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element of surprise, have easier access to targeted populations as well as soft targets, and tend to frighten the general population. As female combatants are seen as less likely to engage in lethal actions and can thus avoid suspicion, they are regarded as ideal combatants. Dress and gender stereotypes are often utilized by women to bypass security defenses. For example, women who appear pregnant appropriate related expectations and stereotypes to their benefit, discouraging invasive body searchers. Women may also "westernize" their appearance in an attempt at covering their actions and avoiding detection. Women are also deployed as suicide bombers as they tend to "elicit greater public sympathy and publicity for an organization." By some research, female bombers receive eight times more press coverage than their male counterparts.
334:, the "Israeli military occupation a significant, if not the most significant, factor contributing to the subjugation of Palestinian women's rights." They are often motivated by the politics of their environment to take action in this situation. Western feminist critic Amal Amireh notes examples of how the women exercise their political agency in the conflict, including the fact that the bomber often declares in public her political group and nationalism, as well as the fact that they commit the act in public as a spectacle to be observed. There is also a case to be made toward religion/political indoctrination. Some recruiters, like the LTTE, would concentrate on recruiting orphans due to their young age, making it much easier to indoctrinate and condition.
200:, killing herself and Pinhas Tokatli (81), and injuring more than 100 others. The attack took place on 27 January 2002 but the identity of the bomber was not confirmed until 30 January 2002. Idris carried the bomb in a backpack, rather than strapped to her body. Since, prior to this attack, women had only helped plant bombs, the use of a backpack and the lack of the usual note or video led to confusion regarding her suicide motives and speculation that she did not intend to detonate the bomb, but that the explosion was accidental. However, after investigation of the explosion, Israel declared Idris a suicide bomber around 9 February 2002. Prior to this Idris called for an "Army of Roses." She served under
306:, the spiritual leader of Hamas, renounced the use of female bombers. Later on in the same year, Hamas was not enthusiastic about adding women into their ranks. Then in January 2004, Hamas used their first female suicide bomber. Hamas defense to this was evolution of their fight. Citing easier access to reach targets, Hamas stated that women are the reserve army. When there is a need they will use them. On average, it is calculated that terrorist groups that use suicide bombing as a tactic wait around 13.5 years before employing women. However, women are reported to have higher kill rates than men, on average killing four times as many people as men do.
342:
of the Black Widows are regarded to support the theory that suicide bombings may alter societal gender norms. With militant involvement usually seen as being performed by men, engaging in violent actions counters notions of women's traditional roles, such as raising children. Clara Beyler, a counter-terrorism analyst writes that "There is a difference between men and women suicide attackers: women consider combat as a way to escape the predestined life that is expected of them. When women become human bombs, their intent is to make a statement not only in the name of a country, a religion, a leader, but also in the name of their gender."
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accept, that a female who offers her life in this context is seen as engaging in the most profound form of selflessness." Other research suggests that women resort to terrorism to "redeem their fallen reputations, such as being barren, divorced, defiled, unchaste, and so on." Struggling for the pursuit of freedom through the LTTE can be seen as a way in which women can redeem themselves. Tamil rape victims tend to be prohibited from marriage and childbearing. Conceptualizing female bombers as mothers allows suicide bombings to serve as offerings for women who cannot become mothers.
437:
483:, issued a fatwa, or religious rule, that gave permission to women to participate in suicide attacks as well as listing the rewards in "paradise" that these female martyrs would receive upon their deaths. He also promised Hamas would send many female suicide bombers in order to strike Israelis. Reactions to this in the Islamic world were mixed. While many hailed the female suicide bomber and urged full involvement of all in
338:
a suicide attack. Some women join to seek revenge. For example, studies have shown that some women join the
Liberation Tigers of Tamil Eelam seeking revenge against crimes the government has committed against the group, from disappearances to torture. Government oppression has only emboldened the LTTE, and women have increasingly become more publicly involved.
41:, wherein the bomber kills herself while simultaneously killing targeted people. Suicide bombers are normally viewed as male political radicals but since the 1960s female suicide attacks have been on the rise. Through 1985–2006, 15% of all suicide attacks were conducted by female suicide bombers. There are many organizations, such as
57:, that recently started using women as tools in their attacks, since they are normally viewed as less of a threat than their male counterparts. This includes women having the element of surprise, a hesitancy to search females, increased publicity for female suicide bombing attacks, and the female stereotype as non-violent.
