1343:, which can lead to early failure of the structure. The most typical attack of this type is on concrete slabs and foundation walls at grades where the sulfate ion, via alternate wetting and drying, can increase in concentration. As the concentration increases, the attack on the Portland cement can begin. For buried structures such as pipe, this type of attack is much rarer, especially in the eastern United States. The sulfate ion concentration increases much slower in the soil mass and is especially dependent upon the initial amount of sulfates in the native soil. A chemical analysis of soil borings to check for the presence of sulfates should be undertaken during the design phase of any project involving concrete in contact with the native soil. If the concentrations are found to be aggressive, various protective coatings can be applied. Also, in the US ASTM C150 Type 5 Portland cement can be used in the mix. This type of cement is designed to be particularly resistant to a sulfate attack.
1007:
994:
816:
1387:) or cellulose polymer fiber is less expensive than hand-tied rebar. The shape, dimension, and length of the fiber are important. A thin and short fiber, for example short, hair-shaped glass fiber, is only effective during the first hours after pouring the concrete (its function is to reduce cracking while the concrete is stiffening), but it will not increase the concrete tensile strength. A normal-size fiber for European shotcrete (1 mm diameter, 45 mm length—steel or plastic) will increase the concrete's tensile strength. Fiber reinforcement is most often used to supplement or partially replace primary rebar, and in some cases it can be designed to fully replace rebar.
268:, a 19th-century French gardener, was a pioneer in the development of structural, prefabricated and reinforced concrete, having been dissatisfied with the existing materials available for making durable flowerpots. He was granted a patent for reinforcing concrete flowerpots by means of mixing a wire mesh and a mortar shell. In 1877, Monier was granted another patent for a more advanced technique of reinforcing concrete columns and girders, using iron rods placed in a grid pattern. Though Monier undoubtedly knew that reinforcing concrete would improve its inner cohesion, it is not clear whether he even knew how much the
664:
steel. The direct stress is transferred from the concrete to the bar interface so as to change the tensile stress in the reinforcing bar along its length. This load transfer is achieved by means of bond (anchorage) and is idealized as a continuous stress field that develops in the vicinity of the steel-concrete interface. The reasons that the two different material components concrete and steel can work together are as follows: (1) Reinforcement can be well bonded to the concrete, thus they can jointly resist external loads and deform. (2) The thermal expansion coefficients of concrete and steel are so close (
1093:
285:, an English-born engineer, was an early innovator of reinforced concrete techniques at the end of the 19th century. Using the knowledge of reinforced concrete developed during the previous 50 years, Ransome improved nearly all the styles and techniques of the earlier inventors of reinforced concrete. Ransome's key innovation was to twist the reinforcing steel bar, thereby improving its bond with the concrete. Gaining increasing fame from his concrete constructed buildings, Ransome was able to build two of the first reinforced concrete bridges in North America. One of his
941:
698:
length of the bar beyond the point where the steel is required to develop its yield stress and this length must be at least equal to its development length. However, if the actual available length is inadequate for full development, special anchorages must be provided, such as cogs or hooks or mechanical end plates. The same concept applies to lap splice length mentioned in the codes where splices (overlapping) provided between two adjacent bars in order to maintain the required continuity of stress in the splice zone.
42:
210:
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to ensure that crack widths in steel-reinforced concrete are controlled to prevent water, air or other aggressive substances reaching the steel and causing corrosion. For FRP-reinforced concrete, aesthetics and possibly water-tightness will be the limiting criteria for crack width control. FRP rods also have relatively lower compressive strengths than steel rebar, and accordingly require different design approaches for
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807:
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hardened, the tension on the reinforcing steel is released, placing a built-in compressive force on the concrete. When loads are applied, the reinforcing steel takes on more stress and the compressive force in the concrete is reduced, but does not become a tensile force. Since the concrete is always under compression, it is less subject to cracking and failure.
718:
Epoxy-coated rebar can easily be identified by the light green color of its epoxy coating. Hot dip galvanized rebar may be bright or dull gray depending on length of exposure, and stainless rebar exhibits a typical white metallic sheen that is readily distinguishable from carbon steel reinforcing bar. Reference ASTM standard specifications
1449:, glass, carbon, aramid or other polymers or high-strength fibers set in a resin matrix to form a rebar rod, or grid, or fiber. These rebars are installed in much the same manner as steel rebars. The cost is higher but, suitably applied, the structures have advantages, in particular a dramatic reduction in problems related to
262:, in which he reported his experiments on the behaviour of reinforced concrete. His work played a major role in the evolution of concrete construction as a proven and studied science. Without Hyatt's work, more dangerous trial and error methods might have been depended on for the advancement in the technology.
