Executive functions

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cortex is damaged, and a corresponding effect is observed far from the lesion site, in the responses of sensory neurons. However, few studies have explored whether this effect is specific to situations where executive functions are required. Other methods for measuring connectivity between distant brain regions, such as correlation in the fMRI response, have yielded indirect evidence that the frontal cortex and sensory regions communicate during a variety of processes thought to engage executive functions, such as working memory, but more research is required to establish how information flows between the PFC and the rest of the brain when executive functions are used. As an early step in this direction, an fMRI study on the flow of information processing during visuospatial reasoning has provided evidence for causal associations (inferred from the temporal order of activity) between sensory-related activity in occipital and parietal cortices and activity in posterior and anterior PFC. Such approaches can further elucidate the distribution of processing between executive functions in PFC and the rest of the brain.

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2009, Voss et al. 2011) ... Inhibitory control (one of the core EFs) involves being able to control one's attention, behavior, thoughts, and/or emotions to override a strong internal predisposition or external lure, and instead do what's more appropriate or needed. Without inhibitory control we would be at the mercy of impulses, old habits of thought or action (conditioned responses), and/or stimuli in the environment that pull us this way or that. Thus, inhibitory control makes it possible for us to change and for us to choose how we react and how we behave rather than being unthinking creatures of habit. It doesn't make it easy. Indeed, we usually are creatures of habit and our behavior is under the control of environmental stimuli far more than we usually realize, but having the ability to exercise inhibitory control creates the possibility of change and choice. ... The subthalamic nucleus appears to play a critical role in preventing such impulsive or premature responding (Frank 2006).

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conceptualized as a disorder of executive function; specifically, ADHD is characterized by reduced ability to exert and maintain cognitive control of behavior. Compared with healthy individuals, those with ADHD have diminished ability to suppress inappropriate prepotent responses to stimuli (impaired response inhibition) and diminished ability to inhibit responses to irrelevant stimuli (impaired interference suppression). ... Functional neuroimaging in humans demonstrates activation of the prefrontal cortex and caudate nucleus (part of the striatum) in tasks that demand inhibitory control of behavior. Subjects with ADHD exhibit less activation of the medial prefrontal cortex than healthy controls even when they succeed in such tasks and utilize different circuits. ... Early results with structural MRI show thinning of the cerebral cortex in ADHD subjects compared with age-matched controls in prefrontal cortex and posterior parietal cortex, areas involved in working memory and attention.

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they must be individually administered and scored by a technician or professional in an office setting, which limits their utility for screening or brief assessment purposes. Second, relations between office-based neuropsychological measures of EF and actual behavior in the daily environment are modest (Barkley, 2012), leading to some caution when applying neuropsychological test results to conclusions about behavioral outcomes. As a result of these limitations of office-based neuropsychological tests of EF, parent- and teacher-report behavior checklist measures of EF have been developed for both screening purposes and to complement the results of performance-based neuropsychological testing by providing reports of EF behavior in daily life (Barkley, 2011b; Gioia et al., 2000; Naglieri & Goldstein, 2013). These checklists have the advantage of good psychometrics, strong ecological validity, and high clinical utility as a result of their ease of administration, scoring, and interpretation."

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disproportionately, if something is not right in your life. They suffer first, and most, if you are stressed (Arnsten 1998, Liston et al. 2009, Oaten & Cheng 2005), sad (Hirt et al. 2008, von Hecker & Meiser 2005), lonely (Baumeister et al. 2002, Cacioppo & Patrick 2008, Campbell et al. 2006, Tun et al. 2012), sleep deprived (Barnes et al. 2012, Huang et al. 2007), or not physically fit (Best 2010, Chaddock et al. 2011, Hillman et al. 2008). Any of these can cause you to appear to have a disorder of EFs, such as ADHD, when you do not. You can see the deleterious effects of stress, sadness, loneliness, and lack of physical health or fitness at the physiological and neuroanatomical level in the prefrontal cortex and at the behavioral level in worse EFs (poorer reasoning and problem-solving, forgetting things, and impaired ability to exercise discipline and self-control). ...

1049:. Primarily derived from work examining behavioral inhibition, it views executive functions as composed of four main abilities. One element is working memory that allows individuals to resist interfering information. A second component is the management of emotional responses in order to achieve goal-directed behaviors. Thirdly, internalization of self-directed speech is used to control and sustain rule-governed behavior and to generate plans for problem-solving. Lastly, information is analyzed and synthesized into new behavioral responses to meet one's goals. Changing one's behavioral response to meet a new goal or modify an objective is a higher level skill that requires a fusion of executive functions including self-regulation, and accessing prior knowledge and experiences. 1584:

Across development, bilingual infants, children, and elderly show a bilingual advantage when it comes to executive functioning. The advantage does not seem to manifest in younger adults. Bimodal bilinguals, or people who speak one oral language and one sign language, do not demonstrate this bilingual advantage in executive functioning tasks. This may be because one is not required to actively inhibit one language in order to speak the other. Bilingual individuals also seem to have an advantage in an area known as conflict processing, which occurs when there are multiple representations of one particular response (for example, a word in one language and its translation in the individual's other language). Specifically, the

1674:, whereby posterior medial frontal cortex signals the need for increased executive functions and sends this signal on to areas in dorsolateral prefrontal cortex that actually implement control. Yet there has been no compelling evidence at all that this view is correct, and, indeed, one article showed that patients with lateral PFC damage had reduced ERNs (a putative sign of dorsomedial monitoring/error-feedback) – suggesting, if anything, that the direction of flow of the control could be in the reverse direction. Another prominent theory emphasises that interactions along the perpendicular axis of the frontal cortex, arguing that a 'cascade' of interactions between anterior PFC, dorsolateral PFC, and 1057:

to implement them during classroom activities and educating children on how to plan their actions before acting upon them. Executive functioning skills are how the brain plans and reacts to situations. Offering new self-regulation strategies allow children to improve their executive functioning skills by practicing something new. It is also concluded that mindfulness practices are shown to be a significantly effective intervention for children to self-regulate. This includes biofeedback-enhanced relaxation. These strategies support the growth of children's executive functioning skills.

1201:, among conflicting color and word responses, specifically a stimulus where the word "green" is printed in red ink. The posterior DLPFC creates an appropriate attentional set, or rules for the brain to accomplish the current goal. For the Stroop task, this involves activating the areas of the brain involved in color perception, and not those involved in word comprehension. It counteracts biases and irrelevant information, like the fact that the semantic perception of the word is more salient to most people than the color in which it is printed. 1022:

possible to train executive functioning skills. Researchers conducted a meta-analytic study that looked at the combined effects of prior studies in order to find the overarching effectiveness of different interventions that promote the development of executive functioning skills in children. The interventions included computerized and non-computerized training, physical exercise, art, and mindfulness exercises. However, researchers could not conclude that art activities or physical activities could improve executive functioning skills.

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years, children display a spurt in performance on tasks of inhibition and working memory, usually between the ages of 3 and 5 years. Also during this time, cognitive flexibility, goal-directed behavior, and planning begin to develop. Nevertheless, preschool children do not have fully mature executive functions and continue to make errors related to these emerging abilities – often not due to the absence of the abilities, but rather because they lack the awareness to know when and how to use particular strategies in particular contexts.

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skills) and diversity of each component (e.g., shifting-specific). In other words, aspects of updating, inhibition, and shifting are related, yet each remains a distinct entity. First, updating is defined as the continuous monitoring and quick addition or deletion of contents within one's working memory. Second, inhibition is one's capacity to supersede responses that are prepotent in a given situation. Third, shifting is one's cognitive flexibility to switch between different tasks or mental states.

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had a strong bias toward spatial or semantic information (different cognitive styles) were then recruited to participate in the task. As predicted, participants that had a strong bias toward spatial information had more difficulty paying attention to the semantic information and elicited increased electrophysiological activity from the ACC. A similar activity pattern was also found for participants that had a strong bias toward verbal information when they tried to attend to spatial information.

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infancy and develop rapidly in early childhood. Cognitive flexibility, goal setting, and information processing usually develop rapidly during ages 7–9 and mature by age 12. Executive control typically emerges shortly after a transition period at the beginning of adolescence. It is not yet clear whether there is a single sequence of stages in which executive functions appear, or whether different environments and early life experiences can lead people to develop them in different sequences.

697: 1431:(WCST). In the Stroop task, for example, human subjects are asked to name the color that color words are printed in when the ink color and word meaning often conflict (for example, the word "RED" in green ink). Executive functions are needed to perform this task, as the relatively overlearned and automatic behaviour (word reading) has to be inhibited in favour of a less practiced task – naming the ink color. Recent 7834: 474: 728:(OFC) plays a key role in impulse control, maintenance of set, monitoring ongoing behavior and socially appropriate behaviors. The orbitofrontal cortex also has roles in representing the value of rewards based on sensory stimuli and evaluating subjective emotional experiences. Lesions can cause disinhibition, impulsivity, aggressive outbursts, sexual promiscuity and antisocial behavior. 462: 1034:(SAS). In this model, contention scheduling is the process where an individual's well-established schemas automatically respond to routine situations while executive functions are used when faced with novel situations. In these new situations, attentional control will be a crucial element to help generate new schema, implement these schema, and then assess their accuracy. 450: 975:

improve throughout this time period. Just as inhibitory control emerges in childhood and improves over time, planning and goal-directed behavior also demonstrate an extended time course with ongoing growth over adolescence. Likewise, functions such as attentional control, with a potential spurt at age 15, along with working memory, continue developing at this stage.

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decline in later adulthood. Working memory and spatial span are areas where decline is most readily noted. Cognitive flexibility, however, has a late onset of impairment and does not usually start declining until around age 70 in normally functioning adults. Impaired executive functioning has been found to be the best predictor of functional decline in the elderly.

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determined, and that many responses are relatively automatic, unattended, contention-scheduled, and habitual. Indeed, the cognitive flexibility, response inhibition, and self-regulation that appear to be hallmarks of cognitive control are noteworthy only in contrast to responses that are relatively rigid, associative, and involuntary.

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information "on line" in order to guide actions, suppression of prepotent behaviors that compete with goal-directed actions, and control of attention and thus the ability to overcome distractions. ... Noradrenergic projections from the LC thus interact with dopaminergic projections from the VTA to regulate cognitive control.

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modalities, as well as systems responsible for response execution, memory retrieval, emotional evaluation, etc. The aggregate effect of these bias signals is to guide the flow of neural activity along pathways that establish the proper mappings between inputs, internal states, and outputs needed to perform a given task.

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Freedman M, Leach L, Carmela Tartaglia M, Stokes KA, Goldberg Y, Spring R, Nourhaghighi N, Gee T, Strother SC, Alhaj MO, Borrie M, Darvesh S, Fernandez A, Fischer CE, Fogarty J, Greenberg BD, Gyenes M, Herrmann N, Keren R, Kirstein J, Kumar S, Lam B, Lena S, McAndrews MP, Naglie G, Partridge R, Rajji

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Miyake and Friedman's theory of executive functions proposes that there are three aspects of executive functions: updating, inhibition, and shifting. A cornerstone of this theoretical framework is the understanding that individual differences in executive functions reflect both unity (i.e., common EF

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acts to 'bias' this competition in favour of certain selected features or representations. For example, imagine that you are waiting at a busy train station for a friend who is wearing a red coat. You are able to selectively narrow the focus of your attention to search for red objects, in the hope of

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One of the most widespread conceptual models on executive functions is Lezak's model. This framework proposes four broad domains of volition, planning, purposive action, and effective performance as working together to accomplish global executive functioning needs. While this model may broadly appeal

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According to this model, the executive system of the human brain provides for the cross-temporal organization of behavior towards goals and the future and coordinates actions and strategies for everyday goal-directed tasks. Essentially, this system permits humans to self-regulate their behavior so as

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Executive functioning skills are important for many reasons, including children's academic success and social emotional development. According to the study "The Efficacy of Different Interventions to Foster Children's Executive Function Skills: A Series of Meta-Analyses", researchers found that it is

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Researchers have found significant positive effects of biofeedback-enhanced relaxation on memory and inhibition in children. Biofeedback is a mind-body tool where people can learn to control and regulate their body to improve and control their executive functioning skills. To measure one's processes,

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until well into a person's third decade of life. Development of executive functions tends to occur in spurts, when new skills, strategies, and forms of awareness emerge. These spurts are thought to reflect maturational events in the frontal areas of the brain. Attentional control appears to emerge in

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However, damage to the prefrontal cortex has a significant deleterious effect on social behavior, decision making, and adaptive responding to the changing circumstances of life. ... Several subregions of the prefrontal cortex have been implicated in partly distinct aspects of cognitive control,

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Yet another model of executive functions is a problem-solving framework where executive functions are considered a macroconstruct composed of subfunctions working in different phases to (a) represent a problem, (b) plan for a solution by selecting and ordering strategies, (c) maintain the strategies

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Teaching children self-regulation strategies is a way to improve their inhibitory control and their cognitive flexibility. These skills allow children to manage their emotional responses. These interventions include teaching children executive function-related skills that provide the steps necessary

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Many executive functions may begin in childhood and preadolescence, such as inhibitory control. Yet, it is during adolescence when the different brain systems become better integrated. At this time, youth implement executive functions, such as inhibitory control, more efficiently and effectively and

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Clinical evaluation of EF typically includes an office- based visit involving administration of a battery of neuropsychological assessment instruments. Despite their advantages, however, individually-administered neuro-psychological measures of EF have two primary limitations: First, in most cases,

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This is largely due to the nature of the executive system itself. It is mainly concerned with the dynamic, "online" co-ordination of cognitive resources, and, hence, its effect can be observed only by measuring other cognitive processes. In similar manner, it does not always fully engage outside of

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Recent work using individual differences in cognitive style has shown exciting support for this model. Researchers had participants complete an auditory version of the Stroop task, in which either the location or semantic meaning of a directional word had to be attended to. Participants that either

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One influential model is Baddeley's multicomponent model of working memory, which is composed of a central executive system that regulates three subsystems: the phonological loop, which maintains verbal information; the visuospatial sketchpad, which maintains visual and spatial information; and the

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of executive function measures to frontal lobe functioning. This means that both frontal and non-frontal brain regions are necessary for intact executive functions. Probably the frontal lobes need to participate in basically all of the executive functions, but they are not the only brain structure

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EFs can be improved (Diamond & Lee 2011, Klingberg 2010). ... At any age across the life cycle EFs can be improved, including in the elderly and in infants. There has been much work with excellent results on improving EFs in the elderly by improving physical fitness (Erickson & Kramer

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Other important evidence for executive functions processes in the prefrontal cortex have been described. One widely cited review article emphasizes the role of the medial part of the PFC in situations where executive functions are likely to be engaged – for example, where it is important to detect

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Despite the growing currency of the 'biasing' model of executive functions, direct evidence for functional connectivity between the PFC and sensory regions when executive functions are used, is to date rather sparse. Indeed, the only direct evidence comes from studies in which a portion of frontal

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monkey, which have shown that (in contrast to cells in the posterior brain) many PFC neurons are sensitive to a conjunction of a stimulus and a context. For example, PFC cells might respond to a green cue in a condition where that cue signals that a leftwards fast movement of the eyes and the head

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act as basic executive functions that make it possible for more complex executive functions like problem-solving to develop. Inhibitory control and working memory are among the earliest executive functions to appear, with initial signs observed in infants, 7 to 12 months old. Then in the preschool

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The term "executive functions" is an umbrella term comprising a wide range of cognitive processes and behavioral competencies which include verbal reasoning, problem-solving, planning, sequencing, the ability to sustain attention, resistance to interference, utilization of feedback, multitasking,

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A growing body of research demonstrates that bilinguals might show advantages in executive functions, specifically inhibitory control and task switching. A possible explanation for this is that speaking two languages requires controlling one's attention and choosing the correct language to speak.

