Fatimid navy - Knowledge

1792:" as it is understood today. Furthermore, following the abandonment of the ram, the only truly "ship-killing" weapon available prior to the advent of gunpowder and explosive shells, sea combat became, in the words of John H. Pryor, "more unpredictable. No longer could any power hope to have such an advantage in weaponry or the skill of crews that success could be expected." It is no surprise therefore that the Byzantine and Arab manuals emphasize cautious tactics, with the priority given to the preservation of one's own fleet, and the acquisition of accurate intelligence, often through the use of spies posing as merchants. Emphasis was placed on achieving tactical surprise and, conversely, on avoiding being caught unprepared by the enemy. Ideally, battle was to be given only when assured of superiority by virtue of numbers or tactical disposition. The maintenance of a well-ordered formation was stressed. Once the fleets were close enough, exchanges of missiles began, ranging from combustible projectiles to arrows and javelins. The aim was not to sink ships, but to deplete the ranks of the enemy crews before the 1777:). The sailing season was therefore usually restricted from mid-spring to September. The maintainable cruising speed of a galley, even when using sails, was limited, as were the amount of supplies it could carry. Water in particular, being essentially a galley's 'fuel' supply, was of critical importance. With consumption levels estimated at 8 litres a day for every oarsman, its availability was a decisive operational factor in the often water-scarce and sun-baked coasts of the Eastern Mediterranean. Smaller galleys are estimated to have been able to carry about 4 days' worth of water. Effectively, this meant that fleets composed of galleys were confined to coastal routes, and had to make frequent landfall to replenish their supplies and rest their crews. The Fatimids faced a particular disadvantage in this area, as due to shortage of timber they appear to have used 1368:

not by one, but several Christian naval powers, from Byzantium to the Italian maritime republics and the kingdoms of Western Europe. By itself, Egypt lacked the material means and manpower to support a standing navy large enough to overcome them, forcing the Fatimids to operate from a position of numerical inferiority. Historian William Hamblin points out that even if the Fatimids defeated one fleet in one year, they could "find themselves facing an equally powerful Venetian, Norse, or Byzantine fleet the next year", while "a naval defeat for the Fatimids represented a major loss which might take several years and great expenditure to replace". Yaacov Lev also stresses that both Byzantine and Muslim naval tactics of the period urged caution, and that, as modern scholarship recognizes, "galley fleets could not achieve

1507:, have survived. On the other hand, if the numbers reported by al-Qalqashandi come close to reality, and given the manpower needs of a galley, 5,000 men were insufficient to crew the larger fleets reported in the sources. This means that in times of mobilization, wide-scale impressment of civilian sailors took place—as is indeed indicated by some sources—which probably diminished the cohesion and effectiveness of the navy somewhat. In addition, Fatimid naval strength was hampered by the limitations of Egypt itself: a small coast with a relatively small seafaring population, and the lack of adequate lumber for shipbuilding due to the country's progressive deforestation, which was essentially complete by the 13th century. This placed a greater reliance on the woods of the Levant, especially 1709:, and proceeded to pursue the Fatimid fleet. Caught off guard near shallow water on 30 May 1123, the Fatimids suffered heavy losses, with many ships being captured. The Muslim chroniclers do not report on this battle, instead focusing on the repulsion of a Byzantine–Venetian attack on Alexandria, and the return of a fleet from a raid with three captured vessels. The Venetians followed up their victory by helping the Crusaders to besiege Tyre, which fell after five months in July 1124. The Fatimids failed to send any help whatsoever to the town. In 1125, a large fleet of 22–24 warships and 53 other vessels was sent forth to raid the shores of the Levant and Cyprus. Not only did it fail to engage any significant targets, it also lost part of its crews when they landed to find water. 1380:

among these cities, thus diminishing their effectiveness, but the bulk of the Fatimid navy, which was based in Egypt, was hard-pressed to respond effectively and on time to any threat. According to Hamblin, it took on the average two months from the onset of a siege against one of the coastal cities until the Fatimids were informed, mobilized their navy and army, and the latter arrived at Ascalon ready for action. By that point, Hamblin points out, "most sieges were either successfully completed or abandoned". Each loss of a city thus strengthened the Crusaders while weakening the Fatimids. A further drawback was the fact that the prevailing winds in the region were to the south, and could cause significant delays for any Egyptian fleet sent to Palestine.

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a large number of merchant vessels that could be commandeered as transports. Thus although Fatimid fleets of over 70 ships are attested in the sources during the 12th century, only a third of them were warships, with the rest transports. Hamblin estimates that of the nominal strength of 75 warships, 15 to 25 were probably stationed at the Palestinian port cities, with 45 to 55 warships left in Egypt, although of course the exact distribution could change depending on the circumstances. On the other hand, during the conflicts with the Byzantines in the late 10th century, the sources do not report any permanent presence of Fatimid ships in the Levantine ports, suggesting that it operated solely from Egypt.

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King Baldwin I of Jerusalem was campaigning in northern Syria, the Fatimids again launched a failed attempt to capture Jaffa, mobilizing some 70 vessels. The navy was mobilized in 1118 in support of the land army, but the latter remained inactive. Although the fleet sailed to Tyre and Ascalon, no naval engagements are known. In 1122, the Fatimids recovered control of Tyre, where the Turkish governor's tyrannical rule had aroused the opposition of the populace: a Fatimid fleet arrived in the city and took the governor prisoner to Egypt, while replenishing the city's grain supplies. While a successful action, it also meant the rupture of relations with Damascus.

561:). Already in his inaugural proclamation, al-Mahdi claimed a mandate to "conquer the world to East and West, in accordance with God's promise, from sinful rebels". From the outset, Ifriqiya was thus seen only as a temporary abode, before the march east to overthrow the Abbasids. At the same time, the nascent Fatimid state was surrounded by enemies, necessitating the maintenance of a strong army, and—as the successors to the Aghlabid province of Sicily—a capable fleet as well. During the Ifriqiyan period, the Fatimids faced a major Muslim rival in the form of the powerful Umayyads of Córdoba in al-Andalus (Islamic Spain). However, in the words of the historian 1136:. Rometta surrendered soon after, bringing the Muslim conquest of Sicily to a successful conclusion, after almost one and a half centuries of warfare. This led the Byzantines to once more request a truce in 966/7. The armistice was granted, as the Fatimids were in the midst of their greatest project: the final conquest of Egypt. Already in 965/6, al-Mu'izz began storing provisions and making preparations for a new invasion of Egypt. In 968/9, Ahmad al-Kalbi was recalled with his family and property, in order to lead the naval component of the Egyptian expedition. Ahmad arrived with 30 ships at Tripoli, but soon fell ill and died. 871: 758:) recruited into the Fatimid military. As Yaacov Lev comments, this may provide some insight into the generally poor performance of the Fatimid fleets in the early years of the regime: the Kutama were loyal but inexperienced at sea, while the crews, drawn from the maritime populations newly under Fatimid control, were politically unreliable. Furthermore, it appears that the quality of the naval crews suffered as recruitment into the navy was forcible and unpopular. It also tended to affect mostly the lower classes, among whom, as Lev summarizes it, "he navy was despised and naval service was regarded as a calamity". 1613: 1760: 1649:, remained an active opponent of the Crusaders. Every year until 1105 he launched his forces in campaigns into Palestine, and instituted reforms to strengthen Egypt's military might. The actual effect of these reforms, however, appears to have been negligible. Thus in September 1101, the Fatimid fleet participated in the siege of Jaffa. In the next year, the Crusaders received substantial reinforcements by sea, with the sources putting them from 40 up to 200 vessels; many were lost, however, to storms and to the activity of Fatimid privateers. 6143: 583:". Inherent limitations were imposed by the weather and available naval technology, so that the early Fatimid conflicts with Byzantium in the region of southern Italy were shaped by geography: Sicily was close to the Fatimids' metropolitan province of Ifriqiya, while conversely for the Byzantines, southern Italy was a remote theatre of operations, where they maintained a minimal naval presence. This gave the Fatimids an advantage in the waging of prolonged naval campaigns, and effectively left the initiative in their hands. 708: 266: 1087:, to combine their navies at Barqa in May 961 and initiate joint action. If Kafur refused, the Fatimids claimed they would sail alone. Kafur, suspicious of Fatimid intentions, refused to co-operate with the Fatimid designs, and indeed it is very likely that al-Mu'izz's proposal was from the beginning a calculated gesture mostly intended for public consumption in the propaganda war with the Sunni Abbasids, with al-Mu'izz trying to present himself as the champion of the 1568:) launched a large-scale rearmament, which included the construction of a new fleet. Sixteen new ships were built in the arsenal, to be added to the eighteen ordered two years before. But just as the town criers were calling on the crews to embark, on 15 May 996, a fire broke out that destroyed the fleet and the gathered naval stores except for six empty hulls. A sabotage was suspected: Byzantine prisoners of war were employed in the arsenal, and traders from 31: 731:('supervisor of the sea') in the sources, but his exact role is unclear. He was clearly a subordinate of Jawdhar, but despite his title does not appear to have actively commanded the fleet, and his tasks were probably more related with administration or ship construction. Given the focus of Fatimid naval activities against the Byzantines in southern Italy, actual command of the fleet was apparently in the hands of the governor of Sicily. 6119: 1680:

and the fleet returned to Egypt in the same summer. In 1110, the Crusaders attacked Beirut. 19 Fatimid ships manage to break through to Beirut, defeating and capturing some of the Christian vessels blockading it, but the arrival of a Genoese fleet bottled them up inside the harbour, forcing their crews to fight alongside the inhabitants on the ramparts until the city fell. In the same autumn, the Crusaders

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army was defeated, and was caught up in a storm that washed 25 ships ashore and sunk others. In 1106 and again in 1108, the Crusaders launched attacks on Sidon. In the latter attempt, the Fatimid fleet managed to defeat the Italian warships supporting the Crusaders. Coupled with the arrival of Damascene troops, the Fatimid victory led to the failure of the siege.

1068:, which dispersed his fleet and killed many of the crews. The survivors were then attacked by the Byzantines, who destroyed 12 ships. Another effort by Argyros to renew the truce in autumn 957 failed, but after the Fatimid fleet was again wrecked in a storm, in which Ammar perished, al-Mu'izz accepted the Byzantine proposals for a renewed five-year truce in 958. 1751:(ships equipped with Greek fire) is mentioned as operating on the Nile. When the vizier Shawar set fire to Fustat in November 1168, the arsenal and most of the surviving fleet were destroyed as well, although some ships and naval installations may have survived at Alexandria and Damietta, to form the basis of the rebirth of the Egyptian fleet under Saladin. 1537:

Qarmatian navy, and the rest were captured by the Byzantines. Shortly after, in June/July 972, thirty Fatimid ships arrived from Ifriqiya and raided up the Syrian coast. At about the same time, the Fatimid fleet escorted al-Mu'izz to Egypt. In mid-September 973, while the Fatimid fleet was being inspected by al-Mu'izz at Cairo, a Qarmatian fleet attacked

952:. He returned to Mahdiya on 5 September 930, laden with 18,000 prisoners. Although the Fatimids planned a new and larger naval offensive against the Byzantines in Italy, another truce was concluded in 931/2, which was adhered to for several years, despite the Byzantines' intervention on the side of an anti-Fatimid uprising in Sicily in 936/7. In 934–935, 1735:

successfully raided in 1155/6, and in the next year, the Egyptian fleet appeared before Acre and Beirut. Further raiding expeditions were staged in 1157, when the fleet returned to Egypt with 700 prisoners; and in 1158, when a squadron of five galleys raided Christian shipping, and the Alexandria squadron likewise engaged in raids.

1664:, but their indecisiveness as to their next actions robbed them of a unique opportunity to make major territorial gains. Sharaf al-Ma'ali repulsed an attack of the Crusader fleet on Ascalon, but returned to Egypt without achieving anything else. In spring 1103, twelve ships from Tyre and Sidon managed to break through the Crusader 975:, and allied themselves with the rebels. The first Fatimid attempt to retake it in 945/6 involved troops borne by a squadron of seven ships, but failed; a second attempt shortly after, with a fleet of six ships under the command of Ya'qub al-Tamimi and co-ordinated with a landward assault, was successful in retaking the town. 1153:), as the Arabs themselves had little taste for the sea. An Egyptian fleet is attested as late as 736 in an (unsuccessful) attack on Byzantine territory, but after the resurgence of the Byzantine fleet following the disastrous Second Arab Siege of Constantinople, the crushing defeat of the Egyptian fleet at the 1772:

Ancient and medieval naval operations faced severe constraints, compared to modern navies, as the result of the technological limitations inherent in galley-based fleets. Galleys did not handle well in rough waters and could be swamped by waves, which would be catastrophic in the open sea; history is

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Furthermore, Fatimid naval strategy during the Crusades relied on the control of the coastal cities of the Levant, but these were vulnerable to assault from their hinterland, which the Crusaders controlled. Not only were the limited resources the Fatimids had at hand in Palestine necessarily split up

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in 969. Along with the fall of the Cretan emirate, these events signalled the complete shift of the maritime balance in favour of the Byzantines, who were now constantly expanding at the expense of the Muslims. The Byzantine successes reverberated across the Muslim world: while volunteers from as far

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In 955, relations between the Fatimids and the Umayyads, long tense and hostile, boiled over when a Fatimid courier boat sailing from Sicily to Mahdiya was intercepted by an Andalusian merchant ship. Fearing that it would alert Fatimid privateers, the Andalusians not only removed its rudder, but took

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Saladin's reign would mark a brief rebirth of the Egyptian navy: he rebuilt the arsenals, increased salaries for sailors, and established a separate navy bureau, so that his fleet numbered 60 galleys and 20 transports by 1179. This navy had mixed success against the Crusaders, until it was virtually

1833:. The only difference seems to be that the Muslim warships were, according to some Byzantine manuals, generally larger and slower than the Byzantine ones, perhaps indicating differences in construction, or the result of different types of wood being used. Like with the Byzantines, however, the terms 1804:

The construction of early Muslim ships is still shrouded in mystery, as no pictorial representation prior to the 14th century survives. As the first Muslims relied on the shipbuilding skills and techniques of the maritime peoples they conquered, however, it is generally assumed that their ships were

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to Ascalon. The Fatimid navy was mobilized to ferry supplies and reinforcements into the besieged city, but this was unable to prevent its fall on 22 August. Despite the loss of this important base, the Fatimid navy remained active off the Levant coast in the following years: the harbour of Tyre was

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a month. In addition, the Fatimid fleet had a standing force of marine infantry for shipborne combat. The fleet seems to have been well trained, at least if the reports of elaborate fleet reviews in which manoeuvres and wargames were displayed for the Caliph are an indication. There is also evidence

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types. As William Hamblin points out, however, these numbers represent a theoretical establishment size, whereas in reality, the Fatimid fleet probably never reached this size due to losses in battle and storms, or the lack of crews and maintenance. On the other hand, the Fatimids had easy access to

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as their bases. This does not appear to be corroborated from contemporary sources, however, and as Yaacov Lev points out, "considering the length of the Red Sea and the limited range of the galleys, the presence of such a small squadron had little practical meaning." It appears that the Fatimids did

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The exact origin of the first Fatimid fleet is unknown, but it is likely that the victorious Fatimids merely seized what Aghlabid ships they could find. The first mention of a Fatimid navy occurs in 912/3, when 15 vessels were sent against Tripoli, which had rebelled against Fatimid rule, only to be

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In early 1123, the Fatimids launched another attack on Jaffa, an operation which according to Yaacov Lev provides a textbook example of the ineffectiveness of the Fatimid military in this period. A sizeable army was raised and splendidly equipped, and was accompanied by a fleet of 80 vessels, which

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on Tripoli in 1109, however, the Fatimid fleet was delayed both due to timidity—possibly due to the presence of a strong Genoese fleet—and contrary winds, so that it arrived only eight days after the city had fallen. The supplies were offloaded among the other coastal cities still in Fatimid hands,

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The first mention of Fatimid naval activity in the Eastern Mediterranean after the takeover of Egypt comes in the second half of 971, when a squadron of 15 ships tried to rescue a Fatimid force besieged in Jaffa. The attempt failed, as thirteen of the ships were sunk by what the sources record as a

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of the Levant themselves lacked a navy and were dependent on the naval assistance of the Byzantines or the Italian maritime republics, with whom relations were often strained, several factors combined to limit the Fatimid navy's effectiveness against the Crusaders. Thus the Fatimids were confronted

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In the context of these campaigns against Byzantium, the naval element played a relatively limited role, with occasional expeditions followed by long intervals of inactivity. This was the result of both the resurgence in Byzantine military might during the middle of the 10th century, as well as the

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was sent to Italy, it occupied itself with suppressing local revolts rather than engaging the Fatimids, and the Byzantine envoys offered to renew and extend the existing truce. Al-Mu'izz however, determined to expose the Umayyads' collaboration with the infidel enemy and emulate the achievements of

907:. Simeon, who was considering attacking Constantinople itself, sought Fatimid naval assistance. Informed of the negotiations after capturing a ship carrying the returning Bulgarian and Arab envoys to Simeon, the Byzantines hastened to renew the 917 peace agreement, including the payment of tribute. 410:

as well. In 902, the Aghlabids completed the conquest of Sicily, but their efforts to establish themselves in mainland Italy ultimately failed. Conversely, while the Byzantines repeatedly failed to stem the Muslim conquest of Sicily, they were able to re-establish their control over southern Italy.

