233:. He accurately diluted a suspension of these viruses and discovered that the highest dilutions (lowest virus concentrations), rather than killing all the bacteria, formed discrete areas of dead organisms. Counting these areas and multiplying by the dilution factor allowed him to calculate the number of viruses in the original suspension. He realised that he had discovered a new form of virus and later coined the term "bacteriophage". Between 1918 and 1921 d'Herelle discovered different types of bacteriophages that could infect several other species of bacteria including
44:
442:, where he was offered a chance to test these results on a much larger scale. Thus, in 1912 and 1913, he fought the Argentinian locust plagues with coccobacillus experiments. Even though Argentina claimed his success was inconsistent, he himself declared it a full success, and was subsequently invited to other countries to demonstrate the method.
1369:"The antagonistic microbe can never be cultivated in media in the absence of the dysentery bacillus. It does not attack heat-killed dysentery bacilli, but is cultivated perfectly in a suspension of washed cells in physiological saline. This indicates that the anti dysentery microbe is an obligate bacteriophage". Felix d'Herelle (1917)
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D'Hérelle became widely known for his imaginative approaches to important problems in theoretical, as well as applied, microbiology. At the same time, he was widely reviled for his self-advertisement, his exaggerated claims of success and his sharp financial practices. He also had a talent for making
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D'Hérelle worked at the
Tbilisi Institute off and on for about a year. He even dedicated one of his books to Comrade Stalin: "The Bacteriophage and the Phenomenon of Recovery," written and published in Tbilisi in 1935. Indeed, d'Hérelle may have planned to take up permanent residence in Tbilisi, as
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Production problems were most likely due to the attempt to mass-produce phages when they were barely understood. The phages may have been damaged and/or too low in concentration. Another possibility is that incorrect diagnoses led to the use of the irrelevant types of phages that were not adapted to
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chief among them, theorized that phages were inanimate chemicals, enzymes specifically, that were already present in bacteria, and only trigger the release of similar proteins, killing the bacteria in the process. Due to this uncertainty, and d'Hérelle using phages without much hesitation on humans,
378:. Life in the rough and dangerous environment of the country was hard on his family, but d'Hérelle, always adventurer at heart, rather enjoyed working close to "real life", compared to the sterile environments of a "civilized" clinic. He later stated that his scientific path began on this occasion.
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expedition, even though he had no medical degree or real experience. Together with his brother, he invested almost all his money in a chocolate factory, which soon went bankrupt. During this period, d'Herelle published his first scientific paper, "De la formation du carbone par les végétaux" in the
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about his works as an official
Institute publication, by tricking Calmette. During the following year, doctors and scientists across western Europe took a heightened interest in phage therapy, successfully testing it against a variety of diseases. Since bacteria become resistant against a single
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Félix d'Hérelle's place of birth has been debated, but current research has concluded that he was born in France. Félix d'Hérelle's father, Hubert
Augustin Félix Haerens d'Herelle, died at the age of 30 when Félix was six years old. From 7 to 17 years of age, d'Hérelle attended school in Paris,
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D'Hérelle returned to India to work on cholera. He collaborated with the assistant director of the
Haffkine Institute, Major Reginald Malone and M.N. Lahiri, who conducted experiments at the Campbell Hospital in Calcutta. The Campbell Hospital team also worked with Russian bacteriologist Igor
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discovered a small agent that infects and kills bacteria, but did not pursue the issue further. Independently, the discovery of "an invisible, antagonistic microbe of the dysentery bacillus" by d'Hérelle was announced on 3 September 1917. The isolation of phages by d'Herelle works like this:
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At 24, now the father of a daughter, d'Hérelle and his family moved to Canada. He built a home laboratory and studied microbiology from books and his own experiments. Through the influence of a friend of his late father, he earned a commission from the
Canadian government to study the
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In 1926, the
British government in India requested anti-plague phages for trials at the Haffkine Institute. The Institute had trouble maintaining the phages. D'Hérelle took unpaid leave from the Quarantine board of Egypt and went to Bombay at his own expense.
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Thereafter Lt Col J. Morison, acting director of the
Haffkine Institute, became convinced of the effectiveness of phages. Morison wrote to the Government of India to invite d'Hérelle noting that he was "a consummate technician, and a "most inspiring worker."
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Phage therapy boomed, despite all problems, driven by the military on both sides in an effort to keep the troops safe, at least from infections. D'Hérelle could not really enjoy this development; he was kept under house arrest by the German "Wehrmacht" in
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To counteract this trend, d'Herelle agreed to co-found a French phage-producing company, piping the money back into phage research. All of the companies suffered from production problems, as results from commercial phage medicine were erratic.
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This situation led to many influential members of the scientific community turning against d'Hérelle. The problems may have been compounded by d'Hérelle's reputed bad temper, which was said to have made enemies of several other scientists.
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However, this was a period when Gandhi's
Satyagraha was leading to non-cooperation by Indians. Many of the head men did not collaborate and fewer still reported back on the effectiveness. As a result, the experiment was disbanded in 1937.
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D'Hérelle and co-workers added phages to wells near camps crowded with many pilgrims. Cases of cholera in the camps were subsequently much lower. The phages were distributed to village head men in Assam and Bengal along with instructions.