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We assume that the PFC serves a specific function in cognitive control: the active maintenance of patterns of activity that represent goals and the means to achieve them. They provide bias signals throughout much of the rest of the brain, affecting not only visual processes but also other sensory

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Tim Shallice similarly suggested that attention is regulated by a "supervisory system", which can override automatic responses in favour of scheduling behaviour on the basis of plans or intentions. Throughout this period, a consensus emerged that this control system is housed in the most anterior

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The frontal lobes have multiple connections to cortical, subcortical and brain stem sites. The basis of "higher-level" cognitive functions such as inhibition, flexibility of thinking, problem solving, planning, impulse control, concept formation, abstract thinking, and creativity often arise from

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Miyake and Friedman also suggest that the current body of research in executive functions suggest four general conclusions about these skills. The first conclusion is the unity and diversity aspects of executive functions. Second, recent studies suggest that much of one's EF skills are inherited

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The major change that occurs in the brain in adulthood is the constant myelination of neurons in the prefrontal cortex. At age 20–29, executive functioning skills are at their peak, which allows people of this age to participate in some of the most challenging mental tasks. These skills begin to

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Preadolescent children continue to exhibit certain growth spurts in executive functions, suggesting that this development does not necessarily occur in a linear manner, along with the preliminary maturing of particular functions as well. During preadolescence, children display major increases in

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Historically, the executive functions have been seen as regulated by the prefrontal regions of the frontal lobes, but it is still a matter of ongoing debate if that really is the case. Even though articles on prefrontal lobe lesions commonly refer to disturbances of executive functions and vice

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Core EFs are inhibition , working memory, and cognitive flexibility (including creatively thinking "outside the box," seeing anything from different perspectives, and quickly and flexibly adapting to changed circumstances). ... EFs and prefrontal cortex are the first to suffer, and suffer

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in sensory neocortex. For example, in a typical study, Liu and coworkers presented subjects with arrays of dots moving to the left or right, presented in either red or green. Preceding each stimulus, an instruction cue indicated whether subjects should respond on the basis of the colour or the

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These diverse inputs and back projections to both cortical and subcortical structures put the prefrontal cortex in a position to exert what is often called "top-down" control or cognitive control of behavior. ... The prefrontal cortex receives inputs not only from other cortical regions,

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in particular begins to match adult levels. However, similar to patterns in childhood development, executive functioning in preadolescents is limited because they do not reliably apply these executive functions across multiple contexts as a result of ongoing development of inhibitory control.

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Although suppression of these prepotent responses is ordinarily considered adaptive, problems for the development of the individual and the culture arise when feelings of right and wrong are overridden by cultural expectations or when creative impulses are overridden by executive inhibitions.

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Today, arguably more than at any time in history, the constructs of attention, executive functioning, and cognitive control seem to be pervasive and preeminent in research and theory. Even within the cognitive framework, however, there has long been an understanding that behavior is multiply

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Neurologically, this behavioural repertoire clearly requires a neural system that is able to integrate the stimulus (the road) with a context (US or UK) to cue a behaviour (look left or look right). Current evidence suggests that neurons in the PFC appear to represent precisely this sort of

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DA has multiple actions in the prefrontal cortex. It promotes the "cognitive control" of behavior: the selection and successful monitoring of behavior to facilitate attainment of chosen goals. Aspects of cognitive control in which DA plays a role include working memory, the ability to hold

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In conditions in which prepotent responses tend to dominate behavior, such as in drug addiction, where drug cues can elicit drug seeking (Chapter 15), or in attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD; described below), significant negative consequences can result. ... ADHD can be

617:, represent opposite processes (internal vs external or environmental, respectively) that compete over the control of an individual's elicited behaviors; in particular, inhibitory control is necessary for overriding stimulus-driven behavioral responses (stimulus control of behavior). The 1559:

was increased when subjects were cued to attend to the direction of motion. Several studies have also reported evidence for the biasing signal prior to stimulus onset, with the observation that regions of the frontal cortex tend to come active prior to the onset of an expected stimulus.

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to sustain action and problem-solving toward goals specifically and the future more generally. Thus, executive function deficits pose serious problems for a person's ability to engage in self-regulation over time to attain their goals and anticipate and prepare for the future.

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Executive functions are often invoked when it is necessary to override prepotent responses that might otherwise be automatically elicited by stimuli in the external environment. For example, on being presented with a potentially rewarding stimulus, such as a tasty piece of

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The posterior dorsal ACC is next in the cascade, and it is responsible for response selection. This is where the decision is made whether the Stroop task participant will say "green" (the written word and the incorrect answer) or "red" (the font color and correct answer).

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Executive functions gradually develop and change across the lifespan of an individual and can be improved at any time over the course of a person's life. Similarly, these cognitive processes can be adversely affected by a variety of events which affect an individual. Both

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In 2001, Earl Miller and Jonathan Cohen published their article "An integrative theory of prefrontal cortex function", in which they argue that cognitive control is the primary function of the prefrontal cortex (PFC), and that control is implemented by increasing the

1148:. Within their approach, thus, the term "cognitive control" is applied to any situation where a biasing signal is used to promote task-appropriate responding, and control thus becomes a crucial component of a wide range of psychological constructs such as 829:, a person might have the automatic response to take a bite. However, where such behavior conflicts with internal plans (such as having decided not to eat chocolate cake while on a diet), the executive functions might be engaged to inhibit that response. 1888:

cognitive flexibility, and the ability to deal with novelty (Burgess, Veitch, de lacy Costello, & Shallice, 2000; Damasio, 1995; Grafman & Litvan, 1999; Shallice, 1988; Stuss & Benson, 1986; Stuss, Shallice, Alexander, & Picton, 1995).

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errors, identify situations where stimulus conflict may arise, make decisions under uncertainty, or when a reduced probability of obtaining favourable performance outcomes is detected. This review, like many others, highlights interactions between

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in monkeys implicates ventrolateral PFC (inferior prefrontal convexity) in the control of motor responses. For example, cells that increase their firing rate to NoGo signals as well as a signal that says "don't look there!" have been identified.

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This model from 2009 integrates theories from other models, and involves a sequential cascade of brain regions involved in maintaining attentional sets in order to arrive at a goal. In sequence, the model assumes the involvement of the posterior

709:(ACC) is involved in emotional drives, experience and integration. Associated cognitive functions include inhibition of inappropriate responses, decision making and motivated behaviors. Lesions in this area can lead to low drive states such as 1204:

Next, the mid-DLPFC selects the representation that will fulfill the goal. The task-relevant information must be separated from other sources of information in the task. In the example, this means focusing on the ink color and not the word.

688:(DLPFC) is involved with "on-line" processing of information such as integrating different dimensions of cognition and behavior. As such, this area has been found to be associated with verbal and design fluency, ability to maintain and 961:

verbal working memory; goal-directed behavior (with a potential spurt around 12 years of age); response inhibition and selective attention; and strategic planning and organizational skills. Additionally, between the ages of 8 and 10,

1621:. The inverted U represents decreased executive functioning with excessive arousal (or increased catecholamine release during stress), and decreased executive functioning with insufficient arousal. The low activity polymorphism of 737:

much simpler, "lower-level" forms of cognition and behavior. Thus, the concept of executive function must be broad enough to include anatomical structures that represent a diverse and diffuse portion of the central nervous system.

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There are several different kinds of instruments (e.g., performance based, self-report) that measure executive functions across development. These assessments can serve a diagnostic purpose for a number of clinical populations.

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identifying your friend. Desimone and Duncan argue that the brain achieves this by selectively increasing the gain of neurons responsive to the color red, such that output from these neurons is more likely to reach a downstream

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including association cortex, but also, via the thalamus, inputs from subcortical structures subserving emotion and motivation, such as the amygdala (Chapter 14) and ventral striatum (or nucleus accumbens; Chapter 15). ...

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mechanism is in fact just a special case of cognitive control – one in which the biasing occurs in the sensory domain. According to Miller and Cohen's model, the PFC can exert control over input (sensory) or output (response)

546:, by regulating thoughts and actions through cognitive control, selecting and successfully monitoring actions that facilitate the attainment of chosen objectives. Executive functions include basic cognitive processes such as 1101:

Miller and Cohen draw explicitly upon an earlier theory of visual attention that conceptualises perception of visual scenes in terms of competition among multiple representations – such as colors, individuals, or objects.

881:, and others) laid much of the groundwork for recent research into executive functions. For example, Posner proposed that there is a separate "executive" branch of the attentional system, which is responsible for focusing 1212:

Following the response, the anterior dorsal ACC is involved in response evaluation, deciding whether one's response were correct or incorrect. Activity in this region increases when the probability of an error is higher.

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more recently developed episodic buffer that integrates short-term and long-term memory, holding and manipulating a limited amount of information from multiple domains in temporal and spatially sequenced episodes.

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is involved in processes that require correct decision-making, as seen in conflict resolution (eg, the Stroop test, see in Chapter 16), or cortical inhibition (eg, stopping one task and switching to another). The

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Although research into the executive functions and their neural basis has increased markedly over recent years, the theoretical framework in which it is situated is not new. In the 1940s, the British psychologist

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Buzzell GA, Roberts DM, Baldwin CL, McDonald CG (2013). "An electrophysiological correlate of conflict processing in an auditory spatial Stroop task: The effect of individual differences in navigational style".

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has been shown to be involved with conflict processing. However, there are still some doubts. In a meta-analytic review, researchers concluded that bilingualism did not enhance executive functioning in adults.

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Miyake A, Friedman NP, Emerson MJ, Witzki AH, Howerter A, Wager TD (2000). "The unity and diversity of executive functions and their contributions to complex 'frontal lobe' tasks: A latent variable analysis".

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The executive system is thought to be heavily involved in handling novel situations outside the domain of some of our 'automatic' psychological processes that could be explained by the reproduction of learned

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The activity of any of the areas involved in this model depends on the efficiency of the areas that came before it. If the DLPFC imposes a lot of control on the response, the ACC will require less activity.

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Nyongesa MK, Ssewanyana D, Mutua AM, Chongwo E, Scerif G, Newton CR, Abubakar A. "Assessing Executive Function in Adolescence: A Scoping Review of Existing Measures and Their Psychometric Robustness".

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Friedman NP, Haberstick BC, Willcutt EG, Miyake A, Young SE, Corley RP, Hewitt JK (2007). "Greater attention problems during childhood predict poorer executive functioning in late adolescence".

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Assessment of executive functions involves gathering data from several sources and synthesizing the information to look for trends and patterns across time and settings. Apart from standardized

1005:, emotion regulation, as well as social emotions such as empathy. A recent review on this topic argues that active inhibition is a valid concept in some domains of psychology/cognitive control. 3389:

Luciana M, Nelson CA (2002). "Assessment of neuropsychological function through use of the Cambridge Neuropsychological Testing Automated Battery: Performance in 4- to 12-year-old children".

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to reveal that electrical brain responses recorded over left and right visual cortex are enhanced when the subject is instructed to attend to the appropriate (contralateral) side of space.

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Burns HD, Van Laere K, Sanabria-Bohórquez S, Hamill TG, Bormans G, Eng Ws, Gibson R, Ryan C, Connolly B, Patel S, Krause S, Vanko A, Van Hecken A, Dupont P, De Lepeleire I (2007-06-05).

2127: • Working memory is a short-term, capacity-limited cognitive buffer that stores information and permits its manipulation to guide decision-making and behavior. ... 1075:

to clinicians and researchers to help identify and assess certain executive functioning components, it lacks a distinct theoretical basis and relatively few attempts at validation.

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should be made, but not to a green cue in another experimental context. This is important, because the optimal deployment of executive functions is invariably context-dependent.

7341:"Effects of the catechol-O-methyltransferase Val158Met polymorphism on executive function: a meta-analysis of the Wisconsin Card Sort Test in schizophrenia and healthy controls" 3343:

De Luca CR, Wood SJ, Anderson V, Buchanan JA, Proffitt T, Mahony K, Pantelis C (2003). "Normative data from the CANTAB I: Development of executive function over the lifespan".

2125: • Executive function, the cognitive control of behavior, depends on the prefrontal cortex, which is highly developed in higher primates and especially humans. 3758:

Decety J, Lamm C (December 2007). "The role of the right temporoparietal junction in social interaction: how low-level computational processes contribute to meta-cognition".

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subjects have been used to describe the neural mechanisms underlying attentional biasing. Most studies have looked for activation at the 'sites' of biasing, such as in the

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Klimkeit EI, Mattingley JB, Sheppard DM, Farrow M, Bradshaw JL (2004). "Examining the development of attention and executive functions in children with a novel paradigm".

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genetically, as demonstrated in twin studies. Third, clean measures of executive functions can differentiate between normal and clinical or regulatory behaviors, such as

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Anderson VA, Anderson P, Northam E, Jacobs R, Catroppa C (2001). "Development of executive functions through late childhood and adolescence in an Australian sample".

1382:. For example, it is quite obvious what reading-impaired patients cannot do, but it is not so obvious what exactly executive-impaired patients might be incapable of. 2779:

Shiffrin RM, Schneider W (March 1977). "Controlled and automatic human information processing: II: Perceptual learning, automatic attending, and a general theory".

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is associated with slight increase in performance on executive function tasks in healthy persons. Executive functions are impaired in multiple disorders including

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More research is required to develop interventions that can improve executive functions and help people generalize those skills to daily activities and settings

2082:, the last brain area to undergo myelination during development in late adolescence, is implicated in matching sensory inputs with planned motor responses. The 1483:). In this case, the automatic response needs to be suppressed (or augmented) and executive functions must make the American look to the right while in the UK. 4749:"Behavioral disinhibition: Liability for externalizing spectrum disorders and its genetic and environmental relation to response inhibition across adolescence" 7754:"Conclusions about interventions, programs, and approaches for improving executive functions that appear justified and those that, despite much hype, do not" 6276:

Saver JL, Damasio AR (1991). "Preserved access and processing of social knowledge in a patient with acquired sociopathy due to ventromedial frontal damage".