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In the next year, however, when a large Genoese fleet arrived to reinforce the siege of Acre, the Fatimids made no further attempt to break the blockade, leading to the city's capitulation. The Fatimids again launched an attack on Jaffa in 1105, but the fleet left for Tyre and Sidon after the land

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in the Levant led to a collapse of Fatimid power in Syria. Only the coastal towns of Ascalon, Acre, Sidon, Tyre, and Beirut remained in Fatimid hands. It was precisely from these holdings that Badr tried to defend, and which formed the power base that allowed him to seize power in Cairo. As Badr's

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in the mid-10th century. Nevertheless, the Fatimids were interested more in raiding than outright conquest, and the fleets involved were small, rarely numbering more than ten to twenty ships. The Byzantines, on the other hand, preferred to deal with the Fatimids through diplomacy. On occasion they

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The Fatimid fleet was once again active in 1112, when it brought provisions and grain to Tyre for the garrison and the populace, which, although a Fatimid possession, was actually held by the Turkish ruler of Damascus. Arriving in mid-July, the fleet returned to Egypt in September. In 1115, while

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in 1015/6. A period of intermittent warfare followed until 1038, when another peace agreement was signed. During this period, the only reference to Fatimid naval activity is in 1024, when the navy ferried reinforcements to the Syrian coastal cities. In 1056, during another brief conflict, Empress

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with the aid of a newly arrived Norwegian fleet of 55–60 ships. The presence of this strong fleet, the losses suffered at Beirut, as well as the lateness of the season and the risks of sailing in winter, forced the Fatimid navy, although anchored at nearby Tyre, not try to assist the beleaguered

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Information about the activities of the Fatimid navy for the next few decades is sparse, but by and large the navy appears to have been inactive, except for brief campaigns during periods of conflict with the Byzantines in Syria. This was the case during the 992–995 clashes over mastery over the

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allowed the fleet easy access to the Mediterranean and the important ports of Alexandria and Damietta, which are also mentioned as the sites of arsenals. Likewise, on the Palestinian and Syrian coasts the local port cities were important maritime centres, but information on the extent of Fatimid

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in 951. Considerable land and naval forces were assembled in Sicily in 950, and in May 951, the Fatimids landed in Calabria and attacked a few Byzantine fortresses without success, leaving after a payment of tribute, once the Byzantine army approached the town. Although the Fatimids captured the

807:, reports that the entire invasion was seaborne, comprising 200 vessels, but according to Yaacov Lev, this "is unsupported by other sources and the number seems highly inflated". On the other hand, it is certain that Abu'l-Qasim did receive seaborne reinforcements during the campaign, landing at 1524:

The Fatimid conquest of Egypt was swift: by June 969, the Fatimid army under Jawhar al-Siqilli stood before Fustat, and after the Ikhshidid troops failed in a last-ditch effort to stop the Fatimids, the city, and Egypt with it, surrendered. There is no mention of the navy's activity, or even

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In the meantime, another uprising against Fatimid rule erupted in Sicily, as the local governor was judged to be to weak towards the Byzantines, allowing the latter to stop paying the agreed-upon tribute in exchange for the truce. Following the end of Abu Yazid's revolt, the Fatimid governor

862:, Thamal inflicted a crushing defeat on the Fatimid fleet. Most of the Fatimid crews were either killed or captured. In spring 921, Thamal and his fleet retook to Alexandria, captured by the Fatimids in 919. Mu'nis then advanced on the Fayyum, forcing the Fatimids to retreat over the desert. 703:

attribute to al-Mahdi and his successors the construction of vast fleets numbering 600 or even 900 ships, but this is obviously an exaggeration and reflects more the impression subsequent generations retained of Fatimid sea-power than actual reality during the 10th century. In fact, the only

899:. Over 11,000 prisoners were made, and the local Byzantine commander and bishop surrendered as hostages in exchange for the payment of tribute. In September, the chamberlain returned in triumph to Mahdiya on 3 September 915. In 924, the Fatimids also entered into contact with envoys of the 1264:

new geographic circumstances in which the Fatimid navy operated: unlike Ifriqiya and Sicily, Egypt was separated from the nearest Byzantine shores by long stretches of open sea. The main naval preoccupation of the Fatimids was securing control of the coastal towns of Palestine and Syria—

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tribes. While the towns of the northern Syrian coast were in Byzantine hands, the Fatimids were generally successful in preserving their control over the remainder, both against Byzantine attacks as well as against attempts by local Syrian warlords to break away from Fatimid control.

1256:. This was followed by the conclusion of a ten-year truce in 999/1000 that, despite the continuing rivalry over Aleppo and occasional rifts, was repeatedly renewed and ushered a period of peaceful and even friendly relations that lasted for decades, only interrupted by brief war over 971:, which at times came close to overthrowing the dynasty. The absence of a rebel fleet meant that the Fatimid navy played a limited, but crucial, role in ferrying supplies into Mahdiya when it was besieged by the rebels. Taking advantage of the turmoil, pirates took over the town of 1554:, the Fatimid fleet was mobilized to oppose a Byzantine fleet that appeared before Alexandria in May/June 993, leading to a battle in which the Fatimids captured 70 prisoners, while in the next year, the Fatimids launched a naval raid that returned in June/July with 100 prisoners. 1341:

attempts to recover inland Syria failed, the Fatimids now found themselves separated from their old opponent, the Byzantine Empire, by the domains of the Seljuks. This altered strategic situation would once again be upended entirely with the arrival of the First Crusade in 1098.

1668:, while in the summer a fleet from Egypt blockaded Jaffa. Once again, however, the co-operation between fleet and army broke down; after waiting for twenty days off Jaffa, and repeated requests to Ascalon for assistance went unanswered, the Fatimid admiral Ibn Qadus retreated. 1225:, which ousted the Fatimids from southern Syria and Palestine and even threatened their control of Egypt; it was not until 978 that the Qarmatians were defeated and Fatimid authority firmly established over the southern Levant. The rivalry with the Byzantines continued, with 1697:

carried siege equipment and troops. At the same time, another squadron was conducting raids against Christian Shipping. Jaffa was besieged for five days, but then the Crusader army arrived and the siege had to be abandoned. The Fatimid land army was then defeated at the

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allied with the Umayyads of al-Andalus, but mostly they sought to avoid conflict by negotiating truces, even including the occasional dispatch of tribute. This approach allowed the Byzantines to concentrate on affairs much closer to home; thus, when the Emirate of Crete

1576:, work began anew, with wood stripped from the capital's buildings; even the huge doors of the mint were removed. Despite plans for the construction of twenty vessels, however, only six seem to have been completed, two of which were reportedly extremely large ones. 568:

The Fatimids' ideological imperative also coloured their relations with the main non-Muslim power of the Near East, the Byzantine Empire: as Yaacov Lev writes, "Fatimid policy toward Byzantium oscillated between contradicting tendencies; a practical policy of

1417:. Medieval geographers report the presence of many ships at Fustat, but the city had no real port; instead, the 6 kilometres (3.7 mi) long shore of the Nile was used as an anchorage. After the foundation of Cairo, a new arsenal was built at the port of 486:) as usurpers and were determined to overthrow them and take their place at the head of the Islamic world. Their pretensions were not only ecumenical, but also universal: according to their doctrine, the Fatimid imam was no less than the incarnation of the ' 1292:

After peaceful relations with the Byzantines were established at the turn of the 11th century, the Fatimid navy appears to have atrophied, its place perhaps being taken by the pirates of Barqa, with whom the Fatimids maintained good relations until

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references in near-contemporary sources about construction of ships at Mahdiya are in regard to the scarcity of wood, which delayed or even stopped construction, and necessitated the import of timber not only from Sicily, but from as far as India.

1498:. The navy was funded by revenue from special estates set aside for the purpose. The total manpower reached some 5,000 men, divided into a system of naval ranks analogous to that of the army, with pay scales of two, five, ten, fifteen, and twenty 1887:

sails. Unlike the warships of Antiquity, medieval Arab and Byzantine ships did not feature rams, and the primary means of ship-to-ship combat were boarding actions and missile fire, as well as the use of inflammable materials such as Greek fire.

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Al-Qalqashandi also records that the Fatimid fleet at the time of the Crusades consisted of 75 galleys and 10 large transports, while various modern estimates have placed the Fatimid navy's strength at 75–100 galleys and 20 transports of the

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During the early Egyptian period of the Fatimid Caliphate, the main external enemy, as in the Ifriqiyan period, remained the Byzantine Empire. The Fatimid conquest of Egypt coincided with the Byzantine expansion in northern Syria: Tarsus and

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A period of Byzantine supremacy at sea followed the failed sieges of Constantinople and the virtual disappearance of the Muslim navies, until the re-commencement of Muslim raiding activity towards the end of the 8th century, both by the

1785:; and they were also far more difficult to handle and refill. As John H. Pryor has demonstrated, it is for these reasons that Egypt-based fleets were unable to effectively intercept Crusader shipping between Cyprus and Palestine. 983:

suppressed it in spring 947. In 949, the Byzantines and Umayyads formed a league against the Fatimids, and launched a two-pronged attack on them: while the Byzantines gathered forces to move against Sicily, the Umayyads captured

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and the differing genealogies subsequently published by the dynasty itself further make it difficult for modern scholars to assess the exact origin of the dynasty. Whatever their true origin, the Fatimids were the leaders of the

1112:. This success allowed the Fatimids to turn their undivided attention to Sicily, where they decided to reduce the remaining Byzantine strongholds. The Fatimid offensive began with Taormina, which was recaptured in 962, after a 252:

the Crusaders' maritime lines of communication to Western Europe. The Fatimids retained a sizeable navy almost up to the end of the regime, but most of the fleet, and its great arsenal, went up in flames in the destruction of

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Thwarted in Egypt, the Fatimids remained active in the Western Mediterranean. In 922/3, an expedition of 20 ships under Mas'ud al-Fati took the fortress of St. Agatha near Rhegion, while in spring 925 a large army under

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equipped a fleet—reportedly to the cost of 300,000 dinars—to raid Christian shipping from Jaffa to Tripoli. The raid was evidently successful, with several Byzantine and Crusader ships captured. In 1153, the Crusaders

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The structure of the navy in the lower ranks is equally obscure. Based on the breakdown of the prisoners captured off Rosetta in 920, the crews appear to have been recruited in Sicily and the ports of Tripoli and

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was one of the most developed early Muslim navies and a major force in the central and eastern Mediterranean in the 10th–12th centuries. As with the dynasty it served, its history is in two phases. The first was

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Basing their legitimization on their championing of the fight against the infidels, the Fatimids exploited this fervour for their own purposes, but their first attempt to evict the Byzantines from Antioch was

1028:. Without hesitating, al-Hasan took his squadron into the harbour, plundered it, burned the arsenal and the Umayyad ships anchored there, and returned to Ifriqiya. The Umayyads responded by sending admiral 1685:

city, which fell on 4 December. Not only that, but due to the inability of the Fatimids to provide a naval escort, many Muslim merchant ships were captured by Christian warships off the Egyptian coast at

1060:, and that the Fatimids plundered Calabria, whereupon Marianos Argyros visited the caliphal court and arranged for a renewal of the truce. In 957 however the Byzantines under their admiral Basil raided 244:

Despite it being well funded and equipped, and one of the few standing navies of its time, a combination of technological and geographical factors prohibited the Fatimid navy from being able to secure

565:, "the enmity between the Fatimids and the Spanish Umayyads took the form of propaganda, subversion and war by proxy" rather than direct conflict, which occurred only once in the two states' history. 780:, but was soon after defeated in naval battle by the remaining Fatimid fleet, an event which led shortly after to the end of his rule over Sicily and the restoration of Fatimid rule over the island. 4256:

Egypt and Syria in the Fatimid, Ayyubid, and Mamluk Eras III: Proceedings of the 6th, 7th and 8th International Colloquium Organized at the Katholieke Universiteit Leuven in May 1997, 1998, and 1999

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rather than barrels to hold water, which put them at a disadvantage: due to their shape, the amphorae occupied more space as they were more fragile and had to be stored upright and padded with

5879: 1595:

of Tyre, and thwart the Byzantine attempts to lend aid to the besieged rebels there. after the conclusion of a peace agreement in 1001, a long period of peaceful relations began, until the

1169:

claims that the Egyptian fleet experienced a renaissance that made it into an effective fighting force, but modern scholarly judgments of the service record of the Egyptian navy under the

1413:

Already before the Fatimid takeover, the main arsenal and naval base in Egypt was at the inland capital of Fustat, specifically at the island of Jazira, located between Fustat and

682:-built harbor carved out of the rock. Restored by the Fatimids, it offered space for thirty ships and was protected by towers and a chain across its entrance. The nearby arsenal ( 830:

Although a peace agreement in exchange for annual tribute had been concluded the previous year, in 918, the Fatimids conducted their first attack on the Byzantines, capturing

1591:

of Antioch and the city's garrison were able to recover them with little effort. Despite this disaster, in 997/8 the Fatimid fleet was able to assist in the quelling of the

1869:—which as a term appears relatively late and is particularly associated with the Levantine and North African coasts—a different, and larger, type of vessel than the common 1284:, Beirut, and Tripoli—on which Fatimid rule in the region largely depended, given the insecurity of the overland routes due to the constant revolts and depredations of the 363:

dynasty in Ifriqiya. Then, in the 820s, two events occurred that shattered the existing balance of power and gave the Muslims the upper hand. The first was the capture of