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It also may help deliver group-based messages. For example, media coverage may highlight that the group, by using women, had been driven to extreme measures. Media attention on female suicide bombers tends to examine emotional explanations for women's involvement, as opposed to ideological justifications.
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stated, "One cannot but be inspired when one sees the women of the LTTE in the night with their AKs slung over the shoulder. ... One cannot but admire the dedication and toughness of their training. … One could see the nationalist fervor and the romantic vision of women in arms defending the nation."
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is a known terrorist organization that has trained many female suicide bombers since their uprising as political weapons. In
January 2002, the group claimed responsibility for the first female suicide bombing attack inside of Israel, in efforts to push Israel settlers out of West Bank and to form an
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Individual motivations to become suicide bombers vary. Motives include "to avenge a personal loss, to redeem the family name, to escape a life of sheltered monotony and achieve fame, or to equalize the patriarchal societies in which they live." The death of a relative triggers the decision to commit
318:
There are different causes and reasons why female suicide bombers perform these deadly actions. For one, many cite personal feelings of sacrifice in conducting such missions. The missions become more esteemed to the public when they are framed as forms of sacrifice. Society would be "hard pressed to
341:
In
Chechnya, female bombers originally became involved for more personal reasons, avenging the deaths of Chechen male relatives killed by Russian forces. They are referred to as "Black Widows" because many were the wives, mothers, sisters, or female relatives of men killed in battle. The activities
309:
Terrorist and insurgent groups may also appropriate media coverage to benefit from the portrayal of female suicide bombers. Women's media portrayal may help various organizations recruit and motivate men, and coverage of women in the media allows groups to differentiate themselves from one another.
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Women's involvement is mediated differently than men's; they are more likely to be involved through personal contacts or family members, while men's process of involvement is more likely to stem from movement affiliation and disenchantment with nonviolent forms of political activism. Differences in
236:
were suicide bombings carried out by two female
Islamist terrorists from the Caucasus during the morning rush hour of March 29, 2010, at two stations of the Moscow Metro (Lubyanka and Park Kultury), with roughly 40 minutes in between. At least 40 people were killed, and over 100 injured. The women
301:
Insurgent groups also face pressure when it comes to recruiting members, causing the group to expand their bases to sustain the group's position. It has been argued that the introduction of women and girls into combat "generally came about in response to logistical demands: the mounting number of
127:
There is much variation among female suicide bombers. A number of studies have attempted to compare suicide attackers across different suicide groups. It was found that groups that used women the least were
Islamist fundamentalist groups. When dealing with age, female suicide bombers followed the
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Organizations have differing stances on female suicide bombers. For example, in 2002, the spiritual leader of Hamas "categorically renounced the use of women as suicide bombers." In fact, in early 2002, he reported that "Hamas was far from enthusiastic about the inclusion of women in warfare, for
297:
There are a number of reasons as to why female suicide bombers are used by groups. Terrorists use bombers as they are cheaper than purchasing arms. They are considered a low risk weapon and require low technology. They do not require much training, do not leave much of a trace behind, have the
152:. She worked at a video store where she recorded her will, saying "I am very comfortable with carrying out this operation. I choose to do this because I am fulfilling my duty towards my land and my people...Now I am loving my country, sacrificing my life and respecting the people of the south."
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According to a 2021 study, female suicide attacks "are more deadly in countries where women are largely absent from the workforce, civil society, and protest organizations." However, "female attack lethality is declining with time, suggesting that security forces eventually adapt to women's
110:
reasons of modesty." This stance shifted in 2004, when the first female suicide bomber was used. Officials exclaimed that the act was a "significant evolution in our fight. The male fighters face many obstacles... women are like the reserve army―when there is a necessity, we use them." The
269:, East Java, Indonesia, a Muslim family, composed of three men (father Dita Oepriarto and sons Firman and Yusuf, aged 15 and 17) and three women (mother Puji Kuswati, Indonesia's first female suicide bomber, and daughters Famela and Fadhila, aged 8 and 12), died carrying out bombings at
65:
Women have an extensive and complex history in political violence. While the typical terrorist of the 1960s tended to be an educated male from an upper-middle-class background, many left-wing terrorist groups in the 1960s and 1970s had prominent women active within these groups.