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Leon-Carrion J, García-Orza J, Pérez-Santamaría FJ (2004). "Development of the inhibitory component of the executive functions in children and adolescents".

4700:"Developmental trajectories in toddlers' self restraint predict individual differences in executive functions 14 years later: A behavioral genetic analysis" 2377:

Allman JM, Hakeem A, Erwin JM, Nimchinsky E, Hof P (2001). "The anterior cingulate cortex: the evolution of an interface between emotion and cognition".

721:

and may also result in low drive states for such basic needs as food or drink and possibly decreased interest in social or vocational activities and sex.

5140: 4845:

Moffit TE, Arseneault L, Belsky D, Dickson N, Hancox RJ, Harrington H, Houts R, Poulton R, Roberts BW, Ross S, Sears MR, Thomson WM, Caspi A (2011).

4108: 1750:

Malenka RC, Nestler EJ, Hyman SE (2009). "Chapter 6: Widely Projecting Systems: Monoamines, Acetylcholine, and Orexin". In Sydor A, Brown RY (eds.).

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calls a lack of "process-behaviour correspondence". That is, there is no single behavior that can in itself be tied to executive function, or indeed

1375: 1325: 505: 1578: 5706:"Decision-making and cognitive abilities: A review of associations between Iowa Gambling Task performance, executive functions, and intelligence" 1253: 1018:

researchers use their heart rate and or respiratory rates. Biofeedback-relaxation includes music therapy, art, and other mindfulness activities.

680:

studies have identified the functions which are most often associated with the particular regions of the prefrontal cortex and associated areas.

595: 3984:

Takacs Z, Kassai R (2019). "The Efficacy of Different Interventions to Foster Children's Executive Function Skills: A Series of Meta-Analyses".

1420:. It was hypothesized that, to explain this unusual behaviour, there must be an overarching system that co-ordinates other cognitive resources. 2078:

is involved in supervisory attentional functions (eg, action-outcome rules) and behavioral flexibility (the ability to switch strategies). The

1653:, may also result in deficits of executive function. Damage to these areas may also manifest in deficits of other areas of function, such as 1404:) although they seemed to perform normally when clinical or lab-based tests were used to assess more fundamental cognitive functions such as 1066:

in short-term memory in order to perform them by certain rules, and then (d) evaluate the results with error detection and error correction.

1393:

has reported, a patient with severe day-to-day executive problems may still pass paper-and-pencil or lab-based tests of executive function.

6695:

Fuster JM, Bauer RH, Jervey JP (March 1985). "Functional interactions between inferotemporal and prefrontal cortex in a cognitive task".

1475:

when crossing the street. However, if that American visits a country where cars drive on the left, such as the United Kingdom, then the

1617:

modulation of the prefrontal cortex is responsible for the efficacy of dopaminergic drugs on executive function, and gives rise to the

388: 2109:

Malenka RC, Nestler EJ, Hyman SE (2009). "Chapter 13: Higher Cognitive Function and Behavioral Control". In Sydor A, Brown RY (eds.).

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Malenka RC, Nestler EJ, Hyman SE (2009). "Chapter 13: Higher Cognitive Function and Behavioral Control". In Sydor A, Brown RY (eds.).

2616:"[18F]MK-9470, a positron emission tomography (PET) tracer for in vivo human PET brain imaging of the cannabinoid-1 receptor" 403: 1685:

techniques have allowed studies of genetic links to executive functions, with the goal of using the imaging techniques as potential

1423:

Much of the experimental evidence for the neural structures involved in executive functions comes from laboratory tasks such as the

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Barkley RA (1997). "Behavioral inhibition, sustained attention, and executive functions: Constructing a unifying theory of ADHD".

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Koziol LF, Budding DE, Chidekel D (2012). "From movement to thought: executive function, embodied cognition, and the cerebellum".

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Bialystok E, Craik F, Klein R, Viswanathan M (2004). "Bilingualism, aging, and cognitive control: Evidence from the Simon task".

905:

and argued that there must be a component (which he named the "central executive") that allows information to be manipulated in

793:

have outlined five types of situations in which routine activation of behavior would not be sufficient for optimal performance:

7874: 1286: 6362:"A code for behavioral inhibition on the basis of color, but not motion, in ventrolateral prefrontal cortex of macaque monkey" 6949: 6260: 5218: 4356: 4315: 4207: 4082: 3947: 3529:"Predicting Functional Dependence in Mild Cognitive Impairment: Differential Contributions of Memory and Executive Functions" 2986: 2932: 2901: 2829: 2755: 2722: 2697: 2304: 2118: 2061: 1759: 1527: 1467:

One example from Miller & Cohen involves a pedestrian crossing the street. In the United States, where cars drive on the

498: 7487: 5647:"Assessing inhibitory control in early-stage Alzheimer's and Parkinson's disease using the Hayling Sentence Completion Test" 4522:"Executive function in daily life: Age-related influences of executive processes on instrumental activities of daily living" 4339:

Anderson PJ (2008). "Towards a developmental framework of executive function". In Anderson V, Jacobs R, Anderson PJ (eds.).

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The executive functions are among the last mental functions to reach maturity. This is due to the delayed maturation of the

7838: 1546:

regions of visual cortex, is enhanced when subjects are directed to attend to that dimension of a stimulus, suggestive of

692:, planning, response inhibition, working memory, organisational skills, reasoning, problem-solving, and abstract thinking. 5359:"Convergent validity, academic correlates and age- and SES-based normative data for the d2 Test of attention in children" 4796:

Mischel W, Ayduk O, Berman MG, Casey BJ, Gotlib IH, Jonides J, Kross E, Teslovich T, Wilson NL, Zayas V, Shoda Y (2011).

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guides behaviour in accordance with past context, present context, and current sensorimotor associations, respectively.

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5154:

Grigsby J, Kaye K, Robbins LJ (1992). "Reliabilities, norms, and factor structure of the Behavioral Dyscontrol Scale".

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Zelazo PD, Carter A, Reznick J, Frye D (1997). "Early development of executive function: A problem-solving framework".

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Costa A, Hernandez M, Sebastian-Galles N (2008). "Bilingualism aids conflict resolution: Evidence from the ANT task".

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Brocki KC, Bohlin G (2004). "Executive functions in children aged 6 to 13: A dimensional and developmental study;".

1534:(PET) has more recently permitted the demonstration that neural activity in a number of sensory regions, including 491: 123: 17: 2514:

Noroozian M (2014). "The role of the cerebellum in cognition: beyond coordination in the central nervous system".

566:. Higher-order executive functions require the simultaneous use of multiple basic executive functions and include 7803: 5852:"Cognitive deficits including executive functioning in relation to clinical parameters in paediatric MS patients" 1400:

damage. They exhibited disorganized actions and strategies for everyday tasks (a group of behaviors now known as

1092:

that are engaged by task- or goal-relevant elements of the external environment. In a key paragraph, they argue:

645: 6204:"Validity of the Symbol Digit Modalities Test as a cognition performance outcome measure for multiple sclerosis" 7822: 4561:"Using confirmatory factor analysis to understand executive control in preschool children: I. Latent structure" 1957:

Washburn DA (2016). "The Stroop effect at 80: The competition between stimulus control and cognitive control".

1341: 1187: 1031: 685: 330: 5575:"Significance of the Diagnosis of Executive Functions in Patients with Relapsing-Remitting Multiple Sclerosis" 1331: 855: 846:

drew a distinction between "automatic" and "controlled" processes (a distinction characterized more fully by

599: 118: 3568:"Cortical and subcortical contributions to Stop signal response inhibition: role of the subthalamic nucleus" 5198: 4521: 2090:

is involved in social decision making and in representing the valuations assigned to different experiences.

1622: 1551:

direction of the dots. Even though colour and motion were present in all stimulus arrays, fMRI activity in

1531: 1468: 378: 6564:"Increased activity in human visual cortex during directed attention in the absence of visual stimulation" 6126:

Memória CM, Muela HC, Moraes NC, Costa-Hong VA, Machado MF, Nitrini R, Bortolotto LA, Yassuda MS (2018).

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Barceló F, Suwazono S, Knight RT (April 2000). "Prefrontal modulation of visual processing in humans".

5277:"Advances and Challenges in the Assessment of Executive Functions in Under 36 Months: a Scoping Review" 5235: 2428:

Rolls ET, Grabenhorst F (2008). "The orbitofrontal cortex and beyond: From affect to decision-making".

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Decety J, Grèzes J (March 2006). "The power of simulation: imagining one's own and other's behavior".

2550: 1177:. Last, longitudinal studies demonstrate that EF skills are relatively stable throughout development. 2330:"Differential effects of insular and ventromedial prefrontal cortex lesions on risky decision making" 1701: 1630: 1585: 1436: 1300: 1191: 706: 393: 88: 7390:"A Review of Executive Function Deficits and Pharmacological Management in Children and Adolescents" 7036: 6531: 4481: 3668:"Does negative priming reflect inhibitory mechanisms? A review and integration of conflicting views" 3453: 2793: 7879: 7656: 4908: 83: 7161:"Is bilingualism associated with enhanced executive functioning in adults? A meta-analytic review" 1843: 1374:

The executive system has been traditionally quite hard to define, mainly due to what psychologist

858:

used the term "cognitive control" in his book chapter entitled "Attention and cognitive control".

5967: 2688:(1980). "Attention to action: Willed and automatic control of behaviour". In Gazzaniga MS (ed.). 1520: 1504: 1432: 1230: 587: 370: 5919:"The paced auditory serial addition test for working memory assessment: Psychometric properties" 2009:

Alvarez JA, Emory E (2006). "Executive function and the frontal lobes: A meta-analytic review".

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Benedict RH, DeLuca J, Phillips G, LaRocca N, Hudson LD, Rudick R, Consortium MS (April 2017).

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TK, Reichmann W, Uri Wolf M, Verhoeff NP, Waserman JL, Black SE, Tang-Wai DF (18 July 2018).

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Anderson PJ (2002). "Assessment and development of executive functioning (EF) in childhood".

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Aside from facilitatory or amplificatory mechanisms of control, many authors have argued for

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Situations that require the overcoming of a strong habitual response or resisting temptation.

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Gehring WJ, Knight RT (May 2000). "Prefrontal-cingulate interactions in action monitoring".

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Baddeley A (2002). "16 Fractionating the Central Executive". In Knight RL, Stuss DT (eds.).

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Other evidence for the involvement of the PFC in executive functions comes from single-cell

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Young SE, Friedman NP, Miyake A, Willcutt EG, Corley RP, Haberstick BC, Hewitt JK (2009).

821:(positive or negative) is available or has been previously associated with that response. 8: 7227:"The Neural Circuitry of Executive Functions in Healthy Subjects and Parkinson's Disease" 5917:

Nikravesh M, Jafari Z, Mehrpour M, Kazemi R, Shavaki YA, Hossienifar S, Azizi MP (2017).

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Escobar-Ruiz V, Arias-Vázquez PI, Tovilla-Zárate CA, Doval E, Jané-Ballabriga MC (2023).

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Anderson MC, Green C (March 2001). "Suppressing unwanted memories by executive control".

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Nyongesa MK, Ssewanyana D, Mutua AM, Chongwo E, Scerif G, Newton CR, Abubakar A (2019).

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Nyongesa MK, Ssewanyana D, Mutua AM, Chongwo E, Scerif G, Newton CR, Abubakar A (2019).

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Sakagami M, Tsutsui K, Lauwereyns J, Koizumi M, Kobayashi S, Hikosaka O (1 July 2001).

6342: 6301: 6228: 6203: 6160: 6127: 6103: 6078: 6049: 6022: 6003: 5943: 5918: 5894: 5851: 5827: 5792: 5772: 5609: 5574: 5550: 5507: 5483: 5456: 5432: 5405: 5386: 5334: 5309: 5179: 5117: 5090: 5066: 5039: 5011: 4986: 4931: 4881: 4846: 4822: 4797: 4773: 4748: 4724: 4699: 4680: 4632: 4607: 4588: 4502: 4448: 4405: 4305: 4286: 4246: 4221: 4176: 4133: 4009: 3912: 3869: 3826: 3783: 3740: 3697: 3648: 3592: 3567: 3509: 3414: 3368: 3322: 3279: 3231: 3188: 3136: 3111: 3089: 3042: 2890: 2870: 2658: 2615: 2596: 2496: 2453: 2410: 2398: 2354: 2329: 2270: 2223: 2171: 2146: 2034: 1934: 1901: 1821: 1796: 1658: 1547: 1305: 1085: 944: 803:

Situations where responses are not well-rehearsed or contain novel sequences of actions

649: 571: 555: 190: 7068: 6580: 6563: 1396:

Theories of the executive system were largely driven by observations of patients with

7783: 7726: 7696: 7669: 7608: 7573: 7526: 7468: 7419: 7401: 7370: 7362: 7321: 7303: 7264: 7246: 7199: 7191: 7133: 7098: 7084: 7049: 7004: 6955: 6945: 6922: 6908: 6874: 6862: 6818: 6761: 6712: 6708: 6681: 6669: 6626: 6585: 6544: 6499: 6494: 6459: 6432: 6391: 6346: 6293: 6289: 6256: 6233: 6165: 6147: 6143: 6108: 6054: 5995: 5987: 5948: 5899: 5881: 5832: 5814: 5776: 5733: 5725: 5686: 5678: 5614: 5596: 5555: 5537: 5488: 5437: 5390: 5378: 5339: 5257: 5214: 5171: 5122: 5071: 5016: 4967: 4927: 4886: 4827: 4778: 4729: 4672: 4668: 4637: 4608:"Individual differences in executive functions are almost entirely genetic in origin" 4580: 4541: 4494: 4440: 4397: 4362: 4352: 4341: 4321: 4311: 4290: 4251: 4203: 4168: 4125: 4088: 4078: 4064: 4013: 4001: 3953: 3943: 3932: 3904: 3861: 3818: 3775: 3732: 3689: 3640: 3597: 3548: 3501: 3466: 3462: 3406: 3360: 3326: 3314: 3271: 3223: 3180: 3141: 3081: 3034: 2992: 2982: 2938: 2928: 2897: 2862: 2825: 2761: 2751: 2728: 2718: 2693: 2663: 2645: 2588: 2580: 2566: 2531: 2488: 2445: 2402: 2359: 2310: 2300: 2262: 2242: 2215: 2176: 2114: 2057: 2038: 2026: 1974: 1939: 1921: 1878: 1826: 1755: 1731: 1671: 1618: 1500: 1488: 1452: 1440: 1352: 1157: 928: 910: 906: 891: 886: 700:

Side view of the brain, illustrating dorsolateral prefrontal and orbitofrontal cortex

618: 519: 466: 454: 340: 260: 40: 7738: 7712: 7681: 7620: 7284:"The Neuropsychopharmacology of Fronto-Executive Function: Monoaminergic Modulation" 7129: 6724: 6305: 6094: 5506:

Eersel ME, Joosten H, Koerts J, Gansevoort RT, Slaets JP, Izaks GJ (23 March 2015).