1788:

Medieval Mediterranean naval warfare was therefore essentially coastal and amphibious in nature, carried out to seize coastal territory or islands, and not to exercise "

838:. The main focus of their activities for some time thereafter, however, remained in the east and their attempts to supplant the Abbasids. In 919–921, Abu'l-Qasim led 542:

in 893, bore fruit swiftly, and in 909, they overthrew the reigning Aghlabid dynasty, allowing the Fatimid leader to come out of hiding and declare himself imam and

1421:, west of Cairo, by al-Aziz, but the old arsenal of Jazira continued in use, especially for ceremonial purposes, until the main arsenal was moved to Fustat from 1372:

in the modern sense". The operational radius of the Egypt-based Fatimid fleets was also limited by the supplies they could carry on board—especially water (see

5242: 1173:(868–905) are more cautious, and it is commonly held that Egypt boasted again of a powerful naval establishment only after the Fatimids took over the country. 1329:), political instability combined with military uprisings to almost unseat the dynasty; only the establishment of a quasi-dictatorial regime under the vizier 884: 300:

in 655 shattered Byzantine naval supremacy, beginning a centuries-long series of conflicts over the control of the Mediterranean waterways. This enabled the

1579:

A naval raid shortly after, in summer 996, returned with 220 prisoners, but a fleet of 24 ships sent to the aid of Manjutakin's troops, who were besieging

1478:

Although not many details are known, the Fatimid-era Egyptian navy seems to have been well organized. The overall responsibility for the navy lay with the

4496: 1572:

had a colony in the city. An anti-Christian pogrom against the city's Christian communities resulted, leaving 170 dead. Under the direction of the vizier

6042: 1121: 5087: 607:

During the early centuries of Islam, the navies of the caliphates and the autonomous emirates were structured along similar lines. Generally, a fleet (

1596: 1345: 6168: 497:

itself, and can be roughly divided into two distinctive periods: the first in 909–969, when the dynasty assumed control over Ifriqiya (modern

1116:. In response, the Byzantines sent another expeditionary force with the object of recovering Sicily in 964. The Byzantine attempt to relieve 5206: 5654: 562: 1104:

had completed his conquest of North Africa in the name of al-Mu'izz, reaching the shores of the Atlantic Ocean. The Fatimids' rivals, the

5641: 5637: 233:. Warfare with the Byzantines ended after 1000 with a series of truces, and the navy became once more important with the arrival of the 5646: 772:

defeated by the ships of Tripoli's inhabitants. In the next year, 913/4, the governor of Sicily, which also had rejected Fatimid rule,

1418: 5909: 5223: 5217: 4372:

The Rise of the Fatimids: The World of the Mediterranean and the Middle East in the Fourth Century of the Hijra, Tenth Century CE

839: 789: 695:

also appears as an important naval base, while in Sicily, the capital Palermo was the most important base. Later historians like

1484:('commander of the sea'), a rather elevated office in the hierarchy, with the administration entrusted to a special department ( 1075:

launched by Byzantium in 960 to recover the island of Crete. The Cretan Arabs appealed for help to both the Fatimids and to the

719:—seems to have also entailed the supervision of the arsenal and naval affairs in general. A certain Husayn ibn Ya'qub is called 6163: 5080: 1149:

Egypt had been the base of a significant navy already in the early Muslim period, mostly manned by native Christian Egyptians (

5229: 6087: 5914: 5026: 4781: 4757: 4708: 4658: 4570: 4547:

Seekrieg und Seepolitik zwischen Islam und Abendland: das Mittelmeer unter byzantinischer und arabischer Hegemonie (650–1040)

4535: 4399: 4313: 470:, "was at the same time political and religious, philosophical and social, and whose adherents expected the appearance of a 5904: 5761: 4359: 1344:

At that time, the Fatimids remained able to field a sizeable, well-funded, and well-organized navy. As the naval historian

1356:

basis, Fatimid Egypt was one of only three states in the Mediterranean or the rest of Europe—along with Byzantium and the

989:

local Byzantine naval commander and his flagship, the expedition returned to Sicily to winter, much to the fury of caliph

586:

The naval aspect of the war against the Byzantines features prominently in the poems of the celebrated Fatimid court poet

1604:

sent a fleet of 80 ships to menace the Syrian coast, but her death soon after led to a resumption of peaceful relations.

1043:

Fatimid sources report that the Umayyads proposed joint action with Byzantium, but although an expeditionary force under

313: 4521: 4448: 1433:

naval presence or the operation of arsenals there is virtually non-existent. According to the early 15th-century writer

1161:, a period of neglect began. A concerted effort to re-establish a credible naval force began only following the sack of 6122: 5874: 5290: 5266: 5211: 5056: 1530: 1226: 773: 661:), and marines for on-board combat and landing operations, including men charged with deploying incendiary substances ( 305: 5262: 5073: 5007: 4982: 4953: 4890: 4733: 4622: 4594: 4485: 4380: 4289: 4263: 1093:

against the infidels. In the event the Cretans received no aid from the rest of the Muslim world, and their capital,

5045:"The View from the South: The Maps of the Book of Curiosities and the Commercial Revolution of the Eleventh Century" 1394:. Although a few ships may have survived, Egypt appears to have remained effectively without a fleet thereafter, as 1318:

From the second third of the 11th century, the Fatimid dynasty and state began to decline. During the long reign of

316:

in 717–718, that was equally unsuccessful. At the same time, by the end of the 7th century the Arabs had taken over

1721:, and nothing is heard of the Fatimid navy, until 1151/2. In that year, as a retaliation for the Crusader sack of 6178: 4791:

Kubiak, Władyslaw B. (1970). "The Byzantine Attack on Damietta in 853 and the Egyptian Navy in the 9th Century".

940:

to ransom themselves with money and precious brocades. In 929, with four ships, he defeated the local Byzantine

5899: 5143: 1428:

on. The location of the main fleet base inland shielded it from seaborne raids, while the canal network of the

1195: 335:

was founded and quickly became a major Muslim naval base. This not only exposed the Byzantine-ruled islands of

207:, where it enjoyed mixed success. It was also in the initially unsuccessful attempts to conquer Egypt from the 6056: 5884: 5434: 5308: 5279: 1933: 1072: 953: 273:

Since the mid-7th century, the Mediterranean Sea had become a battleground between the Muslim navies and the

188: 1936:. After that the navy was neglected by successive regimes, so that, according to the 15th-century historian 225:

in 969, the main naval enemy remained the Byzantines, but the war was fought mostly on land over control of

5869: 5201: 5118: 5049:

Histories of the Middle East: Studies in Middle Eastern Society, Economy, and Law in Honor of A.L. Udovitch

1592: 793: 344: 91: 1165:

in 853 by a Byzantine fleet, which jolted the Abbasid authorities into action. The 15th-century historian

1048:

his father, refused. The Caliph dispatched more forces to Sicily under al-Hasan al-Kalbi and his brother,

5859: 5751: 5484: 5419: 5368: 1739: 1125: 1024:) ordered al-Hasan al-Kalbi to pursue, but he was unable to catch the ship before it reached the port of 846:

as well, but were prevented from capturing Fustat by Mu'nis. Their fleet was prevented from entering the

1503:

of the study of naval tactics on a theoretical basis, and portions of naval manuals, analogous to their

1383:

The Fatimid navy remained in existence until it was destroyed at its arsenal in November 1168, when the

6133: 6061: 6037: 5894: 5659: 5399: 1541:, but lost seven ships and 500 men; the prisoners and the heads of those killed were paraded in Cairo. 1504: 1384: 1349: 875: 715:

The governor of Mahdiya—from 948/9 the post was held by the eunuch chamberlain and chief administrator

391: 1773:

replete with instances where galley fleets were sunk by bad weather (e.g. the Roman losses during the

1550:

Hamdanid emirate of Aleppo. Thus, aside from ferrying supplies to the troops of the Fatimid commander

1454:

not maintain a permanent naval establishment in the Red Sea, but rather employed warships there on an

386:

to Muslim raids and put the Byzantines on the defensive. Despite some Byzantine successes such as the

6173: 6077: 6049: 5817: 5449: 5324: 5248: 5173: 5128: 5113: 4812:

Lev, Yaacov (1984). "The Fāṭimid Navy, Byzantium and the Mediterranean Sea, 909–1036 CE/297–427 AH".

4512: 1634:

by the First Crusade, the Fatimid fleet was active in support of the land army, blockading the small

1631: 1014: 506: 399: 222: 1701:

leaving the Fatimid fleet to sail off towards Ascalon. At about the same time, in late May, a large

402:

by the Aghlabids in 827. The Muslim landing on Sicily was soon followed by the first raids into the

343:, and the coasts of the Western Mediterranean to recurrent Muslim raids, but allowed the Muslims to 6147: 5864: 5606: 4992:

Pryor, John H. (1995). "The Geographical Conditions of Galley Navigation in the Mediterranean". In

4299: 1357: 1029: 539: 443: 436: 278: 4305:

The End of the Jihâd State: The Reign of Hishām ibn ʻAbd al-Malik and the Collapse of the Umayyads

229:, and naval operations were limited to maintaining Fatimid control over the coastal cities of the 5980: 5919: 5105: 4872:

Tropis II Proceedings. 2nd International Symposium on Ship Construction in Antiquity, Delphi 1987

4749:

The Prophet and the Age of the Caliphates: The Islamic Near East from the 6th to the 11th Century

1601: 1113: 990: 928:. The outbreak of a disease forced them to return to Sicily, but then Sabir led his fleet up the 140: 1100:

While the Byzantines were concentrating their energies in the east, by 958, the Fatimid general

674:

During the Ifriqiyan period, the main base and arsenal of the Fatimid navy was the port city of

483: 390:

in 853, the early 10th century saw new heights of Muslim raiding activity, with events like the

215: 118: 5622: 5494: 5439: 5319: 5256: 5158: 4993: 4719: 4638:

Kalifen und Assassinen: Ägypten und der vordere Orient zur Zeit der ersten Kreuzzüge, 1074–1171

4471: 1774: 1661: 1657: 1214: 1049: 914:, led a fleet of 44 ships sent from Ifriqiya to Sicily. The Fatimids attacked a locality named 900: 387: 382:

there, which withstood repeated Byzantine attempts to reconquer the island. This opened up the

317: 5044: 4974:

Geography, Technology, and War: Studies in the Maritime History of the Mediterranean, 649–1571

6027: 5822: 5679: 5489: 5360: 5313: 5295: 5138: 4277: 4251: 1759: 1612: 1313: 1129: 1083:, threatening to retaliate if the expedition was not recalled, and urged the ruler of Egypt, 957: 820: 249: 1333:

saved the Fatimid regime, at the cost of the caliph handing over his powers to his viziers.

1013:

along the case containing the dispatches it carried. In retaliation, the new Fatimid caliph

823:

in April 915 drove the Fatimids out of the country entirely. The expedition's only gain was

599:

in 960–961, the Fatimids limited themselves to verbal support toward the Cretan emissaries.

6082: 5967: 5889: 5827: 5805: 5504: 5499: 5479: 5414: 5378: 5356: 5328: 4643:

Caliphs and Assassins: Egypt and the Near East at the Time of the First Crusades, 1074–1171

4589:. Handbook of Oriental Studies. Vol. 26. Translated by Michael Bonner. Leiden: Brill. 1718: 1665: 1526: 1434: 1391: 1222: 1209:, the population clamoured for action by their rulers, whom they perceived as too passive. 910:

Warfare with the Byzantines resumed in 928. In May of that year, the governor of Kairouan,

904: 538:

The Fatimids arrived to power in Ifriqiya. Their missionary activity in the area, begun by

293: 4874:. Athens: Hellenic Institute for the Preservation of Nautical Tradition. pp. 257–258. 842:, aided by a fleet of 60 to 100 vessels. Once more the Fatimids seized Alexandria and the 8: 6097: 6017: 5569: 5459: 5148: 4718:

Hocker, Frederick M. (1995). "Late Roman, Byzantine, and Islamic Galleys and Fleets". In

4324: 1653: 1646: 1319: 398:, the Syrian coastal towns, and Egypt. The second event was the beginning of the gradual 297: 4870:

Lev, Yaacov (1990). "The Fatimid Navy and the Crusades, 1099–1171". In H. Tzalas (ed.).

6102: 5992: 5810: 5578: 5564: 5469: 4997: 4858: 4850: 4723: 4516: 4475: 4394:. The Edinburgh History of the Islamic Empires. Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press. 1369: 1158: 1154: 1057: 510: 447: 245: 130: 4430: 5942: 5626: 5598: 5096: 5052: 5022: 5003: 4978: 4959: 4949: 4930: 4909: 4886: 4862: 4821: 4800: 4777: 4753: 4729: 4704: 4685: 4676:

Hamblin, William J. (1986). "The Fatimid Navy during the Early Crusades, 1099–1124".

4664: 4654: 4618: 4590: 4566: 4531: 4481: 4458: 4395: 4376: 4355: 4309: 4285: 4259: 1793: 1639: 1635: 1573: 1310:

to have seen the remains of seven huge ships belonging to al-Mu'izz's navy at Cairo.

1101: 1084: 1053: 980: 888: 521:. The latter period can again be divided in two sub-periods, with the arrival of the 494: 475: 474:

descended from the Prophet through Ali and Fatima". As such, they regarded the Sunni

403: 301: 167: 126: 114: 76: 66: 4833:

Lev, Yaacov (1987). "Army, Regime, and Society in Fatimid Egypt, 358–487/968–1094".

1607: 6142: 5664: 5594: 5584: 5554: 5474: 5373: 5341: 5284: 5123: 4842: 4646: 4504: 4336: 4273: 1909:, and recorded as carrying men and supplies, including grain; and the little-known 1765: 1731: 1706: 1698: 1676: 1241: 1230: 1044: 948:

in the Adriatic, although the latter had seven ships under his command, and sacked

855: 812: 707: 596: 379: 348: 196: 110: 1717:

After these debacles, the Fatimids abstained from any action against the Crusader

6002: 5184: 4972: 4943: 4880: 4771: 4767: 4747: 4743: 4698: 4636: 4608: 4584: 4500: 4370: 4349: 4303: 1364: 1061: 549: 479: 466:

sect of Shi'ism, and they headed a movement which, in the words of the historian

420: 269:

Map of the Arab–Byzantine naval conflict in the Mediterranean, 7th–11th centuries

212: 1583:, was lost when it was wrecked on offshore cliffs in bad weather. The Byzantine 265: 6032: 5454: 5153: 5133: 4508: 4443: 4439: 1932:

destroyed during its attempts to break the Christian naval blockade during the

1891:

Transport vessels from Saladin's time are variously designated in the sources:

1681: 1558: 1330: 1181: 929: 753: 692: 309: 286: 274: 204: 192: 47:

black. Red and yellow banners were associated with the Fatimid caliph's person.