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while the concrete does not reach its ultimate failure condition. As the tension steel yields and stretches, an "under-reinforced" concrete also yields in a ductile manner, exhibiting a large deformation and warning before its ultimate failure. In this case the yield stress of the steel governs the design.
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Prestressing concrete is a technique that greatly increases the load-bearing strength of concrete beams. The reinforcing steel in the bottom part of the beam, which will be subjected to tensile forces when in service, is placed in tension before the concrete is poured around it. Once the concrete has
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beam is one in which the tension capacity of the tensile reinforcement is smaller than the combined compression capacity of the concrete and the compression steel (under-reinforced at tensile face). When the reinforced concrete element is subject to increasing bending moment, the tension steel yields
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There is growing interest in applying external reinforcement to existing structures using advanced materials such as composite (fiberglass, basalt, carbon) rebar, which can impart exceptional strength. Worldwide, there are a number of brands of composite rebar recognized by different countries, such
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comparable to the plastic deformability (ductility) of steel reinforced structures. Failure in either case is more likely to occur by compression of the concrete than by rupture of the reinforcement. Deflection is always a major design consideration for reinforced concrete. Deflection limits are set
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Reinforced concrete structures are normally designed according to rules and regulations or recommendation of a code such as ACI-318, CEB, Eurocode 2 or the like. WSD, USD or LRFD methods are used in design of RC structural members. Analysis and design of RC members can be carried out by using linear
697:
Because the actual bond stress varies along the length of a bar anchored in a zone of tension, current international codes of specifications use the concept of development length rather than bond stress. The main requirement for safety against bond failure is to provide a sufficient extension of the
332:
In 1906, a partial collapse of the Bixby Hotel in Long Beach killed 10 workers during construction when shoring was removed prematurely. That event spurred a scrutiny of concrete erection practices and building inspections. The structure was constructed of reinforced concrete frames with hollow clay
245:
In 1854, English builder
William B. Wilkinson reinforced the concrete roof and floors in the two-story house he was constructing. His positioning of the reinforcement demonstrated that, unlike his predecessors, he had knowledge of tensile stresses. Between 1869 and 1870, Henry Eton would design, and
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and in various applications of polymer fibers incorporated into concrete. Although currently there is not much suggestion that such materials will replace metal rebar, some of them have major advantages in specific applications, and there also are new applications in which metal rebar simply is not
969:
Cracking of the concrete section is nearly impossible to prevent; however, the size and location of cracks can be limited and controlled by appropriate reinforcement, control joints, curing methodology and concrete mix design. Cracking can allow moisture to penetrate and corrode the reinforcement.
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beam is the section in which besides the tensile reinforcement the concrete element is also reinforced near the compressive face to help the concrete resist compression and take stresses. The latter reinforcement is called compression steel. When the compression zone of a concrete is inadequate to
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The reinforcement in a RC structure, such as a steel bar, has to undergo the same strain or deformation as the surrounding concrete in order to prevent discontinuity, slip or separation of the two materials under load. Maintaining composite action requires transfer of load between the concrete and
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Steel is the strongest commonly available fiber, and comes in different lengths (30 to 80 mm in Europe) and shapes (end-hooks). Steel fibers can only be used on surfaces that can tolerate or avoid corrosion and rust stains. In some cases, a steel-fiber surface is faced with other materials.
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beam is one in which both the compressive and tensile zones reach yielding at the same imposed load on the beam, and the concrete will crush and the tensile steel will yield at the same time. This design criterion is however as risky as over-reinforced concrete, because failure is sudden as the
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stirrups formed by bending before hardening generally perform relatively poorly in comparison to steel stirrups or to structures with straight fibers. When strained, the zone between the straight and curved regions are subject to strong bending, shear, and longitudinal stresses. Special design
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beam is one in which the tension capacity of the tension steel is greater than the combined compression capacity of the concrete and the compression steel (over-reinforced at tensile face). So the "over-reinforced concrete" beam fails by crushing of the compressive-zone concrete and before the
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In steel plate construction, stringers join parallel steel plates. The plate assemblies are fabricated off site, and welded together on-site to form steel walls connected by stringers. The walls become the form into which concrete is poured. Steel plate construction speeds reinforced concrete
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There is considerable overlap between the subjects of non-steel reinforcement and fiber-reinforcement of concrete. The introduction of non-steel reinforcement of concrete is relatively recent; it takes two major forms: non-metallic rebar rods, and non-steel (usually also non-metallic) fibers
717:
Uncoated, low carbon/chromium rebar looks similar to standard carbon steel rebar due to its lack of a coating; its highly corrosion-resistant features are inherent in the steel microstructure. It can be identified by the unique ASTM specified mill marking on its smooth, dark charcoal finish.