565:, from where he returned at the end of the year. D'Hérelle, officially still an unpaid assistant, found himself without a lab; d'Hérelle later claimed this was a result of a quarrel with the assistant director of the Pasteur Institute,
454:, d'Hérelle and assistants (his wife and daughters among them) produced over 12 million doses of medication for the allied military. At this point in history, medical treatments were primitive, compared to today's standards. The
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became public knowledge and found its way into the hospitals in the west. As it was more reliable and easier to use than phage therapy, it soon became the method of choice, despite side effects and problems with
754:, head of the secret police. Eliava was executed and denounced as an enemy of the people during one of Stalin's purges. As a result, d'Hérelle fled Tbilisi, never to return. His book was banned from distribution.
847:" used bacteriophages to make the discoveries that led to the origins of molecular biology. Much of the initial work on the nature of genetic expression and its regulation was performed with bacteriophages by
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At the time, none, not even d'Hérelle, knew exactly what a phage was. D'Hérelle claimed that it was a biological organism that reproduces, somehow feeding off bacteria. Others, the
Nobelist
370:. He also studied a local fungal infection of coffee plants, and discovered that acidifying the soil could serve as an effective treatment. As a side job, he was asked to find a way to make
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Machines for mass production of sisal schnapps were ordered in Paris, where he oversaw the machines' construction. Meanwhile, in his spare time, he worked for free in a laboratory at the
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As one of the earliest applied microbiologists, d'Hérelle's microbe-centered worldview has been noted for its prescience, since microbes are playing increasingly important roles in
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The
Haffkine Institute had not used Martin's medium, which included macerated pig stomach and beef muscle that would offend Muslims and Hindus. The institute's medium used a
688:, which he accepted. Meanwhile, European and US pharmaceutical companies had taken up the production of their own phage medicine, and were promising impossible benefits.
323:. His father's friend pointed out that Pasteur "made a good beginning by studying fermentations, so it might be interesting to you, too." He also worked as a medic for a
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739:, in 1923. Eliava had become friendly with d'Herelle during a visit to the Pasteur Institute in Paris in 1926, and had used that occasion to learn about phages.
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405:. He was soon offered the job of running the new Mexican plant, but declined, considering it "too boring". He did, however, take the time to attempt stopping a
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for several months. Between the ages of 16 and 24, d'Hérelle traveled extensively via money given by his mother. At 16, he started to travel through western
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Jaarboek der Rijksuniversiteit te Leiden 1924 : Promotiën 17 September 1923 tot 12 Juli 1924, Faculteit der Geneeskunde, Doctoraal geneeskunde, p. 134
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D'Hérelle then used phages he collected from plague-infected rats during his 1920 visit to Indochina on human plague patients, with claimed success. The
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as a hero, bringing knowledge of salvation from diseases ravaging the eastern states. He was even awarded with an honorary doctorate from
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he had started to build a cottage on the grounds of the institute. The same building would later house the Georgian headquarters of the
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D'Hérelle refused a request the following year by the British government to work in India, as he had been offered a professorship at
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with them. After this successful experiment on chicken, he felt ready for the first trial on humans. The first patient was healed of
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the host bacteria of interest. Many studies on the proposed healing effects of phages were also poorly designed and conducted.
1903:"On an invisible microbe antagonistic toward dysenteric bacilli: brief note by Mr. F. D'Hérelle, presented by Mr. Roux. 1917"
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d'Hérelle was a self-taught microbiologist. In 1917 he discovered that "an invisible antagonist", when added to bacteria on
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D'Hérelle and his family finally moved to Paris in early 1911, where he worked again as an unpaid assistant in a lab at the
393:. Disease struck at him and his family, but in 1909, he had successfully established a method to produce sisal schnapps.
1299:"On an invisible microbe antagonistic toward dysenteric bacilli: brief note by Mr. F. D'Herelle, presented by Mr. Roux☆"
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Nicholas Asheshov (1891–1961), who was working in Patna. Experiments were conducted both in hospitals and in the field.
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to locusts from their guts. This innovative approach to locust plagues anticipated modern biological pest control using
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had mercy on d'Hérelle and lent him a stool (literally) in his laboratory. In 1921, he managed to publish a monograph,
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his work was under constant attack from many other scientists. It was not until the first phage was observed under an
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867:'s laboratory. A more detailed account of the use of phage in major biological discoveries can be found on the page,
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However, France has not completely forgotten Félix d'Hérelle. There is an avenue that bears his name in the 16th
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490:. As a result, in 1900, the average life span was 45 years, and World War I did not change that to the better.
229:, would produce areas of dead bacteria. The antagonist, now known to be a bacteriophage, could pass through a
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Phage therapy soon became a boom, and a great hope in medicine. In 1924, 25 January, d'Hérelle received the
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1960:
Summers (1991). "On the origins of the science in Arrowsmith: Paul de Kruif, Felix d'Herelle, and phage".
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D'Hérelle may have accepted Stalin's invitation for two reasons. Firstly, he was said to be enamored with
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digest of goat tissue. D'Herelle solved the problem by digestion with papaya juice (a source of papain).
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With his money almost gone and his second daughter born, he took a contract with the government of
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After holding a temporary position at the University of Leiden, d'Hérelle got a position with the
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The Georgian period in d'Hérelle's career has been investigated by author and medical scientist
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D'Hérelle's main legacy lies in the use of phage in the molecular revolution in biology.
