344:, became the most prominent proponent of this 'maximalist' school (Suhrke 1993), noting that "environmental refugees will soon become the largest group of involuntary refugees". Additionally, he stated that there were 25 million environmental refugees in the mid-1990s, further claiming that this figure could double by 2010, with an upper limit of 200 million by 2050 (Myers 1997). Myers argued that the causes of environmental displacement would include desertification, lack of water, salination of irrigated lands and the depletion of biodiversity. He also hypothesised that displacement would amount to 30m in China, 30m in India, 15m in Bangladesh, 14m in Egypt, 10m in other delta areas and coastal zones, 1m in island states, and with otherwise agriculturally displaced people totalling 50m by 2050. More recently, Myers has suggested that the figure by 2050 might be as high as 250 million.
22:
306:
296:). This does not go to say that their status of being temporary is any less severe than that of the other, it simply means that they are able to go back to the place they fled from (though it may be undesirable to do so) granted that they are able to rebuild what was broken, and go on to maintain a similar quality of life to the one prior to the natural disaster. This type of migrant is displaced from their home state when their environment rapidly changes. They are displaced when disastrous events occur, such as tsunamis, hurricanes, tornadoes, and other natural disasters occur.
413:
2753:
2741:
427:
2777:
2765:
1199:
171:"Environmental migrants are persons or groups of persons who, for compelling reasons of sudden or progressive changes in the environment that adversely affect their lives or living conditions, are obliged to leave their habitual homes, or choose to do so, either temporarily or permanently, and who move either within their country or abroad."
325:. Jodi Jacobson (1988) is cited as the first researcher to enumerate the issue, stating that there were already up to 10 million 'Environmental Refugees'. Drawing on 'worst-case scenarios' about sea-level rise, she argued that all forms of 'Environmental Refugees' would be six times as numerous as political refugees. By 1989,
270:
Meghna delta in
Bangladesh and India, and Mahanadi delta in India cited economic reasons as a cause of their migration and only 2.8% cited environment reasons. But one third of migrant households perceived an increased exposure to environmental hazards and deltaic populations associated environmental
279:
Pressured environmental migrants – slow onset This type of migrant is displaced from their environment when an event is predicted prior to when it would be imperative for the inhabitants to leave. Such events could be desertification or prolonged drought, where the people of the region are no longer
676:
Safra de Campos, Ricardo; Codjoe, Samuel Nii Ardey; Adger, W. Neil; Mortreux, Colette; Hazra, Sugata; Siddiqui, Tasneem; Das, Shouvik; Atiglo, D. Yaw; Bhuiyan, Mohammad Rashed Alam (2020), Nicholls, Robert J.; Adger, W. Neil; Hutton, Craig W.; Hanson, Susan E. (eds.), "Where People Live and Move in
352:
has stated that Myers' work can be 'criticized for being inconsistent, impossible to check and failing to take proper account of opportunities to adapt' (2008: 9). Furthermore, Myers himself has acknowledged that his figures are based upon 'heroic extrapolation' (Brown 2008: 12). More generally,
266:: people who choose to leave to avoid possible future problems. (Example: someone who leaves due to declining crop productivity caused by desertification. A study conducted between 2014 and 2018 reveals that a large proportion of the deltaic populations of Volta delta in Africa, the
151:
aren't leaving their homes because of fear they will be persecuted, or because of "generalized violence or events seriously disturbing public order." Even though the definition of who is a refugee was expanded since its first international and legally binding definition in
239:
and submergence due to rising sea levels”. The villagers were losing their homes to the encroaching sea and their cultivable lands to saline ingress, and were forced to migrate elsewhere. In Nepal, many villages in mass migration has been reported from
712:
39:
are people who are forced to leave their home region due to sudden or long-term changes to their local or regional environment. These changes compromise their well-being or livelihood, and include increased
347:
Norman Myers is the most cited researcher in this field, who found that 25 million environmental migrants existed in 1995 in his work (Myers & Kent 1995), which drew upon over 1000 sources. However,
852:
1002:
504:
540:
2477:
800:
2653:
231:: people who have to leave due to deteriorating environmental conditions. (Example: someone forced to leave due to a slow deterioration of their environment such as
2321:
1778:
353:
Black has argued that there is 'surprisingly little scientific evidence' that indicates that the world is 'filling-up with environmental refugees' (1998: 23).