447:
Designing and implementing the most efficient floor system is key to creating optimal building structures. Small changes in the design of a floor system can have significant impact on material costs, construction schedule, ultimate strength, operating costs, occupancy levels and end use of a
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of the concrete structure is more important than its initial costs, non-steel reinforcing often has its advantages where corrosion of reinforcing steel is a major cause of failure. In such situations corrosion-proof reinforcing can extend a structure's life substantially, for example in the
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to form microscopic opaque crystal lattices encapsulating and locking the aggregate into a rigid shape. The aggregates used for making concrete should be free from harmful substances like organic impurities, silt, clay, lignite, etc. Typical concrete mixes have high resistance to
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One drawback to the use of FRP reinforcement is their limited fire resistance. Where fire safety is a consideration, structures employing FRP have to maintain their strength and the anchoring of the forces at temperatures to be expected in the event of fire. For purposes of
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to be used as an admixture to promote rapid set-up of the concrete. It was also mistakenly believed that it would prevent freezing. However, this practice fell into disfavor once the deleterious effects of chlorides became known. It should be avoided whenever possible.
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Concrete wall cracking as steel reinforcing corrodes and swells. Rust has a lower density than metal, so it expands as it forms, cracking the decorative cladding off the wall as well as damaging the structural concrete. The breakage of material from a surface is called
1376:, but can also be used in normal concrete. Fiber-reinforced normal concrete is mostly used for on-ground floors and pavements, but can also be considered for a wide range of construction parts (beams, pillars, foundations, etc.), either alone or with hand-tied rebars.
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Reinforced concrete can fail due to inadequate strength, leading to mechanical failure, or due to a reduction in its durability. Corrosion and freeze/thaw cycles may damage poorly designed or constructed reinforced concrete. When rebar corrodes, the oxidation products
1081:) and generalized corrosion of steel reinforcements. For this reason, one should only use fresh raw water or potable water for mixing concrete, ensure that the coarse and fine aggregates do not contain chlorides, rather than admixtures which might contain chlorides.
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without any damage, which helped build her reputation and launch her prolific career. The 1906 earthquake also changed the public's initial resistance to reinforced concrete as a building material, which had been criticized for its perceived dullness. In 1908, the
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has mitigated this problem to some extent. Also FRP (fiber-reinforced polymer) rebars are known to be less susceptible to chlorides. Properly designed concrete mixtures that have been allowed to cure properly are effectively impervious to the effects of de-icers.
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When the cement paste within the concrete hardens, this conforms to the surface details of the steel, permitting any stress to be transmitted efficiently between the different materials. Usually steel bars are roughened or corrugated to further improve the
150:
or alternate composite material in conjunction with rebar or not. Reinforced concrete may also be permanently stressed (concrete in compression, reinforcement in tension), so as to improve the behavior of the final structure under working loads. In the
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to make precast concrete objects. However, it can lose strength with heat or time (conversion), especially when not properly cured. After the collapse of three roofs made of prestressed concrete beams using high alumina cement, this cement was
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or non-linear approaches. When applying safety factors, building codes normally propose linear approaches, but for some cases non-linear approaches. To see the examples of a non-linear numerical simulation and calculation visit the references:
333:
tile ribbed flooring and hollow clay tile infill walls. That practice was strongly questioned by experts and recommendations for "pure" concrete construction were made, using reinforced concrete for the floors and walls as well as the frames.
628:
As a rule of thumb, only to give an idea on orders of magnitude, steel is protected at pH above ~11 but starts to corrode below ~10 depending on steel characteristics and local physico-chemical conditions when concrete becomes carbonated.
978:. Cracking is normally the result of an inadequate quantity of rebar, or rebar spaced at too great a distance. The concrete cracks either under excess loading, or due to internal effects such as early thermal shrinkage while it cures.
1287:. The conditions required for alkali silica reaction are threefold: (1) aggregate containing an alkali-reactive constituent (amorphous silica), (2) sufficient availability of hydroxyl ions (OH), and (3) sufficient moisture, above 75%
549:, is placed in concrete, then the composite material, reinforced concrete, resists not only compression but also bending and other direct tensile actions. A composite section where the concrete resists compression and reinforcement "
1976:
An
Account of Some Experiments with Portland-cement-concrete Combined with Iron: As a Building Material, with Reference to Economy of Metal in Construction, and for Security Against Fire in the Making of Roofs, Floors, and Walking
810:
Two intersecting beams integral to parking garage slab that will contain both reinforcing steel and the wiring, junction boxes and other electrical components necessary to install the overhead lighting for the garage level beneath
233:
in the suburbs of Paris. Coignet's descriptions of reinforcing concrete suggests that he did not do it for means of adding strength to the concrete but for keeping walls in monolithic construction from overturning. The, 1872–1873,
259:
An
Account of Some Experiments with Portland-Cement-Concrete Combined with Iron as a Building Material, with Reference to Economy of Metal in Construction and for Security against Fire in the Making of Roofs, Floors, and Walking
2661:
303:, made the first commercial use of reinforced concrete. Up until the 1890s, Wayss and his firm greatly contributed to the advancement of Monier's system of reinforcing, established it as a well-developed scientific technology.
