333:, and she had already borne him one child. Antiochus fell violently in love with his stepmother, but did not disclose his passion, and chose rather to pine away in silence. The physicians were quite unable to discover the cause and nature of his disease, and Erasistratus himself was at a loss at first, till, finding nothing amiss about his body, he began to suspect that it must be his mind which was diseased, and that he might perhaps be in love. Erasistratus confirmed his conjecture when he observed that the skin of Antiochus grew hotter, his colour deeper, and his pulse quicker whenever Stratonice came near him, while none of these symptoms occurred on any other occasion. Accordingly, he told Seleucus that his son's disease was incurable, for he was in love, and that it was impossible to gratify his passion. The king wondered what the obstacle could be, and asked who the lady was. "My wife," replied Erasistratus; upon which Seleucus began to persuade him to give her up to his son. The physician asked him if he would do so himself if it were his wife that the prince was in love with. The king protested that he would most gladly; upon which Erasistratus told him that it was indeed his own wife who had inspired his passion, and that he chose rather to die than to disclose his secret. Seleucus was as good as his word, and not only gave up Stratonice, but also resigned to his son several provinces of his empire. This celebrated story is told with variations by many ancient authors, and a similar anecdote has been told of
31:
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living was that of
Herophilus, another physician that was an important part of ancient Alexandrian medicine with Erasistratus. Together, Erasistratus and Herophilus attributed to the revolutionary growth of knowledge in the Hellenistic period in not only science but culture as well in accordance to the writings of historians of antiquity. Although, it is noted that Erasistratus and Herophilus did not share similar ideologies in the science of medicine as well as its practice. One topic the two disagreed on what substance was actually carried by the arteries. Herophilus believed that the arteries carried a mixture of pneuma and blood, while Erasistratus believed that they solely carried pneuma. Erasistratus is said to have natural philosophical views as compared to others during the time, paving the way for the teaching of methodologists in the field of medicine. The publications of some of Galen's work, from which there are many mentions of Erasistratus and Herophilus, led to further understanding of the differing ideologies.
473:'s discovery. These views also supported his belief that blood production started in the liver, and not the heart. Erasistratus had a theory that if an artery was traumatized then it would be possible however to find blood at that point, not due to blood being present within the artery itself, but rather because of the body functioning like a vacuum. When a hole would form in an artery, it would create a vacuum that would pull blood into it from a nearby vein. With his discovery of the functioning of the four main valves of the heart, he saw that when material is moved out of the heart, new material moves in, but this does not happen constantly like a water pipe. Once material has left the heart it can not come back in, and material that has entered the heart can not flow back out in the same direction. This is accomplished by membranes that open and close their mouths on the valves of the heart. However, according to Erasistratus the material moving through these valves is
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349:
360:, which was at that time beginning to be a celebrated medical school, and gave up practice in his old age, that he might pursue his anatomical studies without interruption. He and fellow physician Herophilus practiced anatomy with great success, and with such ardour that they are supposed to have dissected criminals alive. These criminals were supposedly supplied by the king at the request of Herophilus. By conducting these dissections on live subjects they were able to see the true color and shape of internal organs that were not present in deceased subjects. However, conducting these
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and fire. Uniform parts consisted of the nature of animals such as bone and flesh. Finally, non-uniform parts of nature were things such as a face or hand. Erasistratus and
Herophilus believed that doctors should concern themselves with the uniform and non-uniform levels of the body, but not elements as that was the job of philosophers and scientists. This coincides with the role placed on physicians of the time to not act as scientists. Galen however, believed that to understand the human body one had to understand the mixture of its elements.
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completely. Ultimately, the destruction of many works, including that of
Erasistratus and Herophilus, because of a fire that erupted at the great library in 391 AD may have been the greatest reason why there are limited sources of material to understand the teachings and work of Erasistratus outside that of the references to the Alexandrian physician from Galen's writings. Furthermore, it may also be the event that resulted in none of Erasistratus's original writing remaining.
675:
suggested that due to
Erasistratus's disagreements with the ideologies found within Hippocratic teachings and beliefs, as well as notably phlebotomy, that Galen seems to ridicule some work that Erasistratus had synthesized. However, there are numerous times that Galen backs the ideas of Erasistratus as well, leading to opposing claims that Galen was generally negative when discussing the ideologies produced by Erasistratus.
