389:
370:
194:
351:
842:, narrow cuttings often running deeply through hills, are probably little changed since Etruscan times. As well as connecting sites, these may have had a defensive function in times of war. Their construction may have mainly resulted from the wearing through soft tufo bedrock by iron-rimmed wheels, creating deep ruts that required the road to be frequently recut to a smooth surface. Their dating can only be deduced by that of settlements they pass between, and objects from tombs beside them. The 7th and 6th centuries BC show a move to replace earlier tracks only suitable for mules and pedestrians with wider and more engineered roads capable of taking wheeled vehicles, using gentler but longer routes through hilly country.
451:
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146:
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533:, especially ceramics, which give us most of our understanding of Etruscan culture. Typically, in the tufa regions of southern Etruria, the burial chamber was cut from solid rock below ground, which is relatively easy with this rock, but there was a structure above, often rather large. In other regions they are normally built up above ground. They were reused for further burials in the same family over several generations, and would often have become very crowded with sarcophagi and grave goods, though the known survivals have now been emptied, either by looters or archaeologists.
617:
601:
790:
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90:
20:
319:
515:
680:
774:
428:(Zone F); both are 6th-century or earlier. Both have sets of buildings round a courtyard, which use stone, at least in the foundations, roof tiles, and elaborate decorations in architectural terracotta. Their size is exceptional for their early date. One obvious possible function is as palatial dwellings; another is as civic buildings, acting as places for assembly, and commemoration of aspects of the community. Only the stone foundations and ceramic fragments remain for excavations to discover.
827:, overlie Etruscan precursors, but there are sufficient Etruscan sites that were neglected after their conquest to allow an understanding of the considerable Etruscan road system. Roads did not just run between cities, but out into the countryside to allow agricultural produce to be easily brought in. While not as heavily engineered as Roman roads, considerable efforts went into creating a road surface that on major routes could be as wide as 10.4 metres, on a 12 kilometre stretch connecting
585:
335:
142:, one for each of the main Etruscan deities, but archaeological remains do not suggest this was normal, though it is found. Roman sources were in the habit of ascribing to the Etruscans a taste for triads in things such as city planning (with three gates to cities, for example), in ways that do not seem to reflect reality. The orientation of the temple is not consistent, and may have been determined by a priest watching the flight of birds at the time of foundation.
32:
265:
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296:, and had a cathedral-like position in the official religion of Rome. Its first version was traditionally dedicated in 509 BC, but in 83 BC it was destroyed by fire, and was rebuilt as a Greek-style temple, which was completed in 69 BC (there were to be two more fires and new buildings). For the first temple Etruscan specialists were brought in for various aspects of the building, including making and painting the extensive terracotta elements of the
3195:
809:
702:
308:× 200 ft), not far short of the largest Greek temples. Whatever its size, its influence on other early Roman temples was significant and long-lasting. Reconstructions usually show very wide eaves, and a wide colonnade stretching down the sides, though not round the back wall as it would have done in a Greek temple. A crude image on a coin of 78 BC shows only four columns, and a very busy
1536:(includes: Ara della Regina, Gravisca and Giovanna Bagnasco Gianni, "Tarquinia, sacred areas and sanctuaries on the Civita plateau and on the coast; Baglione, Maria Paola, "The Sanctuary at Pyrgi,"; Bizzarri, Claudio, "Etruscan Town Planning and Related Structures,"; Edlund-Berry, Ingrid, "The architectural heritage of Etruria"; "The phenomenon of terracotta: architectural terracottas")
54:. The Etruscans were considerable builders in stone, wood and other materials of temples, houses, tombs and city walls, as well as bridges and roads. The only structures remaining in quantity in anything like their original condition are tombs and walls, but through archaeology and other sources we have a good deal of information on what once existed.
467:
the air; these projections seem to have been sometimes carved or otherwise decorated. The urns always have a large square-ish door for access, sometimes two, and the outline of windows in the walls may be indicated by ridges or marks in the clay. There is very often a window and exit for smoke, above the door in the roof, and at the opposite end.
548:, the latter containing some 6,000 burials. Several different types of tombs have been identified, reflecting a development through time as well as differences in income. Some types clearly replicate aspects of the richer houses, with a number of connected chambers, columns with capitals, and rock-cut ceilings given beams. Many tombs had
446:
bases, with perhaps mud-brick above, but in some places the lower parts of tufa walls survive even in small houses. One complete set of foundations shows a house 7.9m by 3.9m (25 x 13 feet). At large farms, mines, quarries and perhaps other sites employing many people, workers lived in dormitories.
466:
and early burials, especially in northern areas. The hut urns show a conventional model with a single interior space. They are usually round or slightly oval, often with prominent wooden beams laid in two rows on the sloping roof, which cross at the central ridge and project some way in "V"s into
68:
The main monumental forms of
Etruscan architecture, listed in decreasing order of the surviving remains, were: the houses of the wealthy elite, the mysterious "monumental complexes", temples, city walls, and rock-cut tombs. Apart from the podia of temples and some house foundations, only the walls
121:
Many aspects of his description fit what archaeologists can demonstrate, but others do not. It is in any case clear that
Etruscan temples could take a number of forms, and also varied over the 400-year period during which they were being made. Nonetheless, Vitruvius remains the inevitable starting
478:
and perhaps stone rings at the base are found. Even the well-off seem rarely to have lived in stone houses, and rock-cut tomb chambers often represent wooden ceilings in stone. The "Tomb of the
Reliefs" at Banditaccia suggests that possessions such as tools and weapons were often hung from the
205:
Features shared by typical
Etruscan and Roman temples, and contrasting with Greek ones, begin with a strongly frontal approach, with great emphasis on the front facade, less on the sides, and very little on the back. The podia are also usually higher, and can only be entered at a section of the
160:
and roofs, and this was if anything even more true of
Etruscan temples. When wood was used for columns, the bases and capitals were often encased in painted terracotta. All the edges of the roof were decorated, mostly in brightly painted terracotta, and there seem often to have been a row of
436:
It seems clear from the richer tombs that the
Etruscan elite lived in fairly spacious comfort, but there is little evidence as to what their homes looked like, although some furniture is shown in tomb frescos. The rock-cut tomb chambers often form suites of "rooms", some quite large, which
307:
The first version is the largest
Etruscan temple recorded, and much larger than other Roman temples for centuries after. However, its size remains heavily disputed by specialists; based on an ancient visitor it has been claimed to have been almost 60 m × 60 m (200 ft
85:
until its end. It was only around 600 BC, at the height of their civilization, that they began to create monumental temples, undoubtedly influenced by the Greeks. That these buildings developed essentially from the largest types of
Etruscan house has been both asserted and challenged.