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but did not, for one reason or another. D'Herelle was nominated for the prize ten times.
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1670:"Honorary Doctorates awarded by Ivane Javakhishvili Tbilisi State University since 1918"
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Fortunes turned abruptly for d'Hérelle when Eliava fell in love with the same woman as
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phage, d'Herelle suggested using "phage cocktails" containing different phage strains.
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filter, holding back bacteria and larger objects; only the smaller phages pass through.
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The bacteria are infected with phages and die, producing new phages; the medium clears.
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received the same medal in 1895). The next year, he was nominated eight times for the
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government to continue his studies on fermentation. He and his family moved to a
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Parfitt T (2005). "Georgia: An unlikely stronghold for bacteriophage therapy".
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At the end of the year, restless d'Hérelle was again on the road, this time in
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Georgian translation with G. Eliava. 1935. (cf Summers WC, 1999, page 165)
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spreading to Europe, with special emphasis on the sanitary concerns about
249:. Since the early 1970s, bacteria have continued to develop resistance to
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bacteria. Phage therapy remained a common treatment in the states of the
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plague at the plantation using their own diseases. He extracted bacteria
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In the 1960s Félix d'Hérelle's name appeared on a list published by the
462:, was one of the few vaccines available. The primary antibiotic was the
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Transactions & Studies of the College of Physicians of Philadelphia
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in 1949. He was buried in Saint-Mards-en-Othe in the department of the
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The Canadian Journal of Infectious Diseases & Medical Microbiology
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p. 165–243. Charles C. Thomas, Publisher, Springfield, Illinois.
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had earned his Ph.D. by working on a bacteriophage-related project in
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Nutritional medium is infected with bacteria; the medium turns opaque.
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2425:
2301:
1614:"Cholera and Plague in India: The Bacteriophage Inquiry of 1927–1936"
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Keen EC (December 2012). "Felix d'Herelle and our microbial future".
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Comptes rendus hebdomadaires des séances de l'Académie des sciences
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An invisible microbe that is antagonistic to the dysentery bacillus
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Tiflis Gos. Univ. (Tbilisi National University, Tbilisi, Georgia).
859:. In fact, immediately before his studies of the structure of DNA,
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320:
1469:"Félix Hubert d'Herelle (1873-1949): History of a scientific mind"
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was based to a certain extent on the life of d'Hérelle. The novel
1938:"Sur un microbe invisible antagoniste des bacilles dysentériques"
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299:. Afterwards, he continued his travels through Europe, including
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English translation, with R. H. Malone, and M. N. Lahiri. 1930.
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includes excerpts from his unpublished autobiography Macmillan.
1390:. Sudbury, Mass: Jones & Bartlett Publishers. p. 591.
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deals at length with d'Hérelle's experience in Soviet Georgia.
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initiated a vast campaign against plague based on his results.
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that infect bacteria) and experimented with the possibility of
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Peitzman (1969). "Felix d'Herelle and bacteriophage therapy".
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Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 3.0 Unported License
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Comptes rendus Acad. Sci. Paris Retrieved on 2 December 2010
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by bike. At 17, after finishing school, he traveled through
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Le Phénomène de la Guérison dans les Maladies Infectieuses.
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334:. d'Hérelle contended in the paper that the results of his
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226:
245:, but their promise was forgotten with the development of
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high schools. In the fall of 1891, d'Hérelle traveled to
1415:(in French). Paris: Editions Médicales Internationales.
1185:(in French). Paris: Editions Médicales Internationales.
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Der Bakteriophage und seine Bedeutung für die Immunität.
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using phage therapy in August 1919. Many more followed.
257:, and this has led to a renewed interest in the use of
1962:
Journal of the History of Medicine and Allied Sciences
1952:
Shrayer David P. (1996). "Felix d'Hérelle in Russia."
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Journal of the History of Medicine and Allied Sciences
886:, and other areas with relevance to human well-being.
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Conseil Sanitaire, Maritime et Quarantenaire d'Egypte
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Félix d'Hérelle and the Origins of Molecular Biology
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Félix d'Hérelle and the Origins of Molecular Biology
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Félix d'Hérelle and the Origins of Molecular Biology
1290:
1154:Williams and Wilkins Co./Waverly Press, Baltimore.
1002:
Le Bactériophage et ses Applications Thérapeutiques
816:of scientists who had been worthy of receiving the
1878:
526:feces, successfully treating a plague of chicken
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2053:Lipska (1950). "In memory of Prof. D'Herelle".
1296:
1016:The Bacteriophage and its Clinical Application.
358:as a bacteriologist at the General Hospital in
1257:
1255:
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957:. French. F. Rouge & Cie S. A., Lausanne.
550:in 1939 that its true nature was established.
522:In early 1919, d'Hérelle isolated phages from
303:, where he, at 20, met his wife, Marie Caire.
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1935:
1900:
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1074:English translation, with G. H. Smith. 1926.
1014:English translation. with G. H. Smith. 1930.
2080:Shrayer David P. Félix d'Hérelle in Russia.
1835:This article incorporates material from the
1795:. Nobelprize.org. Retrieved on 3 March 2019.