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1930:
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286:– gradual onset These are migrants that have been or will be "permanently displaced" from their homes due to environmental factors beyond their control.
1925:
1793:
879:
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999:
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235:, coastal deterioration, etc. The village of Satabhaya in the Kendrapara district of Odisha in India is “one of the foremost victims of
1815:
1763:
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1810:
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1064:
557:
Brown, L., Mcgrath, P., and Stokes, B., (1976). twenty two dimensions of the population problem, Worldwatch Paper 5, Washington DC:
2025:
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164:
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2170:
1328:
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853:"Understanding a slow disaster: getting to grips with slow-onset disasters, and what they mean for migration and displacement -"
626:
570:
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1993:
1847:
1832:
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1390:
1334:
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989:
Myers, N. and Kent, J. (1995). Environmental Exodus: an
Emergent Crisis in the Global Arena, (Climate Institute: Washington DC)
651:
21:
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1827:
1168:
696:
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502:
Environmentally
Displaced People: Understanding the linkages between environmental change, livelihoods and forced migration
333:, was claiming that 'as many as 50 million people could become environmental refugees' if the world did not act to support
330:
601:
147:
The vast majority of people fleeing environmental distress migrate over short distances, often temporarily. Moreover, the
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1970:
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1700:
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people who are forced to flee due to environmental change are still not offered the same legal protection as refugees.
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1018:
Friends of the Earth, A Citizen's Guide to
Climate Refugees, Fact Sheet Four: Predictions of Climate Refugees to 2050
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2419:
2399:
2346:
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1350:
388:(2013), documentary movie directed by Susan Stein. Starring Katherine Jacobsen, Nancy Schneider, Bogumil Terminski
271:
factors with more insecure livelihoods. This shows how the environment is having a proximate effect on migration.)
2538:
2489:
1915:
1877:
1822:
1282:
817:
Marshall, Nicole (2016). "Forced
Environmental Migration: Ethical Considerations for Emerging Migration Policy".
60:). Though there is no uniform, clear-cut definition of environmental migration, the idea is gaining attention as
225:
or sudden environmental event. (Examples: someone forced to leave due to a hurricane, tsunami, earthquake, etc.)
2606:
1890:
1637:
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are a subset of environmental migrants who were forced to flee "due to sudden or gradual alterations in the
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2371:
1900:
1895:
1800:
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1193:
World
Refugee & Migration Council (2021) 'Solutions for the Global Governance of Climate Displacement'
1910:
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1988:
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may occur. Previously, environmental refugees were expected from these regions but they are often
91:" (or "climate refugee") are used somewhat interchangeably with a range of similar terms, such as
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2679:
2589:
2331:
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1983:
1632:
1610:
1217:
334:
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244:/ Chure regions due to water scarcity. Similarly, in eastern highland of Nepal 10 households in
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2020:
1905:
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There have been a number of attempts over the decades to enumerate environmental migrants and
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Philosophical
Transactions of the Royal Society of London. Series B: Biological Sciences
880:"Photo Gallery: Is Environmental Migration Really Rising? - DER SPIEGEL - International"
751:
366:
The notion of 'environmental migrant' has been a part of popular culture at least since
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2050:
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960:
838:
785:
773:
692:
293:
977:
Myers, N. (1997). 'Environmental
Refugees', Population and Environment 19(2): 167–82
461: – The purposeful, coordinated movement of people and buildings away from risks
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2256:
2197:
2088:
1852:
1566:
1439:
1375:
1128:
Environmentally-Induced
Displacement. Theoretical Frameworks and Current Challenges
950:
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826:
763:
755:
682:
449: – Coerced movement of a person or persons away from their home or home region
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81:
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People forced to leave their home region due to changes to their local environment
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2283:
2158:
2015:
1627:
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1006:
544:
508:
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394:(2006), documentary movie directed by Hélène Choquette & Jean-Philippe Duval.
236:
191:
175:
88:
45:
687:
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2409:
2404:
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2135:
1867:
1862:
1857:
1705:
1642:
1380:
1360:
1319:
1240:
768:
470:
373:
310:
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able to maintain farming or hunting to provide a hospitable living environment.