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214:
was a
Belgian convert to Islam who died in a suicide car bomb attack on 9 November 2005 against a U.S. military convoy in Iraq. One soldier was wounded. She originally worked at a bakery and after marrying a Muslim man, she moved to Iraq and became
322:
In the literature on female suicide bombers, exploitation of women is a distinctive factor that separates them from male suicide bombers. Research has examined cases of women's exploitation by their own families, often for monetary compensation.
90:, a communist militant group that conducted hijackings and massacres. A number of Italian women were active in Italian terrorist organizations between 1970–1984. Females played fundamental roles in Puerto Rican nationalist movements such as the
208:, she served on the refugee camp's women's committee, helping prisoners' families and distributing food. When she delivered a stillborn and was told she would never be able to carry a baby to full-term, her husband divorced her.
128:
same age trend as males, typically falling within the early to mid 20s. They also tend to have more secular ties than presumed. Some are married while others are widows. Socioeconomic status also varies among female attackers.
148:(SSNP/PPS), a pro-Syrian Lebanese organization, is believed to have been the first female suicide bomber. On 9 April 1985, she blew up herself and a truck of explosives next to an Israeli convoy in Lebanon during the
106:, recruiting people into the organization. Women have been more active in left-wing groups as these groups' ideologies tend to be more conducive to women's participation in combatant and other non-traditional roles.
19:
132:
men and women's need for revenge (and subsequent use of suicide attacks) has been studied, with inconsistent findings reported. Some argue men are more vengeful than women, while others find no such claims.
262:
detonated her explosive during a police raid while holding her 7-year-old daughter in one hand and chanting: “We will go to heaven! We will go to heaven!” She was identified as
Jebunnahar Islam Shila.
901:
330:, it has been noted that Palestinian female suicide bombers are often motivated by anti-Zionism and the Israeli occupation of their homeland to take action. According to Palestinian legal scholar
543:
crossing point on the frontier of the Gaza Strip. Two
Israeli soldiers, a policeman and a civilian security worker were killed. Seven other Israelis and four Palestinians were injured.
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attracted thousands of women and their militarization shaped women's identity from the "traditional ideal of the auspicious, fecund wife to the androgynous Armed Virgin."
91:
178:, and the Black Tigers are known for suicide bombing attacks, mostly perpetrated by women. A female suicide bomber attempted to kill Sri Lanka's Army Commander
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casualties, the intensified crackdowns by government, and the ability to escape detection more easily than men." An example of this was in
January 2002 when
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Women can also be motivated by political/and or historical contexts to take action against their enemy. For example, in the context of the
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entirely
Palestinian state. The group is known to be most active in the Gaza Strip, but also attacks inside of Israel and the West Bank.
1945:
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539:– eighth suicide bomber (bombing date: January 15, 2004). Al-Reyashi, a 22-year-old mother of two, detonated an explosive pack at the
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in 2006. Fonseka survived, but seven others were killed in the attack. Sri Lanka's Fisheries Minister and former militant
823:
Mullins, Christopher W.; Wright, Richard; Jacobs, Bruce A. (2004-11-01). "Gender, Streetlife and Criminal Retaliation*".
1981:
1767:"The Brides of Allah: The Terror Threat of Black-Widow Suicide Bombers to the Winter Olympics. Web Retrieved 2017-14-04"
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1721:"Wolves in Sheep's Clothing: Assessing the Effect of Gender Norms on the Lethality of Female Suicide Terrorism"
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separatist suicide bombers. Khava Barayeva blew herself up at a Russian Army outpost on June 7, 2000. In 2001,
98:, two groups designated as terrorist organizations. Women served visible roles in American groups, such as the
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288:(BLA) claimed responsibility for the incident, claiming her as the organisation's first female suicide bomber.
489:, some criticized the cruelty of tearing mothers from their children and sending them to explode themselves.