5183: 4935: 4684: 4506: 4452: 4137: 3916: 3873: 3787: 3744: 3701: 3513: 3418: 3372: 3283: 3192: 3093: 3046: 2600: 2441: 2414: 2274: 2227: 300: 7773: 7765: 7716: 7708: 7661: 7600: 7565: 7538: 7518: 7510: 7458: 7450: 7409: 7352: 7311: 7295: 7254: 7238: 7211: 7183: 7175: 7145: 7125: 7088: 7080: 7041: 6994: 6986: 6912: 6904: 6852: 6808: 6800: 6751: 6704: 6661: 6638: 6616: 6575: 6536: 6489: 6479: 6444: 6422: 6381: 6373: 6332: 6285: 6223: 6215: 6155: 6139: 6128:"Applicability of the Test of Variables of Attention – T.O.V.A in Brazilian adults" 6098: 6090: 6044: 6034: 6007: 5979: 5938: 5930: 5889: 5871: 5822: 5804: 5764: 5717: 5668: 5658: 5604: 5586: 5545: 5527: 5478: 5468: 5427: 5417: 5370: 5329: 5321: 5288: 5247: 5206: 5163: 5112: 5102: 5061: 5051: 5006: 4998: 4963: 4959: 4923: 4876: 4866: 4817: 4809: 4768: 4760: 4719: 4711: 4664: 4627: 4619: 4592: 4572: 4533: 4486: 4432: 4409: 4393: 4389: 4380:

Miller EK, Cohen JD (2001). "An integrative theory of prefrontal cortex function".

4278: 4241: 4233: 4180: 4160: 4117: 4043: 3993: 3896: 3857: 3853: 3810: 3767: 3724: 3679: 3652: 3632: 3587: 3583: 3579: 3540: 3493: 3458: 3398: 3352: 3306: 3263: 3235: 3215: 3172: 3131: 3123: 3073: 3026: 2874: 2854: 2798: 2653: 2635: 2570: 2562: 2523: 2500: 2480: 2437: 2394: 2349: 2341: 2254: 2207: 2166: 2162: 2158: 2018: 1966: 1929: 1913: 1868: 1816: 1808: 1634: 1626: 874: 847: 843: 750: 606: 598:) are used to measure executive functions. They are usually performed as part of a 255: 175: 5374: 5002: 4048: 4031: 3830: 2457: 7454: 6621: 6604: 6427: 6410: 5876: 5532: 5310:"FAS and CFL Forms of Verbal Fluency Differ in Difficulty: A Meta-analytic Study" 5210: 4847:"A gradient of childhood self-control predicts health, wealth, and public safety" 4199: 4195: 1675: 1543: 1516: 1390: 1259: 1153: 1042: 718: 641: 622: 621:

is necessary but not solely sufficient for executive functions; for example, the

579: 523: 478: 315: 305: 275: 245: 205: 165: 113: 53: 7569: 7553: 7159:

Lehtonen M, Soveri A, Laine A, Järvenpää J, de Bruin A, Antfolk J (April 2018).

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Neurobiological effects of physical exercise § Cognitive control and memory

854:, to which executive functions are closely allied. In 1975, the US psychologist 745:

also appears to be involved in mediating certain executive functions, as do the

7045: 5293: 5276: 5091:"Assessment of executive functions in school-aged children: A narrative review" 5040:"Assessment of executive functions in school-aged children: A narrative review" 4851:

Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America

4576: 4164: 3814: 2802: 2620:

Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America

1137: 1002: 948: 902: 870: 862: 826: 559: 345: 295: 270: 7769: 5809: 5753:"Ecological Assessment of Executive Functions: A New Virtual Reality Paradigm" 5721: 5325: 5236:"The Application of a Computerized Cognitive Screening Tool in Naval Aviators" 5167: 5107: 5056: 4282: 3728: 3497: 3402: 3310: 3267: 3219: 3176: 3077: 3061: 2527: 2484: 2258: 2022: 1873: 1856: 7884: 7853: 7405: 7366: 7307: 7250: 7195: 6866: 6219: 6151: 6039: 5991: 5983: 5968:"Diagnostic Utility of the Pediatric Attention Disorders Diagnostic Screener" 5885: 5818: 5729: 5682: 5600: 5541: 5473: 5422: 5252: 4366: 4325: 3900: 3771: 3127: 3030: 2996: 2920: 2732: 2649: 2584: 2314: 1925: 1917: 1792: 1721: 1711: 1686: 1642: 1610: 1512: 1424: 1336: 1145: 898: 818: 769: 648:. Stimulus-driven behavioral responses that are associated with a particular 418: 353: 310: 230: 160: 7665: 7514: 6959: 6781:"The network architecture of cortical processing in visuo-spatial reasoning" 6540: 5591: 5358: 4871: 3957: 3887:

Aron AR (June 2007). "The neural basis of inhibition in cognitive control".

3715:

Stone VE, Gerrans P (2006). "What's domain-specific about theory of mind?".

3544: 2942: 2765: 2640: 1443:(DLPFC), are thought to be particularly important for performing this task. 7787: 7730: 7673: 7612: 7577: 7530: 7472: 7423: 7374: 7325: 7268: 7203: 7137: 7102: 7053: 7008: 6926: 6822: 6765: 6673: 6630: 6589: 6548: 6460:"Event-related brain potentials in the study of visual selective attention" 6436: 6395: 6251:

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Kastner S, Pinsk MA, De Weerd P, Desimone R, Ungerleider LG (April 1999).

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Friedman NP, Miyake A, Young SE, DeFries JC, Corley RP, Hewitt JK (2008).

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Executive Functions - What They Are, How They Work, and Why They Evolved

3528: 2195: 1045:

proposed a widely known model of executive functioning that is based on

7486:

Ridderinkhof KR, Ullsperger M, Crone EA, Nieuwenhuis S (October 2004).

7187: 7179: 6337: 6320: 5673: 3997: 3483: 2975:"Developmental trajectories of executive functions across the lifespan" 2681: 1654: 1238: 1233:, other measures can and should be used, such as behaviour checklists, 786: 764:

areas, subserving higher cognitive and executive functions, and in the

742: 240: 195: 7721: 7522: 7485: 6804: 5663: 5646: 3979: 3977: 3975: 3973: 3971: 3969: 3967: 3684: 3667: 2613: 1197:

The cognitive task used in the article is selecting a response in the

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Ochsner KN, Gross JJ (May 2005). "The cognitive control of emotion".

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Botvinick MM, Braver TS, Barch DM, Carter CS, Cohen JD (July 2001).

7439:"Insights into Human Behavior from Lesions to the Prefrontal Cortex" 5789: 5704:

Toplak ME, Sorge GB, Benoit A, West RF, Stanovich KE (1 July 2010).

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Molecular Neuropharmacology: A Foundation for Clinical Neuroscience

2054:

Molecular Neuropharmacology: A Foundation for Clinical Neuroscience

1752:

Molecular Neuropharmacology: A Foundation for Clinical Neuroscience

1614: 1602: 1563: 1413: 1409: 567: 543: 200: 180: 98: 7604: 7394:

Journal of the Canadian Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry

6893:"Bilingual experience and executive functioning in young children" 6665: 5357:

Arán Filippetti V, Gutierrez M, Krumm G, Mateos D (October 2022).

5579:

International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health

4343:

Executive functions and the frontal lobes: A lifespan perspective

2979:

Executive functions and the frontal lobes: a lifespan perspective

2551:"Functional neuroanatomical review of the ventral tegmental area" 2243:"Fifty Years of Prefrontal Cortex Research: Impact on Assessment" 2113:(2nd ed.). New York: McGraw-Hill Medical. pp. 313–321. 2069:

although these distinctions remain somewhat vaguely defined. The

1754:(2nd ed.). New York: McGraw-Hill Medical. pp. 155–157. 1579:

Cognitive advantages of multilingualism § Executive function

1460: 1456: 1129: 210: 150: 6359: 4654: 4065:"Attention to action: Willed and automatic control of behaviour" 3296: 1180: 1001:

in the domain of response control, memory, selective attention,

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Barnett JH, Jones PB, Robbins TW, Müller U (27 February 2007).

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2196:"Executive functions and the frontal lobes: A conceptual view" 1848: 1526:

The advent of bloodflow-based neuroimaging techniques such as

1256:(BRIEF). Ages 2-90 covered by different versions of the scale. 1190:(DLPFC), the mid-DLPFC, and the posterior and anterior dorsal 6737: 6201: 5916: 5505: 4984: 4948: 4844: 3253: 2715:

Attention-Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder: A Clinical Workbook

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Shokri-Kojori E, Motes MA, Rypma B, Krawczyk DC (May 2012).

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The work of influential researchers such as Michael Posner,

7694: 6740:"Functional connectivity during working memory maintenance" 5849: 4746: 4465: 3342: 2549:

Trutti AC, Mulder MJ, Hommel B, Forstmann BU (2019-05-01).

2548: 2376: 2086:

seems to regulate social cognition, including empathy. The

1649:. Lesions to the prefrontal cortex, such as in the case of 732:

Furthermore, in their review, Alvarez and Emory state that:

7551: 6182: 6076: 4909:"Executive function: The search for an integrated account" 4605: 3672:

The Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology Section A

2822:

Information processing and cognition: the Loyola symposium

2045: 1689:

for discovering the genetic causes of executive function.

7338: 6516: 5750: 4032:"Unwind: A Musical Biofeedback for Relaxation assistance" 3112:"Executive functions after age 5: Changes and correlates" 2327: 1495: 7069:"The source of enhanced cognitive control in bilinguals" 7066: 6408: 6321:"The role of the prefrontal cortex in dynamic filtering" 5572: 4105: 2981:. Washington, DC: Taylor & Francis. pp. 24–47. 4795: 4268: 4070:

Consciousness and self-regulation: advances in research

2247:

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Borkowska AR, Daniluk B, Adamczyk K (7 October 2021).

4698:

Friedman NP, Miyake A, Robinson JL, Hewitt JK (2011).

1855:

Chan RC, Shum D, Toulopoulou T, Chen EY (March 2008).

1250:

Behavioural Assessment of Dysexecutive Syndrome (BADS)

901:

had proposed a similar system as part of his model of

800:

Those that involve error correction or troubleshooting

7695:

Greene CM, Braet W, Johnson KA, Bellgrove MA (2007).

7225:

Leh SE, Petrides M, Strafella AP (16 February 2017).

6972: 6738:

Gazzaley A, Rissman J, d'Esposito M (December 2004).

6651: 6409:

Hasegawa RP, Peterson BW, Goldberg ME (August 2004).

6208:

Multiple Sclerosis (Houndmills, Basingstoke, England)

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and Schneider in 1977), and introduced the notion of

27:

Cognitive processes necessary for control of behavior

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Journal of Clinical and Experimental Neuropsychology

2095: 885:

on selected aspects of the environment. The British

602:

to diagnose neurological and psychiatric disorders.

6744:

Cognitive, Affective, & Behavioral Neuroscience

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International Journal of Developmental Neuroscience