199:
187:
183:
49:
1178:
759:
2797:
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2616:
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2163:
2148:
2083:
1978:
777:
412:
241:
232:
77:
65:
919:(1989). Our biological heritage under siege. Bioscience 39, 725–728, page 25
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2010:
2000:
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1444:
964:
946:
341:
160:
2596:
2113:
2105:
1355:
253:
1066:
Opening the
Conversation about Climate Refugees with The Grapes of Wrath
1053:
Black, R. (1998). Refugees, Environment and Development, Harlow: Longman
2628:
2005:
538:
Treading Water: Climate Change, the Maldives, and De-territorialization
275:
Other scholars have proposed various other types of migrant including:
249:
904:
602:"Shifting Sands: The Story of Adapting to Rising Sea levels in Odisha"
1573:
524:
167:(IOM) proposes the following definition for environmental migrants:
907:, Worldwatch paper 86, Worldwatch Institute, Washington DC, page 38
734:
Koubi, Vally; Stoll, Sebastian; Spilker, Gabriele (8 August 2016).
713:"Politicizing Environmental Displacement: A Four Category Approach"
587:
931:"Environmental refugees: A growing phenomenon of the 21st century"
675:
1551:
1209:
1098:
322:
195:
148:
57:
53:
41:
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have been forced to migrate due to water crises in their areas.
61:
2478:
Cooperative Mechanisms under Article 6 of the Paris Agreement
1561:
736:"Perceptions of environmental change and migration decisions"
681:, Cham: Springer International Publishing, pp. 153–177,
292:- This includes migrants suffering from a single event (i.e.
26:
1141:
Environmental Justice and the Rights of Ecological Refugees
455: – Impacted settlements resulting in climate migration
309:
A map showing where natural disasters caused/aggravated by
290:
Temporary environmental migrants – short term, sudden onset
64:-makers and environmental and social scientists attempt to
139:). The distinctions between these terms remain contested.
2654:
Illustrative model of greenhouse effect on climate change
1161:
Nomad century : how to survive the climate upheaval
159:
The term "environmental refugee" was first proposed by
2495:
United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change
801:"Toward Special Mobility Rights for Climate Migrants"
473: – Situation where there is a shortage of water
408:
1044:
Migration Research Series, paper no.31, www.iom.int
1027:
Kolmannskog, V (2008). Future Floods of Refugees, (
905:
Environmental Refugees: a Yardstick of Habitability
992:
400:(2014) documentary movie directed by David Fedele.
1040:Brown, O (2008). 'Migration and Climate Change',
733:
627:"Mass migration as water sources dry up in Chure"
467: – UN agency to protect and support refugees
2795:
2695:Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC)
985:
983:
652:"Water scarcity forces 45 households to migrate"
571:"DISCUSSION NOTE: MIGRATION AND THE ENVIRONMENT"
214:proposes three types of environmental migrants:
500:Boano, C., Zetter, R., and Morris, T., (2008).
453:List of areas depopulated due to climate change
491:Citation error. Mouse-over '' for pop-up msg.
1430:History of climate change policy and politics
1225:
980:
465:United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees
798:
340:In the mid-1990s, British environmentalist,
182:related to at least one of three impacts of
1547:Atlantic meridional overturning circulation
548:. Stimson Centre. Retrieved 25 April 2012.
2776:
2764:
2221:
1232:
1218:
2516:
2322:Adaptation strategies on the German coast
1455:United Nations Climate Change conferences
954:
767:
686:
264:environmentally induced economic migrants
142:
2026:Co-benefits of climate change mitigation
816:
710:
535:Hartley, Lindsey. ( 16 February 2012).
304:
221:: people who flee temporarily due to an
212:International Organisation for Migration
165:International Organization for Migration
20:
2382:National Adaptation Programme of Action
2171:Land use, land-use change, and forestry
1034:
812:
810:
599:
2796:
2031:Economics of climate change mitigation
1994:Gold Standard (carbon offset standard)
1507:
1335:Scientific consensus on climate change
1137:
386:Eco Migrants: The Case of Bhola Island
356:
2690:Coupled Model Intercomparison Project
2515:
2220:
1956:
1506:
1418:
1299:
1251:
1213:
1158:
1000:Human Tide: The Real Migration Crisis
928:
922:
600:Dulluri, Anvita (14 September 2020).