206:
front, just presenting a blank platform wall elsewhere. There may only be columns at the front portico. In
Etruscan temples, more than Roman ones, the portico is deep, often representing, as Vitruvius recommends, half of the area under the roof, with multiple rows of columns.
130:
equivalents. There are also a few model temples in pottery, and depictions on tombs or vases. Remains of the architectural terracotta elements sometimes survive in considerable quantities, and museums, mostly in Italy, have good collections of attractively shaped and painted
65:, which in its early centuries can be considered as just a regional variation of Etruscan architecture. But increasingly, from about 200 BC, the Romans looked directly to Greece for their styling, while sometimes retaining Etruscan shapes and purposes in their buildings.
350:
388:
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was part of an acroterion group. Substantial but broken remains of late sculptured pediment groups survive in museums, in fact rather more than from Greek or Roman temples, partly because the terracotta was not capable of "recycling" as
441:
homes of the better-off
Etruscans. Unlike several of the necropoli, Etruscan cities have generally been built over from the Romans onwards, and houses have left little trace. Where remains survive, there are tightly packed
416:"Monumental complex" or building is a term used for a few large sets of buildings relatively recently uncovered by archaeology, the term reflecting a lack of certainty over their function. The two leading examples are
105:
or base platform used stone, with the upper parts of wood and mud-brick, greatly reducing what survives for archaeologists. However, there is evidence for the portico columns sometimes using stone, as at
118:) temple of a type perhaps still sometimes built in his own day, rather than a really historically minded attempt to describe original Etruscan buildings, though he may well have seen examples of these.
462:
A form of models of houses in pottery, and sometimes bronze, called "hut urns" gives us some indications. These were apparently used to hold cremated ashes, and are found in the Etruscan Iron Age
733:
or ditch in front of the wall. The towns had a number of gates where roads entered, which were sometimes given arched gateways. The best survivor of these is the 2nd-century Porta Marzia at
737:, from the end of the period. Here, as in many cases, surviving work comes from the period just around the Roman takeover, but appears to represent Etruscan traditions. By the 4th century,
114:(died after 15 BC), writing some two centuries after the Etruscan civilization was absorbed by Rome. He describes how to plan a "Tuscan temple" that appears to be a Roman "Etruscan-style" (
81:
The early Etruscans seem to have worshipped in open air enclosures, marked off but not built over; sacrifices continued to be performed outside rather than inside temples in traditional
566:
498:
roof, and possibly typical of ordinary Etruscan housing outside crowded city centres. The site cannot be identified with certainty, but at one candidate location circle of six
721:—to have been a continuation of similar Etruscan practices. Even before the Romans began to swallow up Etruscan territory, Italy had frequent wars, and by the later period had
1032:
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paintings, which does not seem to have been a Greek influence (though the style of the paintings are certainly based on Greek art), as the Greeks had ceased to use
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318:
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Bridges were common, though fords more so where these would suffice. Presumably many were in timber, but some at least used stone underneath a timber roadway.
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709:
Etruscan cities, which often sat on hill-tops, became walled from about the 8th century, first in mud-brick, then often in stone. The Romans considered the
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679:
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494:") was long preserved, and when necessary rebuilt as before. It was a hut made of wood posts and roof beams, wattle and daub walls and a
1088:
Stamper, 33 and all Chapters 1 and 2. Stamper is a leading protagonist of a smaller size, rejecting the larger size proposed by the late
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with stone retaining walls, with steps down to rock-cut chambers below. Both types are found closely packed together in necropoli like
309:
748:, and sometimes "cyclopeian", using large polygonal blocks, partly shaped to fit each other, somewhat in the manner of the well-known
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110:. This has left much about Etruscan temples uncertain. The only written account of significance on their architecture is by
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229:, but the attention to the full Greek detailing in the entablature that the Romans pursued seems to have been lacking.
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well before the Etruscans started to paint theirs in about 600; the Egyptians had also ceased painting tombs by then.
450:
277:
269:
2150:
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1997:
1911:
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835:, made in the 5th century. This had a gravel surface, between tufo edging-blocks, and a central drainage channel.
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2019:
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The exteriors of both Greek and Roman temples were originally highly decorated and colourful, especially in the
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1511:. 2nd ed. University Museum, University of Pennsylvania in cooperation with the American Academy in Rome, 2000
256:, illustrated above), and combined with the distinctive "Etruscan round moulding", often painted with scales.
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Winter, Nancy A., "Monumentalization of the Etruscan Round Moulding in Sixth Century BCE Central Italy", in
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752:, though not reaching that level of quality. Gaps are left, which are filled in with much smaller stones.
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in many temples, often painted with vertical "tongue" patterns (as in the reconstructed Etruscan temple at
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1967:
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3004:
2512:
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2014:
1771:
1666:
1586:
1570:
1627:
382:, end of the 5th century. Heads of both Silenus and gorgons were common subjects for antefixes.