4846: 4773:

The Great Arab Conquests: How the Spread of Islam Changed the World We Live In

1915:('flat ship'), which on one occasion is said to have had 500 people on board. 870: 6157: 5849: 5798: 5770: 5766: 5736: 5689: 5550: 5544: 5336: 4934: 4913: 4825: 4804: 4700:

A Tale of Two Factions: Myth, Memory, and Identity in Ottoman Egypt and Yemen

4668: 4650: 4462: 4435: 4425: 4409: 4340: 1726: 1702: 1508: 1337: 1301: 1281: 1032:

with a fleet of 70 vessels to Ifriqiya. The Umayyad fleet raided the port of

911: 591: 571: 522: 514: 467: 450:. This claim was often disputed even by their contemporaries, especially the 395: 226: 96: 4999:

The Age of the Galley: Mediterranean Oared Vessels Since Pre-Classical Times

4963: 4921:

Lev, Yaacov (1999–2000). "The Fāṭimids and Byzantium, 10th–12th Centuries".

4725:

The Age of the Galley: Mediterranean Oared Vessels Since Pre-Classical Times

4477:

The Age of the Galley: Mediterranean Oared Vessels Since Pre-Classical Times

865: 6092: 6012: 6007: 5705: 5429: 5065: 4689: 1883:

records that it had 140 oars, and featured a single mast with two to three

1652:

In 1102, al-Afdal sent a combined land and naval expedition under his son,

1273: 892: 843: 804: 679: 407: 152: 1314:

Late 11th century to the end of the Fatimid state: the era of the Crusades

1007: 678:. Founded by al-Mahdi Billah in 916, the city made use of a pre-existing, 631:), but the chief professional officer was the 'commander of the sailors' ( 260: 6022: 5985: 5963: 5937: 5854: 5684: 1880: 1789: 1004:, the Byzantines sent another embassy, and hostilities ceased once more. 696: 637:), who was in charge of weapons and manoeuvres. Crews comprised sailors ( 487: 463: 4470:

Dotson, John E. (1995). "Economics and Logistics of Galley Warfare". In

2049: 1525:

presence, during the conquest. In the spring of 970, the Fatimids under

1132:

early in 965, using divers equipped with incendiary devices filled with

1056:

reports that initially, the Byzantine fleet was heavily defeated in the

5788: 5674: 4900:

Lev, Yaacov (1995). "The Fāṭimids and Byzantium, 10th–12th Centuries".

4632: 4604: 4580: 4554: 1937: 1897:, a type of vessel which carried siege engines and other bulk freight; 1822: 1551: 1499: 1429: 1166: 1133: 1080: 1076: 808: 788:

The first major overseas expedition of the Fatimid navy was during the

700: 383: 368: 122: 40: 4854: 4060: 1025: 5612: 5574: 5303: 5236: 4168: 1712: 1529:

invaded Palestine as well, and defeated the Ikhshidid remnants under

1519: 1306: 1218: 1094: 968: 943: 290: 238: 234: 2025: 2001: 195:. During the first period, the navy was employed mainly against the 30: 5602: 5558: 5464: 5424: 5351: 5347: 5273: 5168: 5163: 1778: 1580: 1265: 1249: 1248:, and a protracted round of warfare in 992–998 over control of the 1200: 1170: 1162: 1108:, were humbled, and the Umayyads were reduced to a single outpost, 1105: 985: 835: 587: 440: 428: 360: 340: 321: 208: 180: 156: 2013: 1977: 1656:, to invade Palestine. The Fatimids scored a major victory at the 887:, which had been ferried over to Sicily the previous year, raided 5715: 5540: 5524: 5519: 5514: 5409: 5178: 4282:

The Cambridge History of Egypt, Volume 1: Islamic Egypt, 640–1517

4156: 4120: 1876: 1782: 1742: 1608:

Defence of the coastal cities of the Levant against the Crusaders

1438: 1395: 1285: 1257: 1192: 1117: 1037: 1033: 961: 956:

led another raid, reportedly of 30 vessels, into Italian waters.

949: 933: 925: 921: 847: 831: 747: 743: 716: 675: 668: 502: 498: 424: 356: 184: 84: 44: 4412:(1942–1947). "L'impérialisme des Fatimides et leur propagande". 3932: 2857: 2573: 1557:

Following the defeat of Manjutakin before Aleppo in 995, Caliph

1064:

near Palermo, and al-Hasan suffered heavy losses in a storm off

874:

Map of southern Italy in the 10th century. Byzantine provinces (

6118: 5975: 5710: 5669: 5588: 5509: 3370: 1884: 1808: 1722: 1617: 1569: 1538: 1511:, but access to these was lost with the onset of the Crusades. 1450: 1387: 1253: 1245: 1188: 1065: 1001: 972: 937: 896: 859: 824: 740: 543: 451: 336: 282: 254: 230: 200: 148: 144: 2100: 1845:

were often used interchangeably, along with the generic terms

1390:

set fire to Fustat to prevent its fall to the Crusaders under

5997: 5839: 5793: 5756: 5616: 5444: 4144: 4132: 4072: 2525: 1686: 1544: 1487: 1277: 1269: 1150: 1144: 1109: 920:('the caves') in Apulia, and proceeded to sack the cities of 816: 803:) in 914–915. Ibn Khaldun, following the 13th-century writer 777: 736: 578: 518: 471: 364: 332: 100: 36: 3230: 2953: 2893: 2513: 1805:

similar to their Byzantine counterparts. Thus the Byzantine

1182:

Until the mid-11th century: Byzantium and regional struggles

776:, raided and burned the Fatimid ships at their anchorage in 739:, while the bulk of the fighting troops was composed of the 4375:. The Medieval Mediterranean. Vol. 30. Leiden: Brill. 4009: 3128: 3116: 3104: 2905: 2252: 1446: 1442: 1414: 1336:

By the 1070s, the internal problems and the arrival of the

851: 590:, who lauded the successful Fatimid challenge to Byzantine 80: 4284:. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. pp. 86–119. 4084: 3797: 3444: 3442: 3140: 2965: 2327: 2300: 2240: 1638:

squadron at Jaffa. It then supported the land army at the

1437:, the Fatimids also maintained three to five ships in the 1373: 967:

In 943–947, Fatimid rule was threatened by the revolt of

688:) could reportedly provide shelter for two hundred hulls. 4610:

Die Kalifen von Kairo: Die Fatimiden in Ägypten, 973–1074

4108: 3895: 3893: 3891: 3889: 3887: 3795: 3793: 3791: 3789: 3787: 3785: 3783: 3781: 3779: 3777: 3668: 3666: 3664: 3596: 3563: 3539: 3517: 3515: 3487: 3485: 3483: 3481: 3454: 3358: 3346: 3322: 3312: 3310: 3254: 3208: 3206: 3191: 2503: 2501: 2129: 2119: 2117: 2115: 2088: 1989: 1965: 1586: 866:

Expeditions in southern Italy and the revolt of Abu Yazid

613:) was placed under the command of a 'head of the fleet' ( 432: 4703:. Albany, New York: State University of New York Press. 4308:. Albany, New York: State University of New York Press. 3985: 3944: 3807: 3702: 3637: 3551: 3527: 2686: 2141: 2078: 2076: 1754: 4204: 4192: 4096: 4048: 4026: 4024: 3997: 3956: 3860: 3836: 3762: 3678: 3439: 3295: 3285: 3283: 3281: 3242: 3001: 2977: 2917: 2881: 2794: 2782: 2770: 2746: 2647: 2597: 2585: 2486: 2390: 1008:

Conflict with the Umayyads and final conquest of Sicily

261:

Background: the Mediterranean in the early 10th century

5019:

The Age of the ΔΡΟΜΩΝ: The Byzantine Navy ca. 500–1204

3975: 3973: 3971: 3910: 3908: 3884: 3826: 3824: 3822: 3774: 3726: 3661: 3627: 3625: 3623: 3608: 3586: 3584: 3582: 3580: 3578: 3512: 3502: 3500: 3478: 3415: 3405: 3403: 3401: 3399: 3397: 3307: 3203: 3179: 3152: 3092: 3080: 3044: 3032: 2989: 2929: 2806: 2722: 2674: 2664: 2662: 2618: 2616: 2614: 2612: 2498: 2462: 2450: 2438: 2414: 2368: 2366: 2288: 2276: 2264: 2228: 2204: 2112: 2061: 1863:('warship'). Alternative interpretations consider the 6131: 4615:

The Caliphs of Cairo: The Fatimids in Egypt, 973–1074

4216: 4036: 3714: 3382: 3266: 3169: 3167: 3022: 3020: 3018: 3016: 2835: 2833: 2637: 2635: 2633: 2631: 2563: 2561: 2548: 2546: 2544: 2542: 2540: 2317: 2315: 2194: 2192: 2177: 2073: 2037: 1953: 1071:

The truce with the Byzantine Empire held despite the

878:) in yellow, Lombard principalities in other colours. 827:, a useful base for future operations against Egypt. 5047:. In R. Margariti; A. Sabra; P. Sijpesteijn (eds.). 4180: 4021: 3920: 3872: 3750: 3649: 3427: 3278: 2845: 2734: 1910: 1904: 1898: 1892: 1870: 1864: 1858: 1852: 1846: 1840: 1834: 1828: 1814: 1746: 1493: 1485: 1479: 1469: 1463: 1204: 1176: 1088: 1079:

of Egypt. Al-Mu'izz wrote to the Byzantine emperor,

915: 751: 726: 720: 683: 662: 656: 650: 644: 638: 632: 626: 620: 614: 608: 576: 547: 493:

The history of the Fatimid navy follows that of the

5002:. London: Conway Maritime Press. pp. 206–217. 4480:. London: Conway Maritime Press. pp. 218–223. 4278:"Autonomous Egypt from Ibn Tūlūn to Kāfūr, 868–969" 4228: 3968: 3905: 3848: 3819: 3690: 3620: 3575: 3497: 3466: 3394: 3334: 3218: 2818: 2758: 2710: 2659: 2609: 2363: 2351: 2339: 2165: 2153: 1940:, the term 'sailor' was used as an insult in Egypt. 1820: 1806: 1738:When the Crusaders under King Amalric of Jerusalem 1645:Despite his defeat at Ascalon, the Fatimid vizier, 1584: 941: 746:—the main supporters of the Fatimid regime—and the 4728:. London: Conway Maritime Press. pp. 86–100. 4429: 4254:. In Urbain Vermeulen; J. van Steenbergen (eds.). 3738: 3164: 3068: 3056: 3013: 2941: 2869: 2830: 2698: 2628: 2558: 2537: 2474: 2426: 2402: 2378: 2312: 2216: 2189: 1713:Swan song of the Fatimid navy: the 1150s and 1160s 1520:Conquest of Egypt and first forays into the Levant 533: 505:and Sicily, and the second in 969–1171, after its 4586:The Empire of the Mahdi: The Rise of the Fatimids 4563:The Empire of the Mahdi: The Rise of the Fatimids 4325:"Recruiting Crews in the Fatimid Navy (909–1171)" 6155: 1763:Depiction of a 10th-century sea battle from the 1000:). In the next year, after a Fatimid victory at 151:, wars of expansion of the Fatimid Caliphate in 5017:Pryor, John H.; Jeffreys, Elizabeth M. (2006). 4559:Das Reich des Mahdi: Der Aufstieg der Fatimiden 4497:"Baḥriyya. I. The navy of the Arabs up to 1250" 1597:Destruction of the Church of the Holy Sepulchre 1398:was forced to re-establish it from scratch in 792:of Egypt under Abu'l-Qasim, the future caliph 5081: 5016: 4776:. Philadelphia, Pennsylvania: Da Capo Press. 4174: 4162: 4150: 4138: 4126: 4078: 4066: 2055: 2031: 2019: 2007: 1983: 1139: 1097:, fell after a ten-month siege in March 961. 575:, and the need to appear as champions of the 528: 5095: 4835:International Journal of Middle East Studies 1191:were captured by the Byzantines in 965, and 783: 221:During the first decades after the eventual 4494: 4408: 4298: 4015: 2971: 2959: 2306: 2246: 2106: 819:, and the arrival of the Abbasid commander 5088: 5074: 4522:The Encyclopaedia of Islam, Second Edition 4449:The Encyclopaedia of Islam, Second Edition 1545:Conflict with the Byzantines in the Levant 1145:Background: the navy of early Muslim Egypt 5655:Abu Ja'far Muhammad ibn Ahmad al-Baghdadi 4530:. Leiden: E. J. Brill. pp. 119–121. 4457:. Leiden: E. J. Brill. pp. 850–862. 4414:Annales de l'Institut d'études orientales 4347: 4322: 2396: 2333: 2147: 1217:in 971. This was followed by a series of 454:. The secretiveness of the family before 359:fleets in the East as well as by the new 5042: 4920: 4696: 4544: 4272: 3557: 3533: 3236: 3122: 3110: 2911: 2899: 2579: 2519: 2258: 1959: 1758: 1611: 869: 706: 439:, the son of the last commonly accepted 264: 179:to 969, when the Fatimids were based in 4766: 4742: 4675: 4645:] (in German). Munich: C. H. Beck. 4617:] (in German). Munich: C. H. Beck. 4565:] (in German). Munich: C. H. Beck. 4354:(in French). Leiden and Boston: Brill. 3899: 3801: 3732: 3545: 3521: 3491: 3460: 3364: 3328: 3316: 3260: 3146: 1995: 1971: 1813:was evidently the origin of the Arabic 891:near Reggio, before sailing on to sack 6156: 4790: 4717: 4469: 4424: 4258:. Peeters Publishers. pp. 49–60. 4222: 4090: 3672: 3212: 3197: 3007: 2983: 2183: 2135: 2094: 2082: 1370:naval supremacy and control of the sea 711:Remains of the Fatimid port of Mahdiya 414: 6169:Military history of the Mediterranean 6088:Muhammad ibn Hani al-Andalusi al-Azdi 5069: 4991: 4970: 4389: 4368: 4249: 4210: 4198: 4186: 4114: 4102: 4054: 4042: 4030: 3720: 3602: 3569: 3388: 3352: 3272: 2851: 2740: 2692: 2531: 2171: 1799: 1755:Naval strategy, logistics and tactics 1514: 1348:points out, at an age where even the 4752:(Second ed.). Harlow: Longman. 4631: 4603: 4579: 4553: 3950: 3926: 3878: 3813: 3756: 3708: 3655: 3643: 3614: 3433: 3421: 3289: 3224: 2923: 2887: 2863: 2824: 2800: 2788: 2776: 2764: 2752: 2716: 2668: 2653: 2622: 2603: 2591: 2492: 2372: 2357: 2345: 2159: 1128:destroyed the invasion fleet at the 1124:, however, and the Fatimid governor 5051:. Leiden: Brill. pp. 183–212. 4941: 4899: 4878: 4869: 4832: 4811: 4234: 4003: 3991: 3979: 3962: 3938: 3914: 3866: 3854: 3842: 3830: 3768: 3744: 3696: 3684: 3631: 3590: 3506: 3472: 3448: 3409: 3376: 3340: 3301: 3248: 3185: 3173: 3158: 3134: 3098: 3086: 3074: 3062: 3050: 3038: 3026: 2995: 2947: 2935: 2875: 2839: 2812: 2728: 2704: 2680: 2641: 2567: 2552: 2507: 2480: 2468: 2456: 2444: 2432: 2420: 2408: 2384: 2321: 2294: 2282: 2270: 2234: 2222: 2210: 2198: 2123: 2067: 2043: 1505:better-known Byzantine counterparts 761: 394:in 904, primarily by the fleets of 13: 5036: 4882:State and Society in Fatimid Egypt 4351:Les Fatimides et la mer (909–1171) 4250:Agius, Dionisius Albertus (2001). 1675:When the Crusaders launched their 1531:al-Hasan ibn Ubayd Allah ibn Tughj 774:Ahmad ibn Ziyadat Allah ibn Qurhub 14: 6190: 1689:and Damietta in the same summer. 1408: 1300:. In 1046, the Persian traveller 815:however defeated the Fatimids at 191:in 1171, when they were based in 6141: 6117: 1925: 1492:), characteristically named the 1260:sometime between 1055 and 1058. 766: 312:in 674–678, followed by another 35:The Fatimid dynastic colour was 29: 5915:al-Mu'ayyad fi'l-Din al-Shirazi 1745:, a fleet of 20 galleys and 10 1563: 1324: 1235: 1177:Political and strategic context 1157:in 746, and the turmoil of the 1019: 995: 798: 602: 556: 534:Political and strategic context 187:); the second lasted until the 5905:Abu'l-Fawaris Ahmad ibn Ya'qub 5900:Ahmad ibn Ibrahim al-Naysaburi 4977:. Cambridge University Press. 4948:. Leiden, Netherlands: Brill. 1827:the counterpart to the Arabic 1360:—to maintain a standing navy. 854:by the fleet of Tarsus under 525:in 1099 as the turning point. 314:huge land and naval expedition 43:and in symbolic opposition to 1: 6164:Navy of the Fatimid Caliphate 6057:Minbar of the Ibrahimi Mosque 5309:Hilalian invasion of Ifriqiya 5269:Qarmatian invasions (971–974) 5202:Conquest of Aghlabid Ifriqiya 1947: 1796:, which decided the outcome. 1621: 1422: 1399: 1352:assembled their fleets on an 1294: 1036:and the environs of Susa and 455: 378:) and the establishment of a 372: 325: 173: 16:Navy of the Fatimid Caliphate 5870:Muhammad ibn Ahmad al-Nasafi 5374:End of the Fatimid Caliphate 3941:, pp. 102–103, 111–112. 2866:, pp. 394–396, 403–404. 2058:, pp. 47–48, 64–65, 68. 1918: 1903:, probably smaller than the 1441:to protect commerce and the 619:) and a number of officers ( 7: 5860:Ali ibn al-Fadl al-Jayshani 5369:Crusader invasions of Egypt 5144:al-Zahir li-i'zaz Din Allah 4996:; Gardiner, Robert (eds.). 4722:; Gardiner, Robert (eds.). 4545:Eickhoff, Ekkehard (1966). 4495:Ehrenkreutz, A. S. (2004). 4474:; Gardiner, Robert (eds.). 4280:. In Petry, Carl F. (ed.). 3379:, pp. 161–162, 166ff.. 1911: 1905: 1899: 1893: 1871: 1865: 1859: 1853: 1847: 1841: 1835: 1829: 1821: 1815: 1807: 1747: 1585: 1494: 1486: 1480: 1470: 1464: 1205: 1126:Ahmad ibn al-Hasan al-Kalbi 1089: 1073:massive seaborne expedition 942: 916: 752: 727: 721: 684: 663: 657: 651: 645: 639: 633: 627: 621: 615: 609: 597:came under Byzantine attack 577: 548: 211:and brief clashes with the 39:, a colour associated with 10: 6195: 6038:Mashhad of Sayyida Ruqayya 5885:Ja'far ibn Mansur al-Yaman 5660:Khalil ibn Ishaq al-Tamimi 5435:Ali ibn Ahmad al-Jarjara'i 4243: 1350:Italian maritime republics 1240:) to capture the ports of 1140:Egyptian period (969–1171) 954:Ya'qub ibn Ishaq al-Tamimi 658:dhawu al-ṣināʿa wa'l-mihan 529:Ifriqiyan period (909–969) 6115: 6078:Ali ibn Muhammad al-Iyadi 6070: 5962: 5955: 5928: 5838: 5781: 5744: 5735: 5698: 5636: 5533: 5450:Nasir al-Dawla ibn Hamdan 5398: 5389: 5296:Bedouin alliance uprising 5194: 5104: 5043:Rapoport, Yossef (2011). 4847:10.1017/s0020743800056762 4348:Bramoullé, David (2020). 4323:Bramoullé, David (2007). 4300:Blankinship, Khalid Yahya 4175:Pryor & Jeffreys 2006 4163:Pryor & Jeffreys 2006 4151:Pryor & Jeffreys 2006 4139:Pryor & Jeffreys 2006 4127:Pryor & Jeffreys 2006 4079:Pryor & Jeffreys 2006 4067:Pryor & Jeffreys 2006 2056:Pryor & Jeffreys 2006 2032:Pryor & Jeffreys 2006 2020:Pryor & Jeffreys 2006 2008:Pryor & Jeffreys 2006 1984:Pryor & Jeffreys 2006 1934:Siege of Acre (1189–1191) 1879:-era official and writer 1229:by the Byzantine emperor 840:another invasion of Egypt 784:Attempts to conquer Egypt 223:Fatimid conquest of Egypt 136: 106: 90: 72: 62: 52: 28: 23: 4651:10.17104/9783406661648-1 4549:(in German). De Gruyter. 4341:10.1163/157006707x173998 4069:, pp. 354, 356–357. 3137:, pp. 243–244, 252. 2582:, pp. 110, 111–112. 2534:, pp. 140–141, 147. 2034:, pp. 46–47, 62–63. 2010:, pp. 28–30, 31–33. 1707:arrived in the Holy Land 1358:Norman Kingdom of Sicily 1203:arrived to fight in the 858:, and on 12 March, near 790:first attempted invasion 725:('lord of the sea') and 277:. Very soon after their 6071:Literature and learning 6062:Shrine of Husayn's Head 5981:Great Mosque of Mahdiya 5920:Hamid al-Din al-Kirmani 5895:Abu Ya'qub al-Sijistani 5249:Conquest of Egypt (969) 4971:Pryor, John H. (1988). 4697:Hathaway, Jane (2012). 4390:Brett, Michael (2017). 4369:Brett, Michael (2001). 1052:. The Fatimid official 991:al-Mansur bi-Nasr Allah 834:on the southern tip of 6179:Naval history of Egypt 6050:Al-Salih Tala'i Mosque 5782:Branches and offshoots 5495:Abbas ibn Abi al-Futuh 5440:Abu Muhammad al-Yazuri 5174:al-Fa'iz bi-Nasr Allah 5159:al-Amir bi-Ahkam Allah 5129:al-Mu'izz li-Din Allah 4177:, p. 99–400, 402. 2022:, pp. 33, 41, 45. 1986:, pp. 25–27, 31–. 1769: 1662:Baldwin I of Jerusalem 1627: 1050:Ammar ibn Ali al-Kalbi 1015:al-Mu'izz li-Din Allah 879: 712: 318:Byzantine North Africa 306:major seaborne attempt 270: 6028:Fatimid Great Palaces 5865:Abu Abdallah al-Shi'i 5680:Anushtakin al-Dizbari 5490:al-Adil ibn al-Sallar 5485:al-Ma'mun al-Bata'ihi 5314:Mustansirite Hardship 5253:Expansion into Syria 5224:2nd invasion of Egypt 5218:1st invasion of Egypt 5169:al-Zafir bi-Amr Allah 5164:al-Hafiz li-Din Allah 5139:al-Hakim bi-Amr Allah 5119:al-Qa'im bi-Amr Allah 1762: 1616:Political map of the 1615: 1227:unsuccessful attempts 1130:Battle of the Straits 960:, while Sardinia and 873: 811:. The local governor 794:al-Qa'im bi-Amr Allah 710: 540:Abu Abdallah al-Shi'i 423:claimed descent from 268: 5480:Ridwan ibn Walakhshi 5379:Battle of the Blacks 5179:al-Adid li-Din Allah 4942:Lev, Yaacov (1999). 4879:Lev, Yaacov (1991). 3994:, pp. 103, 113. 2902:, pp. 343, 362. 2522:, pp. 110, 111. 1719:Kingdom of Jerusalem 1435:Ahmad al-Qalqashandi 1392:Amalric of Jerusalem 691:Apart from Mahdiya, 501:) and fought in the 484:Caliphate of Córdoba 392:Sack of Thessalonica 320:(known in Arabic as 216:Caliphate of Córdoba 119:Caliphate of Córdoba 6098:al-Azhar University 5460:al-Afdal Shahanshah 5291:Muffarij b. Daghfal 5243:Conquest of Morocco 5230:2nd Sicilian revolt 5212:1st Sicilian revolt 5149:al-Mustansir Billah 4329:Medieval Encounters 4165:, pp. 387–392. 4129:, pp. 388–389. 4117:, pp. 113–119. 4093:, pp. 219–220. 4006:, pp. 113–114. 3965:, pp. 112–113. 