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in a suicide bombing, the first female suicide bombing of the Chechen insurgency. The group carried out the
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Amireh, Amal. "Palestinian Women's Disappearing Act: The Suicide Bomber Through Western Feminist Eyes" in
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Ness, Cindy D. (2005-09-01). "In the Name of the Cause: Women's Work in Secular and Religious Terrorism".
285:
222:
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Salem, Edmar (2015-09-02). "Attitudes towards female suicide bombers in Palestine and Tamil Sri Lanka".
166:, the ex-Prime minister of India, and sixteen other bystanders in 1991. She allegedly had been raped by
1941:. Syracuse, N.Y.: Syracuse University Press, 2011. eBook Collection (EBSCOhost). Web. November 18, 2015
1667:. Syracuse, N.Y.: Syracuse University Press, 2011. eBook Collection (EBSCOhost). Web. November 18, 2015
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Erakat, Noura. "Arabiya Made Invisible: Between Marginalization of Agency and Silencing of Dissent" in
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On 14 February 2011, a female suicide bomber killed a Russian serviceman and wounded four others at a
1680:. Syracuse, NY: Syracuse University Press, 2011. eBook Collection (EBSCOhost). Web. November 18, 2015
923:"Becoming Militant: Narrative of (Dis?) embodiment in Visakesa Chandrasekaram's Tigers Don't Confess"
597:
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45:(which is the first group to use females in a majority of their suicide bombings and surpassed the
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Blasts from two female suicide bombers at a crowded fish market in Nigeria's northeastern city of
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police station in Gubden, a village around 150 km (100 miles) south of the provincial capital of
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1989:
1787:"Women - 'human bombs': They make the death and girls aged 10 years. web Retrieved 2017-14-04"
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was the target of a female suicide bomber in 2007. She detonated the bomb during a body check.
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is considered to be the first women to hijack an airplane, drawing international attention.
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was thought to be carried out by a woman who was identified as a Beslan school captor. The
226:
204:. Wafa was born in a refugee camp, and her father died in when she was a child. During the
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were women; Dzhanet Abdullayeva, who was married to a militant, and Maryam Sharipova. The
8:
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158:(born Kalaivani Rajaratnam; soubriquet: "Dhanu") is thought to have been a member of the
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621:"'I Had to Be the Voice of Women': The First Female Hijacker Shares Her Story | Broadly"
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1296:"Indonesia's first female suicide bomber a mum of 4, SE Asia News & Top Stories"
1272:"Indonesia church bombings: police say one family and their children behind attacks"
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987:"Sri Lanka: At least 17 dead, over 43 injured in two blasts in Colombo - Sri Lanka"
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280:, a 30-year old science teacher and mother of two, detonated her explosives in the
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1372:
Nolen, Elizabeth (Spring 2016). "Female Suicide Bombers: Coerced or Committed?".
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Davis, Jessica. "Evolution of The Global Jihad: Female Suicide Bombers in Iraq."
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are believed to be carried out by female bombers. Two of the perpetrators of the
211:
49:
in using more female suicide-bombers than any other terrorist group in history),
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CUNNINGHAM, KARLA J. (2003-05-01). "Cross-Regional Trends in Female Terrorism".
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A U.S. Navy servicewoman poses as a captured female suicide bomber during the
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1982:"The Motivations of Female Suicide Bombers from a Communication Perspective"
766:"Women of War: The Female Fighters of the Liberation Tigers of Tamil Eelam"
647:
Weinberg, Leonard; Eubank, William Lee (1987). "Italian women terrorists".
536:
331:
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in Pakistan, killing three Chinese teachers. The separatist militant group
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soldiers and her four brothers were killed. Sri Lanka's political group,
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From freedom fighters to terrorists : women and political violence
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Arab & Arab American Feminisms: Gender, Violence, & Belonging
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2018:"Watch "Female Suicide Bombers" Full Documentary Online - Snagfilms"
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Army of Roses: Inside the World of Palestinian Women Suicide Bombers
955:"Suicide attack on Sri Lanka's top military commander leaves 8 dead"
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1321:"Female graduate student behind Pakistan university attack: Report"
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1991:
From Freedom Fighters to Terrorists: Women and Political Violence
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were identified as Dzhennet Abdurakhmanova and Mariam Sharipova.