706:
fragments of their writings assembled by K.F.H. Marx and R. Fuchs from German texts. Before that, nearly the only way to learn about the work was by analyzing Galen's works, which mention
Erasistratus. Similar sets of fragmented texts were also collected in English by J.F. Dobson. In the late 1980s and early 1990s, H. von Staden and Garofalo also found many important sources of information on the Alexandrian physicians.
1616:
577:: he supposed it to enter the lungs by the trachea, thence to pass by the pulmonary veins into the heart, and thence to be diffused throughout the whole body by means of the arteries; that the use of respiration was to fill the arteries with air; and that the pulsation of the arteries was caused by the movements of the
345:, and (if the names be not fictitious) Panacius and Acestinus. If this is the anecdote referred to by Pliny, as is probably the case, Erasistratus is said to have received one hundred talents for being the means of restoring the prince to health, which would amount to one of the largest medical fees upon record.
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Erasistratus and Galen both supported the theory of pneuma, however their beliefs on how pneuma acquired the air it needed differed. Erasistratus believed that pneuma received the air it needed from the lungs. Galen agreed that air from the lungs was used for pneuma, however in expelling also as much
481:
of the heart are generally said to have derived their name from
Erasistratus. This, however, appears to be an oversight, as Galen attributes it not to him, but to one of his followers. Erasistratus also made observations on the morphology of the heart, describing the pulmonary artery and the aorta to
674:
Much of what is known of
Erasistratus and that of his work he did in the 3rd and 4th BC has become known through the work done by Galen. Galen frequently notes the past ideas that had become prevalent from the work of Erasistratus when comparing it to that of his work and ideas. Some historians have
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Galen also noted his disagreement with
Erasistratus and Herophilus on their view of the composition of organic bodies. They adopted an Aristotelian view of organic bodies consisting of three levels: elements, uniform, and non-uniform parts. Elements consisted of the elements, earth, wind, water,
662:
Erasistratus is frequently mentioned in historical documents with other significant figures of both his time period of the 3rd and 4th century BC and afterwards thanks to his accomplishments and advancements in the field of medicine. The most prominent person he is referenced with from when he was
696:
devastated the culture and economy of the
Alexandrian society, Ptolemy Malefactor in 145 BC negatively impacted the continuation of Erasistratus's teachings and ideas, as well as other Alexandrian teachings, as he pushed for Alexandrian intelligentsia to be removed from the Alexandrian society
705:
Much of the documentation of the works of
Erasistratus and Herophilus was undiscovered until the late 20th century, so the importance of Erasistratus in the advancement of medical knowledge was not fully understood. The only substantial collection of information about their work was several
200:
on criminals to study the anatomy and possible physiology of human organs while they were in Alexandria. Because of their research, Erasistratus and Herophilus were heavily criticized for their utilization of vivisections; specifically, by the author Tertullian who followed Christian values.
451:
The vein arises from the part where the arteries, that are distributed to the whole body, have their origin, and penetrates to the sanguineous ventricle ; and the artery arises from the part where the veins have their origin, and penetrates to the pneumatic ventricle of the heart.
605:, and Erasistratus believed it was where one's body parts were full of undigested fragments of food, causing the body to then function improperly. This theory of plethora then was why many of his treatments pertained to diet, fasting, and use of drugs that would change digestion. In
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air as was breathed in there wasn't enough air present to account for all the pneuma needed to function. Galen also believed that air was brought in through pores of the skin, and through the nose which would move to the bony cavities of the brain to be used as psychic pneuma.
687:
school of medicine in Alexandria reigned as the most widely accepted ideology and method for practicing medicine for several centuries. One notable event that historians credit to downfall of Erasistratus's ideas and influence was that of the
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continued to fill the arteries and the blood was confined to the veins, the individual was in good health; but that when the blood from some cause or other got forced into the arteries, inflammation and fever was the consequence.