2825:
2820:
2432:
2355:
2335:
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1901:
1691:
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1604:
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458:, 9th–8th century BC), showing the likely shape of an early hut: a simple mud-and-straw shelter
230:
1409:
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The stonework is often of fine quality, sometimes using regular rectangular blocks in a rough
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Some tombs are stone buildings, often in rows, rather like small houses. Others are round
8:
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1987:
1916:
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Boethius, 34; see Izzet, 20–21 for a discussion of Etruscan cultural importing in general
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2979:
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1870:
712:
572:
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341:
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2002:
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Christofani; Izzet, 16–17, cautions against transferring such details automatically
289:
285:
233:
Tuscan/Doric columns can also be found, against Greek and later Roman conventions.
218:
1357:
514:
19:
3019:
2912:
2835:
2705:
2700:
2604:
2584:
1982:
1962:
1500:
Borrelli, Federica, Maria Cristina Targia, Stefano Peccatori, and Stefano Zuffi,
1475:, edited by Michael Thomas, Gretchen E. Meyers, 2012, University of Texas Press,
1431:
1377:
471:
421:
281:
248:, though not on the same massive scale. The cavetto took the place of the Greek
3042:
2923:
2850:
2680:
2660:
2624:
2215:
1942:
1678:
1473:
Monumentality in Etruscan and Early Roman Architecture: Ideology and Innovation
1416:
Monumentality in Etruscan and Early Roman Architecture: Ideology and Innovation
1089:
198:
179:
170:
82:
46:
was created between about 900 BC and 27 BC, when the expanding civilization of
363:'s directions for a "Tuscan temple", but lacks external decoration and colour.
61:, which was itself developing through the same period. In turn it influenced
3211:
3137:
2999:
2907:
2901:
2782:
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2172:
2105:
2078:
1848:
1364:, Yale University Press Pelican history of art, 1978, Yale University Press,
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47:
36:
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Such houses were made of earth and organic materials, using mud brick and
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2569:
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1880:
1858:
717:—the sanctification of the course of a future city wall through a ritual
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325:
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31:
24:
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1465:
Taylor, Laurel, "Temple of Minerva and the sculpture of Apollo (Veii)",
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2167:
824:
820:
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enemies to the north, and an expanding Rome to the south. There was an
686:
162:
122:
point for a description, and a contrast of Etruscan temples with their
73:
tombs were mainly in stone, and have therefore often largely survived.
1386:, Oxford Art Online. Oxford University Press, accessed April 9, 2016,
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111:
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1460:
The architecture of Roman temples: the republic to the middle empire
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Meyers, Gretchen E., in Michael Thomas, Gretchen E. Meyers (eds.),
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813:
796:
738:
249:
187:
183:
166:
150:
57:
From about 630 BC, Etruscan architecture was heavily influenced by
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some way outside their cities. These were generously filled with
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sculptures along the central ridge of the roof, going beyond the
132:
94:
1514:
Sprenger, Maja, Gilda Bartoloni, Max Hirmer, and Albert Hirmer.
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745:
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304:. But for the second building they were summoned from Greece.
175:
102:
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Rich Etruscans left elaborate tombs, mostly gathered in large
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3127:
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139:
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107:
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were also regularly constructed for burying the deceased.
1596:
284:
was the oldest large temple in Rome, dedicated to the
1382:
Cristofani, Mauro, et al. "Etruscan; Architecture",
741:
had two walls, the second enclosing the whole city.
259:
1516:
The Etruscans: Their History, Art, and Architecture
149:Late terracotta pediment (part-reconstructed) from
1507:Meritt, Lucy Shoe, and Ingrid E. M. Edlund-Berry,
1033:Another view of the reconstructed Etruscan temple
502:plus a central one have been found, cut into the
288:consisting of Jupiter and his companion deities,
3209:
689:; the "hammerhead" surround is a frequent motif
1438:A New Topographical Dictionary of Ancient Rome
506:bedrock, with an ovoid 4.9m x 3.6m perimeter.
97:; above this level stone was probably not used
2513:
1555:
1502:The Etruscans: Art, Architecture, and History
767:, town wall. Fairly regular blocks in courses
209:At least in later temples, versions of Greek
2615:Arruns Tarquinius (son of Tarquin the Proud)
1569:
710:
696:
654:View from above of a crowded necropolis at
2520:
2506:
1562:
1548:
1130:Boethius, 75–89; Banti, 27–28; Christofani
394:Winged-Horses of Tarquinia, 4th century BC
197:Remains of terracotta pediment group from
138:Vitruvius specifies three doors and three
2527:
324:Temple plan, following Vitruvius and the
16:Architecture of the Etruscan civilization
1326:, 1973, University of California Press,
807:
783:, its upper part built into a later wall
700:
513:
449:
403:
263:
221:capitals are found, as well as the main
192:
144:
88:
30:
18:
1509:Etruscan and Republican Roman Mouldings
399:
3210:
2501:
1543:
1362:Etruscan and Early Roman Architecture
1396:, 2007, Cambridge University Press,
1418:, 2012, University of Texas Press,
1394:The Archaeology of Etruscan Society
1345:The Oxford History of Classical Art
509:
344:, with partial modern visualization
13:
1494:
1462:, Cambridge University Press, 2005
819:Several important and unimportant
236:Etruscan architecture shared with
14:
3244:
1324:Etruscan Cities and Their Culture
521:necropolis, Tomb of the Capitelli
359:, London, 1630s, largely follows
278:Temple of Jupiter Optimus Maximus
270:Temple of Jupiter Optimus Maximus
260:Temple of Jupiter Optimus Maximus
190:) are among the most impressive.
