773: 4765: 4708: 4667: 4612: 4555: 4460: 4405: 4347: 4337: 4296: 4265: 4226: 4161: 4123: 4115: 4076: 4021: 3979: 3940: 3865:"The $ 40m 'magic pipe': Princess Cruises given record fine for dumping oil at sea" 3827: 3467: 3463: 3424: 3420: 3191: 3154: 3150: 3123: 3081: 3044: 2983: 2933: 2925: 2915: 2876: 2776: 2608: 2551: 2531: 2475: 2153: 2047: 1987: 1979: 1789: 905: 802: 742: 628: 581: 530: 490: 465: 450: 432: 407: 347: 232: 182: 5375: 5014: 4997: 4465: 4440: 4409: 1963:

beds, producing risks to public health. Nutrients in sewage, such as nitrogen and

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Becker, Austin; Ng, Adolf K.Y.; McEvoy, Darryn; Mullett, Jane (8 February 2018).

4857: 4672: 4647: 4119: 4096:"Regulating GHG Emissions from shipping: Local, global, or polycentric approach?" 4080: 3983: 3786: 2613: 2588: 2417: 2161: 1983: 1878: 1803: 1518:

Annex VI came into force to combat this problem. As such cruise ships now employ

1461: 1453: 1272: 1159: 1068: 1056: 690: 650: 520: 485: 417: 357: 285: 222: 122: 5232: 4916: 4891: 4826: 4523:

Challenges to international waters: regional assessments in a global perspective

4190:

Vessel-source marine pollution: the law and politics of international regulation

3313: 1151:

Noise pollution caused by shipping and other human enterprises has increased in

7733: 7467: 7353: 7310: 7304: 7300: 7145: 7130: 7081: 7071: 6983: 6837: 6593: 6564: 6413: 6276: 6128: 6023: 5923: 5851: 5638: 5281:"The First Wave A blueprint for commercial-scale zero-emission shipping pilots" 5111: 4965: 4940: 4301: 4284: 4148:

Bloor, Michael; Baker, Susan; Sampson, Helen; Dahlgren, Katrin (24 July 2015).

3403:

Liu J, Duru O (2020). "Bayesian probabilistic forecasting for ship emissions".

2900:

Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America

2407: 2169: 1882: 1867: 1807: 1793: 1352: 1304: 1276: 1264: 1260: 1008: 812: 712: 667: 660: 655: 412: 107: 4769: 4713: 4696: 4616: 4560: 4543: 4269: 3730:"How the Shipping Industry Is Trying to Cut Its Billion Tons of CO2 Emissions" 3048: 2964:

Taylor S, Walker TR (November 2017). "North Atlantic right whales in danger".

2641:"Fuel charges in international aviation and shipping: How high; how; and why?" 7746: 7718: 7487: 7388: 7174: 7103: 6875: 6623: 6487: 6338: 6296: 6246: 6111: 6066: 6046: 5868: 5643: 5264: 5119: 5023: 4974: 4865: 4722: 4624: 4569: 4474: 4445:

Journal of International Maritime Safety, Environmental Affairs, and Shipping

4417: 4361: 4310: 4175: 4033: 3162: 2427: 2372: 2067: 2043: 1995: 1395: 1308: 1248: 1244: 1233: 1190: 1116: 1108: 1084: 1064: 1052: 991: 827: 317: 312: 307: 65: 4342: 4325: 2987: 2920: 2781: 2764: 7508: 7482: 7462: 7286: 7249: 7213: 6849: 6796: 6672: 6628: 6613: 6542: 6423: 6241: 5804: 5799: 5787: 5747: 5732: 5420: 5180: 5137: 2995: 2947: 2543: 2326: 2138: 2059: 2018: 1968: 1817: 1446: 1332: 1198: 860: 822: 807: 638: 603: 548: 267: 127: 3884:"Magic Pipe: The Mystery of the Illegal Activity Still Continues on Ships" 2804:, UN Environment Programme-Convention on Migratory Species, archived from 1339:

which damages crops and buildings. When inhaled, sulfur is known to cause

7445: 7440: 7125: 7120: 7091: 7056: 7029: 6559: 6236: 5918: 5873: 5742: 5715: 4025: 2412: 1991: 1863: 1469: 1403: 1367: 1340: 1317: 1292: 1229: 1194: 782: 480: 460: 97: 4694: 4352: 4166: 4149: 4128: 3676:"Ship industry proposes $ 5 billion research fund to help cut emissions" 2929: 2567:"Climate impact of shipping under growing scrutiny ahead of key meeting" 2198: 7622: 7239: 6554: 6547: 6530: 6515: 6408: 6261: 5983: 5214:

Cruise Ship Pollution: Background, Laws and Regulations, and Key Issues

2469: 2126: 2071: 1964: 1936: 1924: 1895: 1379: 1348: 1284: 1204:

One notable example of the impact of ship collisions is the endangered

1124: 832: 588: 92: 5233:"Implications of climate change for shipping: Ports and supply chains" 3701:"Climate change: Shipping agrees net-zero goal but critics chide deal" 7551: 7503: 7477: 7425: 7259: 7221: 6971: 6961: 6633: 6495: 6470: 6418: 6373: 6348: 6286: 6106: 5752: 4283:

Dong, Junjie; Zeng, Jia; Yang, Yanbin; Wang, Hua (22 November 2022).

3343: 3137:

Gopikrishnan, G. S.; Kuttippurath, Jayanarayanan (30 November 2020).

2397: 2165: 2105: 2055: 2008: 1972: 1960: 1952: 1903: 1862:

This includes the practice of lowering or limiting the combustion of

1375: 1336: 1300: 900: 855: 817: 767: 702: 608: 72: 44: 5256: 7196: 7140: 6801: 6650: 6618: 6194: 4597:

International Environmental Agreements: Politics, Law and Economics

4250:

Transportation Research Part E: Logistics and Transportation Review

3705: 2164:) that requires compliance with technology-based standards. In the 1940: 1920: 1907: 1422: 1256: 1140: 272: 4244:

Sheng, Dian; Li, Zhi-Chun; Fu, Xiaowen; Gillen, David (May 2017).

3831: 7157: 6660: 6638: 6525: 6520: 5933: 5883: 4890:

Alamoush, Anas S.; Ölçer, Aykut I.; Ballini, Fabio (March 2022).

4150:"Enforcement Issues in the Governance of Ships' Carbon Emissions" 3445: 1956: 1441: 1394:

In contrast to sulfur emissions (which depend on the fuel used),

1384: 1371: 4945:

Sustainability Management Forum | NachhaltigkeitsManagementForum

4324:

Gritsenko, Daria; Yliskylä-Peuralahti, Johanna (December 2013).

3016: 7561: 7541: 7435: 7110: 6603: 5757: 3286:"Health risks of shipping pollution have been 'underestimated'" 3260:"Shipping industry sails into unknown with new pollution rules" 2763:

Simpson SD, Meekan MG, Larsen NJ, McCauley RD, Jeffs A (2010).

2104:

chronic effects. Bilge water also may contain solid wastes and

2025:

type treatment plant for all blackwater and greywater, such as

1939:

from toilets and medical facilities, which can contain harmful

1916: 1515: 1399: 1321: 1252: 1176: 1132: 910: 890: 797: 787: 495: 2513: 7571: 7513: 6854: 6786: 6684: 6576: 5331: 2240:

EU Reducing Greenhouse Gas emissions from the shipping sector

2114: 2093: 1944: 1388: 1356: 1288: 1136: 1128: 920: 865: 257: 6439: 4323: 3366:

https://www.pbs.org/wgbh/nova/transcripts/3109_worldbal.html

1906:, are very difficult to clean up, and last for years in the 7546: 6667: 6655: 6571: 4285:"A review of law and policy on decarbonization of shipping" 3234:"Factbox: IMO 2020 - a major shake-up for oil and shipping" 2762: 2684:

Keen, Michael; Parry, Ian; Strand, Jon (9 September 2014).

1519: 1418: 1296: 895: 142: 137: 102: 1802:

Although the industry was not a focus of attention of the

1421:

reacts with the nitrous oxides in the flue gas to produce

1186:

Santa Barbara Channel § Risk of ship-whale collisions

4750:

Transportation Research Part D: Transport and Environment

4147: 3819: 2080: 1291:

and carbon monoxide nonattainment (i.e., failure to meet

1236:, both for conventional pollutants and greenhouse gases. 1091: 5328:- Shipping Industry Guidance on Environmental Compliance 5300:"Charting a Course for Decarbonizing Maritime Transport" 3650:"The shipping industry attempts to cap carbon emissions" 3136: 3069: 5370: 3960:"Regulation of ship-source pollution in the Baltic Sea" 5359:

CO2 emissions calculator for transporting cargo by sea

4840:

Lam, Jasmine Siu Lee; Notteboom, Theo (4 March 2014).