469:, the arteries arise from the heart and the heart is the origin both of the veins and the arteries. With these ideas, it can have been only his belief that the arteries contained air and not blood, that hindered his anticipating
503:, he divided the nerves into those of sensation and those of motion, of which the former he considered to be hollow and to arise from the membranes of the brain and the latter from the substance of the brain itself and of the
464:
systems to be more intimately connected than was generally believed. This idea is confirmed by another passage in which he is said to have differed from the other ancient anatomists, who believed that the veins arise from the
632:
to have disregarded the importance of the practice and rather suggested alternative methods. Notably, Erasistratus suggests the bandaging of a patient's armpits and groin to achieve the desired results associated with
641:
continues in his work to highly criticize this viewpoint that the Alexandrian physician had regarding the medical practice, and points out that Erasistratus did not give enough evidence to support the avoidance of
692:
that occurred from 246–241 BC due to its negative effect on the Alexandrian society, reducing its ability to fund programs that would continue the teachings of Erasistratus. Although, even before the
30:
489:, and in a passage from his works preserved by Galen he speaks as if he had himself dissected a human brain. Galen says that before Erasistratus had more closely examined into the origin of the
597:
medicines: he seems to have relied chiefly on diet and regimen, bathing, exercise, friction, and the most simple vegetables. Erasistratus was against bloodletting likely due to his theory of
380:, he was alive 258 BC, about forty years after the marriage of Antiochus and Stratonice. He had numerous pupils and followers, and a medical school bearing his name continued to exist at
368:
present in the arteries, which should have been evident in dissecting a live person. Erasistratus appears to have died in Asia Minor, as the Suda mentions that he was buried by mount
499:
and not from the substance of the brain; and that it was not until he was advanced in life that he satisfied himself by actual inspection that such was not the case. According to
234:. He then differentiated between the function of the sensory and motor nerves, and linked them to the brain. He is credited with one of the first in-depth descriptions of the
424:
Erasistratus wrote many works on anatomy, practical medicine and pharmacy, of which only the titles remain, together with a great number of short fragments preserved by
1708:
440:. It is as an anatomist that he is most celebrated, and perhaps there is not one ancient physician that did more to promote that branch of medical science than he.
212:, and he also concluded that the heart was not the center of sensations, but that it instead functioned as a pump. He was among the first to distinguish between
1630:
1371:
388:, about the beginning of the 1st century. The following are the names of the most celebrated physicians belonging to the sect founded by him: Apoemantes,
560:
were accustomed to tie a belt tightly round their middle, to enable them to abstain from food for a longer time without suffering inconvenience.
518:, and several other parts of the body, were entirely useless to animals. Erasistratus believed that fluids, when drunk, passed through the
1669:
Galen on bloodletting : a study of the origins, development, and validity of his opinions, with a translation of the three works
1978:
522:
into the stomach. During his time, there was controversy that was carried on as to whether fluids when drunk passed through the
201:
Erasistratus and Herophilus are thought to be the only physicians to perform systematic dissections on the human body until the
654:
432:, and other ancient writers. These, however, are sufficient to enable us to form a reasonable idea of his opinions both as a
306:, and Cleombrotus. From the latter it is not quite clear whether Cleombrotus was his father or his uncle. He was a pupil of
348:
184:
Furthermore, Erasistratus is seen as one of the first physicians/scientists to conduct recorded dissections and potential
1723:
2013:
1831:
1812:
1782:
1746:
1676:
412:, Martialius, Menodorus, Ptolemaeus, Strato, Xenophon. An attack on Erasistratus and his followers is preserved in
1993:
904:
772:
1685:
Dajč, Eduard. "Erasistratus of Samos: The Renowned Hellenistic Cardiologist and His Contributions to Medicine."
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due to his acknowledgements of nerves and their roles in motor control through the brain and skeletal muscles.
1998:
1625:
1366:
1905:
Mavrodi, Alexandra. "Morphology of the Heart Associated with Its Function as Conceived by Ancient Greeks."
1032:
Mavrodi, Alexandra. "Morphology of the Heart Associated with Its Function as Conceived by Ancient Greeks."
376:. The exact date of his death is not known, but he probably lived to a good old age, as, according to
1988:
1983:
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that circulated through the nerves. He also thought that the nerves moved a nervous spirit from the
226:). He considered atoms to be the essential body element, and he believed they were vitalized by the
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2008:
2003:
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544:, to distinguish it from the arteries, and hence to have been the originator of the modern name
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alongside Herophilus. The two physicians were said by several Roman authors, notably Augustine,
169:, where they carried out anatomical research. As well, he is credited with helping to found the
389:
263:
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ideologies. Together with Herophilus, he is credited by historians as the potential founder of
356:
Very little more is known of the personal history of Erasistratus: he lived for some time at
352:
Another rendition of Antiochus's illness depicting Erasistratus's presence during the ordeal.
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886:
817:
540:, which had hitherto designated the canal leading from the mouth to the lungs, the epithet
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into the stomach. He is also supposed to have been the first person who added to the word
220:, believing that the arteries were full of air and that they carried the "animal spirit" (
8:
1772:
777:"The discovery of the body: Human dissection and its cultural contexts in ancient Greece"
326:
279:
1961:
Wills, Adrian, and A Wills. “Herophilus, Erasistratus, and the Birth of Neuroscience.”