515:Policy Brief No.1 (RSC: Oxford), pg.4
2712:Representative Concentration Pathway
1653:Tipping points in the climate system
1329:Carbon dioxide in Earth's atmosphere
807:
379:
331:United Nations Environment Programme
300:
2483:Nationally determined contributions
2193:Individual action on climate change
1398:World energy supply and consumption
877:
586:Global Governance Project. (2012).
13:
2622:Fixed anvil temperature hypothesis
1239:
1120:
563:
361:
14:
2825:
2549:Satellite temperature measurement
2154:forestry for carbon sequestration
1435:History of climate change science
1186:
857:Climate & Migration Coalition
284:Imperative environmental migrants
105:environmentally motivated migrant
2775:
2763:
2752:
2751:
2739:
2400:Climate Change Performance Index
1779:Destruction of cultural heritage
1197:
1062:
425:
411:
260:Environmental motivated migrants
219:Environmental emergency migrants
109:environmentally displaced person
2539:Instrumental temperature record
2490:Sustainable Development Goal 13
1091:
1056:
1047:
1021:
1012:
971:
910:
897:
871:
845:
792:
727:
704:
669:
644:
2607:Climate variability and change
1957:
1638:Retreat of glaciers since 1850
819:Ethics, Policy and Environment
619:
593:
580:
551:
529:
518:
494:
485:
1:
2717:Shared Socioeconomic Pathways
2252:Climate emergency declaration
831:10.1080/21550085.2016.1173284
478:
229:Environmental forced migrants
129:ecologically displaced person
87:"Environmental migrant" and "
52:, and disruption of seasonal
2700:IPCC Sixth Assessment Report
1926:Middle East and North Africa
1252:
101:forced environmental migrant
7:
1774:Depopulation of settlements
1419:
688:10.1007/978-3-030-23517-8_7
404:
392:Refugees of the Blue Planet
133:environmental-refugee-to-be
31:2011 Horn of Africa drought
29:for those displaced by the
10:
2830:
2534:Global surface temperature
2425:Popular culture depictions
2337:Ecosystem-based adaptation
2067:Carbon capture and storage
1989:Carbon offsets and credits
1300:
679:Deltas in the Anthropocene
590:. Retrieved on 5 May 2012.
2746:Climate change portal
2733:
2672:
2639:Extreme event attribution
2557:
2526:
2522:
2511:
2455:
2390:
2312:
2262:School Strike for Climate
2234:
2230:
2216:
2185:
2141:Climate-smart agriculture
2102:
2059:
1969:
1965:
1952:
1876:
1729:
1676:
1519:
1515:
1502:
1425:
1414:
1343:
1312:
1308:
1295:
1278:Climate change adaptation
1273:Climate change mitigation
1268:Effects of climate change
1258:
1247:
1029:Norwegian Refugee Council
760:10.1007/s10584-016-1767-1
711:Marshall, Nicole (2015).
588:Forum on Climate Refugees
442:Effects of climate change
74:environmental degradation
70:effects of climate change
2649:Global warming potential
2456:International agreements
2103:Preserving and enhancing
1537:Arctic methane emissions
1459:Years in climate change
1366:Greenhouse gas emissions
1263:Causes of climate change
507:12 November 2020 at the
329:, Executive Director of
205:
2680:Climate change scenario
2332:Disaster risk reduction
1984:Carbon emission trading
1794:U.S. insurance industry
1764:Civilizational collapse
1611:sea surface temperature
998:Christian Aid (2007). ‘
903:Jacobson, J.L. (1988).
335:sustainable development
246:Chainpur, Sankhuwasabha
121:environmental displacee
2673:Research and modelling
2357:Nature-based solutions
2177:Nature-based solutions
2119:Carbon dioxide removal
2036:Fossil fuel divestment
2021:Climate risk insurance
1931:Small island countries
1542:Arctic sea ice decline
1204:Environmental migrants
1138:Westra, Laura (2009).
1009:’ (CA: London), page 6
947:10.1098/rstb.2001.0953
929:Myers, Norman (2002).