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287:, Germany where he attended lectures at the
1413:Autobiographie de Félix d'Hérelle 1873-1949
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1183:Autobiographie de Félix d'Hérelle 1873-1949
2110:
2096:
1410:
1331:
1180:
1120:Le bactériophage: Son rôle dans l'immunité
1078:The Williams &Wilkins Co., Baltimore.
981:Russian translation with G. Eliava. 1935.
836:enemies among powerful senior scientists.
259:bacteriophages to treat serious infections
138:Honorary doctorate, University of Leiden;
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2077:, New Haven: Yale University Press, 1999.
2014:
1988:
1918:
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910:, was named in honor of Félix d'Hérelle.
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199:(25 April 1873 – 22 February 1949) was a
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1152:The Bacteriophage: Its Role in Immunity.
1959:
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1599:
1540:Dublanchet A, Bourne S (January 2007).
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1094:Williams & Wilkins Co., Baltimore.
1092:Immunity in Natural Infectious Disease.
621:was put in place to prevent plague and
575:The Bacteriophage: Its Role in Immunity
349:
130:Hubert Augustin Félix Haerens d'Herelle
14:
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2055:Medycyna Doswiadczalna I Mikrobiologia
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1429:
2091:
1385:
1347:Desk Encyclopedia of General Virology
1343:"History of Virology: Bacteriophages"
1062:Le Bactériophage et son Comportement.
680:United States and commercial failures
1261:
1205:
1140:F. Vieweg & Sohn, Braunschweig.
1048:Thacker, Spink & Co., Calcutta.
983:Bakteriofag i fenomen vyzdorovlenija
794:, though, until its deconstruction.
445:
1076:The Bacteriophage and Its Behavior.
601:, though he was never awarded one.
396:
381:In 1907, he took an offer from the
24:
1828:
797:Félix d'Hérelle was stricken with
25:
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955:L'étude d'une maladie: Le Choléra
708:In about 1934, d'Hérelle went to
1208:"Phage Therapy: Concept to Cure"
913:
553:In 1920, d'Hérelle travelled to
3045:Immigrants to the United States
1991:"Who discovered bacteriophage?"
1843:", which is licensed under the
1802:
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1034:Impr. A. Serafini, Alexandrie.
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514:The medium is filtered through
478:. Common treatments were based
3035:Canadian expatriates in Mexico
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1297:D'Herelle F (September 2007).
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629:pilgrim groups returning from
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13:
1:
2120:Canadian Medical Hall of Fame
1719:10.1016/S0140-6736(05)66759-1
1485:10.1080/21597081.2016.1270090
1349:. Academic Press. p. 3.
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2007:10.1128/br.40.4.793-802.1976
1920:10.1016/j.resmic.2007.07.005
1316:10.1016/j.resmic.2007.07.005
1106:Les Défenses de l'Organisme.
889:
801:and died a forgotten man in
433:
338:indicated that carbon was a
264:
7:
2959:Marie-Marguerite d'Youville
1542:"The epic of phage therapy"
1436:Summers WC (10 June 1999).
1046:Studies on Asiatic Cholera.
10:
3061:
1813:. Hodder & Stoughton.
1809:Ireland T (29 June 2023).
1150:English translation, 1922
1136:German translation, 1922.
928:with scientific help from
781:, the new antibiotic drug
206:. He was co-discoverer of
3020:Leeuwenhoek Medal winners
2689:Jonathan Campbell Meakins
2126:
1885:. Palgrave Macmillan UK.
1862:. Yale University Press.
1212:Frontiers in Microbiology
830:
716:. He was welcomed to the
190:
163:
153:
146:
134:
126:
118:
102:
84:
68:
50:
41:
34:
3005:Scientists from Montreal
2985:Canadian microbiologists
2799:Cheryl Rockman-Greenberg
2734:William Thornton Mustard
2601:Charles Philippe Leblond
1907:Research in Microbiology
1677:Tbilisi State University
1303:Research in Microbiology
1225:10.3389/fmicb.2012.00238
1122:. Masson et cie, Paris.
1090:with G. H. Smith. 1924.
947:
722:Tbilisi State University
640:
604:
3015:Immigrants to Argentina
2297:William Arthur Cochrane
1995:Bacteriological Reviews
331:Le Naturaliste Canadien
2900:Lucille Teasdale-Corti
2714:Frederick Montizambert
2219:Wilfred Gordon Bigelow
1974:10.1093/jhmas/46.3.315
1633:10.1093/jhmas/48.3.275
1064:Masson et Cie, Paris.
1032:Études sur le Choléra.
971:Masson et cie, Paris.
765:Final return to France
557:, pursuing studies of
458:vaccine, developed by
415:Bacillus thuringiensis
1881:Viruses vs. Superbugs
1756:. Springer. pp.
1444:Yale University Press
1411:Dublanchet A (2017).
1388:Understanding Viruses
1341:Ackermann HW (2009).
1181:Dublanchet A (2017).
27:French microbiologist
3010:Immigrants to France
2990:Canadian geneticists
2857:F. Estelle R. Simons
2355:Charles George Drake
2282:Harvey Max Chochinov
2073:William C. Summers,
942:David Shrayer-Petrov
938:Frantsuzskii kottedz
880:microbial fuel cells
759:David Shrayer-Petrov
587:University of Leiden
350:Guatemala and Mexico
281:Lycée Louis-le-Grand
220:applied microbiology
173:University of Leiden
93:Lycée Louis-le-Grand
18:Félix d'Herelle
2995:Canadian biologists
2814:Jean-Lucien Rouleau
2502:Emmett Matthew Hall
2312:Douglas Harold Copp
2174:Charles Thomas Beer
2164:Henry J. M. Barnett
2118:Inductees into the
1858:Summers WC (1999).