74:
and participated in a range of bombings and bank robberies. The
70:, a German left-wing terrorist and journalist, co-founded the
1803:
Rationality, Democracy, and Justice: The Legacy of Jon Elster
1248:, thejakartapost.com. May 13, 2018. Accessed January 3, 2024.
485:
480:
24:
1109:"Raised as Catholic in Belgium, She died as a Muslim Bomber"
122:
1488:"Women and Jihad: The motivation of female suicide bombers"
540:
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1844:"Human-bomb mother kills four Israelis at Gaza checkpoint"
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Behavioral Sciences of Terrorism and Political Aggression
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Bloom, Mia (2011-06-01). "Bombshells: Women and Terror".
1189:"Nigeria violence: Bomb at fish market kills at least 20"
505:– second suicide bomber (bombing date: February 27, 2002)
1156:. Sify.com (21 August 2010). Retrieved 27 January 2011.
1056:
Israelis Declare Arab Woman Was in Fact a Suicide Bomber
258:
On 23 December 2016, the first female suicide bomber in
1879:
The smarter bomb: women and children as suicide bombers
499:– first suicide bomber (bombing date: January 27, 2002)
1829:, haaretz.com, May 21, 2003. Accessed January 4, 2023.
1800:
LĂłpez-Guerra, Claudio; Maskivker, Julia (2015-02-05).
533:– sixth suicide bomber (bombing date: October 4, 2003)
521:– fourth suicide bomber (bombing date: April 12, 2002)
1946:"'Female' suicide bomber strikes Cameroon night spot"
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1345:"Pakistan attack: Chinese killed in blast in Karachi"
527:- fifth suicide bomber (bombing date: May 19, 2003)
492:
Notable female Palestinian suicide bombers include:
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1260:, cnn.com. May 13, 2018. Accessed January 3, 2024.
1167:"Suicide bomber kills Russian officer in Dagestan"
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798:. New York: Random House Trade Paperback. p.
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92:Puerto Rican Armed Forces of National Liberation
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902:"Revealed: world's deadliest female terrorists"
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144:, a 16-year-old Eastern Orthodox member of the
1933:Naber, Nadine Christine, Evelyn Alsutany, and
1691:"Messengers of Death - Female Suicide Bombers"
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1893:Women Suicide Bombers: Narratives of Violence
1394:Wood, Reed M; Thomas, Jakana L (2017-01-24).
1246:Surabaya church bombings: what we know so far
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273:, killing 12 people and injuring at least 40.
102:. Women also served as mobilizing agents for
76:Popular Front for the Liberation of Palestine
1954:"5 female suicide bombers strike in Nigeria"
1504:
578:"Why Boko Haram uses female suicide-bombers"
1141:"SUICIDE BOMBER KILLS 9 SOLDIERS IN TURKEY"
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192:detonated a 22-pound bomb in the center of
1599:
1393:
1210:"Bangladesh's new generation of militants"
1154:Militant behind Moscow metro blasts killed
682:. San Francisco, CA: City Lights. p.
404:and a number of them were involved in the
255:killed at least 20 people on 22 June 2015.
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225:(PKK) and known for having committed its
123:Characteristics of female suicide bombers
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360:Organizations of female suicide bombers
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408:. A bombing that killed 10 people at
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271:three Catholic and Christian churches
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1909:. Jefferson, N.C.: McFarland, 2006.
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1015:Woman suicide bomber shakes Israelis
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162:(Tamil Tigers), was involved in the
1645:"Deadly secret of the black widows"
1602:Studies in Conflict & Terrorism
1516:Studies in Conflict & Terrorism
1034:"Female bomber's mother speaks out"
649:Studies in Conflict & Terrorism
564:Studies in Conflict & Terrorism
150:Israeli occupation of South Lebanon
13:
1877:Berko, Anat, and Elizabeth Yuval.
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410:Rizhskaya metro station in Moscow
1064:, 9 February 2002 (req. subscr.)
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172:Liberation Tigers of Tamil Ealam
160:Liberation Tigers of Tamil Eelam
112:Liberation Tigers of Tamil Eelam
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1571:10.1080/19434472.2015.1009482
1234:Indonesia: Surabaya terrorism
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471:committed a suicide bombing,
402:Moscow theater hostage crisis
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350:
164:assassination of Rajiv Gandhi
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1988:Eager, Paige Whaley (2016).