2304:

National Oil and Hazardous Substances Contingency Plan

1796:, offshore ships and service and miscellaneous ships. 1119:

discharges by ships can have a negative impact on the

5230: 4744:

Kosmas, Vasileios; Acciaro, Michele (December 2017).

4008:

van Leeuwen, Judith; Kern, Kristine (February 2013).

3767:

EPA Draft Discharge Assessment Report, pp. 3-5 - 3-6.

2363:

International Association of Classification Societies

1971:, which consumes oxygen in the water and can lead to 1538:

CO2 Emissions Distribution by Vessel Type, 2012–2023

1498:

percent of mobile source nitrogen oxide emissions in

1094:

privileges has contributed to the growing emissions.

5199:

Disruptive Technologies, Climate Change and Shipping

4996:

Monios, Jason; Wilmsmeier, Gordon (2 October 2020).

4889: 5405: 4801:Miola, A.; Marra, M.; Ciuffo, B. (September 2011). 4382: 2959: 2957: 2058:. However, as much as 75 percent of solid waste is 1464:if flue gases are scrubbed by being passed through 1160:

Convention on the Conservation of Migratory Species

1112:

A cargo ship discharging ballast water into the sea

1402:during combustion. Given that those reactions are 5286:. Energy Transitions Commission. 11 November 2020 4503:. Blue Bell, PA: CLX Logistics. 11 September 2015 2856: 2723:"Noise could sound the death knell of ocean fish" 2586: 2314:Regulation of ship pollution in the United States 1978:Greywater is wastewater from the sinks, showers, 1894:Most commonly associated with ship pollution are 7744: 4995: 4800: 4282: 3815: 3813: 3775: 3773: 3527:"Charting global shipping's path to zero carbon" 2954: 2011:and 110,000 litres (30,000 US gal) of 1530:Maritime transport accounts for about 3% of all 4243: 4007: 3525:Kersing, Arjen; Stone, Matt (25 January 2022). 3504:"Infrastructure Podcast; Decarbonized Shipping" 2683: 2348:Environmental threats to the Great Barrier Reef 1214:National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration 4204: 4057:"Climate strategy in the balance who decides?" 3826:. Washington, D.C.: National Academies Press. 3550:"Three pathways to shipping's decarbonization" 2692:. London: Centre for Economic Policy Research. 1866:for power and propulsion to limit emission of 1828: 6455: 6210: 5391: 4743: 3810: 3770: 3396: 2582: 2580: 1067:. Ships are responsible for more than 18% of 1028: 4839: 3524: 3087:10.2305/IUCN.UK.2012.RLTS.T41712A17084065.en 2963: 2509: 2507: 1854:by or around 2050, which is the goal of the 5326:Maritime International Secretariat Services 5045:Monios, Jason; Ng, Adolf K.Y. (June 2021). 4548:International Economics and Economic Policy 3918: 3308: 3306: 3182: 3180: 2132: 1927:, and immense numbers of fish were killed. 1525: 1104:Ballast water discharge and the environment 6462: 6448: 6217: 6203: 5398: 5384: 4779:10398/3d831fba-f595-40ad-9991-f0077630f0c9 3754: 3752: 3750: 3439: 2705:"Dumping into the Ocean | #TheOutlawOcean" 2577: 2299:Cruise ship pollution in the United States 1484: 1417:treatment, whereby an aqueous solution of 1343:problems and even increases the risk of a 1239: 1090:The fact that shipping enjoys substantial 1035: 1021: 51: 5909:Environmental issues in the United States 5127: 5070: 5013: 4964: 4915: 4777: 4712: 4671: 4559: 4542:Heine, Dirk; Gäde, Susanne (April 2018). 4541: 4464: 4351: 4341: 4300: 4165: 4127: 4093: 3881: 3333: 3331: 3277: 3085: 3038: 2937: 2919: 2894:Womersley, Freya C.; et al. (2022). 2893: 2780: 2612: 2504: 5894:Effects of climate change on agriculture 5211: 5044: 4938: 4590: 4497:"4 Challenges in International Shipping" 3904:. Oxford University Press Inc. New York. 3902:Globalization: A Very Short Introduction 3303: 3257: 3177: 2564: 1788:The group “other” includes vehicles and 1488: 1224: 1180:Carcass of a whale on a shore in Iceland 1175: 1107: 7603:Pollutant release and transfer register 4192:. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press 3957: 3747: 3727: 3402: 3258:Fletcher, Philippa (12 December 2019). 2745:, University of Bristol, 13 August 2010 2472:World Seas: An Environmental Evaluation 1975:and destruction of other aquatic life. 1232:from ships are a significant source of 14: 7745: 5899:Effects of climate change on livestock 5150: 5093: 4438: 3624:"IMO targets greenhouse gas emissions" 3547: 3379:"A Guide To Scrubber Systems On Ships" 3376: 3328: 2852: 2850: 2702: 2621: 2587:Rahim MM, Islam MT, Kuruppu S (2016). 2273:Merchant Shipping (Pollution) Act 2006 1986:, detergents, oil and grease, metals, 1848:greenhouse gas emissions from shipping 1259:, also known as bunker oil, producing 1171: 6443: 6198: 5379: 5212:Copeland, Claudia (6 February 2008). 4885: 4883: 4200: 4198: 4143: 4141: 4139: 4054: 4003: 4001: 3919:van Leeuwen, Judith (November 2015). 3914: 3912: 3910: 3882:Kantharia, Raunek (24 October 2019). 3283: 3102:"Shipping threat to endangered whale" 7693: 6934:Electromagnetic radiation and health 6399:Shutdown of thermohaline circulation 6224: 6153: 6009:Tropical cyclones and climate change 4645: 4439:Brewer, Thomas L. (2 October 2021). 3673: 3231: 2516:The Science of the Total Environment 2245:EU Sustainable Shipping Forum (ESSF) 2193: 1493:Cruise ship haze over Juneau, Alaska 1281:U.S. Environmental Protection Agency 1060: 7709: 7701: 6792:Radium and radon in the environment 6042:Alternative fuel vehicle propulsion 5094:Monios, Jason (21 September 2022). 3674:Saul, Jonathan (18 December 2019). 3232:Saul, Jonathan (13 December 2019). 3094: 3077:IUCN Red List of Threatened Species 2847: 2565:Kaminski, Isabella (22 June 2023). 2289:Act to Prevent Pollution from Ships 2184: 1856:International Maritime Organization 1440:(LNG) as well as growing volume of 263:Radium and radon in the environment 24: 5191: 4896:Cleaner Logistics and Supply Chain 4880: 4195: 4136: 3998: 3907: 3820:National Research Council (1995). 3490:"Fourth Greenhouse Gas Study 2020" 3208:"New sulfur regulations from 2020" 2480:10.1016/B978-0-12-805052-1.00030-9 1316:(ULSD) is a standard for defining 1146: 25: 7769: 5689:pharmaceuticals and personal care 5354:Ecological facts on ballast water 5319: 4094:Gritsenko, Daria (October 2017). 