3953:, pp. 159–160. 3869:, pp. 110–111. 3845:, pp. 109–110. 3816:, pp. 101–102. 3771:, pp. 100–102. 3711:, pp. 382–383. 3687:, pp. 242–243. 3646:, pp. 163–164. 3605:, pp. 311–312. 3572:, pp. 295–303. 3451:, pp. 161–162. 3355:, pp. 116–122. 3304:, pp. 257–258. 3251:, pp. 347–353. 3239:, pp. 275–276. 3200:, pp. 857–858. 3188:, pp. 240–241. 3161:, pp. 243–244. 3149:, pp. 325–326. 3125:, pp. 274–275. 3113:, pp. 273–274. 3101:, pp. 205–208. 3089:, pp. 199–205. 3053:, pp. 198–199. 3041:, pp. 237–238. 2998:, pp. 224–225. 2938:, pp. 235–236. 2926:, pp. 405–407. 2914:, pp. 343–351. 2890:, pp. 404–405. 2815:, pp. 234–235. 2803:, pp. 393–394. 2791:, pp. 334–335. 2779:, pp. 297–298. 2755:, pp. 295–296. 2731:, pp. 233–234. 2695:, pp. 165–170. 2683:, pp. 232–233. 2656:, pp. 214–215. 2606:, pp. 213–214. 2594:, pp. 208–212. 2510:, pp. 229–230. 2495:, pp. 165–166. 2471:, pp. 228–229. 2459:, pp. 249–250. 2447:, pp. 248–249. 2423:, pp. 245–246. 2297:, pp. 197–198. 2285:, pp. 196–197. 2273:, pp. 195–196. 2261:, pp. 355–356. 2237:, pp. 194–195. 2213:, pp. 191–192. 2138:, pp. 853–857. 2126:, pp. 227–228. 2109:, pp. 158–162. 2097:, pp. 850–852. 2070:, pp. 226–227. 2046:, pp. 223–226. 1998:, pp. 332–334. 1974:, pp. 325–332. 1320:al-Mustansir Billah 415:Historical overview 298:Battle of the Masts 294:built its own fleet 241:in the late 1090s. 141:Arab–Byzantine wars 73:Active regions 6103:House of Knowledge 5470:Hasan ibn al-Hafiz 5154:al-Musta'li Billah 4392:The Fatimid Empire 4252:"The Arab Šalandī" 1800:Ships and armament 1770: 1632:Siege of Jerusalem 1628: 1159:Abbasid Revolution 1155:Battle of Keramaia 1058:Straits of Messina 880: 821:Mu'nis al-Muzaffar 750:, black Africans ( 713: 427:, the daughter of 400:conquest of Sicily 345:invade and conquer 271: 189:end of the dynasty 131:Republic of Venice 54:Dates of operation 6148:Fatimid Caliphate 6129: 6128: 6111: 6110: 6083:al-Qadi al-Nu'man 5951: 5950: 5943:Baghdad Manifesto 5890:al-Qadi al-Nu'man 5875:Abu Hatim al-Razi 5731: 5730: 5570:Sharifs of Medina 5505:Ruzzik ibn Tala'i 5500:Tala'i ibn Ruzzik 5415:Ya'qub ibn Killis 5350:and accession of 5097:Fatimid Caliphate 5028:978-90-04-15197-0 4994:Morrison, John S. 4885:. Leiden: Brill. 4783:978-0-306-81740-3 4759:978-0-582-40525-7 4720:Morrison, John S. 4710:978-0-7914-5883-9 4660:978-3-406-66163-1 4572:978-3-406-35497-7 4537:978-90-04-13974-9 4472:Morrison, John S. 4401:978-0-7486-4076-8 4315:978-0-7914-1827-7 4274:Bianquis, Thierry 4213:, pp. 57–59. 4201:, pp. 49–60. 4105:, pp. 80–82. 4057:, pp. 71–77. 3617:, pp. 96–97. 3548:, pp. 78–79. 3463:, pp. 77–78. 3424:, pp. 34–35. 3367:, pp. 80–81. 3331:, pp. 79–80. 3263:, pp. 77–79. 3010:, pp. 55–64. 2986:, pp. 49–51. 2962:, pp. 72–73. 2336:, pp. 12–13. 1640:Battle of Ascalon 1574:Isa ibn Nestorius 1527:Ja'far ibn Fallah 1223:al-Hasan al-A'sam 1102:Jawhar al-Siqilli 1085:Abu al-Misk Kafur 1030:Ghalib al-Siqlabi 981:al-Hasan al-Kalbi 728:mutawallī al-baḥr 634:qaʿīd al-nawātiya 507:conquest of Egypt 495:Fatimid Caliphate 476:Abbasid Caliphate 380:piratical emirate 302:Umayyad Caliphate 168:Fatimid Caliphate 162: 161: 127:Republic of Genoa 115:Abbasid Caliphate 77:Mediterranean Sea 67:Fatimid Caliphate 6186: 6174:Disbanded navies 6146: 6145: 6137: 6121: 5960: 5959: 5742: 5741: 5565:Sharifs of Mecca 5534:Vassal dynasties 5475:Bahram al-Armani 5396: 5395: 5342:Siege of Ascalon 5124:al-Mansur Billah 5090: 5083: 5076: 5067: 5066: 5062: 5032: 5013: 4988: 4967: 4945:Saladin in Egypt 4938: 4917: 4896: 4875: 4866: 4829: 4808: 4787: 4763: 4739: 4714: 4693: 4678:American Neptune 4672: 4628: 4600: 4576: 4550: 4541: 4517:Heinrichs, W. P. 4491: 4466: 4433: 4421: 4405: 4386: 4365: 4361:978-90-04-410640 4344: 4319: 4295: 4269: 4238: 4232: 4226: 4220: 4214: 4208: 4202: 4196: 4190: 4184: 4178: 4172: 4166: 4160: 4154: 4148: 4142: 4136: 4130: 4124: 4118: 4112: 4106: 4100: 4094: 4088: 4082: 4076: 4070: 4064: 4058: 4052: 4046: 4040: 4034: 4028: 4019: 4016:Ehrenkreutz 2004 4013: 4007: 4001: 3995: 3989: 3983: 3977: 3966: 3960: 3954: 3948: 3942: 3936: 3930: 3924: 3918: 3912: 3903: 3897: 3882: 3876: 3870: 3864: 3858: 3852: 3846: 3840: 3834: 3828: 3817: 3811: 3805: 3799: 3772: 3766: 3760: 3754: 3748: 3742: 3736: 3730: 3724: 3718: 3712: 3706: 3700: 3694: 3688: 3682: 3676: 3670: 3659: 3653: 3647: 3641: 3635: 3629: 3618: 3612: 3606: 3600: 3594: 3588: 3573: 3567: 3561: 3555: 3549: 3543: 3537: 3531: 3525: 3519: 3510: 3504: 3495: 3489: 3476: 3470: 3464: 3458: 3452: 3446: 3437: 3431: 3425: 3419: 3413: 3407: 3392: 3386: 3380: 3374: 3368: 3362: 3356: 3350: 3344: 3338: 3332: 3326: 3320: 3314: 3305: 3299: 3293: 3287: 3276: 3270: 3264: 3258: 3252: 3246: 3240: 3234: 3228: 3222: 3216: 3210: 3201: 3195: 3189: 3183: 3177: 3171: 3162: 3156: 3150: 3144: 3138: 3132: 3126: 3120: 3114: 3108: 3102: 3096: 3090: 3084: 3078: 3072: 3066: 3060: 3054: 3048: 3042: 3036: 3030: 3024: 3011: 3005: 2999: 2993: 2987: 2981: 2975: 2972:Blankinship 1994 2969: 2963: 2960:Blankinship 1994 2957: 2951: 2945: 2939: 2933: 2927: 2921: 2915: 2909: 2903: 2897: 2891: 2885: 2879: 2873: 2867: 2861: 2855: 2849: 2843: 2837: 2828: 2822: 2816: 2810: 2804: 2798: 2792: 2786: 2780: 2774: 2768: 2762: 2756: 2750: 2744: 2738: 2732: 2726: 2720: 2714: 2708: 2702: 2696: 2690: 2684: 2678: 2672: 2666: 2657: 2651: 2645: 2639: 2626: 2620: 2607: 2601: 2595: 2589: 2583: 2577: 2571: 2565: 2556: 2550: 2535: 2529: 2523: 2517: 2511: 2505: 2496: 2490: 2484: 2478: 2472: 2466: 2460: 2454: 2448: 2442: 2436: 2430: 2424: 2418: 2412: 2406: 2400: 2394: 2388: 2382: 2376: 2370: 2361: 2355: 2349: 2343: 2337: 2331: 2325: 2319: 2310: 2307:Ehrenkreutz 2004 2304: 2298: 2292: 2286: 2280: 2274: 2268: 2262: 2256: 2250: 2247:Canard 1942–1947 2244: 2238: 2232: 2226: 2220: 2214: 2208: 2202: 2196: 2187: 2181: 2175: 2169: 2163: 2157: 2151: 2145: 2139: 2133: 2127: 2121: 2110: 2107:Canard 1942–1947 2104: 2098: 2092: 2086: 2080: 2071: 2065: 2059: 2053: 2047: 2041: 2035: 2029: 2023: 2017: 2011: 2005: 1999: 1993: 1987: 1981: 1975: 1969: 1963: 1957: 1941: 1929: 1914: 1908: 1902: 1896: 1874: 1868: 1862: 1856: 1850: 1844: 1838: 1832: 1826: 1818: 1812: 1794:boarding actions 1766:Madrid Skylitzes 1750: 1699:Battle of Yibneh 1654:Sharaf al-Ma'ali 1626: 1623: 1590: 1567: 1565: 1515:Naval operations 1497: 1491: 1483: 1473: 1467: 1427: 1424: 1404: 1401: 1328: 1327: 1036–1094 1326: 1304:reported in his 1299: 1296: 1239: 1237: 1231:John I Tzimiskes 1221:invasions under 1208: 1122:heavily defeated 1092: 1045:Marianos Argyros 1023: 1021: 999: 997: 958:Genoa was sacked 947: 919: 885:Ja'far ibn Ubayd 856:Thamal al-Dulafi 813:Takin al-Khazari 802: 800: 762:Naval operations 757: 730: 724: 687: 666: 660: 654: 648: 642: 636: 630: 624: 618: 612: 582: 560: 558: 553: 460: 457: 404:Italian mainland 388:Sack of Damietta 377: 374: 349:Visigothic Spain 330: 327: 246:supremacy at sea 197:Byzantine Empire 178: 175: 137:Battles and wars 111:Byzantine Empire 55: 33: 21: 20: 6194: 6193: 6189: 6188: 6187: 6185: 6184: 6183: 6154: 6153: 6152: 6140: 6132: 6130: 6125: 6107: 6066: 6043:Portable mihrab 6003:Al-Hakim Mosque 5947: 5930: 5924: 5843:and theologians 5842: 5834: 5777: 5727: 5694: 5644: 5632: 5529: 5402: 5391: 5385: 5190: 5114:al-Mahdi Billah 5100: 5094: 5059: 5039: 5037:Further reading 5029: 5010: 4985: 4956: 4893: 4784: 4760: 4736: 4711: 4661: 4625: 4597: 4573: 4538: 4509:Bosworth, C. E. 4488: 4402: 4383: 4362: 4316: 4292: 4266: 4246: 4241: 4233: 4229: 4221: 4217: 4209: 4205: 4197: 4193: 4185: 4181: 4173: 4169: 4161: 4157: 4149: 4145: 4137: 4133: 4125: 4121: 4113: 4109: 4101: 4097: 4089: 4085: 4077: 4073: 4065: 4061: 4053: 4049: 4041: 4037: 4029: 4022: 4014: 4010: 4002: 3998: 3990: 3986: 3978: 3969: 3961: 3957: 3949: 3945: 3937: 3933: 3925: 3921: 3913: 3906: 3898: 3885: 3877: 3873: 3865: 3861: 3853: 3849: 3841: 3837: 3829: 3820: 3812: 3808: 3800: 3775: 3767: 3763: 3755: 3751: 3743: 3739: 3731: 3727: 3719: 3715: 3707: 3703: 3695: 3691: 3683: 3679: 3671: 3662: 3654: 3650: 3642: 3638: 3630: 3621: 3613: 3609: 3601: 3597: 3589: 3576: 3568: 3564: 3556: 3552: 3544: 3540: 3532: 3528: 3520: 3513: 3505: 3498: 3490: 3479: 3471: 3467: 3459: 3455: 3447: 3440: 3432: 3428: 3420: 3416: 3408: 3395: 3387: 3383: 3375: 3371: 3363: 3359: 3351: 3347: 3339: 3335: 3327: 3323: 3315: 3308: 3300: 3296: 3288: 3279: 3271: 3267: 3259: 3255: 3247: 3243: 3235: 3231: 3223: 3219: 3211: 3204: 3196: 3192: 3184: 3180: 3172: 3165: 3157: 3153: 3145: 3141: 3133: 3129: 3121: 3117: 3109: 3105: 3097: 3093: 3085: 3081: 3073: 3069: 3061: 3057: 3049: 3045: 3037: 3033: 3025: 3014: 3006: 3002: 2994: 2990: 2982: 2978: 2970: 2966: 2958: 2954: 2946: 2942: 2934: 2930: 2922: 2918: 2910: 2906: 2898: 2894: 2886: 2882: 2874: 2870: 2862: 2858: 2850: 2846: 2838: 2831: 2823: 2819: 2811: 2807: 2799: 2795: 2787: 2783: 2775: 2771: 2763: 2759: 2751: 2747: 2739: 2735: 2727: 2723: 2715: 2711: 2703: 2699: 2691: 2687: 2679: 2675: 2667: 2660: 2652: 2648: 2640: 2629: 2621: 2610: 2602: 2598: 2590: 2586: 2578: 2574: 2566: 2559: 2551: 2538: 2530: 2526: 2518: 2514: 2506: 2499: 2491: 2487: 2479: 2475: 2467: 2463: 2455: 2451: 2443: 2439: 2431: 2427: 2419: 2415: 2407: 2403: 2395: 2391: 2383: 2379: 2371: 2364: 2356: 2352: 2344: 2340: 2332: 2328: 2320: 2313: 2305: 2301: 2293: 2289: 2281: 2277: 2269: 2265: 2257: 2253: 2245: 2241: 2233: 2229: 2221: 2217: 2209: 2205: 2197: 2190: 2182: 2178: 2170: 2166: 2158: 2154: 2150:, pp. 4–5. 2146: 2142: 2134: 2130: 2122: 2113: 2105: 2101: 2093: 2089: 2081: 2074: 2066: 2062: 2054: 2050: 2042: 2038: 2030: 2026: 2018: 2014: 2006: 2002: 1994: 1990: 1982: 1978: 1970: 1966: 1958: 1954: 1950: 1945: 1944: 1930: 1926: 1921: 1851:('galley') and 1802: 1775:First Punic War 1757: 1715: 1705:of 200 vessels 1658:Battle of Ramla 1624: 1610: 1562: 1547: 1522: 1517: 1443:pilgrim traffic 1425: 1411: 1402: 1365:Crusader states 1323: 1316: 1297: 1234: 1184: 1179: 1147: 1142: 1018: 1010: 994: 868: 797: 786: 769: 764: 605: 555: 550:al-Mahdi Billah 536: 531: 458: 448:Ja'far al-Sadiq 421:Fatimid dynasty 417: 375: 328: 263: 176: 53: 48: 17: 12: 11: 5: 6192: 6182: 6181: 6176: 6171: 6166: 6151: 6150: 6127: 6126: 6116: 6113: 6112: 6109: 6108: 6106: 6105: 6100: 6095: 6090: 6085: 6080: 6074: 6072: 6068: 6067: 6065: 6064: 6059: 6054: 6053: 6052: 6047: 6046: 6045: 6035: 6033:Juyushi Mosque 6030: 6025: 6020: 6015: 6010: 6005: 5995: 5990: 5989: 5988: 5983: 5972: 5970: 5957: 5953: 5952: 5949: 5948: 5946: 5945: 5940: 5934: 5932: 5926: 5925: 5923: 5922: 5917: 5912: 5907: 5902: 5897: 5892: 5887: 5882: 5877: 5872: 5867: 5862: 5857: 5852: 5846: 5844: 5836: 5835: 5833: 5832: 5831: 5830: 5825: 5815: 5814: 5813: 5803: 5802: 5801: 5791: 5785: 5783: 5779: 5778: 5776: 5775: 5774: 5773: 5759: 5754: 5748: 5746: 5739: 5733: 5732: 5729: 5728: 5726: 5725: 5720: 5719: 5718: 5713: 5702: 5700: 5696: 5695: 5693: 5692: 5687: 5682: 5677: 5672: 5667: 5662: 5657: 5651: 5649: 5634: 5633: 5631: 5630: 5620: 5610: 5592: 5582: 5572: 5567: 5562: 5548: 5537: 5535: 5531: 5530: 5528: 5527: 5522: 5517: 5512: 5507: 5502: 5497: 5492: 5487: 5482: 5477: 5472: 5467: 5462: 5457: 5455:Badr al-Jamali 5452: 5447: 5442: 5437: 5432: 5427: 5422: 5417: 5412: 5406: 5404: 5393: 5387: 5386: 5384: 5383: 5382: 5381: 5371: 5366: 5365: 5364: 5344: 5339: 5334: 5333: 5332: 5316: 5311: 5306: 5300: 5299: 5298: 5293: 5287: 5282: 5277: 5272:Struggle with 5270: 5260: 5251: 5246: 5240: 5233: 5227: 5221: 5215: 5209: 5204: 5198: 5196: 5192: 5191: 5189: 5188: 5181: 5176: 5171: 5166: 5161: 5156: 5151: 5146: 5141: 5136: 5134:al-Aziz Billah 5131: 5126: 5121: 5116: 5110: 5108: 5102: 5101: 5093: 5092: 5085: 5078: 5070: 5064: 5063: 5058:978-9004214736 5057: 5038: 5035: 5034: 5033: 5027: 5014: 5008: 4989: 4983: 4968: 4954: 4939: 4923:Graeco-Arabica 4918: 4902:Graeco-Arabica 4897: 4891: 4876: 4867: 4841:(3): 337–365. 