1954:
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Wills, Adrian, and A Wills. “Herophilus, Erasistratus, and the Birth of Neuroscience.”
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of teachings of medicine in Alexandria whilst opposing traditional humoral theories of
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79:
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839:
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325:, the king's eldest son, probably 294 BC. Seleucus in his old age had lately married
322:
1950:
1857:
1824:
The heart and the vascular system in ancient Greek medicine. From Alcmaeon to Galen
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Dajč, Eduard. "Physicians and Philosophers that Influenced Erasistratus of Samos."
1307:
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1941:
von Staden, Heinrich (1975). "Experiment and Experience in Hellenistic Medicine".
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Erasistratus also appears to have paid particular attention to the anatomy of the
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287:
170:
1840:
Leith, David. 2015. “Elements and Uniform Parts in Early Alexandrian Medicine.”
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Leith, David. 2015. “Elements and Uniform Parts in Early Alexandrian Medicine.”
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1804:
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144:
1965:
354, no. 9191 (November 13, 1999): 1719–20. doi:10.1016/S0140-6736(99)02081-4.
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354, no. 9191 (November 13, 1999): 1719–20. doi:10.1016/S0140-6736(99)02081-4.
581:. He accounted for diseases in the same way, and supposed that as long as the
298:, but this is not confirmed by any other ancient writer; and according to the
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Of his method of cure the most remarkable peculiarity was his aversion to
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The description is not very clear, but seems to show that he supposed the
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569:(spiritual substance) played a very important part both in his system of
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334:
202:
174:
1885:
Lonie, I. M. (1964). "Erasistratus, the Erasistrateans, and Aristotle".
1694:
Acta Historiae Medicinae Stomatologiae Pharmaciae Medicinae Veterinariae
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Acta Historiae Medicinae Stomatologiae Pharmaciae Medicinae Veterinariae
1619: This article incorporates text from a publication now in the
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818:"Bygone theatres of events: A history of human anatomy and dissection"
153:; c. 304 – c. 250 BC) was a Greek anatomist and royal physician under
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5, no. 2 (April 2018): 154–67. doi:10.17720/2409-5583.v5.2.2018.01a.
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5, no. 1 (January 2018): 3–13. doi:10.17720/2409-5834.v5.1.2018.01a.
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5, no. 2 (April 2018): 154–67. doi:10.17720/2409-5583.v5.2.2018.01a.
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5, no. 1 (January 2018): 3–13. doi:10.17720/2409-5834.v5.1.2018.01a.
1861:
1703:
4, no. 3 (July 2017): 211–21. doi:10.17720/2409-5834.v4.3.2017.02b.
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Balalykin, Dmitry A. “What Do We Know about Erasistratus? Part 2.”
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Balalykin, Dmitry A. “What Do We Know about Erasistratus? Part 1.”
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Balalykin, Dmitry A. “What Do We Know about Erasistratus? Part 2.”
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Balalykin, Dmitry A. “What Do We Know about Erasistratus? Part 1.”
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4, no. 3 (July 2017): 211–21. doi:10.17720/2409-5834.v4.3.2017.02b.
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409:
377:
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321:, where he acquired great reputation by discovering the disease of
235:
217:
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Erasistratus is credited for his description of the valves of the
1659:
Boylan, Michael. "Galen: On Blood, the Pulse, and the Arteries."
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Boylan, Michael. "Galen: On Blood, the Pulse, and the Arteries."
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553:
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21, no. 1/2 (March 2014): 86–106. doi:10.1163/15743012-02101003.
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21, no. 1/2 (March 2014): 86–106. doi:10.1163/15743012-02101003.
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did not lead to the discovery that there was blood and not just
1376:
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Woodcut of Herophilus and Erasistratus in the Gardens of Adonis
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Discovery of information regarding the Alexandrian physicians
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have a sigmoid shape, a name which is still used presently.
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By the time both Erasistratus and Herophilus had died, the
515:
302:, he was the son of Cretoxena, the sister of the physician
299:
259:
132:
126:
105:
99:
1848:
Lloyd, G. E. R. (1975). "A Note on Erasistratus of Ceos".
1913:
Smith, W. D. (1982). "Erasistratus's dietetic medicine".
267:
114:
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Erasistratus is generally supposed to have been born at
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He appears to have been very near the discovery of the
1631:
Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology
1372:
Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology
242:. Erasistratus is regarded by some as the founder of
135:
117:
111:
96:
601:. This was a medical term that was commonly used in
129:
123:
120:
102:
108:
1777:. Arthur John Brock, trans. London: W. Heinemann.