1841:Félix d'Hérelle
1748:Kuchment A (2012).
1713:(9478): 2166–2167.
1612:Summers WC (1993).
1559:10.1155/2007/365761
1467:Summers WC (2016).
1264:Future Microbiology
1108:Flammarion, Paris.
544:electron microscope
3040:Canadian emigrants
2920:Sir Charles Tupper
2862:Duncan G. Sinclair
2724:Thomas John Murray
2552:Charles B. Huggins
2537:Charles Hollenberg
2517:Donald Olding Hebb
2507:Judith Goslin Hall
2492:Vladimir Hachinski
2416:John G. FitzGerald
2194:Michel G. Bergeron
1989:Duckworth (1976).
1936:D'Hérelle (1917).
1901:D'herelle (2007).
1877:Häusler T (2006).
1847:but not under the
1793:Nomination Archive
1752:The forgotten cure
1686:on 28 October 2023
1650:on 26 January 2021
1276:10.2217/fmb.12.115
934:The French Cottage
583:honorary doctorate
501:Frederick W. Twort
417:also known as Bt.
328:May 1901 issue of
289:University of Bonn
231:Chamberland filter
167:General Hospital,
97:University of Bonn
2972:
2971:
2852:Louis Siminovitch
2512:Michael R. Hayden
2469:Richard Goldbloom
2383:John Robert Evans
2360:Daniel J. Drucker
2234:Adolfo J. de Bold
2159:Frederick Banting
2154:Elizabeth Bagshaw
2082:Bull Inst Pasteur
1954:Bull Inst Pasteur
1869:978-0-300-07127-6
1820:978-1-5293-6524-5
1767:978-1-4614-0250-3
1453:978-0-300-17425-0
1422:978-2-86728-015-3
1397:978-0-7637-2932-5
1192:978-2-86728-015-3
799:pancreatic cancer
737:Tbilisi Institute
735:, founder of the
658:hydrochloric acid
591:Leeuwenhoek medal
589:, as well as the
446:France and phages
422:Pasteur Institute
403:Pasteur Institute
194:
193:
185:Tbilisi Institute
177:Pasteur Institute
148:Scientific career
140:Leeuwenhoek Medal
16:(Redirected from
3052:
2925:D. Lorne Tyrrell
2877:Bette Stephenson
2837:Robert B. Salter
2760:Annette O'Connor
2679:Joseph B. Martin
2639:Walter Mackenzie
2629:Ernest McCulloch
2565:David J. Jenkins
2479:Wilfred Grenfell
2411:C. Miller Fisher
2335:Thomas A. Dignan
2254:G. Malcolm Brown
2229:Stephen Blizzard
2214:John Bienenstock
2189:Philip B. Berger
2112:
2105:
2098:
2089:
2088:
2070:
2049:
2028:
2018:
1985:
1949:
1932:
1922:
1896:
1884:
1873:
1824:
1796:
1790:
1784:
1778:
1772:
1771:
1755:
1745:
1739:
1738:
1702:
1696:
1695:
1693:
1691:
1685:
1679:. Archived from
1674:
1666:
1660:
1659:
1657:
1655:
1649:
1643:. Archived from
1618:
1609:
1603:
1597:
1591:
1588:
1582:
1581:
1571:
1561:
1537:
1531:
1525:
1519:
1513:
1507:
1506:
1496:
1464:
1458:
1457:
1433:
1427:
1426:
1408:
1402:
1401:
1386:Shors T (2008).
1383:
1377:
1367:
1361:
1360:
1338:
1329:
1328:
1318:
1294:
1288:
1287:
1259:
1248:
1247:
1237:
1227:
1206:Keen EC (2012).
1203:
1197:
1196:
1178:
1132:Internet Archive
814:Nobel Foundation
571:Edouard Pozerski
569:. The biologist
430:were published.
397:Return to France
389:plantation near
75:
72:22 February 1949
46:
32:
31:
21:
3060:
3059:
3055:
3054:
3053:
3051:
3050:
3049:
2975:
2974:
2973:
2968:
2872:Nahum Sonenberg
2842:Charles Scriver
2809:Noralou P. Roos
2778:Wilder Penfield
2649:David MacLennan
2606:Maurice LeClair
2570:Harold E. Johns
2527:Félix d'Herelle
2459:Gustave Gingras
2431:Armand Frappier
2401:William Feindel
2391:Ray Farquharson
2330:Naranjan Dhalla
2292:Michel Chrétien
2272:Elaine A. Carty
2184:Bernard Belleau
2122:
2116:
2084:. 1996;94:91–6.
1893:
1870:
1831:
1829:Further reading
1821:
1805:
1800:
1799:
1791:
1787:
1779:
1775:
1768:
1746:
1742:
1703:
1699:
1689:
1687:
1683:
1672:
1668:
1667:
1663:
1653:
1651:
1647:
1616:
1610:
1606:
1598:
1594:
1589:
1585:
1538:
1534:
1526:
1522:
1514:
1510:
1479:(4): e1270090.