4055:Prehn, Michael (September 2021). 3958:Ringbom, Henrik (December 2018). 2703:Urbina, Ian (25 September 2019). 2343:Environmental impact of transport 2261: 2228: 1823:International Chamber of Shipping 1362:Cities in the United States like 1210:National Marine Fisheries Service 18:Environmental effects of shipping 7753:Environmental impact of shipping 7727: 7717: 7708: 7700: 7692: 7680: 7679: 6272:Environmental impact of shipping 6164: 6163: 6152: 5840:decline in amphibian populations 5545:Deforestation and climate change 5002:Maritime Policy & Management 2881:10.1111/j.1748-7692.2006.00098.x 2798:Noise Pollution and Ship-Strikes 2278: 2197: 1900:polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons 1834:This section is an excerpt from 1097: 1049:environmental impact of shipping 1002: 990: 6506:Atmospheric dispersion modeling 5974:Land surface effects on climate 5431:Environmental impact assessment 5407:Human impact on the environment 5173:10.1016/j.marpolbul.2016.02.029 5144: 5087: 5038: 4989: 4932: 4833: 4794: 4737: 4688: 4639: 4584: 4535: 4515: 4489: 4432: 4376: 4317: 4276: 4237: 4231:10.1016/j.ocecoaman.2021.105836 4182: 4087: 4048: 3951: 3945:10.1016/j.ocecoaman.2015.05.013 3894: 3875: 3857: 3848: 3800: 3791: 3761: 3721: 3693: 3667: 3642: 3616: 3590: 3564: 3541: 3518: 3496: 3482: 3377:Sargun, Sethi (22 March 2021). 3370: 3358: 3251: 3225: 3200: 3130: 3112: 3063: 3010: 2887: 2822: 2789: 2756: 2733: 2715: 2536:10.1016/j.scitotenv.2009.07.037 2235:Cruise ship pollution in Europe 2076:cruise ship passenger generates 1325:different on-board fuel tanks. 83:Atmospheric dispersion modeling 5348:Cruise Ship Pollution Overview 5072:10.1016/j.jtrangeo.2021.103114 5051:Journal of Transport Geography 4591:Hackmann, Bernd (March 2012). 4211:Ocean & Coastal Management 3925:Ocean & Coastal Management 3598:"Working Group Oslo June 2008" 3468:10.1016/j.atmosenv.2007.09.071 3425:10.1016/j.atmosenv.2020.117540 3155:10.1016/j.atmosenv.2020.118095 2696: 2677: 2651: 2633: 2558: 2087: 2036: 952:Least polluted cities by PM2.5 13: 1: 6994:Electrical resistance heating 6469: 5845:decline in insect populations 5015:10.1080/03088839.2020.1752947 4466:10.1080/25725084.2021.2006464 4410:10.1080/08920753.2018.1451731 4014:Global Environmental Politics 3728:Wittels, Jack (20 May 2024). 3548:Raucci, Carlo (6 June 2019). 3314:"EU faces ship clean-up call" 2439: 1930: 1889: 1846:is an ongoing goal to reduce 1810:and the IMO have discussed CO 423:Electrical resistance heating 6646:Persistent organic pollutant 4939:Stemmler, Lars (June 2020). 4858:10.1080/01441647.2014.891162 4673:10.1016/j.marpol.2020.104317 4120:10.1016/j.marpol.2017.07.010 4081:10.1016/j.marpol.2021.104621 3984:10.1016/j.marpol.2018.09.004 3284:Vidal, John (9 April 2009). 2647:. World Bank. 17 April 2013. 2614:10.1016/j.marpol.2016.04.018 2383:Maritime environmental crime 2368:List of environmental issues 1541: 1335:. Sulfur in the air creates 1080:most energy-efficient method 133:Persistent organic pollutant 7: 7656:Least polluted cities by PM 6282:Fish diseases and parasites 4917:10.1016/j.clscn.2021.100021 4827:10.1016/j.enpol.2011.05.013 4646:Chen, Yuli (January 2021). 4289:Frontiers in Marine Science 3626:. IMO. 2020. Archived from 3600:. IMO. 2008. Archived from 3506:. World Bank. 16 March 2022 2319: 2294:American Bureau of Shipping 1844:decarbonization of shipping 1836:Decarbonization of shipping 1829:Decarbonization of shipping 1549:Dry bulk and general cargo 1320:with substantially lowered 1279:has been classified by the 1247:from ships is generated by 10: 7774: 7598:Pollution haven hypothesis 7521:Brain health and pollution 6759:Ecological light pollution 6589:Internal combustion engine 5112:10.1007/s10551-022-05256-1 5100:Journal of Business Ethics 4966:10.1007/s00550-020-00499-w 4302:10.3389/fmars.2022.1076352 2268:Merchant Shipping Act 1995 2136: 2108:containing high levels of 1902:(PAHs), the components in 1833: 1206:North Atlantic right whale 1183: 1101: 7677: 7631: 7580: 7529: 7496: 7401:Nonpoint source pollution 7329: 7321:War and environmental law 7268: 7230: 7212: 7012: 6947: 6884: 6810: 6779: 6744: 6728: 6693: 6680:Volatile organic compound 6486: 6477: 6354:Nonpoint source pollution 6232: 6147: 6082:Environmental engineering 6032: 5929:Environmental degradation 5820: 5706:fishing down the food web 5483: 5413: 5153:Marine Pollution Bulletin 4770:10.1016/j.trd.2017.09.010 4714:10.1108/MABR-08-2018-0030 4617:10.1007/s10784-011-9155-9 4561:10.1007/s10368-017-0410-6 4528:29 September 2006 at the 4270:10.1016/j.tre.2017.03.004 4188:Khee-Jin Tan, A. (2006). 3049:10.1080/08920750590951965 2729:. London. 15 August 2010. 2334:(technical standards NGO) 2309:Oil Pollution Act of 1990 2168:, many ports lack proper 2096:, the lowest part of the 1994:, nutrients, food waste, 1787: 1508:Santa Barbara, California 678:War and environmental law 298:Health effects from noise 148:Volatile organic compound 6860:Marine mammals and sonar 6771:Radio spectrum pollution 6389:Plastic pellet pollution 6087:Environmental mitigation 5944:Greenhouse gas emissions 5904:Environmental insecurity 4701:Maritime Business Review 2133:International regulation 2015:into the sea every day. 1532:greenhouse gas emissions 1526:Greenhouse gas emissions 1283:(EPA) as a likely human 1073:greenhouse gas emissions 303:Marine mammals and sonar 7706:WikiProject Environment 7664:Most polluted countries 7608:Polluter pays principle 7339:Agricultural wastewater 6257:Cultural eutrophication 6134:Sustainable consumption 5475:Social ecology (ethics) 5371:The Global MTCC Network 4343:10.1186/2212-9790-12-10 3854:"Shifting Tide," p. 16. 