1699:Ferngren, Gary. “Vivisection Ancient and Modern.”
758:Ferngren, Gary. “Vivisection Ancient and Modern.”
1696:37, 1-2 (2018): 8-34. DOI: 10.25106/ahm.2018.2407
1689:36, 1-2 (2017): 8-19. DOI: 10.25106/ahm.2017.1512
630:Bloodletting, against the Erasistrateans at Rome,
1970:
1737:(1984). Furley, David J.; Wilkie, J.S. (eds.).
447:, for in a passage preserved by Galen he says:
1943:Bulletin of the Institute of Classical Studies
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1602:60 (4): 462–91. doi:10.1163/15685284-12341293.
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1491:, vii. 1; Aulus Gellius, xvii. 11; Macrobius,
1741:. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.
613:that bore his name, and which was S-shaped.
620:had towards Erasistratus's views regarding
1940:
771:
679:Downfall and loss of influence after death
29:
1761:On the Doctrines of Hippocrates and Plato
1671:. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
833:
792:
609:he was celebrated for the invention of a
1797:Three treatises on the nature of science
1763:(3rd ed.). Berlin: Akademie-Verlag.
986:Diogenes Laertius, vii. 7. § 10; Pliny,
781:The Yale Journal of Biology and Medicine
653:
624:, the Alexandrian physician was said by
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1314:from Herophilus. See Rufus of Ephesus,
493:, he imagined that they arose from the
317:He lived for some time at the court of
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329:, the young and beautiful daughter of
157:of Syria. Along with fellow physician
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1739:Galen on respiration and the arteries
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728:
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650:Association with Herophilus and Galen
1907:International Journal of Cardiology.
1709:"The Career of Erasistratus of Ceos"
1034:International Journal of Cardiology.
754:
752:
750:
748:
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744:
1915:Bulletin of the History of Medicine
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13:
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1517:iv. 2, vol. viii. p. 703, et alibi
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196:, to have performed controversial
14:
2025:
1661:Journal of the History of Biology
1355:Journal of the History of Biology
741:
548:. He attributed the sensation of
384:in Ionia nearly till the time of
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1614:
1070:c. 6. vol. xiv. p. 630; Julian,
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1634:. Vol. 2. pp. 42–44.
1628:, ed. (1870). "Erasistratus".
928:
915:
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879:
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616:Much to the disagreement that
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1541:de Venae Sect. adv. Erasistr.
1476:Comment, in Hippocr. De Alim.
1269:de Venae Sect. adv. Erasistr.
816:Brenna, Connor T. A. (2021).
310:, Metrodorus, and apparently
266:refers to him as a native of
58:
47:
992:de Ven. Sect. adv. Erasistr.
392:, Apollophanes Artemidoras,
290:says he was the grandson of
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1850:Journal of Hellenic Studies
1316:de Appell. Part. Corp. Hum.
419:
10:
2030:
1663:40, no. 2 (2007): 207–230.
1424:De Hippocr. et Plat. Decr.
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1329:de Hippocr. et Plat. Decr.
1310:, which received the name
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161:, he founded a school of
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1560:c. 13. vol. xiv. p. 751.
1478:iii. 14. vol. xv. p. 308
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709:
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1935:Religion & Theology
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1707:Fraser, P. M. (1969).
1504:Aulus Gellius, xvi. 3.
1452:, c. 7. vol. v. p. 131
1426:vii. 3, vol. v. p. 602
1413:vii. 3, vol. v. p. 603
1400:vi. 6, vol. v. p. 548.
1331:vi. 6, vol. v. p. 552.
1130:c. 6. vol. xiv. p. 630
1020:c. 7, vol. iv. p. 729.
950:c. 4, vol. xiv. p. 683
887:"Erasistratus Of Ceos"
659:
646:for other treatments.
628:in his work entitled,
454:
353:
264:Stephanus of Byzantium
1999:Greek neuroscientists
1826:. Oxford: Clarendon.
1667:Brain, Peter (1986).
1530:c. 1. vol. iv. p. 471
1465:ii. 2, vol. ii. p. 78
1271:c. 2, vol. xi. p. 151
994:c. 7, vol. xi. p. 171
822:The Anatomical Record
657:
510:He asserted that the
449:
351:
331:Demetrius Poliorcetes
1280:Caelius Aurelianus,
1128:de Praenot. ad Epig.