3193:
2942:English words of Etruscan origin
2816:Battle of Alalia (540 BC–535 BC)
2638:
788:
779:The 2nd-century Porta Marzia at
772:
757:
678:
662:
647:
631:
615:
599:
583:
565:
437:presumably resemble in part the
387:
368:
349:
333:
328:Minerva temple, with three doors
317:
169:in Greek and Roman temples. The
2895:Corpus Inscriptionum Etruscarum
2696:Etruscan names for Greek heroes
1304:
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1286:
1277:
1268:
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1016:
1007:
998:
989:
980:
971:
962:
953:
944:
935:
803:
268:Speculative model of the first
2856:Battle of Lake Vadimo (310 BC)
2831:Battle of the Cremera (477 BC)
986:Boethius, 59–63; Boardman, 255
926:
917:
908:
899:
890:
881:
872:
863:
854:
1:
1822:Anatolian Seljuk architecture
1360:, Roger Ling, Tom Rasmussen,
1316:
575:tombs for cremation burials,
238:Ancient Egyptian architecture
2861:Battle of Populonia (282 BC)
2686:Corpus Speculorum Etruscorum
1504:. J. Paul Getty Museum, 2004
1256:Christofani; Boethius, 66–68
923:Christofani; Boethius, 33–34
7:
2846:Capture of Fidenae (435 BC)
454:Etruscan cinerary hut-urn (
225:, a simpler version of the
201:(paler areas reconstructed)
10:
3249:
2851:Battle of Veii (c. 396 BC)
2841:Battle of Fidenae (437 BC)
2767:Sarcophagus of the Spouses
2610:Lucius Tarquinius Superbus
1148:Banti, 25; Boethius, 26–27
914:Banti, 31–32; Boethius, 59
795:Polygonal masonry wall at
276:The first building of the
76:
3191:
3018:
2950:
2874:
2806:
2788:Tomb of the Roaring Lions
2647:
2636:
2630:Titus Vestricius Spurinna
2595:Lucius Tarquinius Priscus
2535:
2410:
2379:
2328:
2193:
1930:
1889:
1764:
1677:
1595:
1577:
1070:Christofani; Boethius, 47
995:Christofani; Banti, 31–32
905:Boethius, 48; Christofani
431:
2985:National Etruscan Museum
2836:Battle of Cumae (474 BC)
848:
697:Walls and fortifications
577:Necropolis of Monterozzi
357:St Paul's, Covent Garden
300:or upper parts, such as
116:tuscanicae dispositiones
3005:Tumulus of Montefortini
1587:History of construction
1571:History of architecture
23:Tomb of the Reliefs at
2826:Siege of Rome (508 BC)
2821:Siege of Rome (509 BC)
1582:Architectural timeline
816:
711:
706:
522:
459:
413:
273:
202:
178:was. The groups from
153:
98:
40:
28:
3228:Architecture in Italy
3218:Etruscan architecture
2736:Monterozzi necropolis
2529:Etruscan civilization
2124:America and Australia
1744:Medieval Scandinavian
1522:Turfa, Jean MacIntosh
1388:subscription required
1265:Boëthius et al, 67–68
811:
704:
517:
453:
407:
267:
196:
148:
92:
52:Etruscan civilization
44:Etruscan architecture
39:temple reconstruction
34:
22:
3068:Civita di Bagnoregio
2741:Mythological figures
2366:Critical regionalism
1436:Richardson, L. Jr.,
1202:Banti, 20–21, 26, 28
418:the Archaic building
400:Monumental complexes
2937:Tyrsenian languages
2866:Roman-Etruscan Wars
2778:Terracotta warriors
2305:Stripped Classicism
2280:International style
2263:Rationalist-Fascist
1912:Portuguese Colonial
1662:Pre-Islamic Persian
1528:, 2013, Routledge.
1518:. H.N. Abrams, 1983
1440:, 1992, JHU Press,
479:walls for storage.
2980:Monteleone Chariot
2931:Tabula Cortonensis
2711:Haruspex/Extispicy
2550:Villanovan culture
2310:Postconstructivism
2253:Streamline Moderne
1526:The Etruscan World
1467:Khan Academy essay
869:Boardman, 220, 255
817:
713:sulcus primigenius
707:
638:Maze of tumuli at
523:
464:Villanovan culture
460:
414:
340:Temple of Apollo,
274:
203:
154:
101:Usually, only the
99:
63:Roman architecture
59:Greek architecture
41:
29:
3205:
3204:
2975:Impasto (pottery)
2726:Liver of Piacenza
2676:Chimera of Arezzo
2495:
2494:
1111:Denarius of 78 BC
729:or rampart and a
705:Wall at Orbetello
573:Villanovan period
456:Villanovan period
240:the use of large
93:Temple podium at
50:finally absorbed
3240:
3197:
2918:Lemnian language
2889:Cippus Perusinus
2808:Military history
2642:
2560:Founding of Rome
2555:Padanian Etruria
2522:
2515:
2508:
2499:
2498:
2387:Deconstructivism
2146:Spanish Colonial
1907:Spanish Colonial
1807:Western Chalukya
1615:Ancient Egyptian