2108: 2051: 1950: 1749: 772:and higher cognitive processing by its activation. 6975:"Cognitive control factors in speech at 11 months" 5307: 5153: 4985:Castellanos I, Kronenberger WG, Pisoni DB (2016). 2889: 1772: 1435:studies have shown that two parts of the PFC, the 1132:. Cognitive control is mediated by reciprocal PFC 629:also have a role in mediating inhibitory control. 7436: 6694: 5234:Chee SM, Bigornia VE, Logsdon DL (January 2021). 5196: 5141:"Barkley Deficits in Executive Functioning Scale" 4519: 4109:Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B 2778: 2745: 2004: 2002: 2000: 1998: 1996: 1994: 1992: 1326:Pediatric Attention Disorders Diagnostic Screener 1268:Comprehensive Executive Function Inventory (CEFI) 652:tend to dominate one's behavior in an addiction. 7851: 7387: 7067:Emmorey K, Luk G, Pyers JE, Bialystok E (2008). 5635:Bury St Edmunds, UK: Thames Valley Test Company. 3059: 2427: 2147:"Cognitive control in autism spectrum disorders" 1959:Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior 1564:Connectivity between the PFC and sensory regions 1313:Kaplan Baycrest Neurocognitive Assessment (KBNA) 1262:Deficits in Executive Functioning Scales (BDEFS) 6890: 6464:Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 6077:Faria CA, Alves HV, Charchat-Fichman H (2015). 5923:Medical Journal of the Islamic Republic of Iran 4558: 3249: 3247: 3245: 3109: 3012: 3010: 3008: 3006: 2972: 2915: 2913: 1844:Figure 4: Executive functions and related terms 1310:Jansari assessment of Executive Functions (JEF) 1287:Delis-Kaplan Executive Function System (D-KEFS) 1254:Behavior Rating Inventory of Executive Function 869:, and their colleagues in the 1980s (and later 596:Behavior Rating Inventory of Executive Function 7281: 4422: 4062: 3384: 3382: 2977:. In Anderson P, Anderson V, Jacobs R (eds.). 2844: 2680: 2193: 1989: 1899: 1163: 992: 797:Those that involve planning or decision-making 7845:The National Center for Learning Disabilities 7590: 6605:"Searching for "the top" in top-down control" 6253:Methodology of frontal and executive function 4902: 4900: 3938:. Oxford : Oxford University Press. pp. 3614: 3388: 3338: 3336: 2968: 2966: 2964: 2962: 2960: 2958: 2956: 2954: 2952: 2896:. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. 2712: 1487:information. Other evidence from single-cell 1280:Controlled Oral Word Association Test (COWAT) 806:Dangerous or technically difficult situations 499: 7697:"Imaging the genetics of executive function" 6834: 6832: 6458:Hillyard SA, Anllo-Vento L (February 1998). 6275: 3983: 3843: 3800: 3714: 3565: 3526: 3242: 3205: 3003: 2910: 2815: 2576:11245.1/751fe3c1-b9ab-4e95-842d-929af69887ed 2507: 2464: 2240: 2008: 7751: 7554:"Conflict monitoring and cognitive control" 7388:Hosenbocus S, Chahal R (16 February 2017). 6973:Conboy BT, Sommerville JA, Kuhl PK (2008). 5965: 5633:The Hayling and Brixton Tests. Test manual. 4916:Current Directions in Psychological Science 4802:Social Cognitive and Affective Neuroscience 4612:Journal of Experimental Psychology: General 4379: 4347:. New York: Taylor & Francis. pp. 3430: 3428: 3379: 3105: 3103: 1906:Current Directions in Psychological Science 1743: 1479:behavior would be required (looking to the 1316:Kaufman Short Neuropsychological Assessment 1078: 1069: 6312: 5308:Barry D, Bates ME, Labouvie E (May 2008). 4897: 3757: 3333: 2949: 2748:The DYSfunctionality of Executive Function 2379:Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences 661:versa, a review found indications for the 506: 492: 389:Halstead-Reitan Neuropsychological Battery 7777: 7720: 7655: 7462: 7413: 7356: 7315: 7258: 7092: 7035: 6998: 6939: 6916: 6858:10.1146/annurev-linguistics-011718-011820 6856: 6829: 6812: 6755: 6620: 6603:Miller BT, d'Esposito M (November 2005). 6579: 6530: 6493: 6483: 6426: 6385: 6336: 6318: 6227: 6159: 6102: 6072: 6070: 6068: 6048: 6038: 5942: 5893: 5875: 5826: 5808: 5672: 5662: 5645:Martyr A, Boycheva E, Kudlicka A (2017). 5608: 5590: 5549: 5531: 5482: 5472: 5431: 5421: 5333: 5292: 5251: 5116: 5106: 5065: 5055: 5010: 4952:International Journal of Psychophysiology 4880: 4870: 4821: 4772: 4723: 4631: 4480: 4245: 4047: 4025: 4023: 3683: 3591: 3452: 3135: 2792: 2657: 2639: 2574: 2513: 2353: 2295:Lezak MD, Howieson DB, Loring DW (2004). 2170: 1933: 1872: 1820: 1592: 1124:, as well as over assemblies involved in 836: 404:Luria-Nebraska neuropsychological battery 6944:. 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According to Miller and Cohen, this 4303: 3486:International Journal of Neuroscience 3110:Best JR, Miller PH, Jones LL (2009). 2281: 1528:functional magnetic resonance imaging 7758:Developmental Cognitive Neuroscience 4559:Wiebe SA, Espy KA, Charak D (2008). 4067:. In Shapiro DL, Schwartz G (eds.). 3886: 3158: 1900:Miyake A, Friedman NP (2012-01-31). 1861:Archives of Clinical Neuropsychology 1664: 1573:Bilingualism and executive functions 1026:Supervisory attentional system (SAS) 775: 7300:10.1146/annurev.neuro.051508.135535 4437:10.1146/annurev.ne.18.030195.001205 4238:10.1146/annurev-psych-113011-143750 4073:. New York: Plenum Press. pp. 3934:Principles of frontal lobe function 3566:Aron AR, Poldrack RA (March 2006). 2859:10.1146/annurev.ne.13.030190.000325 1813:10.1146/annurev-psych-113011-143750 1597:The study of executive function in 1320:Paced Auditory Serial Addition Test 1181:Banich's "cascade of control" model 24: 7437:Szczepanski SM, Knight RT (2014). 6378:10.1523/JNEUROSCI.21-13-04801.2001 5797:Alzheimer's Research & Therapy 5638: 5625: 2399:10.1111/j.1749-6632.2001.tb03476.x 1613:are important in these processes. 1447:Context-sensitivity of PFC neurons 1111:, and, as a consequence, to guide 939: 817:is a response for which immediate 25: 7896: 7797: 7752:Diamond A, Ling DS (2016-04-01). 6255:. East Sussex: Psychology Press. 5966:Newman E, Reddy LA (March 2017). 5203:Handbook of Executive Functioning 5197:Naglieri JA, Goldstein S (2014). 2818:"Attention and cognitive control" 1265:Behavioral Dyscontrol Scale (BDS) 955: 632:Cognitive control is impaired in 424:Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale 124:Neuropsychological rehabilitation 7832: 7745: 7688: 7627: 7584: 7545: 7479: 7430: 7381: 7332: 7275: 7218: 7152: 7109: 7085:10.1111/j.1467-9280.2008.02224.x 7060: 7015: 6966: 6933: 6909:10.1111/j.1467-7687.2008.00675.x 6891:Carlson SM, Meltzoff AM (2008). 6772: 6731: 6688: 6645: 6596: 6555: 6510: 6451: 6402: 6353: 6269: 6244: 6144:10.1590/1980-57642018dn12-040009 4928:10.1111/j.1467-8721.2009.01615.x 4669:10.1111/j.1467-9280.2007.01997.x 4520:Vaughan L, Giovanello K (2010). 3463:10.1111/j.1467-8624.2004.00745.x 2973:De Luca CR, Leventer RJ (2008). 2690:Cognitive neuroscience: a reader 2567:10.1016/j.neuroimage.2019.01.062 1030:Another conceptual model is the 785:or set behaviors. Psychologists 646:central nervous system disorders 472: 460: 448: 60: 7713:10.1016/j.biopsycho.2007.11.009 7130:10.1016/j.cognition.2006.12.013 6195: 6176: 6132:Dementia & Neuropsychologia 6119: 6095:10.1590/1980-57642015DN92000009 6014: 5959: 5910: 5843: 5783: 5744: 5697: 5566: 5499: 5448: 5397: 5350: 5301: 5268: 5227: 5190: 5147: 5133: 5082: 5031: 4978: 4942: 4838: 4789: 4740: 4691: 4648: 4599: 4552: 4513: 4459: 4416: 4373: 4332: 4297: 4262: 4213: 4187: 4144: 4099: 4063:Norman DA, Shallice T (1986) . 4056: 3923: 3880: 3837: 3794: 3751: 3708: 3659: 3608: 3559: 3520: 3477: 3290: 3199: 3152: 3053: 2881: 2838: 2809: 2772: 2739: 2706: 2674: 2607: 2542: 2442:10.1016/j.pneurobio.2008.09.001 2421: 2370: 2321: 2234: 2194:Stuss DT, Alexander MP (2000). 2187: 655: 594:) and rating scales (e.g., the 5972:Journal of Attention Disorders 5363:Applied Neuropsychology. Child 5205:. Springer. pp. 223–244. 4991:Applied Neuropsychology: Child 4964:10.1016/j.ijpsycho.2013.08.008 4753:Journal of Abnormal Psychology 4394:10.1146/annurev.neuro.24.1.167 3858:10.1016/j.brainres.2005.12.115 3584:10.1523/JNEUROSCI.4682-05.2006 2713:Barkley RA, Murphy KR (2006). 2163:10.1016/j.ijdevneu.2007.11.001 2145:Solomon M (13 November 2007). 2138: 2084:ventromedial prefrontal cortex 2080:dorsolateral prefrontal cortex 1893: 1441:dorsolateral prefrontal cortex 1342:Test of Variables of Attention 1188:dorsolateral prefrontal cortex 1032:supervisory attentional system 969: 916: 686:dorsolateral prefrontal cortex 13: 1: 7875:Neuropsychological assessment 7288:Annual Review of Neuroscience 6581:10.1016/S0896-6273(00)80734-5 5375:10.1080/21622965.2021.1923494 5003:10.1080/21622965.2016.1248557 4425:Annual Review of Neuroscience 4382:Annual Review of Neuroscience 4307:Neuropsychological assessment 4049:10.1080/0144929X.2018.1484515 3527:Mansbach WE, Mace RA (2019). 3435:Luna B, Garver KE, Urban TA, 3391:Developmental Neuropsychology 3256:Developmental Neuropsychology 3208:Developmental Neuropsychology 3165:Developmental Neuropsychology 3066:Developmental Neuropsychology 2847:Annual Review of Neuroscience 2297:Neuropsychological Assessment 2241:Burgess PW, Stuss DT (2017). 1737: 1471:, an American learns to look 1332:Rey-Osterrieth Complex Figure 1224: 600:more comprehensive assessment 530:(collectively referred to as 414:Rey–Osterrieth complex figure 409:Mini–mental state examination 119:Neuropsychological assessment 7823:Resources in other libraries 7455:10.1016/j.neuron.2014.08.011 6845:Annual Review of Linguistics 6709:10.1016/0006-8993(85)90689-4 6622:10.1016/j.neuron.2005.11.002 6428:10.1016/j.neuron.2004.07.013 6290:10.1016/0028-3932(91)90037-9 6083:Dementia and Neuropsychology 6020: 5877:10.1371/journal.pone.0194873 5533:10.1371/journal.pone.0121411 5454: 5403: 5211:10.1007/978-1-4614-8106-5_14 4271:Review of General Psychology 3803:Trends in Cognitive Sciences 2816:Posner MI, Snyder C (1975). 2746:Cherkes-Julkowski M (2005). 1623:catechol-O-methyltransferase 1532:positron emission tomography 1364:Symbol Digit Modalities Test 978: 756:In humans, high contents of 379:Benton Visual Retention Test 7: 7570:10.1037/0033-295X.108.3.624 6366:The Journal of Neuroscience 5156:Perceptual and Motor Skills 5088: 5037: 4624:10.1037/0096-3445.137.2.201 4226:Annual Review of Psychology 3357:10.1076/jcen.25.2.242.13639 1801:Annual Review of Psychology 1717:Nonverbal learning disorder 1695: 1429:Wisconsin Card Sorting Task 1359:Wisconsin Card Sorting Test 1275:Continuous Performance Task 1164:Miyake and Friedman's model 1160:, and response inhibition. 