1080:, §§ 17, 18; Pliny,
1068:de Praenot. ad Epig.
773:von Staden, Heinrich
556:, and said that the
552:to emptiness of the
414:Anonymus Londinensis
406:Heraclides of Smyrna
390:Apollonius Memphites
308:Chrysippus of Cnidos
23:Erasistratus of Ceos
1701:History of Medicine
1654:History of Medicine
1647:History of Medicine
1578:History of Medicine
1545:de Philosoph. Plac.
1312:phleps arteriodorus
1247:History of Medicine
1084:xxix. 3; Plutarch,
760:History of Medicine
1435:Rufus of Ephesus,
1117:, vol. iii. p. 852
1018:de Sang, in Arter.
1003:Sextus Empiricus,
990:, xxix. 3; Galen,
660:
603:Hellanistic Greece
430:Caelius Aurelianus
354:
319:Seleucus I Nicator
155:Seleucus I Nicator
80:Hellenistic Greece
1463:de Facult. Natur.
1066:c. 59-61; Galen,
532:, or through the
323:Antiochus I Soter
282:, as a native of
274:, as a native of
258:on the island of
85:
84:
2021:
1989:Greek anatomists
1984:Greek biologists
1958:
1930:
1902:
1881:
1837:
1818:
1788:
1764:
1752:
1730:
1728:
1713:
1682:
1635:
1618:
1617:
1603:
1596:
1581:
1574:
1561:
1554:
1548:
1537:
1531:
1524:
1518:
1515:de Differ. Puls.
1511:
1505:
1502:
1496:
1485:
1479:
1472:
1466:
1459:
1453:
1446:
1440:
1437:De Appell. Part.
1433:
1427:
1420:
1414:
1407:
1401:
1394:
1388:
1364:
1358:
1351:
1332:
1325:
1319:
1308:pulmonary artery
1304:
1298:
1291:
1285:
1278:
1272:
1265:
1259:
1256:
1250:
1243:
1196:
1189:
1183:
1176:
1170:
1163:
1157:
1150:
1144:
1137:
1131:
1124:
1118:
1107:
1101:
1098:Valerius Maximus
1096:vii. Hist. 118;
1092:; John Tzetzes,
1060:
1054:
1043:
1037:
1030:
1021:
1014:
1008:
1001:
995:
984:
978:
971:
965:
957:
951:
944:
938:
932:
926:
919:
913:
912:
909:Encyclopedia.com
901:
895:
894:
883:
877:
870:
864:
863:
837:
835:10.1002/ar.24764
813:
807:
806:
796:
769:
763:
756:
739:
732:
501:Rufus of Ephesus
479:tricuspid valves
294:by his daughter
152:
151:
142:
141:
138:
137:
134:
131:
128:
125:
122:
119:
116:
113:
110:
107:
104:
101:
98:
60:
49:
35:Erasistratus by
33:
19:
18:
2029:
2028:
2024:
2023:
2022:
2020:
2019:
2018:
1969:
1968:
1834:
1815:
1785:
1749:
1726:
1711:
1679:
1642:
1640:Further reading
1615:
1611:
1606:
1597:
1584:
1575:
1564:
1555:
1551:
1538:
1534:
1528:de Usu, Respir.
1525:
1521:
1512:
1508:
1503:
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1486:
1482:
1473:
1469:
1460:
1456:
1447:
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1199:
1190:
1186:
1177:
1173:
1164:
1160:
1151:
1147:
1138:
1134:
1125:
1121:
1108:
1104:
1061:
1057:
1049:c. 38; Appian,
1044:
1040:
1031:
1024:
1015:
1011:
1002:
998:
985:
981:
972:
968:
958:
954:
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933:
929:
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902:
898:
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880:
871:
867:
814:
810:
770:
766:
757:
742:
733:
716:
712:
703:
681:
652:
422:
252:
171:methodic school
95:
91:
39:
24:
17:
12:
11:
5:
2027:
2017:
2016:
2011:
2009:250s BC deaths
2006:
2004:300s BC births
2001:
1996:
1991:
1986:
1981:
1967:
1966:
1959:
1949:(1): 178–199.
1938:
1931:
1921:(3): 398–409.
1910:
1903:
1882:
1862:10.2307/630879
1845:
1838:
1832:
1819:
1813:
1805:Richard Walzer
1789:
1783:
1765:
1753:
1747:
1731:
1729:on 2011-08-27.