1564:
1557:
1550:
1541:
1540:
1384:Grove Art Online
1311:
1308:
1302:
1299:
1293:
1290:
1284:
1281:
1275:
1272:
1266:
1263:
1257:
1254:
1248:
1245:
1239:
1236:
1230:
1227:
1221:
1218:
1212:
1209:
1203:
1200:
1194:
1191:
1185:
1182:
1176:
1173:
1167:
1164:
1158:
1155:
1149:
1146:
1140:
1137:
1131:
1128:
1122:
1119:
1113:
1108:
1102:
1099:
1093:
1086:
1080:
1077:
1071:
1068:
1062:
1059:
1053:
1045:
1039:
1031:Winter, 61–67;
1029:
1023:
1020:
1014:
1011:
1005:
1002:
996:
993:
987:
984:
978:
975:
969:
966:
960:
957:
951:
948:
942:
939:
933:
930:
924:
921:
915:
912:
906:
903:
897:
894:
888:
885:
879:
876:
870:
867:
861:
858:
792:
776:
761:
716:
682:
666:
651:
635:
619:
603:
587:
569:
510:Tombs and tumuli
391:
372:
353:
337:
321:
286:Capitoline Triad
3248:
3247:
3243:
3242:
3241:
3239:
3238:
3237:
3208:
3207:
3206:
3201:
3187:
3014:
2946:
2913:Raetic language
2870:
2802:
2706:Fanum Voltumnae
2701:Tiburtine Sibyl
2691:Etruscan League
2643:
2634:
2605:Servius Tullius
2585:Caelius Vibenna
2531:
2526:
2496:
2491:
2406:
2375:
2324:
2258:Totalitarianism
2248:New Objectivity
2189:
2042:Serbo-Byzantine
2037:Russo-Byzantine
1926:
1885:
1760:
1737:Islamic Persian
1673:
1591:
1573:
1568:
1497:
1495:Further reading
1458:Stamper, John,
1319:
1314:
1309:
1305:
1300:
1296:
1291:
1287:
1282:
1278:
1273:
1269:
1264:
1260:
1255:
1251:
1247:Boethius, 33–34
1246:
1242:
1237:
1233:
1228:
1224:
1219:
1215:
1210:
1206:
1201:
1197:
1192:
1188:
1183:
1179:
1174:
1170:
1165:
1161:
1157:Boethius, 26–27
1156:
1152:
1147:
1143:
1139:Boethius, 75–77
1138:
1134:
1129:
1125:
1120:
1116:
1109:
1105:
1100:
1096:
1087:
1083:
1079:Boethius, 47–48
1078:
1074:
1069:
1065:
1060:
1056:
1048:Ab urbe condita
1046:
1042:
1030:
1026:
1022:Boethius, 49–54
1021:
1017:
1012:
1008:
1003:
999:
994:
990:
985:
981:
976:
972:
967:
963:
958:
954:
949:
945:
940:
936:
931:
927:
922:
918:
913:
909:
904:
900:
895:
891:
886:
882:
877:
873:
868:
864:
859:
855:
851:
812:Sunken road or
806:
799:
793:
784:
777:
768:
762:
699:
690:
683:
674:
667:
658:
652:
643:
636:
627:
620:
611:
604:
595:
588:
579:
570:
512:
472:wattle and daub
434:
424:and another at
422:Poggio Civitate
402:
395:
392:
383:
373:
364:
354:
345:
338:
329:
322:
282:Capitoline Hill
262:
244:mouldings as a
135:in particular.
79:
17:
12:
11:
5:
3246:
3236:
3235:
3230:
3225:
3220:
3203:
3202:
3192:
3189:
3188:
3186:
3185:
3180:
3175:
3170:
3165:
3160:
3155:
3150:
3145:
3140:
3135:
3130:
3125:
3120:
3115:
3110:
3105:
3100:
3095:
3090:
3085:
3080:
3075:
3070:
3065:
3060:
3055:
3050:
3045:
3040:
3035:
3030:
3024:
3022:
3016:
3015:
3013:
3012:
3007:
3002:
2997:
2992:
2987:
2982:
2977:
2972:
2967:
2962:
2956:
2954:
2948:
2947:
2945:
2944:
2939:
2934:
2927:
2924:Tabula Capuana
2920:
2915:
2910:
2905:
2898:
2891:
2886:
2880:
2878:
2872:
2871:
2869:
2868:
2863:
2858:
2853:
2848:
2843:
2838:
2833:
2828:
2823:
2818:
2812:
2810:
2804:
2803:
2801:
2800:
2795:
2790:
2785:
2780:
2775:
2770:
2763:
2758:
2753:
2748:
2743:
2738:
2733:
2728:
2723:
2718:
2713:
2708:
2703:
2698:
2693:
2688:
2683:
2678:
2673:
2668:
2663:
2661:Apollo of Veii
2657:
2655:
2645:
2644:
2637:
2635:
2633:
2632:
2627:
2625:Lars Tolumnius
2622:
2617:
2612:
2607:
2602:
2597:
2592:
2587:
2582:
2577:
2572:
2567:
2562:
2557:
2552:
2547:
2541:
2539:
2533:
2532:
2525:
2524:
2517:
2510:
2502:
2493:
2492:
2490:
2489:
2484:
2479:
2474:
2469:
2464:
2463:
2462:
2452:
2447:
2442:
2441:
2440:
2435:
2425:
2420:
2414:
2412:
2408:
2407:
2405:
2404:
2399:
2394:
2389:
2383:
2381:
2377:
2376:
2374:
2373:
2368:
2363:
2358:
2353:
2348:
2343:
2338:
2332:
2330:
2326:
2325:
2323:
2322:
2317:
2312:
2307:
2302:
2297:
2292:
2287:
2282:
2277:
2276:
2275:
2270:
2265:
2255:
2250:
2245:
2243:Constructivism
2240:
2235:
2230:
2229:
2228:
2218:
2216:Prairie School
2213:
2208:
2203:
2197:
2195:
2191:
2190:
2188:
2187:
2186:
2185:
2180:
2175:
2170:
2160:
2159:
2158:
2153:
2148:
2143:
2138:
2133:
2128:
2127:
2126:
2121:
2113:
2108:
2103:
2098:
2097:
2096:
2091:
2086:
2076:
2071:
2066:
2061:
2056:
2051:
2046:
2045:
2044:
2039:
2024:
2023:
2022:
2012:
2011:
2010:
2005:
2000:
1995:
1990:
1985:
1980:
1975:
1970:
1965:
1960:
1955:
1950:
1945:
1934:
1932:
1928:
1927:
1925:
1924:
1919:
1914:
1909:
1904:
1899:
1893:
1891:
1887:
1886:
1884:
1883:
1878:
1873:
1868:
1863:
1862:
1861:
1851:
1846:
1845:
1844:
1839:
1834:
1829:
1824:
1819:
1811:
1810:
1809:
1804:
1799:
1791:
1790:
1789:
1784:
1779:
1768:
1766:
1762:
1761:
1759:
1758:
1757:
1756:
1749:Pre-Romanesque
1746:
1741:
1740:
1739:
1734:
1729:
1724:
1719:
1709:
1708:
1707:
1702:
1694:
1689:
1683:
1681:
1679:1st millennium
1675:
1674:
1672:
1671:
1670:
1669:
1659:
1658:
1657:
1652:
1647:
1637:
1632:
1631:
1630:
1625:
1617:
1612:
1607:
1601:
1599:
1593:
1592:
1590:
1589:
1584:
1578:
1575:
1574:
1567:
1566:
1559:
1552:
1544:
1538:
1537:
1534:978-0415673082
1519:
1512:
1505:
1496:
1493:
1492:
1491:
1485:978-0292749825
1469:
1463:
1456:
1450:978-0801843006
1434:
1428:978-0292749825
1412:
1406:978-1107320918
1392:Izzet, Vedia,
1390:
1380:
1374:978-0300052909
1355:
1341:Boardman, John
1338:
1336:978-0520019102
1322:Banti, Luisa,
1318:
1315:
1313:
1312:
1303:
1294:
1285:
1276:
1274:Izzet, 193–195
1267:
1258:
1249:
1240:
1231:
1222:
1213:
1204:
1195:
1186:
1184:Richardson, 74
1177:
1168:
1159:
1150:
1141:
1132:
1123:
1114:
1103:
1094:
1090:Einar Gjerstad
1081:
1072:
1063:
1061:Stamper, 12–13
1054:
1040:
1024:
1015:
1006:
997:
988:
979:
970:
961:
952:
943:
934:
925:
916:
907:
898:
889:
880:
871:
862:
852:
850:
847:
831:with its port
823:, such as the
805:
802:
801:
800:
794:
787:
785:
778:
771:
769:
763:
756:
698:
695:
692:
691:
684:
677:
675:
669:Tomb entry at
668:
661:
659:
653:
646:
644:
637:
630:
628:
621:
614:
612:
605:
598:
596:
589:
582:
580:
571:
564:
511:
508:
433:
430:
401:
398:
397:
396:
393:
386:
384:
374:
367:
365:
355:
348:
346:
339:
332:
330:
323:
316:
261:
258:
171:Apollo of Veii
165:group above a
83:Roman religion
78:
75:
35:Detail of the
15:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
3245:
3234:
3231:
3229:
3226:
3224:
3221:
3219:
3216:
3215:
3213:
3200:
3196:
3190:
3184:
3181:
3179:
3176:
3174:
3171:
3169:
3166:
3164:
3161:
3159:
3156:
3154:
3151:
3149:
3146:
3144:
3141:
3139:
3138:San Giovenale
3136:
3134:
3131:
3129:
3126:
3124:
3121:
3119:
3116:
3114:
3111:
3109:
3106:
3104:
3101:
3099:
3096:
3094:
3091:
3089:
3086:
3084:
3081:
3079:
3076:
3074:
3071:
3069:
3066:
3064:
3061:
3059:
3056:
3054:
3051:
3049:
3046:
3044:
3041:
3039:
3036:
3034:
3031:
3029:
3026:
3025:
3023:
3021:
3017:
3011:
3008:
3006:
3003:
3001:
3000:Tomb of Orcus
2998:
2996:
2993:
2991:
2988:
2986:
2983:
2981:
2978:
2976:
2973:
2971:
2968:
2966:
2963:
2961:
2958:
2957:
2955:
2953:
2949:
2943:
2940:
2938:
2935:
2933:
2932:
2928:
2926:
2925:
2921:
2919:
2916:
2914:
2911:
2909:
2908:Pyrgi Tablets
2906:
2904:
2903:
2902:Liber Linteus
2899:
2897:
2896:
2892:
2890:
2887:
2885:
2882:
2881:
2879:
2877:
2873:
2867:
2864:
2862:
2859:
2857:
2854:
2852:
2849:
2847:
2844:
2842:
2839:
2837:
2834:
2832:
2829:
2827:
2824:
2822:
2819:
2817:
2814:
2813:
2811:
2809:
2805:
2799:
2796:
2794:
2791:
2789:
2786:
2784:
2783:Titus Larcius
2781:
2779:
2776:
2774:
2771:
2769:
2768:
2764:
2762:
2759:
2757:
2754:
2752:
2749:
2747:
2744:
2742:
2739:
2737:
2734:
2732:
2729:
2727:
2724:
2722:
2719:
2717:
2714:
2712:
2709:
2707:
2704:
2702:
2699:
2697:
2694:
2692:
2689:
2687:
2684:
2682:
2679:
2677:
2674:
2672:
2669:
2667:
2664:
2662:
2659:
2658:
2656:
2654:
2650:
2646:
2641:
2631:
2628:
2626:
2623:
2621:
2618:
2616:
2613:
2611:
2608:
2606:
2603:
2601:
2598:
2596:
2593:
2591:
2588:
2586:
2583:
2581:
2580:Aulus Vibenna
2578:
2576:
2573:
2571:
2568:
2566:
2563:
2561:
2558:
2556:
2553:
2551:
2548:
2546:
2543:
2542:
2540:
2538:
2534:
2530:
2523:
2518:
2516:
2511:
2509:
2504:
2503:
2500:
2488:
2485:
2483:
2480:
2478:
2475:
2473:
2470:
2468:
2465:
2461:
2458:
2457:
2456:
2453:
2451:
2448:
2446:
2443:
2439:
2436:
2434:
2431:
2430:
2429:
2426:
2424:
2421:
2419:
2416:
2415:
2413:
2409:
2403:
2400:
2398:
2397:New Classical
2395:
2393:
2390:
2388:
2385:
2384:
2382:
2378:
2372:
2369:
2367:
2364:
2362:
2359:
2357:
2354:
2352:
2349:
2347:
2344:
2342:
2341:Structuralism