993:Top-down inhibitory control 609:, which is associated with 542:that support goal-directed 434:Wisconsin Card Sorting Task 384:Continuous Performance Task 10: 7901: 7046:10.1037/0882-7974.19.2.290 5710:Clinical Psychology Review 5651:Journal of Neuropsychology 5294:10.1007/s41252-023-00366-x 4577:10.1037/0012-1649.44.2.575 4165:10.1037/0033-2909.121.1.65 3815:10.1016/j.tics.2005.03.010 2803:10.1037/0033-295X.84.2.127 1576: 1386:real-world situations. As 1104:Selective visual attention 931:, which is not completely 920: 890:portion of the brain, the 760:(CB1) is found in frontal 38: 31: 7818:Resources in your library 7770:10.1016/j.dcn.2015.11.005 5810:10.1186/s13195-018-0382-y 5722:10.1016/j.cpr.2010.04.002 5326:10.1080/09084280802083863 5168:10.2466/pms.1992.74.3.883 5108:10.3389/fpsyg.2022.991699 5057:10.3389/fpsyg.2022.991699 4283:10.1037/1089-2680.1.2.198 3729:10.1080/17470910601029221 3498:10.1080/00207450490476066 3403:10.1207/S15326942DN2203_3 3311:10.1080/09297040409609811 3268:10.1207/S15326942DN2001_5 3220:10.1207/s15326942dn2602_3 3177:10.1207/s15326942dn2601_1 3078:10.1207/s15326942dn2601_5 2528:10.1016/j.ncl.2014.07.005 2485:10.1007/s12311-011-0321-y 2259:10.1017/s1355617717000704 2071:anterior cingulate cortex 2023:10.1007/s11065-006-9002-x 1874:10.1016/j.acn.2007.08.010 1702:Cognitive neuropsychology 1631:major depressive disorder 1586:lateral prefrontal cortex 1519:. Early studies employed 1437:anterior cingulate cortex 1355:(TMT) or Trails A & B 1301:Hayling and Brixton tests 1294:Ruff Figural Fluency Test 1192:anterior cingulate cortex 987: 909:(for example, when doing 707:anterior cingulate cortex 394:Hayling and Brixton tests 89:Cognitive neuropsychology 6979:Developmental Psychology 6220:10.1177/1352458517690821 6040:10.3389/fpsyg.2019.00311 5984:10.1177/1087054714526431 5474:10.3389/fpsyg.2019.00311 5423:10.3389/fpsyg.2019.00311 5274: 4704:Developmental Psychology 4565:Developmental Psychology 3901:10.1177/1073858407299288 3772:10.1177/1073858407304654 3128:10.1016/j.dr.2009.05.002 3031:10.1076/chin.8.2.71.8724 2430:Progress in Neurobiology 2076:medial prefrontal cortex 1918:10.1177/0963721411429458 1557:motion-sensitive regions 1553:colour-sensitive regions 1521:event-related potentials 1231:neuropsychological tests 1079:Miller and Cohen's model 1070:Lezak's conceptual model 644:, and a number of other 588:neuropsychological tests 84:Clinical neuropsychology 32:Not to be confused with 7666:10.1126/science.1088545 7515:10.1126/science.1100301 7231:Neuropsychopharmacology 6185:Frontiers in Psychology 6027:Frontiers in Psychology 5592:10.3390/ijerph181910527 5461:Frontiers in Psychology 5410:Frontiers in Psychology 5314:Applied Neuropsychology 5095:Frontiers in Psychology 5044:Frontiers in Psychology 4872:10.1073/pnas.1010076108 3572:Journal of Neuroscience 2641:10.1073/pnas.0703472104 1505:functional neuroimaging 1433:functional neuroimaging 768:, a region pivotal for 39:For similar terms, see 7168:Psychological Bulletin 5253:10.1093/milmed/usaa333 4491:10.1006/cogp.1999.0734 4202:Guilford Press, 2012. 4153:Psychological Bulletin 4122:10.1098/rstb.1996.0124 3986:Psychological Bulletin 3666:Tipper SP (May 2001). 2200:Psychological Research 2011:Neuropsychology Review 1672:medial and lateral PFC 1593:In disease or disorder 1469:right side of the road 1297:Halstead Category Test 1099: 837:Historical perspective 758:cannabinoid receptor 1 747:ventral tegmental area 739: 701: 615:classical conditioning 605:Cognitive control and 266:Patricia Goldman-Rakic 129:Traumatic brain injury 94:Cognitive neuroscience 34:Executive (government) 7701:Biological Psychology 7358:10.1038/sj.mp.4001973 7073:Psychological Science 6897:Developmental Science 6541:10.1093/cercor/bhg080 6485:10.1073/pnas.95.3.781 6319:Shimamura AP (2000). 5769:10.1017/BrImp.2014.14 4657:Psychological Science 4222:"Executive Functions" 4030:Yu B, Funk M (2018). 3545:10.1093/geront/gny097 3299:Child Neuropsychology 3019:Child Neuropsychology 2820:. 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processes 528:executive functions 479:Medicine portal 171:Executive functions 7180:10.1037/bul0000142 6785:Scientific Reports 6338:10.3758/BF03331979 4907:Banich MT (2009). 4220:Diamond A (2013). 3998:10.1037/bul0000195 2516:Neurologic Clinics 1659:social functioning 1507:studies involving 1306:Iowa gambling task 945:Inhibitory control 815:prepotent response 702: 650:rewarding stimulus 572:fluid intelligence 556:inhibitory control 532:executive function 191:Motor coordination 7837:Media related to 7804:Library resources 7079:(12): 1201–1206. 6951:978-0-511-60596-3 6805:10.1038/srep00411 6262:978-0-86377-485-0 5664:10.1111/jnp.12129 5240:Military Medicine 5220:978-1-4614-8105-8 4358:978-1-84169-490-0 4317:978-0-19-509031-4 4304:Lezak MD (1995). 4208:978-1-4625-0535-7 4084:978-0-306-33601-0 3949:978-0-19-513497-1 3685:10.1080/713755969 3533:The Gerontologist 3492:(10): 1291–1311. 3441:Child Development 2988:978-1-84169-490-0 2934:978-0-19-852116-7 2903:978-0-521-31360-5 2831:978-0-470-81230-3 2757:978-0-9765299-2-7 2724:978-1-59385-227-6 2699:978-0-631-21660-5 2626:(23): 9800–9805. 2306:978-0-19-511121-7 2253:(9–10): 755–767. 2120:978-0-07-148127-4 2063:978-0-07-148127-4 1761:978-0-07-148127-4 1732:Conscientiousness 1665:Future directions 1517:auditory cortices 1501:Electrophysiology 1489:electrophysiology 1453:electrophysiology 1353:Trail-Making Test 1158:memory inhibition 929:prefrontal cortex 911:mental arithmetic 907:short-term memory 892:prefrontal cortex 887:neuropsychologist 776:Hypothesized role 619:prefrontal cortex 536:cognitive control 520:cognitive science 516: 515: 348:("H.M.", patient) 341:Hans-Lukas Teuber 261:Elkhonon Goldberg 41:Adaptive behavior 16:(Redirected from 7892: 7836: 7792: 7791: 7781: 7749: 7743: 7742: 7724: 7692: 7686: 7685: 7659: 7642:(5648): 1181–5. 7631: 7625: 7624: 7588: 7582: 7581: 7549: 7543: 7542: 7492: 7483: 7477: 7476: 7466: 7449:(5): 1002–1018. 7434: 7428: 7427: 7417: 7385: 7379: 7378: 7360: 7336: 7330: 7329: 7319: 7279: 7273: 7272: 7262: 7222: 7216: 7215: 7165: 7156: 7150: 7149: 7113: 7107: 7106: 7096: 7064: 7058: 7057: 7039: 7019: 7013: 7012: 7002: 6991:10.1037/a0012975 6985:(5): 1505–1512. 6970: 6964: 6963: 6937: 6931: 6930: 6920: 6888: 6879: 6878: 6860: 6836: 6827: 6826: 6816: 6776: 6770: 6769: 6759: 6735: 6729: 6728: 6692: 6686: 6685: 6649: 6643: 6642: 6624: 6600: 6594: 6593: 6583: 6559: 6553: 6552: 6534: 6514: 6508: 6507: 6497: 6487: 6455: 6449: 6448: 6430: 6406: 6400: 6399: 6389: 6357: 6351: 6350: 6340: 6316: 6310: 6309: 6278:Neuropsychologia 6273: 6267: 6266: 6248: 6242: 6241: 6231: 6199: 6193: 6192: 6180: 6174: 6173: 6163: 6123: 6117: 6116: 6106: 6074: 6063: 6062: 6052: 6042: 6018: 6012: 6011: 5963: 5957: 5956: 5946: 5914: 5908: 5907: 5897: 5879: 5847: 5841: 5840: 5830: 5812: 5787: 5781: 5780: 5757:Brain Impairment 5748: 5742: 5741: 5701: 5695: 5694: 5676: 5666: 5642: 5636: 5629: 5623: 5622: 5612: 5594: 5570: 5564: 5563: 5553: 5535: 5503: 5497: 5496: 5486: 5476: 5452: 5446: 5445: 5435: 5425: 5401: 5395: 5394: 5354: 5348: 5347: 5337: 5305: 5299: 5298: 5296: 5272: 5266: 5265: 5255: 5231: 5225: 5224: 5194: 5188: 5187: 5151: 5145: 5144: 5137: 5131: 5130: 5120: 5110: 5086: 5080: 5079: 5069: 5059: 5035: 5029: 5028: 5014: 4982: 4976: 4975: 4946: 4940: 4939: 4913: 4904: 4895: 4894: 4884: 4874: 4857:(7): 2693–2698. 4842: 4836: 4835: 4825: 4793: 4787: 4786: 4776: 4765:10.1037/a0014657 4744: 4738: 4737: 4727: 4716:10.1037/a0023750 4710:(5): 1410–1430. 4695: 4689: 4688: 4652: 4646: 4645: 4635: 4603: 4597: 4596: 4556: 4550: 4549: 4538:10.1037/a0017729 4517: 4511: 4510: 4484: 4463: 4457: 4456: 4420: 4414: 4413: 4377: 4371: 4370: 4346: 4336: 4330: 4329: 4301: 4295: 4294: 4266: 4260: 4259: 4249: 4217: 4211: 4191: 4185: 4184: 4148: 4142: 4141: 4103: 4097: 4096: 4060: 4054: 4053: 4051: 4027: 4018: 4017: 3981: 3962: 3961: 3937: 3927: 3921: 3920: 3884: 3878: 3877: 3841: 3835: 3834: 3798: 3792: 3791: 3755: 3749: 3748: 3712: 3706: 3705: 3687: 3663: 3657: 3656: 3637:10.1038/35066572 3612: 3606: 3605: 3595: 3563: 3557: 3556: 3524: 3518: 3517: 3481: 3475: 3474: 3456: 3447:(5): 1357–1372. 3432: 3423: 3422: 3386: 3377: 3376: 3340: 3331: 3330: 3294: 3288: 3287: 3251: 3240: 3239: 3203: 3197: 3196: 3159:Espy KA (2004). 3156: 3150: 3149: 3139: 3107: 3098: 3097: 3057: 3051: 3050: 3014: 3001: 3000: 2970: 2947: 2946: 2917: 2908: 2907: 2895: 2885: 2879: 2878: 2842: 2836: 2835: 2813: 2807: 2806: 2796: 2776: 2770: 2769: 2743: 2737: 2736: 2710: 2704: 2703: 2678: 2672: 2671: 2661: 2643: 2611: 2605: 2604: 2578: 2546: 2540: 2539: 2511: 2505: 2504: 2468: 2462: 2461: 2425: 2419: 2418: 2374: 2368: 2367: 2357: 2340:(5): 1311–1322. 2325: 2319: 2318: 2292: 2279: 2278: 2238: 2232: 2231: 2206:(3–4): 289–298. 2191: 2185: 2184: 2174: 2142: 2136: 2135: 2106: 2093: 2092: 2049: 2043: 2042: 2006: 1987: 1986: 1971:10.1002/jeab.194 1954: 1948: 1947: 1937: 1897: 1891: 1890: 1876: 1852: 1846: 1841: 1824: 1789: 1770: 1769: 1747: 1635:bipolar disorder 1627:anxiety disorder 1109:processing stage 844:Donald Broadbent 751:substantia nigra 665:but not for the 607:stimulus control 508: 501: 494: 477: 476: 475: 465: 464: 463: 453: 452: 451: 373: 357: 349: 256:Norman Geschwind 236:Arthur L. Benton 225: 176:Natural language 145: 73: 64: 50: 49: 21: 18:Executive system 7900: 7899: 7895: 7894: 7893: 7891: 7890: 7889: 7880:Neuropsychology 7850: 7849: 7829: 7828: 7827: 7812: 7811: 7807: 7800: 7795: 7750: 7746: 7693: 7689: 7632: 7628: 7589: 7585: 7550: 7546: 7501:(5695): 443–7. 7490: 7484: 7480: 7435: 7431: 7386: 7382: 7337: 7333: 7280: 7276: 7223: 7219: 7163: 7157: 7153: 7114: 7110: 7065: 7061: 7037:10.1.1.524.3897 7020: 7016: 6971: 6967: 6952: 6938: 6934: 6889: 6882: 6837: 6830: 6777: 6773: 6736: 6732: 6693: 6689: 6650: 6646: 6601: 6597: 6560: 6556: 6532:10.1.1.129.2978 6525:(12): 1334–43. 6519:Cerebral Cortex 6515: 6511: 6456: 6452: 6407: 6403: 6358: 6354: 6317: 6313: 6274: 6270: 6263: 6249: 6245: 6200: 6196: 6181: 6177: 6124: 6120: 6075: 6066: 6019: 6015: 5964: 5960: 5915: 5911: 5862:(3): e0194873. 5848: 5844: 5788: 5784: 5749: 5745: 5702: 5698: 5643: 5639: 5630: 5626: 5571: 5567: 5518:(3): e0121411. 5504: 5500: 5453: 5449: 5402: 5398: 5355: 5351: 5306: 5302: 5273: 5269: 5232: 5228: 5221: 5195: 5191: 5152: 5148: 5139: 5138: 5134: 5087: 5083: 5036: 5032: 4983: 4979: 4947: 4943: 4911: 4905: 4898: 4843: 4839: 4794: 4790: 4745: 4741: 4696: 4692: 4663:(10): 893–900. 4653: 4649: 4604: 4600: 4557: 4553: 4518: 4514: 4482:10.1.1.485.1953 4464: 4460: 4421: 4417: 4378: 4374: 4359: 4337: 4333: 4318: 4302: 4298: 4267: 4263: 4218: 4214: 4192: 4188: 4149: 4145: 4104: 4100: 4085: 4061: 4057: 4028: 4021: 3982: 3965: 3950: 3928: 3924: 3885: 3881: 3842: 3838: 3799: 3795: 3756: 3752: 3723:(3–4): 309–19. 3713: 3709: 3664: 3660: 3623:(6826): 366–9. 3613: 3609: 3564: 3560: 3525: 3521: 3482: 3478: 3454:10.1.1.498.6633 3433: 3426: 3387: 3380: 3341: 3334: 3295: 3291: 3252: 3243: 3204: 3200: 3157: 3153: 3108: 3101: 3058: 3054: 3015: 3004: 2989: 2971: 2950: 2935: 2918: 2911: 2904: 2886: 2882: 2843: 2839: 2832: 2814: 2810: 2794:10.1.1.227.1856 2777: 2773: 2758: 2744: 2740: 2725: 2711: 2707: 2700: 2679: 2675: 2612: 2608: 2547: 2543: 2522:(4): 1081–104. 2512: 2508: 2469: 2465: 2426: 2422: 2375: 2371: 2326: 2322: 2307: 2293: 2282: 2239: 2235: 2192: 2188: 2143: 2139: 2131: 2128: 2126: 2121: 2107: 2096: 2064: 2050: 2046: 2007: 1990: 1955: 1951: 1898: 1894: 1853: 1849: 1842: 1837: 1790: 1773: 1762: 1748: 1744: 1740: 1698: 1676:premotor cortex 1667: 1595: 1581: 1575: 1566: 1544:face-responsive 1498: 1449: 1391:Antonio Damasio 1376:Paul W. Burgess 1372: 1367: 1291:Digit Span Test 1227: 1183: 1166: 1154:decision-making 1144:, and with the 1081: 1072: 1063: 1047:self-regulation 1043:Russell Barkley 1040: 1028: 1011: 995: 990: 981: 972: 958: 942: 940:Early childhood 925: 919: 839: 778: 719:akinetic mutism 658: 623:caudate nucleus 580:problem-solving 538:) are a set of 524:neuropsychology 512: 483: 473: 471: 461: 459: 449: 447: 439: 438: 374: 369: 362: 361: 355: 347: 346:Henry Molaison 336:Roger W. Sperry 331:Mark Rosenzweig 316:Karl H. Pribram 306:Alexander Luria 276:Kenneth Heilman 246:Antonio Damasio 226: 223: 216: 215: 206:Problem solving 166:Decision making 146: 143:Brain functions 141: 134: 133: 114:Neurophysiology 74: 71: 54:Neuropsychology 48: 37: 28: 23: 22: 15: 12: 11: 5: 7898: 7888: 7887: 7882: 7877: 7872: 7867: 7862: 7848: 7847: 7842: 7826: 7825: 7820: 7814: 7813: 7802: 7801: 7799: 7798:External links 7796: 7794: 7793: 7744: 7687: 7657:10.1.1.71.8826 7626: 7583: 7544: 7478: 7429: 7400:(3): 223–229. 