1465:
1461:
1454:
1434:
1430:
1423:
1409:
1405:
1398:
1384:
1380:
1368:
1364:
1357:
1339:
1332:
1295:
1291:
1260:
1251:
1204:
1200:
1193:
1179:
1175:
1170:
1004:. Doin, Paris.
950:
916:
892:
833:
767:
706:
686:Yale University
682:
643:
607:
567:Albert Calmette
448:
436:
399:
391:Mérida, Yucatán
352:
277:Lycée Condorcet
272:
267:
235:Vibrio cholerae
197:Félix d'Hérelle
181:Yale University
89:Lycée Condorcet
80:
77:
73:
64:
55:
37:
36:Félix d'Hérelle
28:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
3058:
3048:
3047:
3042:
3037:
3032:
3027:
3022:
3017:
3012:
3007:
3002:
2997:
2992:
2987:
2970:
2969:
2967:
2966:
2961:
2956:
2948:
2943:
2938:
2930:
2922:
2917:
2912:
2907:
2902:
2897:
2892:
2884:
2882:Calvin Stiller
2879:
2874:
2869:
2864:
2859:
2854:
2849:
2844:
2839:
2834:
2829:
2821:
2816:
2811:
2806:
2801:
2796:
2788:
2780:
2775:
2773:Anthony Pawson
2770:
2762:
2757:
2749:
2744:
2742:Arnold Naimark
2739:
2731:
2729:Fraser Mustard
2726:
2721:
2716:
2711:
2709:Julio Montaner
2706:
2701:
2699:Ronald Melzack
2696:
2691:
2686:
2681:
2676:
2671:
2666:
2661:
2656:
2651:
2646:
2641:
2636:
2634:John McEachern
2631:
2626:
2621:
2616:Peter Lougheed
2613:
2608:
2603:
2598:
2596:Bernard Langer
2593:
2588:
2580:
2575:
2567:
2562:
2560:Herbert Jasper
2557:
2549:
2544:
2539:
2534:
2529:
2524:
2519:
2514:
2509:
2504:
2499:
2494:
2489:
2481:
2476:
2471:
2466:
2461:
2456:
2454:Jacques Genest
2451:
2449:William Gallie
2446:
2438:
2433:
2428:
2423:
2421:Claude Fortier
2418:
2413:
2408:
2403:
2398:
2396:Sylvia Fedoruk
2393:
2388:
2380:
2375:
2367:
2365:Jacalyn Duffin
2362:
2357:
2352:
2347:
2342:
2337:
2332:
2327:
2322:
2314:
2309:
2304:
2299:
2294:
2289:
2284:
2279:
2277:Brock Chisholm
2274:
2269:
2264:Alan C. Burton
2261:
2256:
2251:
2246:
2241:
2239:Roberta Bondar
2236:
2231:
2226:
2221:
2216:
2211:
2209:Norman Bethune
2206:
2201:
2199:Alan Bernstein
2196:
2191:
2186:
2181:
2176:
2171:
2166:
2161:
2156:
2151:
2143:
2138:
2133:
2127:
2124:
2123:
2115:
2114:
2107:
2100:
2092:
2086:
2085:
2078:
2071:
2050:
2029:
2001:(4): 793–802.
1986:
1957:
1950:
1933:
1898:
1891:
1874:
1868:
1854:
1853:
1830:
1827:
1826:
1825:
1819:
1811:The Good Virus
1804:
1801:
1798:
1797:
1785:
1773:
1766:
1740:
1697:
1661:
1627:(3): 275–301.
1604:
1592:
1583:
1532:
1520:
1508:
1459:
1452:
1428:
1421:
1403:
1396:
1378:
1362:
1355:
1330:
1289:
1270:(12): 1337–9.