3785:29 October 2013 at the 3552:. Global Maritime Forum 3448:Atmospheric Environment 3405:Atmospheric Environment 3143:Atmospheric Environment 2988:10.1126/science.aar2402 2921:10.1073/pnas.2117440119 2834:corporate.discovery.com 2189: 1485:Localized air pollution 1434:Ultra-low sulfur diesel 1314:Ultra-low sulfur diesel 1240:Conventional pollutants 1078:Although ships are the 778:Freshwater salinization 698:Agricultural wastewater 57:Container ships in port 7724:Environment portal 6957:Agricultural pollution 6394:Point source pollution 6077:Ecological engineering 5857:runaway climate change 5332:GloBallast partnership 3900:Steger, M. B. (2003). 3108:. BBC. 28 August 2001. 2628:High Seas, High Stakes 2378:Marine fuel management 2332:Classification society 2206:This section is empty. 1935:Blackwater is sewage, 1790:roll-on/roll-off ships 1504:New Orleans, Louisiana 1494: 1181: 1113: 1071:pollution, and 3% of 997:Environment portal 7379:Industrial wastewater 7245:Clutter (advertising) 7153:Municipal solid waste 6999:Soil guideline values 6843:Sustainable transport 6736:Information pollution 6536:Open burning of waste 5460:List of global issues 5364:9 August 2020 at the 3212:marine-electronics.eu 3072:"Eubalaena glacialis" 2860:Marine Mammal Science 2782:10.1093/beheco/arq117 2433:Zero emission vehicle 2358:Hydrogen-powered ship 2137:Further information: 1913:Exxon Valdez incident 1492: 1479:life-cycle assessment 1438:liquified natural gas 1225:Atmospheric pollution 1179: 1111: 738:Industrial wastewater 506:Municipal solid waste 428:Soil guideline values 7651:Most polluted cities 7344:Biological pollution 7255:Overhead power lines 6404:Silver nanoparticles 6062:Community resilience 5862:in the United States 5830:Biodiversity threats 5503:cannabis cultivation 5470:Planetary boundaries 5436:Environmental issues 5426:Ecological footprint 5237:WIREs Climate Change 5226:on 17 December 2008. 4026:10.1162/GLEP_a_00154 2474:. pp. 505–530. 2423:Wind-powered vehicle 2123:oily water separator 1967:, promote excessive 1949:intestinal parasites 1860:an initial strategy. 1806:signed in 2016, the 1804:Paris Climate Accord 1415:diesel exhaust fluid 1359:of cargo carried." 947:Most polluted cities 599:Overhead power lines 7714:WikiProject Ecology 7411:Ocean acidification 7316:Unexploded ordnance 7187:Post-consumer waste 7047:Foam food container 7025:Biodegradable waste 6599:Global distillation 6369:Ocean deoxygenation 6364:Ocean acidification 6124:Restoration ecology 6057:Climate engineering 5994:Ocean acidification 5984:Loss of green belts 5954:Holocene extinction 5949:Habitat destruction 5624:Environmental crime 5249:2018WIRCC...9E.508B 5165:2016MarPB.105..199W 5063:2021JTGeo..9403114M 4957:2020SMFor..28...29S 4908:2022CLSC....300021A 4819:2011EnPol..39.5490M 4762:2017TRPD...57..195K 4664:2021MarPo.12304317C 4609:2012IEAPL..12...85H 4530:Library of Congress 4457:2021JIMSE...5..196B 4402:2018CoasM..46..148N 4262:2017TRPE..101...99S 4223:2021OCM...21305836Z 4167:10.3390/laws4030335 4112:2017MarPo..84..130G 4073:2021MarPo.13104621P 3976:2018MarPo..98..246R 3937:2015OCM...117...23V 3890:. Bangalore, India. 3578:. 27 September 2023 3460:2008AtmEn..42..667S 3417:2020AtmEn.23117540L 3031:2005CoasM..33..263W 2980:2017Sci...358..730T 2912:2022PNAS..11917440W 2906:(20): e2117440119. 2873:2007MMamS..23..144V 2665:on 17 December 2018 2605:2016MarPo..69..159R 2528:2009ScTEn.408..318S 2388:Mobility transition 2353:GREEN Cell Shipping 2023:membrane bioreactor 1858:(IMO). The IMO has 1539: 1411:catalytic converter 1172:Wildlife collisions 763:Ocean acidification 673:Unexploded ordnance 594:Advertising clutter 526:Post-consumer waste 471:Foam food container 456:Biodegradable waste 113:Global distillation 7734:Ecology portal 7618:Waste minimisation 7593:Industrial ecology 7588:Cleaner production 7406:Nutrient pollution 7283:Herbicidal warfare 7077:Construction waste 6713:Introduced species 6584:Indoor air quality 6511:Chlorofluorocarbon 6359:Nutrient pollution 6252:Aquatic toxicology 6139:Waste minimization 6097:Mitigation banking 6092:Industrial ecology 6052:Cleaner production 6004:Resource depletion 5540:Corporate behavior 5498:animal agriculture 4501:CLX Logistics Blog 4390:Coastal Management 3871:. 2 December 2016. 3126:. 10 October 2008. 3019:Coastal Management 2769:Behavioral Ecology 2403:Particle (ecology) 2393:North Pacific Gyre 2062:on board, and the 2052:waste minimization 1537: 1495: 1458:flue gas scrubbing 1216:(NOAA) introduced 1182: 1121:marine environment 1114: 1009:Ecology portal 634:Herbicidal warfare 178:Introduced species 118:Indoor air quality 88:Chlorofluorocarbon 7740: 7739: 7613:Pollution control 7293:Nuclear holocaust 7202:Thermal treatment 7170:Plastic pollution 7087:Mercury poisoning 7040:Battery recycling 6939:Radioactive waste 6708:Genetic pollution 6703:Biological hazard 6501:Air quality index 6437: 6436: 6292:Friendly Floatees 6192: 6191: 6014:Water degradation 5889:Ecological crisis 5835:biodiversity loss 5634:Industrialisation 5619:Genetic pollution 5465:Impact assessment 4846:Transport Reviews 3841:978-0-309-17677-4 3734:www.bloomberg.com 2489:978-0-12-805052-1 2284:the environment. 2226: 2225: 1988:organic compounds 1800: 1799: 1474:calcium carbonate 1466:calcium hydroxide 1271:, in addition to 1165:Discovery Channel 1045: 1044: 980: 979: 646:Nuclear holocaust 569:Urban heat island 383:Radioactive waste 168:Biological hazard 78:Air quality index 16:(Redirected from 7765: 7732: 7731: 7730: 7722: 7721: 7712: 7711: 7704: 7703: 7696: 7695: 7683: 7682: 7557:Legacy pollution 7416:Oil exploitation 7278:Chemical warfare 7192:Waste management 7099:Industrial waste 7067:Biomedical waste 7035:Electronic waste 7020:Advertising mail 7004:Phytoremediation 6979:Land degradation 6764:Overillumination 6718:Invasive species 6464: 6457: 6450: 6441: 6440: 6334:Invasive species 6226:Marine pollution 6219: 6212: 6205: 6196: 6195: 6167: 6166: 6156: 6155: 5989:Phosphorus cycle 5969:Land consumption 5964:Land degradation 5939:Freshwater cycle 5738:Overexploitation 5711:marine pollution 5518:cocoa production 5400: 5393: 5386: 5377: 5376: 5315: 5313: 5311: 5295: 5293: 5291: 5285: 5276: 5227: 5225: 5218: 5185: 5184: 5148: 5142: 5141: 5131: 5091: 5085: 5084: 5074: 5042: 5036: 5035: 5017: 4993: 4987: 4986: 4968: 4936: 4930: 4929: 4919: 4887: 4878: 4877: 4837: 4831: 4830: 4813:(9): 5490–5498. 