7380: 7351:(5): 502–509. 7331: 7274: 7217: 7174:(4): 394–425. 7151: 7108: 7059: 7030:(2): 290–303. 7014: 6965: 6950: 6932: 6903:(2): 282–298. 6880: 6851:(1): 395–415. 6828: 6771: 6730: 6703:(2): 299–307. 6697:Brain Research 6687: 6660:(4): 399–403. 6644: 6595: 6554: 6509: 6450: 6401: 6372:(13): 4801–8. 6352: 6331:(2): 207–218. 6311: 6284:(12): 1241–9. 6268: 6261: 6243: 6214:(5): 721–733. 6194: 6175: 6138:(4): 394–401. 6118: 6089:(2): 149–155. 6064: 6013: 5978:(5): 372–380. 5958: 5909: 5842: 5782: 5743: 5716:(5): 562–581. 5696: 5637: 5624: 5565: 5498: 5447: 5396: 5369:(4): 629–639. 5349: 5300: 5287:(3): 365–383. 5267: 5246:(1): 198–204. 5226: 5219: 5189: 5162:(3): 883–892. 5146: 5132: 5081: 5030: 4977: 4941: 4896: 4837: 4808:(2): 252–256. 4788: 4759:(1): 117–130. 4739: 4690: 4647: 4618:(2): 201–225. 4598: 4571:(2): 573–587. 4551: 4532:(2): 343–355. 4512: 4458: 4431:(1): 193–222. 4415: 4388:(1): 167–202. 4372: 4357: 4331: 4316: 4296: 4277:(2): 198–226. 4261: 4212: 4186: 4143: 4098: 4083: 4055: 4042:(8): 800–814. 4019: 3992:(7): 653–697. 3963: 3948: 3922: 3889:Neuroscientist 3879: 3846:Brain Research 3836: 3793: 3760:Neuroscientist 3750: 3707: 3658: 3607: 3578:(9): 2424–33. 3558: 3539:(5): 925–935. 3519: 3476: 3424: 3397:(3): 595–624. 3378: 3351:(2): 242–254. 3332: 3305:(3): 201–211. 3289: 3262:(1): 385–406. 3241: 3214:(2): 571–593. 3198: 3171:(1): 379–384. 3151: 3122:(3): 180–200. 3099: 3072:(1): 445–464. 3052: 3002: 2987: 2948: 2933: 2925:Working memory 2909: 2902: 2880: 2837: 2830: 2808: 2771: 2756: 2738: 2723: 2705: 2698: 2673: 2606: 2541: 2506: 2463: 2436:(3): 216–244. 2420: 2385:(1): 107–117. 2369: 2320: 2305: 2280: 2233: 2186: 2137: 2119: 2094: 2062: 2044: 1988: 1949: 1892: 1867:(2): 201–216. 1847: 1771: 1760: 1741: 1739: 1736: 1735: 1734: 1729: 1724: 1719: 1714: 1709: 1704: 1697: 1694: 1687:endophenotypes 1666: 1663: 1594: 1591: 1577:Main article: 1574: 1571: 1565: 1562: 1497: 1494: 1459:, such as the 1448: 1445: 1439:(ACC) and the 1371: 1368: 1366: 1365: 1362: 1356: 1350: 1345: 1339: 1334: 1329: 1323: 1317: 1314: 1311: 1308: 1303: 1298: 1295: 1292: 1289: 1284: 1281: 1278: 1272: 1269: 1266: 1263: 1257: 1251: 1247: 1226: 1223: 1182: 1179: 1165: 1162: 1142:motor cortices 1080: 1077: 1071: 1068: 1062: 1059: 1039: 1036: 1027: 1024: 1010: 1007: 1003:theory of mind 994: 991: 989: 986: 980: 977: 971: 968: 957: 956:Preadolescence 954: 949:working memory 941: 938: 918: 915: 903:working memory 871:Trevor Robbins 863:Joaquin Fuster 856:Michael Posner 838: 835: 827:chocolate cake 811: 810: 807: 804: 801: 798: 777: 774: 730: 729: 722: 694: 693: 657: 654: 560:working memory 514: 513: 511: 510: 503: 496: 488: 485: 484: 482: 481: 469: 457: 444: 441: 440: 437: 436: 431: 426: 421: 416: 411: 406: 401: 396: 391: 386: 381: 375: 368: 367: 364: 363: 360: 359: 351: 343: 338: 333: 328: 323: 318: 313: 308: 303: 301:Rodolfo Llinás 298: 296:Benjamin Libet 293: 288: 283: 278: 273: 271:Donald O. Hebb 268: 263: 258: 253: 248: 243: 238: 233: 227: 222: 221: 218: 217: 214: 213: 208: 203: 198: 193: 188: 183: 178: 173: 168: 163: 158: 153: 147: 140: 139: 136: 135: 132: 131: 126: 121: 116: 111: 106: 101: 96: 91: 86: 81: 75: 70: 69: 66: 65: 57: 56: 26: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 7897: 7886: 7883: 7881: 7878: 7876: 7873: 7871: 7870:Motor control 7868: 7866: 7863: 7861: 7858: 7857: 7855: 7846: 7843: 7840: 7835: 7831: 7830: 7824: 7821: 7819: 7816: 7815: 7810: 7805: 7789: 7785: 7780: 7775: 7771: 7767: 7763: 7759: 7755: 7748: 7740: 7736: 7732: 7728: 7723: 7718: 7714: 7710: 7706: 7702: 7698: 7691: 7683: 7679: 7675: 7671: 7667: 7663: 7658: 7653: 7649: 7645: 7641: 7637: 7630: 7622: 7618: 7614: 7610: 7606: 7605:10.1038/74899 7602: 7599:(5): 516–20. 7598: 7594: 7587: 7579: 7575: 7571: 7567: 7564:(3): 624–52. 7563: 7559: 7555: 7548: 7540: 7536: 7532: 7528: 7524: 7520: 7516: 7512: 7508: 7504: 7500: 7496: 7489: 7482: 7474: 7470: 7465: 7460: 7456: 7452: 7448: 7444: 7440: 7433: 7425: 7421: 7416: 7411: 7407: 7403: 7399: 7395: 7391: 7384: 7376: 7372: 7368: 7364: 7359: 7354: 7350: 7346: 7342: 7335: 7327: 7323: 7318: 7313: 7309: 7305: 7301: 7297: 7293: 7289: 7285: 7278: 7270: 7266: 7261: 7256: 7252: 7248: 7244: 7240: 7236: 7232: 7228: 7221: 7213: 7209: 7205: 7201: 7197: 7193: 7189: 7185: 7181: 7177: 7173: 7169: 7162: 7155: 7147: 7143: 7139: 7135: 7131: 7127: 7123: 7119: 7112: 7104: 7100: 7095: 7090: 7086: 7082: 7078: 7074: 7070: 7063: 7055: 7051: 7047: 7043: 7038: 7033: 7029: 7025: 7018: 7010: 7006: 7001: 6996: 6992: 6988: 6984: 6980: 6976: 6969: 6961: 6957: 6953: 6947: 6943: 6936: 6928: 6924: 6919: 6914: 6910: 6906: 6902: 6898: 6894: 6887: 6885: 6876: 6872: 6868: 6864: 6859: 6854: 6850: 6846: 6842: 6835: 6833: 6824: 6820: 6815: 6810: 6806: 6802: 6798: 6794: 6790: 6786: 6782: 6775: 6767: 6763: 6758: 6753: 6750:(4): 580–99. 6749: 6745: 6741: 6734: 6726: 6722: 6718: 6714: 6710: 6706: 6702: 6698: 6691: 6683: 6679: 6675: 6671: 6667: 6666:10.1038/73975 6663: 6659: 6655: 6648: 6640: 6636: 6632: 6628: 6623: 6618: 6614: 6610: 6606: 6599: 6591: 6587: 6582: 6577: 6574:(4): 751–61. 6573: 6569: 6565: 6558: 6550: 6546: 6542: 6538: 6533: 6528: 6524: 6520: 6513: 6505: 6501: 6496: 6491: 6486: 6481: 6477: 6473: 6469: 6465: 6461: 6454: 6446: 6442: 6438: 6434: 6429: 6424: 6421:(3): 415–25. 6420: 6416: 6412: 6405: 6397: 6393: 6388: 6383: 6379: 6375: 6371: 6367: 6363: 6356: 6348: 6344: 6339: 6334: 6330: 6326: 6325:Psychobiology 6322: 6315: 6307: 6303: 6299: 6295: 6291: 6287: 6283: 6279: 6272: 6264: 6258: 6254: 6247: 6239: 6235: 6230: 6225: 6221: 6217: 6213: 6209: 6205: 6198: 6190: 6186: 6179: 6171: 6167: 6162: 6157: 6153: 6149: 6145: 6141: 6137: 6133: 6129: 6122: 6114: 6110: 6105: 6100: 6096: 6092: 6088: 6084: 6080: 6073: 6071: 6069: 6060: 6056: 6051: 6046: 6041: 6036: 6032: 6028: 6024: 6017: 6009: 6005: 6001: 5997: 5993: 5989: 5985: 5981: 5977: 5973: 5969: 5962: 5954: 5950: 5945: 5940: 5936: 5932: 5928: 5924: 5920: 5913: 5905: 5901: 5896: 5891: 5887: 5883: 5878: 5873: 5869: 5865: 5861: 5857: 5853: 5846: 5838: 5834: 5829: 5824: 5820: 5816: 5811: 5806: 5802: 5798: 5794: 5786: 5778: 5774: 5770: 5766: 5762: 5758: 5754: 5747: 5739: 5735: 5731: 5727: 5723: 5719: 5715: 5711: 5707: 5700: 5692: 5688: 5684: 5680: 5675: 5670: 5665: 5660: 5656: 5652: 5648: 5641: 5634: 5628: 5620: 5616: 5611: 5606: 5602: 5598: 5593: 5588: 5585:(19): 10527. 5584: 5580: 5576: 5569: 5561: 5557: 5552: 5547: 5543: 5539: 5534: 5529: 5525: 5521: 5517: 5513: 5509: 5502: 5494: 5490: 5485: 5480: 5475: 5470: 5466: 5462: 5458: 5451: 5443: 5439: 5434: 5429: 5424: 5419: 5415: 5411: 5407: 5400: 5392: 5388: 5384: 5380: 5376: 5372: 5368: 5364: 5360: 5353: 5345: 5341: 5336: 5331: 5327: 5323: 5320:(2): 97–106. 5319: 5315: 5311: 5304: 5295: 5290: 5286: 5282: 5278: 5271: 5263: 5259: 5254: 5249: 5245: 5241: 5237: 5230: 5222: 5216: 5212: 5208: 5204: 5200: 5193: 5185: 5181: 5177: 5173: 5169: 5165: 5161: 5157: 5150: 5142: 5136: 5128: 5124: 5119: 5114: 5109: 5104: 5100: 5096: 5092: 5085: 5077: 5073: 5068: 5063: 5058: 5053: 5049: 5045: 5041: 5034: 5027: 5022: 5018: 5013: 5008: 5004: 5000: 4996: 4992: 4988: 4981: 4973: 4969: 4965: 4961: 4958:(2): 265–71. 4957: 4953: 4945: 4937: 4933: 4929: 4925: 4921: 4917: 4910: 4903: 4901: 4892: 4888: 4883: 4878: 4873: 4868: 4864: 4860: 4856: 4852: 4848: 4841: 4833: 4829: 4824: 4819: 4815: 4811: 4807: 4803: 4799: 4792: 4784: 4780: 4775: 4770: 4766: 4762: 4758: 4754: 4750: 4743: 4735: 4731: 4726: 4721: 4717: 4713: 4709: 4705: 4701: 4694: 4686: 4682: 4678: 4674: 4670: 4666: 4662: 4658: 4651: 4643: 4639: 4634: 4629: 4625: 4621: 4617: 4613: 4609: 4602: 4594: 4590: 4586: 4582: 4578: 4574: 4570: 4566: 4562: 4555: 4547: 4543: 4539: 4535: 4531: 4527: 4523: 4516: 4508: 4504: 4500: 4496: 4492: 4488: 4483: 4478: 4475:(1): 49–100. 4474: 4470: 4462: 4454: 4450: 4446: 4442: 4438: 4434: 4430: 4426: 4419: 4411: 4407: 4403: 4399: 4395: 4391: 4387: 4383: 4376: 4368: 4364: 4360: 4354: 4350: 4345: 4344: 4335: 4327: 4323: 4319: 4313: 4309: 4308: 4300: 4292: 4288: 4284: 4280: 4276: 4272: 4265: 4257: 4253: 4248: 4243: 4239: 4235: 4231: 4227: 4223: 4216: 4209: 4205: 4201: 4198: 4197: 4190: 4182: 4178: 4174: 4170: 4166: 4162: 4158: 4154: 4147: 4139: 4135: 4131: 4127: 4123: 4119: 4115: 4111: 4110: 4102: 4094: 4090: 4086: 4080: 4076: 4072: 4071: 4066: 4059: 4050: 4045: 4041: 4037: 4033: 4026: 4024: 4015: 4011: 4007: 4003: 3999: 3995: 3991: 3987: 3980: 3978: 3976: 3974: 3972: 3970: 3968: 3959: 3955: 3951: 3945: 3941: 3936: 3935: 3926: 3918: 3914: 3910: 3906: 3902: 3898: 3895:(3): 214–28. 3894: 3890: 3883: 3875: 3871: 3867: 3863: 3859: 3855: 3851: 3847: 3840: 3832: 3828: 3824: 3820: 3816: 3812: 3808: 3804: 3797: 3789: 3785: 3781: 3777: 3773: 3769: 3766:(6): 580–93. 3765: 3761: 3754: 3746: 3742: 3738: 3734: 3730: 3726: 3722: 3718: 3711: 3703: 3699: 3695: 3691: 3686: 3681: 3678:(2): 321–43. 3677: 3673: 3669: 3662: 3654: 3650: 3646: 3642: 3638: 3634: 3630: 3626: 3622: 3618: 3611: 3603: 3599: 3594: 3589: 3585: 3581: 3577: 3573: 3569: 3562: 3554: 3550: 3546: 3542: 3538: 3534: 3530: 3523: 3515: 3511: 3507: 3503: 3499: 3495: 3491: 3487: 3480: 3472: 3468: 3464: 3460: 3455: 3450: 3446: 3442: 3438: 3431: 3429: 3420: 3416: 3412: 3408: 3404: 3400: 3396: 3392: 3385: 3383: 3374: 3370: 3366: 3362: 3358: 3354: 3350: 3346: 3339: 3337: 3328: 3324: 3320: 3316: 3312: 3308: 3304: 3300: 3293: 3285: 3281: 3277: 3273: 3269: 3265: 3261: 3257: 3250: 3248: 3246: 3237: 3233: 3229: 3225: 3221: 3217: 3213: 3209: 3202: 3194: 3190: 3186: 3182: 3178: 3174: 3170: 3166: 3162: 3155: 3147: 3143: 3138: 3133: 3129: 3125: 3121: 3117: 3113: 3106: 3104: 3095: 3091: 3087: 3083: 3079: 3075: 3071: 3067: 3063: 3056: 3048: 3044: 3040: 3036: 3032: 3028: 3024: 3020: 3013: 3011: 3009: 3007: 2998: 2994: 2990: 2984: 2980: 2976: 2969: 2967: 2965: 2963: 2961: 2959: 2957: 2955: 2953: 2944: 2940: 2936: 2930: 2926: 2922: 2916: 2914: 2905: 2899: 2894: 2893: 2884: 2876: 2872: 2868: 2864: 2860: 2856: 2852: 2848: 2841: 2833: 2827: 2823: 2819: 2812: 2804: 2800: 2795: 2790: 2787:(2): 127–90. 2786: 2782: 2775: 2767: 2763: 2759: 2753: 2749: 2742: 2734: 2730: 2726: 2720: 2716: 2709: 2701: 2695: 2691: 2687: 2683: 2677: 2669: 2665: 2660: 2655: 2651: 2647: 2642: 2637: 2633: 2629: 2625: 2621: 2617: 2610: 2602: 2598: 2594: 2590: 2586: 2582: 2577: 2572: 2568: 2564: 2560: 2556: 2552: 2545: 2537: 2533: 2529: 2525: 2521: 2517: 2510: 2502: 2498: 2494: 2490: 2486: 2482: 2479:(2): 505–25. 2478: 2474: 2467: 2459: 2455: 2451: 2447: 2443: 2439: 2435: 2431: 2424: 2416: 2412: 2408: 2404: 2400: 2396: 2392: 2388: 2384: 2380: 2373: 2365: 2361: 2356: 2351: 2347: 2343: 2339: 2335: 2331: 2324: 2316: 2312: 2308: 2302: 2298: 2291: 2289: 2287: 2285: 2276: 2272: 2268: 2264: 2260: 2256: 2252: 2248: 2244: 2237: 2229: 2225: 2221: 2217: 2213: 2209: 2205: 2201: 2197: 2190: 2182: 2178: 2173: 2168: 2164: 2160: 2157:(2): 239–47. 