1704:
1697:
1690:
1683:
1677:
1664:
1657:
1650:
1641:
1638:
1637:
1636:
1626:Smith, William
1610:
1607:
1605:
1604:
1582:
1562:
1549:
1532:
1519:
1506:
1497:
1480:
1467:
1454:
1441:
1428:
1415:
1402:
1389:
1359:
1333:
1320:
1299:
1286:
1282:de Morb. Acut.
1273:
1260:
1251:
1197:
1184:
1171:
1158:
1145:
1132:
1119:
1102:
1055:
1038:
1022:
1009:
996:
979:
966:
952:
939:
927:
914:
905:"Erasistratus"
896:
878:
865:
828:(4): 788–802.
808:
787:(3): 223–241.
764:
740:
713:
711:
708:
702:
699:
680:
677:
651:
648:
421:
418:
408:, Hermogenes,
280:emperor Julian
251:
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1833:0-19-858135-1
1829:
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1816:
1814:0-915145-91-X
1810:
1806:
1802:
1801:Michael Frede
1798:
1794:
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1786:
1784:0-674-99078-1
1780:
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1748:0-691-08286-3
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1698:
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1678:0-521-32085-2
1674:
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1662:
1658:
1655:
1651:
1648:
1644:
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1632:
1627:
1622:
1621:public domain
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1175:
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1155:
1149:
1142:
1136:
1129:
1123:
1116:
1112:
1111:Vita Hippocr.
1106:
1099:
1095:
1091:
1088:c. 38; Suda,
1087:
1083:
1079:
1075:
1074:
1069:
1065:
1064:de Rebus Syr.
1059:
1052:
1051:de Rebus Syr.
1048:
1042:
1035:
1029:
1027:
1019:
1013:
1006:
1000:
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989:
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89:
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71:
68:
64:
57:
53:
46:
42:
38:
32:
27:
20:
1962:
1946:
1942:
1934:
1918:
1914:
1906:
1890:
1886:
1853:
1849:
1841:
1823:
1796:
1773:
1760:
1738:
1724:the original
1719:
1715:
1700:
1693:
1686:
1668:
1660:
1653:
1646:
1629:
1599:
1577:
1557:
1552:
1544:
1540:
1535:
1527:
1522:
1514:
1509:
1500:
1492:
1488:
1483:
1475:
1470:
1462:
1457:
1450:de Atra Bile
1449:
1444:
1436:
1431:
1423:
1418:
1410:
1405:
1397:
1392:
1370:
1362:
1354:
1328:
1323:
1315:
1311:
1302:
1295:de Usu Part.
1294:
1289:
1281:
1276:
1268:
1263:
1258:Strabo, xii.
1254:
1246:
1192:
1187:
1179:
1174:
1166:
1161:
1153:
1148:
1140:
1135:
1127:
1122:
1114:
1113:in Hippocr.
1110:
1105:
1097:
1093:
1090:Erasistratos
1089:
1085:
1081:
1078:de Syria Dea
1077:
1071:
1067:
1063:
1058:
1050:
1046:
1041:
1033:
1017:
1012:
1004:
999:
991:
987:
982:
974:
969:
960:
955:
947:
942:
935:
930:
925:; Strabo, x.
923:Erasistratos
922:
917:
908:
899:
890:
881:
873:
868:
825:
821:
811:
784:
780:
767:
759:
735:
704:
682:
673:
669:
665:
661:
629:
615:
591:bloodletting
588:
582:
578:
564:
562:
541:
537:
523:
509:
494:
484:
455:
450:
442:
423:
362:vivisections
355:
316:
312:Theophrastus
253:
227:
221:
207:
198:vivisections
186:vivisections
183:
179:neuroscience
150:Ἐρασίστρατος
88:Erasistratus
87:
86:
1893:: 426–443.
1856:: 172–175.
1439:etc. p. 65.
1139:Aristaen..
1005:adv Mathem.
335:Hippocrates
203:Renaissance
175:Hippocratic
1973:Categories
1609:References
1487:Plutarch,
1375:, vol. 2 (
1167:Hist. Nat.
1082:Hist. Nat.
1076:; Lucian,
1045:Plutarch,
988:Hist. Nat.
975:Hist. Nat.
891:Britannica
694:Syrian War
690:Syrian War
685:empiricist
644:phlebotomy
635:phlebotomy
622:phlebotomy
571:physiology
505:cerebellum
496:dura mater
402:Chrysippus
398:Charidemus
358:Alexandria
327:Stratonice
278:; and the
244:physiology
240:cerebellum
194:Tertullian
167:Alexandria
159:Herophilus
66:Occupation
1878:162191151
1842:Phronesis
1600:Phronesis
1489:Symposium
1383:, 1867),
1367:Smith, W.