4798: 4792: 4791: 4781: 4741: 4735: 4734: 4716: 4692: 4686: 4685: 4675: 4643: 4637: 4636: 4588: 4582: 4581: 4563: 4539: 4533: 4519: 4513: 4512: 4510: 4508: 4493: 4487: 4486: 4468: 4436: 4430: 4429: 4380: 4374: 4373: 4355: 4345: 4330:Maritime Studies 4321: 4315: 4314: 4304: 4280: 4274: 4273: 4241: 4235: 4234: 4202: 4193: 4186: 4180: 4179: 4169: 4145: 4134: 4133: 4131: 4091: 4085: 4084: 4052: 4046: 4045: 4005: 3996: 3995: 3955: 3949: 3948: 3916: 3905: 3898: 3892: 3891: 3879: 3873: 3872: 3861: 3855: 3852: 3846: 3845: 3817: 3808: 3804: 3798: 3795: 3789: 3777: 3768: 3765: 3759: 3756: 3745: 3744: 3742: 3740: 3725: 3719: 3718: 3716: 3714: 3697: 3691: 3690: 3688: 3686: 3671: 3665: 3664: 3662: 3660: 3646: 3640: 3639: 3637: 3635: 3620: 3614: 3613: 3611: 3609: 3594: 3588: 3587: 3585: 3583: 3568: 3562: 3561: 3559: 3557: 3545: 3539: 3538: 3536: 3534: 3522: 3516: 3515: 3513: 3511: 3500: 3494: 3493: 3486: 3480: 3479: 3443: 3437: 3436: 3400: 3394: 3393: 3391: 3389: 3374: 3368: 3362: 3356: 3355: 3353: 3351: 3339:"Ship Pollution" 3335: 3326: 3325: 3323: 3321: 3310: 3301: 3300: 3298: 3296: 3281: 3275: 3274: 3272: 3270: 3255: 3249: 3248: 3246: 3244: 3229: 3223: 3222: 3220: 3218: 3204: 3198: 3188:Federal Register 3184: 3175: 3174: 3134: 3128: 3127: 3124:Federal Register 3116: 3110: 3109: 3098: 3092: 3091: 3089: 3067: 3061: 3060: 3042: 3014: 3008: 3007: 2974:(6364): 730–31. 2961: 2952: 2951: 2941: 2923: 2891: 2885: 2884: 2854: 2845: 2844: 2842: 2840: 2826: 2820: 2819: 2818: 2816: 2810: 2803: 2793: 2787: 2786: 2784: 2775:(5): 1098–1105. 2760: 2754: 2753: 2752: 2750: 2737: 2731: 2730: 2719: 2713: 2712: 2700: 2694: 2693: 2681: 2675: 2674: 2672: 2670: 2661:. 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6746:Electromagnetic 6740: 6724: 6689: 6609:Ozone depletion 6482: 6473: 6468: 6438: 6433: 6429:Water pollution 6344:Mercury in fish 6228: 6223: 6193: 6188: 6143: 6102:Organic farming 6028: 6019:Water pollution 5999:Ozone depletion 5979:Loss and damage 5879:Desertification 5816: 5728:Overconsumption 5649:cleaning agents 5550:Energy industry 5513:meat production 5479: 5409: 5404: 5366:Wayback Machine 5322: 5309: 5307: 5306:. 23 April 2021 5304:World Bank Live 5298: 5289: 5287: 5283: 5279: 5257:10.1002/wcc.508 5223: 5216: 5205:) ch 13 and on 5194: 5192:Further reading 5189: 5188: 5149: 5145: 5092: 5088: 5043: 5039: 4994: 4990: 4937: 4933: 4888: 4881: 4838: 4834: 4799: 4795: 4742: 4738: 4693: 4689: 4644: 4640: 4589: 4585: 4540: 4536: 4520: 4516: 4506: 4504: 4495: 4494: 4490: 4437: 4433: 4381: 4377: 4322: 4318: 4281: 4277: 4242: 4238: 4203: 4196: 4187: 4183: 4146: 4137: 4092: 4088: 4053: 4049: 4006: 3999: 3956: 3952: 3917: 3908: 3899: 3895: 3880: 3876: 3863: 3862: 3858: 3853: 3849: 3842: 3818: 3811: 3805: 3801: 3796: 3792: 3787:Wayback Machine 3778: 3771: 3766: 3762: 3757: 3748: 3738: 3736: 3726: 3722: 3712: 3710: 3699: 3698: 3694: 3684: 3682: 3672: 3668: 3658: 3656: 3648: 3647: 3643: 3633: 3631: 3630:on 8 March 2023 3622: 3621: 3617: 3607: 3605: 3596: 3595: 3591: 3581: 3579: 3570: 3569: 3565: 3555: 3553: 3546: 3542: 3532: 3530: 3523: 3519: 3509: 3507: 3502: 3501: 3497: 3488: 3487: 3483: 3444: 3440: 3401: 3397: 3387: 3385: 3375: 3371: 3363: 3359: 3349: 3347: 3337: 3336: 3329: 3319: 3317: 3312: 3311: 3304: 3294: 3292: 3282: 3278: 3268: 3266: 3256: 3252: 3242: 3240: 3230: 3226: 3216: 3214: 3206: 3205: 3201: 3185: 3178: 3135: 3131: 3118: 3117: 3113: 3100: 3099: 3095: 3068: 3064: 3040:10.1.1.170.1740 3015: 3011: 2962: 2955: 2892: 2888: 2855: 2848: 2838: 2836: 2828: 2827: 2823: 2814: 2812: 2811:on 22 July 2011 2808: 2801: 2795: 2794: 2790: 2761: 2757: 2748: 2746: 2739: 2738: 2734: 2721: 2720: 2716: 2701: 2697: 2682: 2678: 2668: 2666: 2659:"Fuel taxation" 2657: 2656: 2652: 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123:Ozone depletion 68: 58: 28: 27:Ocean pollution 23: 22: 15: 12: 11: 5: 7771: 7761: 7760: 7755: 7738: 7737: 7678: 7675: 7674: 7672: 7671: 7666: 7661: 7657: 7653: 7648: 7646:Law by country 7643: 7637: 7635: 7629: 7628: 7626: 7625: 7620: 7615: 7610: 7605: 7600: 7595: 7590: 7584: 7582: 7578: 7577: 7575: 7574: 7569: 7564: 7559: 7554: 7549: 7544: 7539: 7533: 7531: 7527: 7526: 7524: 7523: 7518: 7517: 7516: 7511: 7500: 7498: 7494: 7493: 7491: 7490: 7485: 7480: 7475: 7470: 7468:Surface runoff 7465: 7460: 7455: 7450: 7449: 7448: 7443: 7433: 7428: 7423: 7418: 7413: 7408: 7403: 7398: 7393: 7392: 7391: 7381: 7376: 7371: 7366: 7361: 7356: 7354:Eutrophication 7351: 7346: 7341: 7335: 7333: 7327: 7326: 7324: 7323: 7318: 7313: 7311:Scorched earth 7308: 7305:nuclear winter 7301:nuclear famine 7290: 7280: 7274: 7272: 7266: 7265: 7263: 7262: 7257: 7252: 7247: 7242: 7236: 7234: 7228: 7227: 7225: 7224: 7218: 7216: 7210: 7209: 7207: 7206: 7205: 7204: 7199: 7189: 7184: 7179: 7178: 7177: 7167: 7162: 7161: 7160: 7150: 7149: 7148: 7146:Uranium mining 7143: 7138: 7133: 7131:Surface mining 7128: 7123: 7113: 7108: 7107: 7106: 7096: 7095: 7094: 7089: 7084: 7082:Lead poisoning 7079: 7074: 7072:Chemical waste 7069: 7059: 7054: 7049: 7044: 7043: 7042: 7032: 7027: 7022: 7016: 7014: 7010: 7009: 7007: 7006: 7001: 6996: 6991: 6986: 6984:Bioremediation 6981: 6976: 6975: 6974: 6969: 6964: 6953: 6951: 6945: 6944: 6942: 6941: 6936: 6931: 6926: 6921: 6916: 6911: 6906: 6901: 6899:Bioremediation 6896: 6890: 6888: 6882: 6881: 6879: 6878: 6873: 6870: 6867: 6864: 6863: 6862: 6852: 6847: 6846: 6845: 6840: 6835: 6830: 6825: 6820:Transportation 6816: 6814: 6808: 6807: 6805: 6804: 6799: 6794: 6789: 6783: 6781: 6777: 6776: 6774: 6773: 6768: 6767: 6766: 6761: 6750: 6748: 6742: 6741: 6739: 6738: 6732: 6730: 6726: 6725: 6723: 6722: 6721: 6720: 6710: 6705: 6699: 6697: 6691: 6690: 6688: 6687: 6682: 6677: 6676: 6675: 6665: 6664: 6663: 6653: 6648: 6643: 6642: 6641: 6636: 6631: 6626: 6621: 6611: 6606: 6601: 6596: 6594:Global dimming 6591: 6586: 6581: 6580: 6579: 6569: 6568: 6567: 