2156: 2152: 2148: 2141: 2134: 2122: 2116: 2112: 2105: 2103: 2101: 2099: 2091: 2089: 2085: 2081: 2077: 2072: 2065: 2059: 2055: 2048: 2040: 2036: 2032: 2028: 2024: 2020: 2016: 2012: 2005: 2003: 2001: 1999: 1997: 1995: 1993: 1985: 1980: 1976: 1972: 1968: 1964: 1960: 1953: 1945: 1941: 1936: 1931: 1927: 1923: 1919: 1915: 1911: 1907: 1903: 1896: 1889: 1884: 1880: 1875: 1870: 1866: 1862: 1858: 1851: 1845: 1840: 1832: 1828: 1823: 1818: 1814: 1810: 1806: 1802: 1798: 1794: 1788: 1786: 1784: 1782: 1780: 1778: 1776: 1768: 1763: 1757: 1753: 1746: 1742: 1733: 1730: 1728: 1725: 1723: 1722:Purkinje cell 1720: 1718: 1715: 1713: 1712:Metacognition 1710: 1708: 1705: 1703: 1700: 1699: 1693: 1690: 1688: 1684: 1679: 1677: 1673: 1662: 1660: 1656: 1652: 1648: 1644: 1643:schizophrenia 1640: 1636: 1632: 1628: 1624: 1620: 1616: 1612: 1611:basal ganglia 1608: 1604: 1600: 1590: 1587: 1580: 1570: 1561: 1558: 1554: 1549: 1545: 1541: 1537: 1533: 1529: 1524: 1522: 1518: 1514: 1510: 1506: 1502: 1493: 1490: 1484: 1482: 1478: 1474: 1470: 1465: 1462: 1458: 1454: 1444: 1442: 1438: 1434: 1430: 1426: 1421: 1419: 1415: 1411: 1407: 1403: 1399: 1394: 1392: 1389: 1383: 1381: 1377: 1363: 1360: 1357: 1354: 1351: 1349: 1346: 1343: 1340: 1338: 1335: 1333: 1330: 1327: 1324: 1321: 1318: 1315: 1312: 1309: 1307: 1304: 1302: 1299: 1296: 1293: 1290: 1288: 1285: 1282: 1279: 1276: 1273: 1270: 1267: 1264: 1261: 1258: 1255: 1252: 1249: 1248: 1246: 1242: 1240: 1236: 1232: 1222: 1218: 1214: 1210: 1206: 1202: 1200: 1195: 1193: 1189: 1178: 1176: 1170: 1161: 1159: 1155: 1151: 1147: 1146:limbic system 1143: 1139: 1135: 1131: 1127: 1123: 1118: 1114: 1110: 1105: 1098: 1093: 1091: 1087: 1076: 1067: 1058: 1054: 1050: 1048: 1044: 1035: 1033: 1023: 1019: 1015: 1006: 1004: 1000: 985: 976: 967: 964: 953: 950: 946: 937: 934: 930: 924: 914: 912: 908: 904: 900: 899:Alan Baddeley 897:Psychologist 895: 893: 888: 884: 880: 876: 872: 868: 864: 859: 857: 853: 849: 845: 834: 830: 828: 822: 820: 819:reinforcement 816: 808: 805: 802: 799: 796: 795: 794: 792: 788: 784: 773: 771: 770:consciousness 767: 763: 759: 754: 752: 748: 744: 738: 733: 727: 723: 720: 716: 712: 708: 704: 703: 698: 691: 687: 683: 682: 681: 679: 675: 671: 668: 664: 653: 651: 647: 643: 639: 635: 630: 628: 624: 620: 616: 612: 608: 603: 601: 597: 593: 589: 583: 581: 577: 573: 569: 565: 561: 557: 553: 549: 545: 541: 537: 533: 529: 525: 521: 509: 504: 502: 497: 495: 490: 489: 487: 486: 480: 470: 468: 458: 456: 446: 445: 443: 442: 435: 432: 430: 427: 425: 422: 420: 417: 415: 412: 410: 407: 405: 402: 400: 397: 395: 392: 390: 387: 385: 382: 380: 377: 376: 372: 366: 365: 358: 352: 350: 344: 342: 339: 337: 334: 332: 329: 327: 324: 322: 319: 317: 314: 312: 311:Brenda Milner 309: 307: 304: 302: 299: 297: 294: 292: 289: 287: 284: 282: 279: 277: 274: 272: 269: 267: 264: 262: 259: 257: 254: 252: 249: 247: 244: 242: 239: 237: 234: 232: 231:Alan Baddeley 229: 228: 220: 219: 212: 209: 207: 204: 202: 199: 197: 194: 192: 189: 187: 184: 182: 179: 177: 174: 172: 169: 167: 164: 162: 161:Consciousness 159: 157: 154: 152: 149: 148: 144: 138: 137: 130: 127: 125: 122: 120: 117: 115: 112: 110: 107: 105: 102: 100: 97: 95: 92: 90: 87: 85: 82: 80: 79:Brain regions 77: 76: 68: 67: 63: 59: 58: 55: 52: 51: 46: 42: 35: 30: 19: 7808: 7761: 7757: 7747: 7707:(1): 30–42. 7704: 7700: 7690: 7639: 7635: 7629: 7596: 7592: 7586: 7561: 7557: 7547: 7498: 7494: 7481: 7446: 7442: 7432: 7397: 7393: 7383: 7348: 7344: 7334: 7291: 7287: 7277: 7237:(1): 70–85. 7234: 7230: 7220: 7171: 7167: 7154: 7124:(1): 59–86. 7121: 7117: 7111: 7076: 7072: 7062: 7027: 7023: 7017: 6982: 6978: 6968: 6941: 6935: 6900: 6896: 6848: 6844: 6791:(411): 411. 6788: 6784: 6774: 6747: 6743: 6733: 6700: 6696: 6690: 6657: 6653: 6647: 6615:(4): 535–8. 6612: 6608: 6598: 6571: 6567: 6557: 6522: 6518: 6512: 6470:(3): 781–7. 6467: 6463: 6453: 6418: 6414: 6404: 6369: 6365: 6355: 6328: 6324: 6314: 6281: 6277: 6271: 6252: 6246: 6211: 6207: 6197: 6188: 6184: 6178: 6135: 6131: 6121: 6086: 6082: 6030: 6026: 6016: 5975: 5971: 5961: 5926: 5922: 5912: 5859: 5855: 5845: 5800: 5796: 5785: 5763:(2): 71–87. 5760: 5756: 5746: 5713: 5709: 5699: 5657:(1): 67–81. 5654: 5650: 5640: 5632: 5627: 5582: 5578: 5568: 5515: 5511: 5501: 5464: 5460: 5450: 5413: 5409: 5399: 5366: 5362: 5352: 5317: 5313: 5303: 5284: 5280: 5270: 5243: 5239: 5229: 5202: 5192: 5159: 5155: 5149: 5135: 5098: 5094: 5084: 5047: 5043: 5033: 5024: 4994: 4990: 4980: 4955: 4951: 4944: 4922:(2): 89–94. 4919: 4915: 4854: 4850: 4840: 4805: 4801: 4791: 4756: 4752: 4742: 4707: 4703: 4693: 4660: 4656: 4650: 4615: 4611: 4601: 4568: 4564: 4554: 4529: 4525: 4515: 4472: 4468: 4461: 4428: 4424: 4418: 4385: 4381: 4375: 4342: 4334: 4306: 4299: 4274: 4270: 4264: 4229: 4225: 4215: 4193: 4189: 4159:(1): 65–94. 4156: 4152: 4146: 4113: 4107: 4101: 4069: 4058: 4039: 4035: 3989: 3985: 3933: 3925: 3892: 3888: 3882: 3849: 3845: 3839: 3809:(5): 242–9. 3806: 3802: 3796: 3763: 3759: 3753: 3720: 3716: 3710: 3675: 3671: 3661: 3620: 3616: 3610: 3575: 3571: 3561: 3536: 3532: 3522: 3489: 3485: 3479: 3444: 3440: 3394: 3390: 3348: 3344: 3302: 3298: 3292: 3259: 3255: 3211: 3207: 3201: 3168: 3164: 3154: 3119: 3115: 3069: 3065: 3055: 3025:(2): 71–82. 3022: 3018: 2978: 2924: 2891: 2883: 2853:(1): 25–42. 2850: 2846: 2840: 2821: 2811: 2784: 2780: 2774: 2747: 2741: 2714: 2708: 2689: 2676: 2623: 2619: 2609: 2558: 2554: 2544: 2519: 2515: 2509: 2476: 2472: 2466: 2433: 2429: 2423: 2382: 2378: 2372: 2337: 2333: 2323: 2296: 2250: 2246: 2236: 2203: 2199: 2189: 2154: 2150: 2140: 2124: 2110: 2087: 2083: 2079: 2075: 2070: 2067: 2053: 2047: 2017:(1): 17–42. 2014: 2010: 1982: 1962: 1958: 1952: 1909: 1905: 1895: 1886: 1864: 1860: 1850: 1834: 1804: 1800: 1765: 1751: 1745: 1727:Self-control 1691: 1683:neuroimaging 1681:Advances in 1680: 1668: 1651:Phineas Gage 1596: 1582: 1567: 1548:gain control 1525: 1499: 1485: 1480: 1476: 1472: 1466: 1450: 1422: 1398:frontal lobe 1395: 1384: 1373: 1243: 1235:observations 1228: 1219: 1215: 1211: 1207: 1203: 1196: 1184: 1171: 1167: 1134:connectivity 1100: 1095: 1082: 1073: 1064: 1055: 1051: 1041: 1029: 1020: 1016: 1012: 996: 982: 973: 959: 943: 926: 896: 867:Tim Shallice 860: 840: 831: 823: 814: 812: 791:Tim Shallice 779: 755: 740: 735: 731: 674:Neuroimaging 672: 659: 656:Neuroanatomy 631: 604: 584: 535: 531: 527: 517: 326:Oliver Sacks 291:Muriel Lezak 286:Edith Kaplan 251:Phineas Gage 170: 109:Neuroanatomy 45:Self-control 29: 7860:Amphetamine 7294:: 267–287. 7188:10810/26594 5929:: 349–354. 5674:10871/28177 4997:(2): 1–17. 4232:: 135–168. 3852:(1): 4–14. 2921:Baddeley AD 2561:: 258–268. 1965:(1): 3–13. 1912:(1): 8–14. 1807:: 135–168. 1607:hippocampus 1530:(fMRI) and 1425:Stroop task 1388:neurologist 1337:Stroop Test 1199:Stroop task 970:Adolescence 917:Development 762:neocortical 667:specificity 663:sensitivity 592:Stroop test 590:(e.g., the 419:Stroop Test 321:Pasko Rakic 281:Eric Kandel 104:Human brain 7854:Categories 7722:10197/6121 7523:1871/17182 2686:Shallice T 2555:NeuroImage 2473:Cerebellum 1738:References 1655:motivation 1344:(T.O.V.A.) 1239:interviews 1225:Assessment 933:myelinated 875:Bob Knight 787:Don Norman 743:cerebellum 670:involved. 241:David Bohm 196:Perception 7865:Cognition 7764:: 34–48. 7652:CiteSeerX 7406:1719-8429 7367:1359-4184 7308:0147-006X 7251:0893-133X 7196:1939-1455 7118:Cognition 7032:CiteSeerX 6875:149812523 6867:2333-9683 6682:205096636 6527:CiteSeerX 6347:140274181 6152:1980-5764 5992:1087-0547 5886:1932-6203 5819:1758-9193 5803:(1): 65. 5777:145343946 5730:0272-7358 5683:1748-6653 5601:1660-4601 5542:1932-6203 5391:235200347 4477:CiteSeerX 4367:182857040 4326:925640891 4291:143042967 4014:139105027 3449:CiteSeerX 3327:216140710 2997:182857040 2789:CiteSeerX 2733:314949058 2682:Norman DA 2650:0027-8424 2585:1053-8119 2315:456026734 2039:207222975 1926:0963-7214 1793:Diamond A 1418:reasoning 1271:CogScreen 1136:with the 1113:behaviour 979:Adulthood 883:attention 879:Don Stuss 690:shift set 634:addiction 576:reasoning 356:(patient) 156:Attention 7788:26749076 7739:32721582 7731:18178303 7682:18585619 7674:14615530 7621:11136447 7613:10769394 7578:11488380 7531:15486290 7473:25175878 7424:22876270 7375:17325717 7326:19555290 7269:19657332 7204:29494195 7138:17275801 7103:19121123 7054:15222822 7009:18793082 6960:51202836 6927:18333982 6823:22624092 6766:15849899 6725:20675580 6674:10725931 6631:16301170 6590:10230795 6549:14615298 6437:15294148 6396:11425907 6306:23273038 6238:28206827 6170:30546850 6113:29213956 6059:30881324 6000:24639402 5953:29445690 5904:29566099 5856:PLOS ONE 5837:30021658 5738:20457481 5691:28635178 5619:34639827 5560:25799403 5512:PLOS ONE 5493:30881324 5442:30881324 5383:34033722 5344:18568601 5262:33499454 5184:36759879 5127:36405195 5076:36405195 5021:27841670 4972:23994425 4936:15935419 4891:21262822 4832:20855294 4783:19222319 4734:21668099 4685:14687502 4677:17894607 4642:18473654 4585:18331145 4546:20545419 4507:10096387 4499:10945922 4453:14290580 4402:11283309 4256:23020641 4138:18631884 4006:31033315 3958:48383566 3917:41427583 3909:17519365 3874:19807048 3866:16460715 3823:15866151 3788:37026268 3780:17911216 3745:24446270 3737:18633796 3702:14162232 3694:11394050 3645:11268212 3602:16510720 3553:30137363 3514:45204519 3506:15370187 3471:15369519 3437:Lazar NA 3419:39133614 3411:12661972 3373:36829328 3365:12754681 3319:15590499 3284:32454853 3276:11827095 3228:15456685 3193:35321260 3185:15276900 3146:20161467 3094:35850139 3086:15276904 3047:26861754 3039:12638061 2943:13125659 2923:(1986). 2766:77573143 2668:17535893 2601:72333763 2593:30710678 2536:25439295 2493:22068584 2450:18824074 2415:10507342 2407:11411161 2364:18390562 2275:21129441 2267:29198274 2228:28789594 2220:11004882 2181:18093787 2031:16794878 1979:26781048 1944:22773897 1883:18096360 1831:23020641 1795:(2013). 1696:See also 1615:Dopamine 1603:amygdala 1477:opposite 1457:primates 1414:language 1410:learning 848:Shiffrin 749:and the 568:planning 544:behavior 201:Planning 181:Learning 99:Dementia 7779:5108631 7644:Bibcode 7636:Science 7539:5692427 7503:Bibcode 7495:Science 7464:4156912 7415:3413474 7317:2863127 7260:3055448 7212:4444068 7146:7703696 7094:2677184 7000:2562344 6918:3647884 6814:3355370 6793:Bibcode 6717:3986545 6639:7481276 6504:9448241 6472:Bibcode 6445:1769456 6387:6762341 6298:1791934 6229:5405816 6161:6289477 6104:5619353 6050:6405510 6033:: 311. 6008:8460518 5944:5804453 5895:5864068 5864:Bibcode 5828:6052695 5610:8507634 5551:4370451 5520:Bibcode 5484:6405510 5467:: 311. 5433:6405510 5416:: 311. 5335:3085831 5176:1608726 5118:9674032 5067:9674032 5012:6260811 4882:3041102 4859:Bibcode 4823:3073393 4774:2775710 4725:3168720 4633:2762790 4593:9579710 4445:7605061 4410:7301474 4247:4084861 4181:1182504 4173:9000892 4130:8941952 4093:2392770 3653:4403569 3625:Bibcode 3593:6793670 3236:5979419 3137:2792574 2875:2995749 2867:2183676 2659:1877985 2628:Bibcode 2501:4244931 2387:Bibcode 2355:2367692 2172:2695998 1935:3388901 1822:4084861 1540:motion- 1461:macaque 1427:or the 1328:(PADDS) 1322:(PASAT) 1260:Barkley 1194:(ACC). 1138:sensory 1130:emotion 1122:neurons 1090:neurons 894:(PFC). 783:schemas 611:operant 574:(e.g., 211:Thought 151:Arousal 7806:about 7786: 7776: 7737: 7729: 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