513:Refugee Studies Centre
318:
223:environmental disaster
173:
143:Definition and concept
37:Environmental migrants
33:
2634:Earth's energy budget
2517:Background and theory
2405:Climate crisis (term)
2077:Fossil fuel phase-out
1971:Economics and finance
1936:by individual country
1878:By country and region
1853:Security and conflict
1848:Psychological impacts
1527:Abrupt climate change
1450:Charles David Keeling
1283:By country and region
433:Climate change portal
308:
252:and 10 households in
169:
97:environmental refugee
68:the potential social
24:
2804:Environmental issues
2463:Glasgow Climate Pact
2124:Carbon sequestration
1689:Mass mortality event
1206:at Wikimedia Commons
1159:Vince, Gaia (2022).
559:Worldwatch Institute
2602:Climate sensitivity
2377:The Adaptation Fund
1833:Infectious diseases
1730:Social and economic
1132:University of Liège
1126:Bogumil Terminski,
1005:9 June 2019 at the
769:20.500.11850/119291
752:2016ClCh..138..439K
543:27 May 2013 at the
447:Forced displacement
369:The Grapes of Wrath
357:Society and culture
248:, 25 households in
180:natural environment
2173:(LULUCF and AFOLU)
2145:Forest management
2129:Direct air capture
2094:Sustainable energy
2051:Net zero emissions
2046:Low-carbon economy
2041:Green Climate Fund
1828:Indigenous peoples
1721:Plant biodiversity
1509:Effects and issues
1099:"THE LAND BETWEEN"
1079:on 10 October 2022
799:Marshall, Nicole.
419:Environment portal
372:, a 1939 novel by
350:Vikram Kolmannskog
319:
268:Ganges Brahmaputra
93:ecological refugee
56:patterns (such as
34:
2791:
2790:
2729:
2728:
2725:
2724:
2664:Radiative forcing
2507:
2506:
2503:
2502:
2327:Adaptive capacity
2212:
2211:
2208:
2207:
2072:Energy transition
1948:
1947:
1944:
1943:
1658:Tropical cyclones
1584:Urban heat island
1498:
1497:
1410:
1409:
1406:
1405:
1371:Carbon accounting
1325:Greenhouse effect
1291:
1290:
1202:Media related to
1170:978-0-241-52231-8
941:(1420): 609–613.
859:. 4 February 2015
698:978-3-030-23517-8
656:kathmandupost.com
631:kathmandupost.com
525:unhcr.org page 19
380:Documentary films
315:internal refugees
301:Global statistics
294:Hurricane Katrina
2821:
2809:Refugees by type
2779:
2778:
2767:
2766:
2755:
2754:
2744:
2743:
2742:
2707:Paleoclimatology
2524:
2523:
2513:
2512:
2274:Ecological grief
2257:Climate movement
2232:
2231:
2218:
2217:
2198:Plant-based diet
2089:Renewable energy
1967:
1966:
1954:
1953:
1789:Economic impacts
1711:Invasive species
1567:Coastal flooding
1517:
1516:
1504:
1503:
1440:Svante Arrhenius
1416:
1415:
1386:from agriculture
1376:Carbon footprint
1361:Greenhouse gases
1310:
1309:
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1234:
1227:
1220:
1211:
1210:
1201:
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1155:
1114:
1113:
1111:
1109:
1103:THE LAND BETWEEN
1095:
1089:
1088:
1086:
1084:
1078:
1072:. Archived from
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1060:
1054:
1051:
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1038:
1032:
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1016:
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996:
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987:
978:
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866:
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796:
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789:
771:
746:(3–4): 439–451.
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489:
435:
430:
429:
428:
421:
416:
415:
398:The Land Between
176:Climate migrants
117:disaster refugee
82:overexploitation
2829:
2828:
2824:
2823:
2822:
2820:
2819:
2818:
2794:
2793:
2792:
2787:
2740:
2738:
2721:
2668:
2659:Orbital forcing
2553:
2518:
2499:
2473:Paris Agreement
2451:
2447:Warming stripes
2386:
2352:Managed retreat
2347:Loss and damage
2308:
2242:Business action
2226:
2204:
2181:
2104:
2098:
2055:
2016:Climate finance
1961:
1940:
1872:
1725:
1701:Extinction risk
1677:Flora and fauna
1672:
1633:Permafrost thaw
1628:Ozone depletion
1557:Extreme weather
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459:Managed retreat
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362:Popular culture
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89:climate migrant
46:desertification
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1241:Climate change
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1187:External links
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1163:. Allen Lane.