6565:Diesel exhaust 6557: 6552: 6551: 6550: 6540: 6539: 6538: 6533: 6528: 6523: 6513: 6508: 6503: 6498: 6492: 6490: 6484: 6483: 6478: 6475: 6474: 6467: 6466: 6459: 6452: 6444: 6435: 6434: 6432: 6431: 6426: 6421: 6416: 6414:Surface runoff 6411: 6406: 6401: 6396: 6391: 6386: 6381: 6376: 6371: 6366: 6361: 6356: 6351: 6346: 6341: 6336: 6331: 6326: 6321: 6320: 6319: 6314: 6312:North Atlantic 6309: 6304: 6294: 6289: 6284: 6279: 6277:Eutrophication 6274: 6269: 6264: 6259: 6254: 6249: 6244: 6239: 6233: 6230: 6229: 6222: 6221: 6214: 6207: 6199: 6190: 6189: 6187: 6186: 6181: 6176: 6171: 6160: 6148: 6145: 6144: 6142: 6141: 6136: 6131: 6129:Sustainability 6126: 6121: 6120: 6119: 6109: 6104: 6099: 6094: 6089: 6084: 6079: 6074: 6069: 6064: 6059: 6054: 6049: 6044: 6038: 6036: 6030: 6029: 6027: 6026: 6024:Water scarcity 6021: 6016: 6011: 6006: 6001: 5996: 5991: 5986: 5981: 5976: 5971: 5966: 5961: 5959:Nitrogen cycle 5956: 5951: 5946: 5941: 5936: 5931: 5926: 5924:Forest dieback 5921: 5916: 5911: 5906: 5901: 5896: 5891: 5886: 5881: 5876: 5871: 5866: 5865: 5864: 5859: 5852:Climate change 5849: 5848: 5847: 5842: 5837: 5826: 5824: 5818: 5817: 5815: 5814: 5809: 5808: 5807: 5797: 5796: 5795: 5790: 5785: 5780: 5770: 5765: 5760: 5755: 5750: 5745: 5740: 5735: 5730: 5725: 5720: 5719: 5718: 5713: 5708: 5703: 5693: 5692: 5691: 5686: 5681: 5676: 5671: 5669:nanotechnology 5666: 5661: 5656: 5651: 5641: 5636: 5631: 5626: 5621: 5616: 5615: 5614: 5609: 5604: 5599: 5594: 5589: 5584: 5574: 5573: 5572: 5567: 5562: 5557: 5547: 5542: 5537: 5532: 5531: 5530: 5525: 5520: 5515: 5510: 5505: 5500: 5489: 5487: 5481: 5480: 5478: 5477: 5472: 5467: 5462: 5457: 5456: 5455: 5453:on marine life 5445: 5444: 5443: 5441:list of issues 5433: 5428: 5423: 5417: 5415: 5411: 5410: 5403: 5402: 5395: 5388: 5380: 5374: 5373: 5368: 5356: 5351: 5345: 5339: 5329: 5321: 5320:External links 5318: 5317: 5316: 5296: 5277: 5228: 5209: 5193: 5190: 5187: 5186: 5159:(1): 199–207. 5143: 5106:(2): 283–299. 5086: 5037: 5008:(7): 853–872. 4988: 4951:(1–2): 29–37. 4931: 4879: 4852:(2): 169–189. 4832: 4793: 4736: 4687: 4638: 4583: 4554:(2): 523–545. 4534: 4514: 4488: 4451:(4): 196–207. 4431: 4396:(3): 148–175. 4375: 4316: 4275: 4236: 4194: 4181: 4160:(3): 335–351. 4135: 4086: 4047: 3997: 3950: 3906: 3893: 3888:Marine Insight 3874: 3856: 3847: 3840: 3809: 3799: 3790: 3769: 3760: 3746: 3720: 3692: 3666: 3641: 3615: 3604:on 7 July 2009 3589: 3563: 3540: 3517: 3495: 3481: 3454:(4): 667–676. 3438: 3395: 3383:Marine Insight 3369: 3357: 3327: 3316:. 25 June 2003 3302: 3276: 3250: 3224: 3199: 3176: 3129: 3111: 3093: 3062: 3009: 2953: 2886: 2846: 2821: 2788: 2755: 2732: 2714: 2695: 2676: 2650: 2632: 2620: 2576: 2557: 2503: 2488: 2444: 2443: 2441: 2438: 2436: 2435: 2430: 2425: 2420: 2415: 2410: 2408:Shipping route 2405: 2400: 2395: 2390: 2385: 2380: 2375: 2370: 2365: 2360: 2355: 2350: 2345: 2340: 2335: 2329: 2323: 2321: 2318: 2317: 2316: 2311: 2306: 2301: 2296: 2291: 2280: 2277: 2276: 2275: 2270: 2263: 2262:United Kingdom 2260: 2259: 2258: 2253: 2247: 2242: 2237: 2230: 2229:European Union 2227: 2224: 2223: 2204: 2202: 2191: 2188: 2186: 2183: 2170:waste disposal 2134: 2131: 2089: 2086: 2068:Marine mammals 2038: 2035: 1932: 1929: 1923:, about 1,000 1891: 1888: 1883:greenhouse gas 1871: 1868:carbon dioxide 1840: 1832: 1830: 1827: 1812: 1811: 1808:United Nations 1798: 1797: 1785: 1784: 1781: 1778: 1775: 1772: 1766: 1765: 1762: 1759: 1756: 1753: 1747: 1746: 1743: 1740: 1737: 1734: 1728: 1727: 1724: 1721: 1718: 1715: 1709: 1708: 1705: 1702: 1699: 1696: 1690: 1689: 1686: 1683: 1680: 1677: 1671: 1670: 1667: 1664: 1661: 1658: 1652: 1651: 1648: 1645: 1642: 1639: 1633: 1632: 1629: 1626: 1623: 1620: 1614: 1613: 1610: 1607: 1604: 1601: 1595: 1594: 1591: 1588: 1585: 1582: 1576: 1575: 1572: 1569: 1566: 1563: 1557: 1556: 1553: 1550: 1547: 1544: 1527: 1524: 1486: 1483: 1305:eutrophication 1277:Diesel exhaust 1265:nitrogen oxide 1261:sulfur dioxide 1249:diesel engines 1241: 1238: 1226: 1223: 1191:Marine mammals 1173: 1170: 1153:recent history 1148: 1145: 1102:Main article: 1099: 1096: 1043: 1042: 1040: 1039: 1032: 1025: 1017: 1014: 1013: 1012: 1011: 999: 984: 983: 978: 977: 976: 975: 967: 966: 962: 961: 960: 959: 954: 949: 944: 942:Law by country 939: 931: 930: 924: 923: 918: 913: 908: 903: 898: 893: 888: 882: 879: 878: 875: 874: 871: 870: 869: 868: 863: 853: 847: 844: 843: 840: 839: 836: 835: 830: 825: 820: 815: 813:Surface runoff 810: 805: 800: 795: 790: 785: 780: 775: 770: 765: 760: 755: 750: 745: 740: 735: 730: 725: 720: 715: 713:Eutrophication 710: 705: 700: 694: 689: 688: 685: 684: 681: 680: 675: 670: 668:Scorched earth 665: 664: 663: 661:Nuclear winter 658: 656:Nuclear famine 653: 643: 642: 641: 631: 625: 620: 619: 616: 615: 612: 611: 606: 601: 596: 591: 585: 580: 579: 576: 575: 572: 571: 565: 560: 559: 556: 555: 552: 551: 545: 542: 541: 538: 537: 534: 533: 528: 523: 518: 513: 508: 503: 498: 493: 488: 483: 478: 473: 468: 463: 458: 453: 447: 444: 443: 440: 439: 436: 435: 430: 425: 420: 415: 413:Bioremediation 410: 405: 399: 394: 393: 390: 389: 386: 385: 380: 375: 370: 365: 360: 355: 350: 345: 343:Bioremediation 340: 334: 329: 328: 325: 324: 321: 320: 315: 310: 305: 300: 295: 293:Transportation 289: 284: 283: 280: 279: 276: 275: 270: 265: 260: 254: 251: 250: 247: 246: 243: 242: 240:Radio spectrum 237: 236: 235: 230: 219: 214: 213: 210: 209: 206: 205: 199: 196: 195: 192: 191: 188: 187: 186: 185: 175: 170: 164: 159: 158: 155: 154: 151: 150: 145: 140: 135: 130: 125: 120: 115: 110: 108:Global dimming 105: 100: 95: 90: 85: 80: 75: 69: 64: 63: 60: 59: 56: 48: 47: 41: 40: 26: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 7770: 7759: 7756: 7754: 7751: 7750: 7748: 7735: 7725: 7720: 7715: 7707: 7699: 7690: 7686: 7676: 7670: 7667: 7665: 7662: 7660: 7654: 7652: 7649: 7647: 7644: 7642: 7639: 7638: 7636: 7634: 7630: 7624: 7621: 7619: 7616: 7614: 7611: 7609: 7606: 7604: 7601: 7599: 7596: 7594: 7591: 7589: 7586: 7585: 7583: 7579: 7573: 7570: 7568: 7565: 7563: 7560: 7558: 7555: 7553: 7550: 