1249:
1198:
1191:
1172:
1171:
1169:
1166:
1165:
1164:
1163:
1162:
1148:
1116:
1102:
1088:
1087:
1086:
1058:
1057:
1056:
1028:
1027:
1026:
998:
997:
996:
993:
965:
949:
946:
926:Sinclair Lewis
915:
912:
902:bacteriophages
897:Herelleviridae
891:
888:
876:bioremediation
865:Salvador Luria
849:Francois Jacob
832:
829:
825:arrondissement
766:
763:
752:Lavrenty Beria
705:
702:
681:
678:
647:British Empire
642:
639:
606:
603:
520:
519:
512:
509:
498:bacteriologist
474:, with severe
447:
444:
435:
432:
398:
395:
360:Guatemala City
351:
348:
275:including the
271:
268:
266:
263:
208:bacteriophages
204:microbiologist
192:
191:
188:
187:
169:Guatemala City
165:
161:
160:
155:
151:
150:
144:
143:
136:
132:
131:
128:
124:
123:
120:
116:
115:
108:bacteriophages
104:
103:Known for
100:
99:
86:
82:
81:
78:
76:(aged 75)
70:
66:
65:
56:
52:
48:
47:
39:
38:
35:
26:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
3057:
3046:
3043:
3041:
3038:
3036:
3033:
3031:
3028:
3026:
3023:
3021:
3018:
3016:
3013:
3011:
3008:
3006:
3003:
3001:
3000:Phage workers
2998:
2996:
2993:
2991:
2988:
2986:
2983:
2982:
2980:
2965:
2962:
2960:
2957:
2955:
2952:
2951:Ronald Worton
2949:
2947:
2944:
2942:
2941:Mark Wainberg
2939:
2937:
2934:
2933:Mladen Vranic
2931:
2929:
2926:
2923:
2921:
2918:
2916:
2915:Endel Tulving
2913:
2911:
2910:Lap-Chee Tsui
2908:
2906:
2903:
2901:
2898:
2896:
2895:Charles Tator
2893:
2891:
2888:
2885:
2883:
2880:
2878:
2875:
2873:
2870:
2868:
2867:Michael Smith
2865:
2863:
2860:
2858:
2855:
2853:
2850:
2848:
2845:
2843:
2840:
2838:
2835:
2833:
2832:David Sackett
2830:
2828:
2825:
2822:
2820:
2817:
2815:
2812:
2810:
2807:
2805:
2802:
2800:
2797:
2795:
2792:
2789:
2787:
2784:
2781:
2779:
2776:
2774:
2771:
2769:
2766:
2765:William Osler
2763:
2761:
2758:
2756:
2753:
2750:
2748:
2745:
2743:
2740:
2738:
2735:
2732:
2730:
2727:
2725:
2722:
2720:
2719:Balfour Mount
2717:
2715:
2712:
2710:
2707:
2705:
2704:Brenda Milner
2702:
2700:
2697:
2695:
2692:
2690:
2687:
2685:
2684:Pierre Masson
2682:
2680:
2677:
2675:
2672:
2670:
2667:
2665:
2664:Ian McWhinney
2662:
2660:
2657:
2655:
2652:
2650:
2647:
2645:
2644:Peter Macklem
2642:
2640:
2637:
2635:
2632:
2630:
2627:
2625:
2622:
2620:
2617:
2614:
2612:
2611:Heinz Lehmann
2609:
2607:
2604:
2602:
2599:
2597:
2594:
2592:
2589:
2587:
2584:
2581:
2579:
2576:
2574:
2571:
2568:
2566:
2563:
2561:
2558:
2556:
2553:
2550:
2548:
2545:
2543:
2542:James C. Hogg
2540:
2538:
2535:
2533:
2530:
2528:
2525:
2523:
2522:Carol Herbert
2520:
2518:
2515:
2513:
2510:
2508:
2505:
2503:
2500:
2498:
2497:Antoine Hakim
2495:
2493:
2490:
2488:
2485:
2484:Gordon Guyatt
2482:
2480:
2477:
2475:
2472:
2470:
2467:
2465:
2462:
2460:
2457:
2455:
2452:
2450:
2447:
2445:
2442:
2441:Henry Friesen
2439:
2437:
2436:Clarke Fraser
2434:
2432:
2429:
2427:
2424:
2422:
2419:
2417:
2414:
2412:
2409:
2407:
2404:
2402:
2399:
2397:
2394:
2392:
2389:
2387:
2384:
2381:
2379:
2376:
2374:
2371:
2370:Jean Dussault
2368:
2366:
2363:
2361:
2358:
2356:
2353:
2351:
2350:Tommy Douglas
2348:
2346:
2343:
2341:
2338:
2336:
2333:
2331:
2328:
2326:
2323:
2321:
2318:
2315:
2313:
2310:
2308:
2305:
2303:
2300:
2298:
2295:
2293:
2290:
2288:
2285:
2283:
2280:
2278:
2275:
2273:
2270:
2268:
2265:
2262:
2260:
2257:
2255:
2252:
2250:
2249:Henri Breault
2247:
2245:
2242:
2240:
2237:
2235:
2232:
2230:
2227:
2225:
2224:Michael Bliss
2222:
2220:
2217:
2215:
2212:
2210:
2207:
2205:
2202:
2200:
2197:
2195:
2192:
2190:
2187:
2185:
2182:
2180:
2177:
2175:
2172:
2170:
2167:
2165:
2162:
2160:
2157:
2155:
2152:
2150:
2147:
2146:Albert Aguayo
2144:
2142:
2139:
2137:
2134:
2132:
2129:
2128:
2125:
2121:
2113:
2108:
2106:
2101:
2099:
2094:
2093:
2090:
2083:
2079:
2076:
2072:
2068:
2064:
2060:
2056:
2051:
2047:
2043:
2040:(2): 115–23.
2039:
2035:
2030:
2026:
2022:
2017:
2012:
2008:
2004:
2000:
1996:
1992:
1987:
1983:
1979:
1975:
1971:
1968:(3): 315–32.
1967:
1963:
1958:
1955:
1951:
1947:
1943:
1939:
1934:
1930:
1926:
1921:
1916:
1912:
1908:
1904:
1899:
1894:
1892:9781403987648
1888:
1883:
1882:
1875:
1871:
1865:
1861:
1856:
1855:
1852:
1850:
1846:
1842:
1838:
1833:
1832:
1822:
1816:
1812:
1807:
1806:
1794:
1789:
1783:, p. 91.
1782:
1777:
1769:
1763:
1759:
1754:
1753:
1744:
1736:
1732:
1728:
1724:
1720:
1716:
1712:
1708:
1701:
1682:
1678:
1671:
1665:
1646:
1642:
1638:
1634:
1630:
1626:
1622:
1615:
1608:
1602:, p. 64.