1195:i. praef.
1193:de Medic.
1109:Soranus,
1073:Misopogon
977:, xxix. 3
962:Misopogon
860:237608991
844:1932-8494
595:purgative
575:pathology
558:Scythians
534:esophagus
528:into the
520:esophagus
438:anatomist
434:physician
292:Aristotle
262:, though
70:Physician
1899:14213123
1795:(1985).
1771:(1916).
1495:vii. 15.
1191:Celsus,
1154:Aethiop.
1152:Heliod.
1062:Appian,
959:Julian,
852:34551186
775:(1992).
611:catheter
599:plethora
542:tracheia
462:arterial
420:Medicine
410:Hicesius
394:Athenion
378:Eusebius
343:Avicenna
236:cerebrum
218:arteries
1927:6753988
1623::
1558:Introd.
1556:Galen,
1539:Galen,
1526:Galen,
1513:Galen,
1493:Saturn.
1474:Galen,
1461:Galen,
1448:Galen,
1422:Galen,
1409:Galen,
1396:Galen,
1369:, ed.,
1327:Galen,
1293:Galen,
1267:Galen,
1178:Galen,
1169:xxix. 3
1165:Pliny,
1126:Galen,
1086:Demetr.
1047:Demetr.
1016:Galen,
973:Pliny,
948:Introd.
946:Galen,
803:1285450
794:2589595
607:surgery
554:stomach
546:trachea
538:arteria
525:trachea
436:and an
296:Pythias
163:anatomy
1963:Lancet
1925:
1897:
1876:
1870:630879
1868:
1830:
1811:
1781:
1745:
1675:
1547:v. 29.
1377:Boston
1284:ii. 33
1156:iv. 7.
1141:Epist.
1053:c. 59.
1007:i. 12,
921:Suda,
858:
850:
842:
801:
791:
736:Lancet
583:pneuma
579:pneuma
566:pneuma
550:hunger
514:, the
512:spleen
491:nerves
477:. The
475:pneuma
471:Harvey
458:venous
386:Strabo
382:Smyrna
370:Mycale
366:pneuma
304:Medius
256:Ioulis
228:pneuma
223:pneuma
192:, and
190:Celsus
61:250 BC
50:304 BC
37:Ingres
1874:S2CID
1866:JSTOR
1793:Galen
1769:Galen
1757:Galen
1735:Galen
1727:(PDF)
1712:(PDF)
1385:p. 43
1318:p. 42
1143:i. 13
1115:Opera
1094:Chil.
856:S2CID
710:Notes
639:Galen
626:Galen
618:Galen
530:lungs
487:brain
467:liver
426:Galen
374:Ionia
339:Galen
288:Pliny
284:Samos
276:Chios
272:Galen
232:brain
214:veins
210:heart
145:Greek
1923:PMID
1895:PMID
1828:ISBN
1809:ISBN
1803:and
1779:ISBN
1743:ISBN
1673:ISBN
1306:The
1100:v. 7
848:PMID
840:ISSN
799:PMID
593:and
573:and
563:The
516:bile
460:and
300:Suda
260:Ceos
250:Life
238:and
216:and
55:Died
44:Born
1951:doi
1858:doi
1720:103
936:Kos
830:doi
826:305
789:PMC
372:in
268:Cos
205:.
165:in
76:Era
1975::
1947:22
1945:.
1919:56
1917:.
1891:38
1889:.
1872:.
1864:.
1854:95
1852:.
1799:.
1718:.
1714:.
1585:^
1565:^
1379::
1336:^
1200:^
1025:^
907:.
889:.
854:.
846:.
838:.
824:.
820:.
797:.
785:65
783:.
779:.
743:^
717:^
637:.
507:.
428:,
416:.
404:,
400:,
396:,
341:,
337:,
314:.
286:.
270:;
246:.
147::
143:;
59:c.
48:c.
1957:.
1953::
1929:.
1901:.
1880:.
1860::
1836:.
1817:.
1787:.
1751:.
1681:.
1387:.
911:.
893:.
862:.
832::
805:.
139:/
136:s
133:ə
130:t
127:ə
124:r
121:t
118:s
115:ɪ
112:s
109:ˈ
106:ə
103:r
100:ɛ
97:ˌ
94:/
90:(
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