7548: 7545: 7543: 7540: 7538: 7535: 7534: 7532: 7528: 7522: 7519: 7515: 7512: 7510: 7507: 7506: 7505: 7502: 7501: 7499: 7495: 7489: 7488:Water quality 7486: 7484: 7481: 7479: 7476: 7474: 7471: 7469: 7466: 7464: 7461: 7459: 7456: 7454: 7451: 7447: 7444: 7442: 7439: 7438: 7437: 7434: 7432: 7429: 7427: 7424: 7422: 7419: 7417: 7414: 7412: 7409: 7407: 7404: 7402: 7399: 7397: 7394: 7390: 7387: 7386: 7385: 7382: 7380: 7377: 7375: 7372: 7370: 7367: 7365: 7362: 7360: 7357: 7355: 7352: 7350: 7347: 7345: 7342: 7340: 7337: 7336: 7334: 7332: 7328: 7322: 7319: 7317: 7314: 7312: 7309: 7306: 7302: 7298: 7294: 7291: 7288: 7284: 7281: 7279: 7276: 7275: 7273: 7271: 7267: 7261: 7258: 7256: 7253: 7251: 7250:Traffic signs 7248: 7246: 7243: 7241: 7238: 7237: 7235: 7233: 7229: 7223: 7220: 7219: 7217: 7215: 7211: 7203: 7200: 7198: 7195: 7194: 7193: 7190: 7188: 7185: 7183: 7180: 7176: 7175:Microplastics 7173: 7172: 7171: 7168: 7166: 7165:Nanomaterials 7163: 7159: 7156: 7155: 7154: 7151: 7147: 7144: 7142: 7139: 7137: 7134: 7132: 7129: 7127: 7124: 7122: 7119: 7118: 7117: 7114: 7112: 7109: 7105: 7104:Lead smelting 7102: 7101: 7100: 7097: 7093: 7090: 7088: 7085: 7083: 7080: 7078: 7075: 7073: 7070: 7068: 7065: 7064: 7063: 7060: 7058: 7055: 7053: 7050: 7048: 7045: 7041: 7038: 7037: 7036: 7033: 7031: 7028: 7026: 7023: 7021: 7018: 7017: 7015: 7011: 7005: 7002: 7000: 6997: 6995: 6992: 6990: 6987: 6985: 6982: 6980: 6977: 6973: 6970: 6968: 6965: 6963: 6960: 6959: 6958: 6955: 6954: 6952: 6950: 6946: 6940: 6937: 6935: 6932: 6930: 6927: 6925: 6924:Radioactivity 6922: 6920: 6917: 6915: 6912: 6910: 6907: 6905: 6902: 6900: 6897: 6895: 6892: 6891: 6889: 6887: 6883: 6877: 6876:Noise control 6874: 6871: 6868: 6865: 6861: 6858: 6857: 6856: 6853: 6851: 6848: 6844: 6841: 6839: 6836: 6834: 6831: 6829: 6826: 6823: 6822: 6821: 6818: 6817: 6815: 6813: 6809: 6803: 6800: 6798: 6795: 6793: 6790: 6788: 6785: 6784: 6782: 6778: 6772: 6769: 6765: 6762: 6760: 6757: 6756: 6755: 6752: 6751: 6749: 6747: 6743: 6737: 6734: 6733: 6731: 6727: 6719: 6716: 6715: 6714: 6711: 6709: 6706: 6704: 6701: 6700: 6698: 6696: 6692: 6686: 6683: 6681: 6678: 6674: 6671: 6670: 6669: 6666: 6662: 6659: 6658: 6657: 6654: 6652: 6649: 6647: 6644: 6640: 6637: 6635: 6632: 6630: 6627: 6625: 6624:Metal working 6622: 6620: 6617: 6616: 6615: 6612: 6610: 6607: 6605: 6602: 6600: 6597: 6595: 6592: 6590: 6587: 6585: 6582: 6578: 6575: 6574: 6573: 6570: 6566: 6563: 6562: 6561: 6558: 6556: 6553: 6549: 6546: 6545: 6544: 6541: 6537: 6534: 6532: 6529: 6527: 6524: 6522: 6519: 6518: 6517: 6514: 6512: 6509: 6507: 6504: 6502: 6499: 6497: 6494: 6493: 6491: 6489: 6485: 6481: 6476: 6472: 6465: 6460: 6458: 6453: 6451: 6446: 6445: 6442: 6430: 6427: 6425: 6422: 6420: 6417: 6415: 6412: 6410: 6407: 6405: 6402: 6400: 6397: 6395: 6392: 6390: 6387: 6385: 6382: 6380: 6377: 6375: 6372: 6370: 6367: 6365: 6362: 6360: 6357: 6355: 6352: 6350: 6347: 6345: 6342: 6340: 6339:Marine debris 6337: 6335: 6332: 6330: 6327: 6325: 6322: 6318: 6317:South Pacific 6315: 6313: 6310: 6308: 6305: 6303: 6302:Great Pacific 6300: 6299: 6298: 6297:Garbage patch 6295: 6293: 6290: 6288: 6285: 6283: 6280: 6278: 6275: 6273: 6270: 6268: 6265: 6263: 6260: 6258: 6255: 6253: 6250: 6248: 6247:Anoxic waters 6245: 6243: 6240: 6238: 6235: 6234: 6231: 6227: 6220: 6215: 6213: 6208: 6206: 6201: 6200: 6197: 6185: 6182: 6180: 6177: 6175: 6172: 6170: 6161: 6159: 6150: 6149: 6146: 6140: 6137: 6135: 6132: 6130: 6127: 6125: 6122: 6118: 6115: 6114: 6113: 6112:Reforestation 6110: 6108: 6105: 6103: 6100: 6098: 6095: 6093: 6090: 6088: 6085: 6083: 6080: 6078: 6075: 6073: 6070: 6068: 6067:Cultured meat 6065: 6063: 6060: 6058: 6055: 6053: 6050: 6048: 6047:Birth control 6045: 6043: 6040: 6039: 6037: 6035: 6031: 6025: 6022: 6020: 6017: 6015: 6012: 6010: 6007: 6005: 6002: 6000: 5997: 5995: 5992: 5990: 5987: 5985: 5982: 5980: 5977: 5975: 5972: 5970: 5967: 5965: 5962: 5960: 5957: 5955: 5952: 5950: 5947: 5945: 5942: 5940: 5937: 5935: 5932: 5930: 5927: 5925: 5922: 5920: 5917: 5915: 5912: 5910: 5907: 5905: 5902: 5900: 5897: 5895: 5892: 5890: 5887: 5885: 5882: 5880: 5877: 5875: 5872: 5870: 5869:Deforestation 5867: 5863: 5860: 5858: 5855: 5854: 5853: 5850: 5846: 5843: 5841: 5838: 5836: 5833: 5832: 5831: 5828: 5827: 5825: 5823: 5819: 5813: 5810: 5806: 5803: 5802: 5801: 5798: 5794: 5791: 5789: 5786: 5784: 5781: 5779: 5776: 5775: 5774: 5771: 5769: 5766: 5764: 5761: 5759: 5756: 5754: 5751: 5749: 5746: 5744: 5741: 5739: 5736: 5734: 5731: 5729: 5726: 5724: 5721: 5717: 5714: 5712: 5709: 5707: 5704: 5702: 5699: 5698: 5697: 5694: 5690: 5687: 5685: 5682: 5680: 5677: 5675: 5672: 5670: 5667: 5665: 5662: 5660: 5657: 5655: 5652: 5650: 5647: 5646: 5645: 5644:Manufacturing 5642: 5640: 5637: 5635: 5632: 5630: 5627: 5625: 5622: 5620: 5617: 5613: 5610: 5608: 5605: 5603: 5600: 5598: 5595: 5593: 5592:nuclear power 5590: 5588: 5587:fracking (US) 5585: 5583: 5580: 5579: 5578: 5575: 5571: 5568: 5566: 5563: 5561: 5558: 5556: 5553: 5552: 5551: 5548: 5546: 5543: 5541: 5538: 5536: 5533: 5529: 5526: 5524: 5521: 5519: 5516: 5514: 5511: 5509: 5506: 5504: 5501: 5499: 5496: 5495: 5494: 5491: 5490: 5488: 5486: 5482: 5476: 5473: 5471: 5468: 5466: 5463: 5461: 5458: 5454: 5451: 5450: 5449: 5446: 5442: 5439: 5438: 5437: 5434: 5432: 5429: 5427: 5424: 5422: 5419: 5418: 5416: 5412: 5408: 5401: 5396: 5394: 5389: 5387: 5382: 5381: 5378: 5372: 5369: 5367: 5363: 5360: 5357: 5355: 5352: 5349: 5346: 5343: 5340: 5337: 5333: 5330: 5327: 5324: 5323: 5305: 5301: 5297: 5282: 5278: 5274: 5270: 5266: 5262: 5258: 5254: 5250: 5246: 5242: 5238: 5234: 5229: 5222: 5215: 5210: 5208: 5204: 5200: 5196: 5195: 5182: 5178: 5174: 5170: 5166: 5162: 5158: 5154: 5147: 5139: 5135: 5130: 5125: 5121: 5117: 5113: 5109: 5105: 5101: 5097: 5090: 5082: 5078: 5073: 5068: 5064: 5060: 5056: 5052: 5048: 5041: 5033: 5029: 5025: 5021: 5016: 5011: 5007: 5003: 4999: 4992: 4984: 4980: 4976: 4972: 4967: 4962: 4958: 4954: 4950: 4946: 4942: 4935: 4927: 4923: 4918: 4913: 4909: 4905: 4901: 4897: 4893: 4886: 4884: 4875: 4871: 4867: 4863: 4859: 4855: 4851: 4847: 4843: 4836: 4828: 4824: 4820: 4816: 4812: 4808: 4807:Energy Policy 4804: 4797: 4789: 4785: 4780: 4775: 4771: 4767: 4763: 4759: 4755: 4751: 4747: 4740: 4732: 4728: 4724: 4720: 4715: 4710: 4706: 4702: 4698: 4691: 4683: 4679: 4674: 4669: 4665: 4661: 4657: 4653: 4652:Marine Policy 4649: 4642: 4634: 4630: 4626: 4622: 4618: 4614: 4610: 4606: 4603:(1): 85–103. 