2339:
2337:
2334:
2333:
2331:
2327:
2321:
2318:
2316:
2313:
2311:
2308:
2306:
2303:
2301:
2298:
2296:
2293:
2291:
2288:
2286:
2285:Functionalism
2283:
2281:
2278:
2274:
2271:
2269:
2266:
2264:
2261:
2260:
2259:
2256:
2254:
2251:
2249:
2246:
2244:
2241:
2239:
2236:
2234:
2231:
2227:
2224:
2223:
2222:
2221:Expressionism
2219:
2217:
2214:
2212:
2209:
2207:
2204:
2202:
2199:
2198:
2196:
2192:
2184:
2181:
2179:
2176:
2174:
2173:Liberty style
2171:
2169:
2166:
2165:
2164:
2161:
2157:
2154:
2152:
2149:
2147:
2144:
2142:
2139:
2137:
2134:
2132:
2129:
2125:
2122:
2120:
2117:
2116:
2114:
2112:
2109:
2107:
2106:Neo-Manueline
2104:
2102:
2099:
2095:
2092:
2090:
2087:
2085:
2082:
2081:
2080:
2079:Monumentalism
2077:
2075:
2072:
2070:
2069:Mediterranean
2067:
2065:
2062:
2060:
2057:
2055:
2052:
2050:
2047:
2043:
2040:
2038:
2035:
2034:
2033:
2030:
2029:
2028:
2025:
2021:
2018:
2017:
2016:
2013:
2009:
2006:
2004:
2001:
1999:
1996:
1994:
1991:
1989:
1986:
1984:
1981:
1979:
1976:
1974:
1971:
1969:
1966:
1964:
1961:
1959:
1956:
1954:
1951:
1949:
1946:
1944:
1941:
1940:
1939:
1936:
1935:
1933:
1929:
1923:
1920:
1918:
1915:
1913:
1910:
1908:
1905:
1903:
1900:
1898:
1895:
1894:
1892:
1888:
1882:
1879:
1877:
1874:
1872:
1869:
1867:
1864:
1860:
1857:
1856:
1855:
1852:
1850:
1849:Romano-Gothic
1847:
1843:
1840:
1838:
1835:
1833:
1830:
1828:
1825:
1823:
1820:
1818:
1815:
1814:
1812:
1808:
1805:
1803:
1800:
1798:
1795:
1794:
1792:
1788:
1785:
1783:
1780:
1778:
1775:
1774:
1773:
1770:
1769:
1767:
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1650:Ancient Roman
1648:
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1358:Axel Boëthius
1356:
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1347:, 1993, OUP,
1346:
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581:
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562:
561:
559:
555:
554:chamber tombs
551:
547:
543:
539:
534:
532:
528:
520:
516:
507:
505:
501:
497:
493:
489:
486:in Rome, the
485:
484:Palatine Hill
480:
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457:
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186:(both now in
185:
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55:
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38:
33:
26:
21:
3223:Etruscan art
3118:Poggio Colla
3010:Vicus Tuscus
2990:Negau helmet
2929:
2922:
2900:
2893:
2765:
2666:Architecture
2665:
2620:Lars Porsena
2455:Mesoamerican
2402:Contemporary
2380:2000–present
2371:Neo-futurism
2351:Blobitecture
2178:Modern Style
2094:Neoclassical
1842:Indo-Islamic
1817:Great Seljuk
1802:Vijayanagara
1696:East Slavic
1634:
1610:Mesopotamian
1525:
1515:
1508:
1501:
1489:google books
1472:
1459:
1454:google books
1437:
1432:google books
1415:
1410:google books
1393:
1378:google books
1361:
1344:
1323:
1306:
1297:
1288:
1279:
1270:
1261:
1252:
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1234:
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1189:
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1144:
1135:
1126:
1117:
1106:
1097:
1084:
1075:
1066:
1057:
1050:
1043:
1037:Villa Giulia
1027:
1018:
1009:
1000:
991:
982:
977:Boethius, 59
973:
964:
959:Boethius, 35
955:
946:
937:
932:Banti, 31–32
928:
919:
910:
901:
896:Izzet, 19–21
892:
883:
874:
865:
856:
844:
837:
818:
804:Road network
750:Inca masonry
743:
730:
708:
693:
535:
524:
481:
469:
461:
435:
415:
408:Frieze from
306:
275:
254:Villa Giulia
235:
223:Tuscan order
208:
204:
155:
137:
120:
115:
100:
80:
67:
56:
48:ancient Rome
43:
42:
37:Villa Giulia
2995:Portonaccio
2970:Etruscology
2570:Tyrrhenians
2315:PWA Moderne
2201:Rationalism
2163:Art Nouveau
2151:Territorial
2131:Renaissance
2115:Queen Anne
1988:Elizabethan
1881:Plateresque
1876:Renaissance
1859:Sondergotik
1754:Carolingian
1700:Kievan Rus'
1193:Christofani
1175:Christofani
1121:Meyers, 2–6
1101:Christofani
1013:Christofani
1004:Christofani
968:Christofani
950:Christofani
878:Christofani
821:Roman roads
671:Banditaccia
640:Banditaccia
624:Banditaccia
622:Tumulus at
608:Banditaccia
592:Banditaccia
542:Banditaccia