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884:www.spiegel.de
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262:also known as
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200:water scarcity
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184:climate change
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2149:afforestation
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1151:9781849770088
1147:
1144:. Routledge.
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242:Sivalik Hills
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233:deforestation
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163:in 1976. The
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78:deforestation
75:
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66:conceptualize
63:
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55:
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43:
38:
32:
28:
23:
19:
2780:
2768:
2756:
2737:
2570:Carbon cycle
2527:Measurements
2222:Society and
2106:carbon sinks
2011:Climate debt
2001:Carbon price
1823:Human rights
1648:Season creep
1606:heat content
1532:Anoxic event
1445:James Hansen
1160:
1140:
1127:
1106:. Retrieved
1102:
1093:
1081:. Retrieved
1074:the original
1065:
1058:
1049:
1036:
1023:
1014:
994:
973:
938:
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924:
917:Tolba, M. K.
912:
899:
887:. Retrieved
883:
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861:. Retrieved
856:
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729:
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706:
678:
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659:. Retrieved
655:
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634:. Retrieved
630:
621:
609:. Retrieved
605:
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531:
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342:Norman Myers
339:
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194:events, and
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161:Lester Brown
158:
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100:
96:
92:
86:
36:
35:
25:Shelters in
18:
2597:Carbon sink
2575:atmospheric
2440:video games
2114:Blue carbon
1737:Agriculture
1716:Marine life
1663:Water cycle
1621:temperature
1356:Fossil fuel
863:26 February
825:(1): 1–18.
611:29 November
606:THE BASTION
254:Panchkhapan
125:eco-refugee
2798:Categories
2629:Cryosphere
2590:permafrost
2362:Resilience
2314:Adaptation
2289:Litigation
2279:Governance
2224:adaptation
2006:Carbon tax
1959:Mitigation
1896:Antarctica
1784:Disability
1179:1286796695
889:24 October
661:1 December
636:1 December
479:References
250:Dharmadevi
72:and other
2644:Feedbacks
2415:Education
1916:Caribbean
1911:Australia
1838:Migration
1801:Fisheries
1742:Livestock
1668:Wildfires
1574:Heat wave
1130:, CEDEM,
839:156253235
786:157835999
778:0165-0009
723:: 96–112.
677:Deltas",
76:, such a
2770:Glossary
2758:Category
2580:biologic
2294:Politics
2186:Personal
1891:Americas
1754:Children
1520:Physical
1313:Overview
1253:Overview
1083:26 April
1003:Archived
965:12028796
541:Archived
505:Archived
405:See also
323:refugees
149:refugees
58:monsoons
2585:oceanic
2435:fiction
2284:Justice
2235:Society
1843:Poverty
1552:Drought
1420:History
1344:Sources
1134:, 2012.
1108:1 March
1031:: Oslo)
956:1692964
748:Bibcode
196:drought
54:weather
42:drought
2565:Albedo
2558:Theory
2269:Denial
2060:Energy
1921:Europe
1901:Arctic
1886:Africa
1811:Health
1806:Gender
1759:Cities
1684:Biomes
1591:Oceans
1579:Marine
1302:Causes
1177:
1167:
1148:
963:
953:
837:
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776:
695:
62:policy
2782:Index
2544:Proxy
2304:Women
1769:Crime
1696:Birds
1562:Flood
1077:(PDF)
1070:(PDF)
835:S2CID
782:S2CID
574:(PDF)
206:Types
131:, or
27:Kenya
2367:Risk
1906:Asia
1488:2024
1483:2023
1478:2022
1473:2021
1468:2020
1463:2019
1175:OCLC
1165:ISBN
1146:ISBN
1110:2017
1085:2021
961:PMID
891:2020
865:2017
774:ISSN
693:ISBN
663:2020
638:2020
613:2020
210:The
198:and
154:1951
137:ERTB
2430:art
1042:IOM
951:PMC
943:doi
939:357
827:doi
764:hdl
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