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1074:Eager, Paige Whaley (2016).
743:Zedalis, Debra (June 2004).
707:Hahn Rafter, Nicole (2000).
513:bombing date: March 29, 2002
424:was carried out by a woman.
328:Israeli–Palestinian conflict
221:was a Kurdish member of the
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100:Symbionese Liberation Army
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196:outside a shoe store on
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1374:Global Security Studies
396:killed Russian general
202:Al Aqsa Martyrs Brigade
55:Al Aqsa Martyrs Brigade
2050:Female suicide bombers
1907:Female Suicide Bombers
1191:. BBC News. 2015-06-22
314:Individual motivations
35:Female suicide bombers
31:
282:University of Karachi
22:
1958:The Long War Journal
1891:Rajan, V. G. Julie.
227:1996 Tunceli bombing
174:(LTTE) includes the
156:Thenmozhi Rajaratnam
86:founded and led the
29:Pearl Harbor, Hawaii
1905:Skaine, Rosemarie.
1789:. 24 November 2015.
1643:Vinogradova, Luba.
473:Sheikh Ahmed Yassin
428:Palestinian bombers
406:Beslan school siege
304:Sheikh Ahmed Yassin
104:Weather Underground
1923:. : Rodale, 2003.
1492:The Jerusalem Post
1113:The New York Times
1061:The New York Times
993:. 28 November 2007
959:The New York Times
447:. You can help by
293:Causes and reasons
276:On 26 April 2022,
116:Rajini Thiranagama
32:
1968:(6 August 2014).
1919:Victor, Barbara.
1813:978-1-316-12373-7
1325:www.aljazeera.com
1300:The Straits Times
1036:. BBC. 2002-01-30
1023:, 28 January 2002
465:
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184:Douglas Devananda
88:Japanese Red Army
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503:Darine Abu Aisha
469:Darine Abu Aisha
467:On the same day
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84:Fusako Shigenobu
72:Red Army Faction
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2055:Suicide bombers
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385:are a group of
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142:Sana’a Mehaidli
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2026:the original
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1848:The Guardian
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1699:the original
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1351:. 2022-04-26
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1302:. 2018-05-13
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1276:The Guardian
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937:. Retrieved
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881:. Retrieved
879:. Al Jazeera
870:
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794:Dying to Win
793:
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525:Hiba Da'arma
491:
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449:adding to it
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332:Noura Erakat
325:
321:
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278:Shari Baloch
265:In 2018, in
215:radicalized.
176:Black Tigers
130:
126:
108:
80:Leila Khaled
64:
47:Tamil Tigers
34:
33:
27:exercise in
2016:Snagfilms.
825:Criminology
246:Makhachkala
2044:Categories
2032:2015-12-08
1929:157954830X
1915:0786426152
1861:2016-09-06
1705:2017-05-08
1650:2017-05-08
1497:2017-05-12
1355:2022-04-26
1330:2022-04-27
1306:2018-05-14
1281:2018-05-14
1195:2016-09-06
1126:2021-12-24
997:2022-02-28
972:2022-02-28
907:2016-09-06
883:2017-05-17
630:2017-05-08
606:2018-05-14
548:References
497:Wafa Idris
351:Deadliness
260:Bangladesh
198:Jaffa Road
190:Wafa Idris
61:Background
53:, and the
43:Boko Haram
2022:Snagfilms
1984:Proquest.
1966:Mia Bloom
1856:0261-3077
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1745:0020-8183
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1219:30 August
1173:30 August
1121:0362-4331
1094:950471809
991:ReliefWeb
967:0362-4331
930:Outskirts
845:1745-9125
253:Maiduguri
194:Jerusalem
78:(PFLP)'s
1772:HuffPost
1349:BBC News
1040:15 March
477:Islamist
387:Islamist
379:Shahidka
373:Chechnya
267:Surabaya
242:Dagestan
136:Examples
625:Broadly
390:Chechen
346:Effects
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1419:S2CID
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486:Jihad
481:Hamas
25:OPFOR
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1080:ISBN
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