531:grave goods
519:Banditaccia
490:("House of
488:Casa Romuli
326:Portonaccio
298:entablature
158:entablature
25:Banditaccia
3212:Categories
3028:Acquarossa
2952:Archeology
2472:Portuguese
2346:Postmodern
2295:Organicism
2183:Modernisme
2168:Jugendstil
2027:Revivalism
2015:Industrial
1998:Portuguese
1772:Romanesque
1667:Achaemenid
1481:0292749821
1446:0801843006
1424:0292749821
1402:1107320917
1370:0300052901
1353:0198143869
1332:0520019105
1317:References
1310:Izzet, 195
1301:Izzet, 194
1292:Izzet, 193
1283:Izzet, 193
825:Via Cassia
687:false door
673:necropolis
642:necropolis
626:necropolis
610:necropolis
594:necropolis
558:Womb tombs
546:Monterozzi
500:post-holes
426:Acquarossa
410:Acquarossa
219:Corinthian
163:acroterion
27:necropolis
3233:Etruscans
3163:Vetulonia
3148:Tarquinia
3123:Populonia
3093:Fescennia
3063:Cerveteri
3020:Key sites
2731:Mezentius
2565:Tyrrhenus
2433:Dravidian
2392:Neomodern
2356:High-tech
2336:Brutalism
2329:1950–2000
2273:Stalinist
2206:Mycenaean
2194:1900–1950
2032:Byzantine
2008:Ukrainian
1993:Naryshkin
1958:Edwardian
1931:1750–1900
1902:Palladian
1897:Manueline
1890:1500–1750
1765:1000–1500
1705:Muscovite
1692:Byzantine
1640:Classical
1628:Mycenaean
1605:Neolithic
1238:Banti, 29
1220:Banti, 21
1211:Izzet, 16
1166:Banti, 25
941:Banti, 32
829:Cerveteri
606:Tombs at
590:Tombs at
527:necropoli
474:. Stone
378:antefix,
361:Vitruvius
302:antefixes
133:antefixes
112:Vitruvius
3178:Volterra
3173:Volsinii
3168:Vie Cave
3153:Tuscania
3133:Rusellae
2965:Cuniculi
2960:Bucchero
2884:Alphabet
2876:Language
2761:Religion
2751:Poppilia
2600:Tanaquil
2445:Japanese
2423:Colonial
2411:Regional
2361:Arcology
2300:Art Deco
2290:Futurism
2233:De Stijl
2136:Romanian
2054:Egyptian
2049:Colonial
2003:Siberian
1813:Islamic
1782:Ottonian
1777:Galician
1687:Sasanian
1655:Herodian
1635:Etruscan
840:Vie Cave
814:via cava
797:Rusellae
739:Volterra
685:Painted
496:thatched
412:(Zone F)
310:roofline
250:cymatium
188:Florence
184:Talamone
167:pediment
151:Talamone
71:rock-cut
3113:Perusia
3108:Orvieto
3103:Norchia
3098:Fidenae
3088:Falerii
3083:Etruria
3073:Clusium
3048:Bologna
3043:Baratti
2746:Persius
2716:Jewelry
2653:society
2649:Culture
2575:Tarchon
2545:Origins
2537:History
2482:Spanish
2477:Russian
2418:Chinese
2238:Bauhaus
2141:Russian
2119:Britain
2101:Moorish
2084:Baroque
2074:Mission
2020:British
1983:Petrine
1978:Maltese
1973:Italian
1963:English
1938:Baroque
1837:Ottoman
1832:Timurid
1797:Hoysala
1793:Indian
1732:Fatimid
1727:Abbasid
1722:Moorish
1717:Umayyad
1712:Islamic
1619:Aegean
1524:, ed.,
781:Perugia
765:Fiesole
735:Perugia
719:plowing
656:Orvieto
492:Romulus
482:On the
476:hearths
380:Orvieto
294:Minerva
280:on the
272:in Rome
246:cornice
242:cavetto
95:Orvieto
77:Temples
3199:Portal
3038:Aleria
2793:Vegoia
2721:Lausus
2487:Somali
2467:Newari
2450:Korean
2428:Indian
2320:Googie
2226:Cubism
2211:Modern
2111:Pueblo
2089:Rococo
2059:Gothic
1968:French
1943:Andean
1917:Mughal
1854:Gothic
1827:Mamluk
1787:Norman
1623:Minoan
1532:
1479:
1444:
1422:
1400:
1368:
1351:
1330:
887:Taylor
746:ashlar
723:Celtic
550:fresco
538:tumuli
439:atrium
432:Houses
376:Gorgon
231:Fluted
211:Aeolic
176:marble
140:cellae
103:podium
3183:Vulci
3143:Spina
3128:Pyrgi
3078:Cumae
3053:Caere
3033:Adria
2798:Vulca
2773:Tages
2756:Raeti
2681:Coins
2590:Capys
2438:Hindu
2156:Tudor
2064:Mayan
1953:Dutch
1948:Czech
1871:Aztec
1866:Incan
1343:ed.,
1051:, 2.8
849:Notes
833:Pyrgi
731:fossa
727:agger
227:Doric
215:Ionic
128:Roman
124:Greek
3158:Veii
3058:Ceri
2651:and
2460:Maya
2268:Nazi
1922:Sikh
1530:ISBN
1477:ISBN
1442:ISBN
1420:ISBN
1398:ISBN
1366:ISBN
1349:ISBN
1328:ISBN
838:The
544:and
504:tufa
444:tufa
342:Veii
292:and
290:Juno
217:and
199:Luna
182:and
180:Luni
126:and
108:Veii
69:and
2671:Art
1597:BCE
1035:at
420:at
3214::
1487:,
1483:,
1452:,
1448:,
1430:,
1426:,
1408:,
1404:,
1376:,
1372:,
1334:,
312:.
213:,
2521:e
2514:t
2507:v
1563:e
1556:t
1549:v
1092:.
Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License. Additional terms may apply.
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