1601:
1596:
1587:
1579:
1575:
1570:
1565:
1560:
1555:
1551:
1547:
1543:
1536:
1530:, p. 35.
1529:
1524:
1518:, p. 36.
1517:
1512:
1504:
1500:
1495:
1490:
1486:
1482:
1478:
1474:
1473:Bacteriophage
1470:
1463:
1455:
1449:
1446:. p. 3.
1445:
1441:
1440:
1432:
1424:
1418:
1414:
1407:
1399:
1393:
1389:
1382:
1376:
1372:
1366:
1358:
1356:9780123751621
1352:
1348:
1344:
1337:
1335:
1326:
1322:
1317:
1312:
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869:bacteriophage
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2747:David Naylor
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2624:Jeanne Mance
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2578:Wilbert Keon
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2406:Brett Finlay
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2378:Connie Eaves
2372:
2345:James Dosman
2319:
2307:James Collip
2266:
2244:John Bradley
2204:Charles Best
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2141:Oswald Avery
2136:Maude Abbott
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2061:(2): 254–5.
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1803:Bibliography
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1781:Ireland 2023
1776:
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1688:. Retrieved
1681:the original
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841:Max Delbrück
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368:yellow fever
353:
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313:distillation
309:fermentation
305:
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164:Institutions
158:Microbiology
147:
74:(1949-02-22)
29:
3030:1949 deaths
3025:1873 births
2964:Salim Yusuf
2887:Emily Stowe
2783:Vera Peters
2694:Maud Menten
2674:Marco Marra
2669:Tak Wah Mak
2659:John McCrae
2547:David Hubel
2317:Max Cynader
2287:Bruce Chown
2259:John Browne
2169:Murray Barr
1837:Citizendium
1552:(1): 15–8.
924:written by
894:The family
853:Andre Lwoff
845:phage group
818:Nobel Prize
809:in France.
599:Nobel prize
452:World War I
336:experiments
317:maple syrup
270:Early years
251:antibiotics
122:Marie Caire
2979:Categories
2905:James Till
2847:Hans Selye
2824:Ian Rusted
2819:Claude Roy
2532:Jack Hirsh
2340:John Dirks
2325:Paul David
1956:. 94:91–6.
1948:: 373–375.
1707:The Lancet
1690:28 October
1654:11 October
1168:References
921:Arrowsmith
918:The novel
827:in Paris.
783:penicillin
615:Alexandria
484:strychnine
411:pathogenic
325:geological
255:penicillin
247:penicillin
2474:Jean Gray
2464:Phil Gold
2426:Terry Fox
2302:May Cohen
1839:article "
991:163085972
904:in order
890:Namesakes
843:and the "
788:resistant
729:communism
724:in 1934.
555:Indochina
532:dysentery
516:porcelain
493:In 1915,
468:salvarsan
440:Argentina
434:Argentina
356:Guatemala
342:, not an
265:Biography
179:, Paris;
85:Education
2179:John Bel
2067:14815355
1929:17855060
1735:28089251
1727:15986542
1578:18923688
1503:28090388
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1244:22833738
1160:14789160
1146:36920828
1128:14794182
1114:11127665
1070:11981307
1054:25936856
1040:15864352
1010:14749145
963:11221115
561:and the
472:syphilis
470:against
456:smallpox
340:compound
321:schnapps
253:such as
2046:4900376
1982:1918921
1641:8409365
1569:2542892
1494:5221746
1373:(1917)
1235:3400130
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1084:2394374
977:5784382
936:(Russ.
714:Georgia
710:Tbilisi
623:cholera
619:Conseil
585:of the
559:cholera
528:typhoid
524:chicken
495:British
488:cocaine
480:mercury
466:-based
464:arsenic
450:During
383:Mexican
376:bananas
372:whiskey
364:malaria
344:element
243:cholera
239:typhoid
212:viruses
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940:h) by
831:Legacy
777:After
635:Medina
627:muslim
617:. The
563:plague
486:, and
407:locust
301:Turkey
293:Europe
201:French
154:Fields
142:(1925)
135:Awards
127:Father
119:Spouse
62:France
1731:S2CID
1684:(PDF)
1673:(PDF)
1648:(PDF)
1617:(PDF)
967:1938.
948:Books
803:Paris
779:D-Day
772:Vichy
641:India
631:Mecca
605:Egypt
387:sisal
374:from
58:Paris
2063:PMID
2042:PMID
2021:PMID
1978:PMID
1925:PMID
1887:ISBN
1864:ISBN
1849:GFDL
1815:ISBN
1762:ISBN
1723:PMID
1692:2023
1656:2018
1637:PMID
1574:PMID
1499:PMID
1448:ISBN
1417:ISBN
1392:ISBN
1351:ISBN
1321:PMID
1280:PMID
1240:PMID
1187:ISBN
1156:OCLC
1142:OCLC
1124:OCLC
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1080:OCLC
1066:OCLC
1050:OCLC
1036:OCLC
1020:OCLC
1006:OCLC
987:OCLC
973:OCLC
959:OCLC
855:and
807:Aube
745:NKVD
633:and
366:and
311:and
285:Bonn
279:and
241:and
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110:and
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2011:PMC
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