4602: 4598: 4594: 4587: 4579: 4575: 4571: 4567: 4562: 4557: 4553: 4549: 4545: 4538: 4531: 4527: 4524: 4518: 4502: 4498: 4492: 4484: 4480: 4476: 4472: 4467: 4462: 4458: 4454: 4450: 4446: 4442: 4435: 4427: 4423: 4419: 4415: 4411: 4407: 4403: 4399: 4395: 4391: 4387: 4379: 4371: 4367: 4363: 4359: 4354: 4349: 4344: 4339: 4335: 4331: 4327: 4320: 4312: 4308: 4303: 4298: 4294: 4290: 4286: 4279: 4271: 4267: 4263: 4259: 4255: 4251: 4247: 4240: 4232: 4228: 4224: 4220: 4216: 4212: 4208: 4201: 4199: 4191: 4185: 4177: 4173: 4168: 4163: 4159: 4155: 4151: 4144: 4142: 4140: 4130: 4125: 4121: 4117: 4113: 4109: 4105: 4101: 4100:Marine Policy 4097: 4090: 4082: 4078: 4074: 4070: 4066: 4062: 4061:Marine Policy 4058: 4051: 4043: 4039: 4035: 4031: 4027: 4023: 4019: 4015: 4011: 4004: 4002: 3993: 3989: 3985: 3981: 3977: 3973: 3969: 3965: 3964:Marine Policy 3961: 3954: 3946: 3942: 3938: 3934: 3930: 3926: 3922: 3915: 3913: 3911: 3903: 3897: 3889: 3885: 3878: 3870: 3866: 3860: 3851: 3843: 3837: 3833: 3832:10.17226/4769 3829: 3825: 3824: 3816: 3814: 3803: 3794: 3788: 3784: 3781: 3776: 3774: 3764: 3755: 3753: 3751: 3735: 3731: 3724: 3709:. 7 July 2023 3708: 3707: 3702: 3696: 3681: 3677: 3670: 3655: 3654:The Economist 3651: 3645: 3629: 3625: 3619: 3603: 3599: 3593: 3577: 3573: 3567: 3551: 3544: 3528: 3521: 3505: 3499: 3491: 3485: 3477: 3473: 3469: 3465: 3461: 3457: 3453: 3449: 3442: 3434: 3430: 3426: 3422: 3418: 3414: 3410: 3406: 3399: 3384: 3380: 3373: 3367: 3361: 3346: 3345: 3340: 3334: 3332: 3315: 3309: 3307: 3291: 3287: 3280: 3265: 3261: 3254: 3239: 3235: 3228: 3213: 3209: 3203: 3197:, 2003-02-28. 3196: 3193: 3189: 3183: 3181: 3172: 3168: 3164: 3160: 3156: 3152: 3148: 3144: 3140: 3133: 3125: 3121: 3115: 3107: 3103: 3097: 3088: 3083: 3079: 3078: 3073: 3066: 3058: 3054: 3050: 3046: 3041: 3036: 3032: 3028: 3025:(3): 263–78. 3024: 3020: 3013: 3005: 3001: 2997: 2993: 2989: 2985: 2981: 2977: 2973: 2969: 2968: 2960: 2958: 2949: 2945: 2940: 2935: 2931: 2927: 2922: 2917: 2913: 2909: 2905: 2901: 2897: 2890: 2882: 2878: 2874: 2870: 2867:(1): 144–56. 2866: 2862: 2861: 2853: 2851: 2835: 2831: 2825: 2807: 2800: 2799: 2792: 2783: 2778: 2774: 2770: 2766: 2759: 2744: 2743: 2736: 2728: 2724: 2718: 2710: 2706: 2699: 2691: 2687: 2680: 2664: 2660: 2654: 2646: 2642: 2636: 2629: 2624: 2615: 2610: 2606: 2602: 2598: 2594: 2593:Marine Policy 2590: 2583: 2581: 2572: 2568: 2561: 2553: 2549: 2545: 2541: 2537: 2533: 2529: 2525: 2522:(2): 318–23. 2521: 2517: 2510: 2508: 2499: 2495: 2491: 2485: 2481: 2477: 2473: 2466: 2464: 2462: 2460: 2458: 2456: 2454: 2452: 2450: 2445: 2434: 2431: 2429: 2428:Windmill ship 2426: 2424: 2421: 2419: 2416: 2414: 2411: 2409: 2406: 2404: 2401: 2399: 2396: 2394: 2391: 2389: 2386: 2384: 2381: 2379: 2376: 2374: 2373:Marine debris 2371: 2369: 2366: 2364: 2361: 2359: 2356: 2354: 2351: 2349: 2346: 2344: 2341: 2339: 2336: 2333: 2330: 2328: 2325: 2324: 2315: 2312: 2310: 2307: 2305: 2302: 2300: 2297: 2295: 2292: 2290: 2287: 2286: 2285: 2279:United States 2274: 2271: 2269: 2266: 2265: 2257: 2254: 2252: 2248: 2246: 2243: 2241: 2238: 2236: 2233: 2232: 2220: 2211: 2207: 2203: 2200: 2196: 2195: 2182: 2178: 2174: 2171: 2167: 2163: 2157: 2155: 2150: 2147: 2140: 2130: 2128: 2124: 2119: 2116: 2111: 2107: 2103: 2099: 2095: 2085: 2082: 2077: 2073: 2069: 2065: 2061: 2057: 2053: 2049: 2045: 2044:marine debris 2034: 2032: 2028: 2024: 2020: 2016: 2014: 2010: 2005: 2002: 1997: 1993: 1989: 1985: 1981: 1976: 1974: 1970: 1966: 1962: 1958: 1954: 1953:contamination 1950: 1946: 1943:, pathogens, 1942: 1938: 1928: 1926: 1922: 1918: 1914: 1909: 1905: 1901: 1897: 1884: 1880: 1875: 1869: 1865: 1861: 1857: 1853: 1849: 1845: 1837: 1826: 1824: 1819: 1809: 1805: 1795: 1791: 1786: 1782: 1779: 1776: 1773: 1771: 1768: 1767: 1763: 1760: 1757: 1754: 1752: 1749: 1748: 1744: 1741: 1738: 1735: 1733: 1730: 1729: 1725: 1722: 1719: 1716: 1714: 1711: 1710: 1706: 1703: 1700: 1697: 1695: 1692: 1691: 1687: 1684: 1681: 1678: 1676: 1673: 1672: 1668: 1665: 1662: 1659: 1657: 1654: 1653: 1649: 1646: 1643: 1640: 1638: 1635: 1634: 1630: 1627: 1624: 1621: 1619: 1616: 1615: 1611: 1608: 1605: 1602: 1600: 1597: 1596: 1592: 1589: 1586: 1583: 1581: 1578: 1577: 1573: 1570: 1567: 1564: 1562: 1559: 1558: 1554: 1551: 1548: 1545: 1542: 1535: 1533: 1523: 1521: 1517: 1512: 1509: 1505: 1501: 1491: 1482: 1480: 1475: 1471: 1467: 1463: 1459: 1455: 1450: 1448: 1443: 1439: 1435: 1430: 1426: 1424: 1420: 1416: 1412: 1407: 1405: 1401: 1397: 1396:nitrous oxide 1392: 1390: 1386: 1381: 1377: 1373: 1369: 1365: 1360: 1358: 1354: 1350: 1346: 1342: 1338: 1334: 1333:sulfur oxides 1329: 1326: 1323: 1319: 1315: 1310: 1309:nitrification 1306: 1302: 1298: 1294: 1290: 1286: 1282: 1278: 1274: 1270: 1266: 1262: 1258: 1254: 1250: 1246: 1245:Air pollution 1237: 1235: 1234:air pollution 1231: 1230:Exhaust gases 1222: 1219: 1215: 1211: 1207: 1202: 1200: 1196: 1192: 1187: 1178: 1169: 1166: 1161: 1156: 1154: 1144: 1142: 1138: 1134: 1130: 1126: 1122: 1118: 1117:Ballast water 1110: 1105: 1098:Ballast water 1095: 1093: 1088: 1086: 1085:slow-steaming 1081: 1076: 1074: 1070: 1066: 1065:oil pollution 1062: 1058: 1054: 1053:air pollution 1050: 1038: 1033: 1031: 1026: 1024: 1019: 1018: 1016: 1015: 1010: 1000: 998: 993: 988: 987: 986: 985: 974: 971: 970: 969: 968: 964: 963: 958: 955: 953: 950: 948: 945: 943: 940: 938: 935: 934: 933: 932: 928: 927: 922: 919: 917: 914: 912: 909: 907: 904: 902: 899: 897: 894: 892: 889: 887: 884: 883: 877: 876: 867: 864: 862: 859: 858: 857: 854: 852: 849: 848: 842: 841: 834: 831: 829: 828:Water quality 826: 824: 821: 819: 816: 814: 811: 809: 806: 804: 801: 799: 796: 794: 791: 789: 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