4830: 4809: 4788: 4782: 4764: 4758: 4740: 4734: 4715: 4709: 4694: 4673: 4659: 4629: 4623: 4601: 4595: 4577: 4571: 4551: 4542: 4536: 4513:van Donzel, E. 4501:Bearman, P. J. 4492: 4486: 4467: 4426:Canard, Marius 4422: 4410:Canard, Marius 4406: 4400: 4387: 4381: 4366: 4360: 4345: 4320: 4314: 4296: 4290: 4270: 4264: 4245: 4242: 4240: 4239: 4237:, p. 181. 4227: 4215: 4203: 4191: 4179: 4167: 4155: 4153:, p. 387. 4143: 4141:, p. 383. 4131: 4119: 4107: 4095: 4083: 4081:, p. 360. 4071: 4059: 4047: 4045:, p. 209. 4035: 4020: 4018:, p. 121. 4008: 3996: 3984: 3982:, p. 113. 3967: 3955: 3943: 3931: 3929:, p. 159. 3919: 3917:, p. 111. 3904: 3883: 3881:, p. 107. 3871: 3859: 3857:, p. 110. 3847: 3835: 3833:, p. 109. 3818: 3806: 3773: 3761: 3759:, p. 101. 3749: 3737: 3725: 3723:, p. 114. 3713: 3701: 3699:, p. 243. 3689: 3677: 3675:, p. 855. 3660: 3658:, p. 165. 3648: 3636: 3634:, p. 242. 3619: 3607: 3595: 3593:, p. 240. 3574: 3562: 3560:, p. 118. 3550: 3538: 3536:, p. 278. 3526: 3511: 3509:, p. 171. 3496: 3477: 3475:, p. 162. 3465: 3453: 3438: 3436:, p. 204. 3426: 3414: 3412:, p. 161. 3393: 3391:, p. 125. 3381: 3369: 3357: 3345: 3343:, p. 258. 3333: 3321: 3306: 3294: 3292:, p. 102. 3277: 3275:, p. 124. 3265: 3253: 3241: 3229: 3217: 3215:, p. 854. 3202: 3190: 3178: 3176:, p. 252. 3163: 3151: 3139: 3127: 3115: 3103: 3091: 3079: 3077:, p. 199. 3067: 3065:, p. 239. 3055: 3043: 3031: 3029:, p. 241. 3012: 3000: 2988: 2976: 2974:, p. 192. 2964: 2952: 2950:, p. 237. 2940: 2928: 2916: 2904: 2892: 2880: 2878:, p. 236. 2868: 2856: 2854:, p. 241. 2844: 2842:, p. 235. 2829: 2827:, p. 394. 2817: 2805: 2793: 2781: 2769: 2767:, p. 297. 2757: 2745: 2743:, p. 185. 2733: 2721: 2719:, p. 295. 2709: 2707:, p. 233. 2697: 2685: 2673: 2671:, p. 215. 2658: 2646: 2644:, p. 232. 2627: 2625:, p. 214. 2608: 2596: 2584: 2572: 2570:, p. 230. 2557: 2555:, p. 231. 2536: 2524: 2512: 2497: 2485: 2483:, p. 229. 2473: 2461: 2449: 2437: 2435:, p. 248. 2425: 2413: 2411:, p. 245. 2401: 2397:Bramoullé 2007 2389: 2387:, p. 246. 2377: 2375:, p. 198. 2362: 2360:, p. 195. 2350: 2348:, p. 194. 2338: 2334:Bramoullé 2007 2326: 2324:, p. 244. 2311: 2309:, p. 120. 2299: 2287: 2275: 2263: 2251: 2249:, p. 188. 2239: 2227: 2225:, p. 193. 2215: 2203: 2201:, p. 234. 2188: 2186:, p. 852. 2176: 2164: 2162:, p. 138. 2152: 2148:Bramoullé 2007 2140: 2128: 2111: 2099: 2087: 2085:, p. 850. 2072: 2060: 2048: 2036: 2024: 2012: 2000: 1988: 1976: 1964: 1951: 1949: 1946: 1943: 1942: 1923: 1922: 1920: 1917: 1801: 1798: 1756: 1753: 1714: 1711: 1703:Venetian fleet 1682:besieged Sidon 1609: 1606: 1566: 975–996 1559:al-Aziz Billah 1546: 1543: 1521: 1518: 1516: 1513: 1495:dīwān al-jihād 1410: 1407: 1331:Badr al-Jamali 1315: 1312: 1238: 969–976 1183: 1180: 1178: 1175: 1146: 1143: 1141: 1138: 1054:Qadi al-Nu'man 1022: 953–975 1009: 1006: 998: 946–953 930:Tyrrhenian Sea 867: 864: 850:branch of the 801: 934–946 785: 782: 768: 765: 763: 760: 616:rāʾis al-usṭūl 604: 601: 559: 909–934 535: 532: 530: 527: 509:, followed by 416: 413: 376: 824/827 310:Constantinople 289:, the nascent 275:Byzantine navy 262: 259: 205:southern Italy 160: 159: 138: 134: 133: 108: 104: 103: 94: 88: 87: 74: 70: 69: 64: 60: 59: 56: 50: 49: 34: 26: 25: 15: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 6191: 6180: 6177: 6175: 6172: 6170: 6167: 6165: 6162: 6161: 6159: 6149: 6144: 6139: 6138: 6135: 6124: 6120: 6114: 6104: 6101: 6099: 6096: 6094: 6091: 6089: 6086: 6084: 6081: 6079: 6076: 6075: 6073: 6069: 6063: 6060: 6058: 6055: 6051: 6048: 6044: 6041: 6040: 6039: 6036: 6034: 6031: 6029: 6026: 6024: 6021: 6019: 6016: 6014: 6011: 6009: 6006: 6004: 6001: 6000: 5999: 5996: 5994: 5991: 5987: 5984: 5982: 5979: 5978: 5977: 5974: 5973: 5971: 5969: 5965: 5961: 5958: 5954: 5944: 5941: 5939: 5936: 5935: 5933: 5927: 5921: 5918: 5916: 5913: 5911: 5908: 5906: 5903: 5901: 5898: 5896: 5893: 5891: 5888: 5886: 5883: 5881: 5878: 5876: 5873: 5871: 5868: 5866: 5863: 5861: 5858: 5856: 5853: 5851: 5850:Hamdan Qarmat 5848: 5847: 5845: 5841: 5837: 5829: 5826: 5824: 5821: 5820: 5819: 5816: 5812: 5809: 5808: 5807: 5804: 5800: 5799:Hamza ibn Ali 5797: 5796: 5795: 5792: 5790: 5787: 5786: 5784: 5780: 5772: 5768: 5765: 5764: 5763: 5760: 5758: 5755: 5753: 5750: 5749: 5747: 5743: 5740: 5738: 5734: 5724: 5721: 5717: 5714: 5712: 5709: 5708: 5707: 5704: 5703: 5701: 5697: 5691: 5690:Qadi al-Fadil 5688: 5686: 5683: 5681: 5678: 5676: 5673: 5671: 5668: 5666: 5663: 5661: 5658: 5656: 5653: 5652: 5650: 5648: 5643: 5639: 5635: 5628: 5624: 5621: 5618: 5614: 5611: 5608: 5604: 5600: 5596: 5593: 5590: 5586: 5583: 5580: 5576: 5573: 5571: 5568: 5566: 5563: 5560: 5556: 5552: 5549: 5546: 5542: 5539: 5538: 5536: 5532: 5526: 5523: 5521: 5518: 5516: 5513: 5511: 5508: 5506: 5503: 5501: 5498: 5496: 5493: 5491: 5488: 5486: 5483: 5481: 5478: 5476: 5473: 5471: 5468: 5466: 5463: 5461: 5458: 5456: 5453: 5451: 5448: 5446: 5443: 5441: 5438: 5436: 5433: 5431: 5428: 5426: 5423: 5421: 5418: 5416: 5413: 5411: 5408: 5407: 5405: 5401: 5397: 5394: 5388: 5380: 5377: 5376: 5375: 5372: 5370: 5367: 5362: 5358: 5355: 5354: 5353: 5349: 5345: 5343: 5340: 5338: 5337:First Crusade 5335: 5330: 5326: 5323: 5322: 5321: 5317: 5315: 5312: 5310: 5307: 5305: 5301: 5297: 5294: 5292: 5289:Uprisings of 5288: 5286: 5283: 5281: 5278: 5275: 5271: 5268: 5264: 5261: 5258: 5255: 5254: 5252: 5250: 5247: 5244: 5241: 5238: 5235:Rebellion of 5234: 5231: 5228: 5225: 5222: 5219: 5216: 5213: 5210: 5208: 5207:Establishment 5205: 5203: 5200: 5199: 5197: 5193: 5187: 5186: 5182: 5180: 5177: 5175: 5172: 5170: 5167: 5165: 5162: 5160: 5157: 5155: 5152: 5150: 5147: 5145: 5142: 5140: 5137: 5135: 5132: 5130: 5127: 5125: 5122: 5120: 5117: 5115: 5112: 5111: 5109: 5107: 5103: 5098: 5091: 5086: 5084: 5079: 5077: 5072: 5071: 5068: 5060: 5054: 5050: 5046: 5041: 5040: 5030: 5024: 5020: 5015: 5011: 5009:0-85177-554-3 5005: 5001: 5000: 4995: 4990: 4986: 4984:0-521-42892-0 4980: 4976: 4975: 4969: 4965: 4961: 4957: 4955:90-04-11221-9 4951: 4947: 4946: 4940: 4936: 4932: 4928: 4924: 4919: 4915: 4911: 4907: 4903: 4898: 4894: 4892:90-04-09344-3 4888: 4884: 4883: 4877: 4873: 4868: 4864: 4860: 4856: 4852: 4848: 4844: 4840: 4836: 4831: 4827: 4823: 4819: 4815: 4810: 4806: 4802: 4798: 4794: 4789: 4785: 4779: 4775: 4774: 4769: 4768:Kennedy, Hugh 4765: 4761: 4755: 4751: 4750: 4745: 4744:Kennedy, Hugh 4741: 4737: 4735:0-85177-554-3 4731: 4727: 4726: 4721: 4716: 4712: 4706: 4702: 4701: 4695: 4691: 4687: 4683: 4679: 4674: 4670: 4666: 4662: 4656: 4652: 4648: 4644: 4640: 4639: 4634: 4630: 4626: 4624:3-406-48654-1 4620: 4616: 4612: 4611: 4606: 4602: 4598: 4596:90-04-10056-3 4592: 4588: 4587: 4582: 4578: 4574: 4568: 4564: 4560: 4556: 4552: 4548: 4543: 4539: 4533: 4529: 4525: 4523: 4518: 4514: 4510: 4506: 4505:Bianquis, Th. 4502: 4498: 4493: 4489: 4487:0-85177-554-3 4483: 4479: 4478: 4473: 4468: 4464: 4460: 4456: 4452: 4450: 4445: 4441: 4437: 4432: 4427: 4423: 4419: 4416:(in French). 4415: 4411: 4407: 4403: 4397: 4393: 4388: 4384: 4382:90-04-11741-5 4378: 4374: 4373: 4367: 4363: 4357: 4353: 4352: 4346: 4342: 4338: 4334: 4330: 4326: 4321: 4317: 4311: 4307: 4306: 4301: 4297: 4293: 4291:0-521-47137-0 4287: 4283: 4279: 4275: 4271: 4267: 4265:90-429-0970-6 4261: 4257: 4253: 4248: 4247: 4236: 4231: 4225:, p. 99. 4224: 4219: 4212: 4207: 4200: 4195: 4189:, p. 62. 4188: 4183: 4176: 4171: 4164: 4159: 4152: 4147: 4140: 4135: 4128: 4123: 4116: 4111: 4104: 4099: 4092: 4087: 4080: 4075: 4068: 4063: 4056: 4051: 4044: 4039: 4033:, p. 70. 4032: 4027: 4025: 4017: 4012: 4005: 4000: 3993: 3988: 3981: 3976: 3974: 3972: 3964: 3959: 3952: 3947: 3940: 3935: 3928: 3923: 3916: 3911: 3909: 3902:, p. 83. 3901: 3896: 3894: 3892: 3890: 3888: 3880: 3875: 3868: 3863: 3856: 3851: 3844: 3839: 3832: 3827: 3825: 3823: 3815: 3810: 3804:, p. 82. 3803: 3798: 3796: 3794: 3792: 3790: 3788: 3786: 3784: 3782: 3780: 3778: 3770: 3765: 3758: 3753: 3747:, p. 55. 3746: 3741: 3735:, p. 81. 3734: 3729: 3722: 3717: 3710: 3705: 3698: 3693: 3686: 3681: 3674: 3669: 3667: 3665: 3657: 3652: 3645: 3640: 3633: 3628: 3626: 3624: 3616: 3611: 3604: 3599: 3592: 3587: 3585: 3583: 3581: 3579: 3571: 3566: 3559: 3558:Bianquis 1998 3554: 3547: 3542: 3535: 3534:Lev 1999–2000 3530: 3524:, p. 77. 3523: 3518: 3516: 3508: 3503: 3501: 3494:, p. 78. 3493: 3488: 3486: 3484: 3482: 3474: 3469: 3462: 3457: 3450: 3445: 3443: 3435: 3430: 3423: 3418: 3411: 3406: 3404: 3402: 3400: 3398: 3390: 3385: 3378: 3373: 3366: 3361: 3354: 3349: 3342: 3337: 3330: 3325: 3319:, p. 79. 3318: 3313: 3311: 3303: 3298: 3291: 3286: 3284: 3282: 3274: 3269: 3262: 3257: 3250: 3245: 3238: 3237:Lev 1999–2000 3233: 3227:, p. 17. 3226: 3221: 3214: 3209: 3207: 3199: 3194: 3187: 3182: 3175: 3170: 3168: 3160: 3155: 3148: 3143: 3136: 3131: 3124: 3123:Lev 1999–2000 3119: 3112: 3111:Lev 1999–2000 3107: 3100: 3095: 3088: 3083: 3076: 3071: 3064: 3059: 3052: 3047: 3040: 3035: 3028: 3023: 3021: 3019: 3017: 3009: 3004: 2997: 2992: 2985: 2980: 2973: 2968: 2961: 2956: 2949: 2944: 2937: 2932: 2925: 2920: 2913: 2912:Eickhoff 1966 2908: 2901: 2900:Eickhoff 1966 2896: 2889: 2884: 2877: 2872: 2865: 2860: 2853: 2848: 2841: 2836: 2834: 2826: 2821: 2814: 2809: 2802: 2797: 2790: 2785: 2778: 2773: 2766: 2761: 2754: 2749: 2742: 2737: 2730: 2725: 2718: 2713: 2706: 2701: 2694: 2689: 2682: 2677: 2670: 2665: 2663: 2655: 2650: 2643: 2638: 2636: 2634: 2632: 2624: 2619: 2617: 2615: 2613: 2605: 2600: 2593: 2588: 2581: 2580:Bianquis 1998 2576: 2569: 2564: 2562: 2554: 2549: 2547: 2545: 2543: 2541: 2533: 2528: 2521: 2520:Bianquis 1998 2516: 2509: 2504: 2502: 2494: 2489: 2482: 2477: 2470: 2465: 2458: 2453: 2446: 2441: 2434: 2429: 2422: 2417: 2410: 2405: 2399:, p. 14. 2398: 2393: 2386: 2381: 2374: 2369: 2367: 2359: 2354: 2347: 2342: 2335: 2330: 2323: 2318: 2316: 2308: 2303: 2296: 2291: 2284: 2279: 2272: 2267: 2260: 2259:Eickhoff 1966 2255: 2248: 2243: 2236: 2231: 2224: 2219: 2212: 2207: 2200: 2195: 2193: 2185: 2180: 2174:, p. 35. 2173: 2168: 2161: 2156: 2149: 2144: 2137: 2132: 2125: 2120: 2118: 2116: 2108: 2103: 2096: 2091: 2084: 2079: 2077: 2069: 2064: 2057: 2052: 2045: 2040: 2033: 2028: 2021: 2016: 2009: 2004: 1997: 1992: 1985: 1980: 1973: 1968: 1962:, p. 97. 1961: 1960:Hathaway 2012 1956: 1952: 1939: 1935: 1928: 1924: 1916: 1913: 1907: 1901: 1895: 1889: 1886: 1882: 1878: 1873: 1867: 1861: 1855: 1849: 1843: 1837: 1831: 1825: 1824: 1817: 1811: 1810: 1797: 1795: 1791: 1786: 1784: 1780: 1776: 1768: 1767: 1761: 1752: 1749: 1744: 1741: 1736: 1733: 1728: 1727:Ibn al-Sallar 1725:, the vizier 1724: 1720: 1710: 1708: 1704: 1700: 1694: 1690: 1688: 1683: 1678: 1673: 1669: 1667: 1666:siege of Acre 1663: 1659: 1655: 1650: 1648: 1643: 1641: 1637: 1633: 1619: 1614: 1605: 1603: 1598: 1594: 1589: 1588: 1582: 1577: 1575: 1571: 1560: 1555: 1553: 1542: 1540: 1534: 1532: 1528: 1512: 1510: 1509:Mount Lebanon 1506: 1501: 1496: 1490: 1489: 1482: 1481:ʾamīr al-baḥr 1476: 1472: 1466: 1459: 1457: 1452: 1448: 1444: 1440: 1436: 1431: 1420: 1416: 1406: 1403: 1176/7 1397: 1393: 1389: 1386: 1381: 1377: 1375: 1371: 1366: 1361: 1359: 1355: 1351: 1347: 1346:John H. Pryor 1342: 1339: 1334: 1332: 1321: 1311: 1309: 1308: 1303: 1302:Nasir Khosrau 1298: 1051/2 1290: 1287: 1283: 1279: 1275: 1271: 1267: 1261: 1259: 1255: 1251: 1247: 1243: 1232: 1228: 1224: 1220: 1216: 1210: 1207: 1202: 1197: 1196:was conquered 1194: 1190: 1174: 1172: 1168: 1164: 1160: 1156: 1152: 1137: 1135: 1131: 1127: 1123: 1119: 1115: 1111: 1107: 1103: 1098: 1096: 1091: 1086: 1082: 1078: 1074: 1069: 1067: 1063: 1059: 1055: 1051: 1046: 1041: 1039: 1035: 1031: 1027: 1016: 1005: 1003: 992: 987: 982: 976: 974: 970: 965: 964:were raided. 963: 959: 955: 951: 946: 945: 939: 935: 931: 927: 923: 918: 913: 912:Sabir al-Fata 908: 906: 902: 898: 894: 890: 886: 877: 872: 863: 861: 857: 853: 849: 845: 841: 837: 833: 828: 826: 822: 818: 814: 810: 806: 795: 791: 781: 779: 775: 767:Early actions 759: 756: 755: 749: 745: 742: 738: 732: 729: 723: 722:ṣāḥib al-baḥr 718: 709: 705: 702: 698: 694: 689: 686: 685:dār al-ṣināʿa 681: 677: 672: 670: 665: 659: 655:), worksmen ( 653: 647: 641: 635: 629: 623: 617: 611: 600: 598: 593: 592:thalassocracy 589: 584: 581: 580: 574: 573: 572:modus vivendi 566: 564: 552: 551: 545: 541: 526: 524: 523:First Crusade 520: 516: 512: 508: 504: 500: 496: 491: 489: 485: 481: 477: 473: 469: 468:Marius Canard 465: 453: 449: 445: 442: 438: 434: 430: 426: 422: 412: 409: 405: 401: 397: 393: 389: 385: 381: 370: 367:by a band of 366: 362: 358: 352: 351:from 711 on. 350: 346: 342: 338: 334: 323: 319: 315: 311: 307: 303: 299: 296:, and in the 295: 292: 288: 284: 280: 276: 267: 258: 256: 251: 247: 242: 240: 236: 232: 228: 224: 219: 217: 214: 210: 206: 202: 198: 194: 190: 186: 182: 170: 169: 158: 154: 150: 146: 142: 139: 135: 132: 128: 124: 120: 116: 112: 109: 105: 102: 98: 95: 93: 89: 86: 82: 78: 75: 71: 68: 65: 61: 57: 51: 46: 42: 38: 32: 27: 22: 19: 6093:al-Musabbihi 6013:Bab al-Futuh 6008:Aqmar Mosque 5968:architecture 5929:Anti-Fatimid 5840:Missionaries 5723:Fatimid navy 5722: 5706:Fatimid army 5430:Sitt al-Mulk 5392:and military 5257:Alexandretta 5183: 5106:Imam-Caliphs 5048: 5018: 4998: 4973: 4944: 4926: 4922: 4905: 4901: 4881: 4871: 4838: 4834: 4817: 4813: 4796: 4792: 4772: 4748: 4724: 4699: 4681: 4677: 4642: 4637: 4614: 4609: 4585: 4562: 4558: 4546: 4527: 4520: 4476: 4454: 4447: 4417: 4413: 4391: 4371: 4350: 4332: 4328: 4304: 4281: 4255: 4230: 4218: 4206: 4194: 4182: 4170: 4158: 4146: 4134: 4122: 4110: 4098: 4086: 4074: 4062: 4050: 4038: 4011: 3999: 3987: 3958: 3946: 3934: 3922: 3900:Hamblin 1986 3874: 3862: 3850: 3838: 3809: 3802:Hamblin 1986 3764: 3752: 3740: 3733:Hamblin 1986 3728: 3716: 3704: 3692: 3680: 3651: 3639: 3610: 3598: 3565: 3553: 3546:Hamblin 1986 3541: 3529: 3522:Hamblin 1986 3492:Hamblin 1986 3468: 3461:Hamblin 1986 3456: 3429: 3417: 3384: 3372: 3365:Hamblin 1986 3360: 3348: 3336: 3329:Hamblin 1986 3324: 3317:Hamblin 1986 3297: 3268: 3261:Hamblin 1986 3256: 3244: 3232: 3220: 3193: 3181: 3154: 3147:Kennedy 2004 3142: 3130: 3118: 3106: 3094: 3082: 3070: 3058: 3046: 3034: 3003: 2991: 2979: 2967: 2955: 2943: 2931: 2919: 2907: 2895: 2883: 2871: 2859: 2847: 2820: 2808: 2796: 2784: 2772: 2760: 2748: 2736: 2724: 2712: 2700: 2688: 2676: 2649: 2599: 2587: 2575: 2527: 2515: 2488: 2476: 2464: 2452: 2440: 2428: 2416: 2404: 2392: 2380: 2353: 2341: 2329: 2302: 2290: 2278: 2266: 2254: 2242: 2230: 2218: 2206: 2179: 2167: 2155: 2143: 2131: 2102: 2090: 2063: 2051: 2039: 2027: 2015: 2003: 1996:Kennedy 2007 1991: 1979: 1972:Kennedy 2007 1967: 1955: 1927: 1890: 1854:markab ḥarbi 1803: 1787: 1771: 1764: 1737: 1716: 1695: 1691: 1677:final attack 1674: 1670: 1651: 1644: 1629: 1578: 1556: 1548: 1535: 1523: 1477: 1460: 1455: 1412: 1409:Organization 1382: 1378: 1362: 1353: 1343: 1335: 1317: 1305: 1291: 1262: 1211: 1185: 1148: 1099: 1070: 1042: 1011: 977: 966: 909: 881: 844:Fayyum Oasis 829: 805:Ibn al-Abbar 787: 770: 733: 714: 690: 673: 649:), oarsmen ( 606: 603:Organization 585: 570: 567: 537: 492: 431:and wife of 418: 408:Adriatic Sea 353: 304:to launch a 272: 243: 220: 166:navy of the 165: 163: 153:North Africa 24:Fatimid navy 18: 6023:Bab Zuweila 6018:Bab al-Nasr 5986:Skifa Kahla 5938:Akhu Muhsin 5855:Ibn Hawshab 5762:Esotericism 5685:al-Basasiri 5403:and regents 4929:: 273–281. 4908:: 190–208. 4820:: 220–252. 4633:Halm, Heinz 4605:Halm, Heinz 4581:Halm, Heinz 4555:Halm, Heinz 4526:Volume XII: 4444:Schacht, J. 4440:Pellat, Ch. 4223:Hocker 1995 4091:Dotson 1995 3673:Canard 1965 3213:Canard 1965 3198:Canard 1965 3008:Kubiak 1970 2984:Kubiak 1970 2184:Canard 1965 2136:Canard 1965 2095:Canard 1965 2083:Canard 1965 1881:Ibn Mammati 1790:sea control 1630:During the 1625: 1140 1500:gold dinars 1426: 1120 1252:emirate of 697:Ibn Khaldun 643:, singular 625:, singular 308:to capture 6158:Categories 5880:Abu Tammam 5789:Qarmatians 5737:Isma'ilism 5675:Manjutakin 5390:Government 5346:Regime of 5318:Revolt of 5302:Revolt of 4528:Supplement 4453:Volume II: 4431:"Fāṭimids" 4420:: 156–193. 4211:Agius 2001 4199:Agius 2001 4187:Pryor 1988 4115:Pryor 1988 4103:Pryor 1988 4055:Pryor 1988 4043:Pryor 1995 4031:Pryor 1988 3721:Pryor 1988 3603:Brett 2001 3570:Brett 2001 3389:Pryor 1988 3353:Pryor 1988 3273:Pryor 1988 2852:Brett 2001 2741:Brett 2001 2693:Brett 2001 2532:Brett 2001 2172:Brett 2017 1948:References 1938:al-Maqrizi 1823:chelandion 1819:, and the 1732:laid siege 1660:over King 1552:Manjutakin 1471:musattahat 1430:Nile Delta 1363:While the 1167:al-Maqrizi 1134:Greek fire 1114:long siege 1081:Romanos II 1077:Ikhshidids 932:, forcing 809:Alexandria 701:al-Maqrizi 563:Yaacov Lev 513:, much of 488:world soul 459: 890 435:, through 384:Aegean Sea 369:Andalusian 329: 700 324:), and in 177: 909 123:Qarmatians 97:Isma'ilism 63:Allegiance 5993:Mansuriya 5811:Assassins 5745:Doctrines 5642:governors 5638:Officials 5613:Banu Kanz 5599:Hamdanids 5595:Sulayhids 5585:Mirdasids 5579:Palestine 5575:Jarrahids 5555:Hammadids 5420:Ibn Ammar 5304:Abu Rakwa 5276:(974–978) 5245:(958–960) 5239:(943–947) 5237:Abu Yazid 5232:(937–941) 5226:(919–921) 5220:(914–915) 5214:(913–917) 5021:. Brill. 4935:183390203 4914:183390203 4863:162310414 4826:0378-2506 4814:Byzantion 4805:0378-2506 4799:: 45–66. 4793:Byzantion 4684:: 77–83. 4669:870587158 4463:495469475 4436:Lewis, B. 3951:Halm 2014 3927:Halm 2014 3879:Halm 2014 3814:Halm 2014 3757:Halm 2014 3709:Halm 2003 3656:Halm 2003 3644:Halm 2003 3615:Halm 2003 3434:Halm 2003 3422:Halm 2003 3290:Halm 2014 3225:Halm 2014 2924:Halm 1996 2888:Halm 1996 2864:Halm 1996 2825:Halm 1996 2801:Halm 1996 2789:Halm 1996 2777:Halm 1991 2765:Halm 1991 2753:Halm 1991 2717:Halm 1991 2669:Halm 1991 2654:Halm 1991 2623:Halm 1991 2604:Halm 1991 2592:Halm 1996 2493:Halm 1991 2373:Halm 1991 2358:Halm 1991 2346:Halm 1991 2160:Halm 1991 1919:Footnotes 1836:adrumūnun 1816:adrumūnun 1593:rebellion 1307:Safarnama 1219:Qarmatian 1034:al-Kharaz 969:Abu Yazid 944:stratēgos 917:al-Ghiran 901:Bulgarian 511:Palestine 478:(and the 291:Caliphate 257:in 1169. 250:interdict 239:Holy Land 235:Crusaders 107:Opponents 5931:movement 5910:Abdallah 5818:Musta'li 5699:Military 5647:generals 5603:Zurayids 5559:Ifriqiya 5465:Kutayfat 5425:Barjawan 5352:al-Hafiz 5348:Kutayfat 5325:Musta'li 5274:Alptakin 4964:39633589 4770:(2007). 4746:(2004). 4635:(2014). 4607:(2003). 4583:(1996). 4557:(1991). 4519:(eds.). 4446:(eds.). 4428:(1965). 4335:: 4–31. 4302:(1994). 4276:(1998). 4235:Lev 1999 4004:Lev 1991 3992:Lev 1991 3980:Lev 1991 3963:Lev 1991 3939:Lev 1991 3915:Lev 1991 3867:Lev 1991 3855:Lev 1991 3843:Lev 1991 3831:Lev 1991 3769:Lev 1991 3745:Lev 1991 3697:Lev 1984 3685:Lev 1984 3632:Lev 1984 3591:Lev 1984 3507:Lev 1999 3473:Lev 1999 3449:Lev 1999 3410:Lev 1999 3377:Lev 1999 3341:Lev 1990 3302:Lev 1990 3249:Lev 1987 3186:Lev 1984 3174:Lev 1984 3159:Lev 1984 3135:Lev 1984 3099:Lev 1995 3087:Lev 1995 3075:Lev 1995 3063:Lev 1984 3051:Lev 1995 3039:Lev 1984 3027:Lev 1984 2996:Lev 1984 2948:Lev 1984 2936:Lev 1984 2876:Lev 1984 2840:Lev 1984 2813:Lev 1984 2729:Lev 1984 2705:Lev 1984 2681:Lev 1984 2642:Lev 1984 2568:Lev 1984 2553:Lev 1984 2508:Lev 1984 2481:Lev 1984 2469:Lev 1984 2457:Lev 1984 2445:Lev 1984 2433:Lev 1984 2421:Lev 1984 2409:Lev 1984 2385:Lev 1984 2322:Lev 1984 2295:Lev 1995 2283:Lev 1995 2271:Lev 1995 2235:Lev 1995 2223:Lev 1995 2211:Lev 1995 2199:Lev 1984 2124:Lev 1984 2068:Lev 1984 2044:Lev 1984 1912:musattah 1872:shalandī 1842:shalandī 1830:shalandī 1779:amphorae 1748:harraqat 1740:captured 1647:al-Afdal 1602:Theodora 1581:Antartus 1465:hammalat 1258:Laodicea 1250:Hamdanid 1215:defeated 1201:Khurasan 1171:Tulunids 1163:Damietta 1106:Idrisids 986:Tangiers 889:Bruzzano 836:Calabria 664:naffāṭūn 652:qadhdhāf 640:nawātiya 610:al-usṭūl 588:Ibn Hani 517:and the 480:Umayyads 464:Isma'ili 429:Muhammad 406:and the 371:exiles ( 361:Aghlabid 347:most of 341:Sardinia 322:Ifriqiya 279:conquest 209:Abbasids 183:(modern 181:Ifriqiya 157:Crusades 147:and the 92:Ideology 58:909–1171 5976:Mahdiya 5956:Culture 5823:Tayyibi 5752:Imamate 5716:Ghilman 5541:Kalbids 5525:Saladin 5520:Shirkuh 5515:Dirgham 5410:Jawdhar 5400:Viziers 5361:Tayyibi 5195:History 5185:Dynasty 4690:1480480 4244:Sources 1900:hammala 1877:Ayyubid 1783:dunnage 1743:Bilbays 1636:Genoese 1458:basis. 1445:, with 1439:Red Sea 1419:al-Maqs 1396:Saladin 1338:Seljuks 1286:Bedouin 1266:Ascalon 1242:Tripoli 1193:Antioch 1118:Rometta 1095:Chandax 1062:Termini 1038:Tabarqa 1026:Almería 962:Corsica 950:Termoli 934:Salerno 926:Otranto 922:Taranto 848:Rosetta 832:Rhegion 748:Zuwayla 744:Berbers 717:Jawdhar 693:Tripoli 676:Mahdiya 671:men'). 669:naphtha 503:Maghreb 499:Tunisia 482:of the 437:Isma'il 357:Abbasid 281:of the 237:in the 213:Umayyad 185:Tunisia 85:Red Sea 45:Abbasid 41:Shi'ism 6134:Portal 5828:Hafizi 5806:Nizari 5711:Kutama 5670:Bakjur 5665:Jawhar 5627:Multan 5601:, and 5589:Aleppo 5551:Zirids 5545:Sicily 5510:Shawar 5363:schism 5357:Hafizi 5331:schism 5329:Nizari 5285:Apamea 5280:Aleppo 5099:topics 5055: 5025: 5006: 4981: 4962: 4952: 4933: 4912: 4889: 4861: 4855:163658 4853: 4824: 4803: 4780: 4756: 4732: 4707: 4688: 4667: 4657: 4621: 4593: 4569: 4534: 4515:& 4484: 4461: 4442:& 4398: 4379: 4358: 4312: 4288: 4262: 1885:lateen 1875:. The 1860:asātīl 1809:dromōn 1723:Farama 1618:Levant 1570:Amalfi 1539:Tinnis 1456:ad hoc 1451:Aydhab 1388:Shawar 1385:vizier 1354:ad hoc 1254:Aleppo 1246:Beirut 1189:Cyprus 1066:Mazara 1002:Gerace 938:Naples 905:Simeon 897:Apulia 876:themes 860:Abukir 825:Barqah 741:Kutama 628:qaʿīd' 622:quwwād 544:caliph 452:Sunnis 425:Fatima 396:Tarsus 337:Sicily 283:Levant 255:Fustat 231:Levant 201:Sicily 149:Levant 145:Sicily 6123:Media 5998:Cairo 5794:Druze 5771:Zahir 5767:Batin 5757:Hujja 5617:Nubia 5607:Yemen 5445:Rasad 5320:Nizar 5259:(971) 4859:S2CID 4851:JSTOR 4641:[ 4613:[ 4561:[ 4499:. In 4434:. 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