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an option. However, the design and application of non-steel reinforcing is fraught with challenges. For one thing, concrete is a highly alkaline environment, in which many materials, including most kinds of glass, have a poor
1195:, to be used as a floor-topping material. This was done principally as a levelling and sound attenuating layer. However it is now known that when these materials come into contact with moisture they produce a weak solution of
1358:
construction by cutting out the time-consuming on-site manual steps of tying rebar and building forms. The method results in excellent strength because the steel is on the outside, where tensile forces are often greatest.
2313:
2786:
542:) will break the microscopic rigid lattice, resulting in cracking and separation of the concrete. For this reason, typical non-reinforced concrete must be well supported to prevent the development of tension.
688:
for steel) that the thermal stress-induced damage to the bond between the two components can be prevented. (3) Concrete can protect the embedded steel from corrosion and high-temperature induced softening.
842:, resulting in a small curvature. At the outer face (tensile face) of the curvature the concrete experiences tensile stress, while at the inner face (compressive face) it experiences compressive stress.
2336:
774:, can also be added to the water mix before pouring concrete. Generally, 1–2 wt. % of with respect to cement weight is needed to prevent corrosion of the rebars. The nitrite anion is a mild
1100:, Hainesburg, New Jersey, is 115 feet (35 m) tall and 1,100 feet (335 m) long, and was heralded as the largest reinforced concrete structure in the world when it was completed in 1910 as part of the
340:, an American architect and engineer, who pioneered the aesthetic use of reinforced concrete, completed her first reinforced concrete structure, El Campanil, a 72-foot (22 m) bell tower at
229:
François
Coignet used iron-reinforced concrete as a technique for constructing building structures. In 1853, Coignet built the first iron reinforced concrete structure, a four-story house at 72
3162:. C. L. Page, P. B. Bamforth, J. W. Figg, International Symposium on Corrosion of Reinforcement in Concrete Construction. Cambridge: Royal Society of Chemistry, Information Services. 1996.
652:
are normally round in cross-section and vary in diameter. Reinforced concrete structures sometimes have provisions such as ventilated hollow cores to control their moisture & humidity.
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when in contact with alkaline concrete, making it possible to see the depth of carbonation. Using an existing hole does not suffice because the exposed surface will already be carbonated.
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as Aslan, DACOT, V-rod, and ComBar. The number of projects using composite rebar increases day by day around the world, in countries ranging from USA, Russia, and South Korea to
Germany.
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of FRP or GRP bars differ markedly from steel, so there are differences in the design considerations. FRP or GRP bars have relatively higher tensile strength but lower stiffness, so that
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1667:
1512:
as thick as steel reinforcement does (typically 30 to 50 mm or more). FRP-reinforced structures therefore can be lighter and last longer. Accordingly, for some applications the
1845:
1453:, either by intrinsic concrete alkalinity or by external corrosive fluids that might penetrate the concrete. These structures can be significantly lighter and usually have a longer
884:
Steel-reinforced concrete moment-carrying elements should normally be designed to be under-reinforced so that users of the structure will receive warning of impending collapse.
1776:
1047:. However, carbonated concrete incurs a durability problem only when there is also sufficient moisture and oxygen to cause electropotential corrosion of the reinforcing steel.
1544:, an adequate thickness of cement concrete cover or protective cladding is necessary. The addition of 1 kg/m of polypropylene fibers to concrete has been shown to reduce
1402:, has become available in the U.S. and Western Europe. Basalt fiber is stronger and less expensive than glass, but historically has not resisted the alkaline environment of
299:
was a German civil engineer and a pioneer of the iron and steel concrete construction. In 1879, Wayss bought the German rights to Monier's patents and, in 1884, his firm,
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961:) expand and tends to flake, cracking the concrete and unbonding the rebar from the concrete. Typical mechanisms leading to durability problems are discussed below.
111:
are compensated for by the inclusion of reinforcement having higher tensile strength or ductility. The reinforcement is usually, though not necessarily, steel bars (
1548:
during a simulated fire. (The improvement is thought to be due to the formation of pathways out of the bulk of the concrete, allowing steam pressure to dissipate.)
616:(CSH) of the hardened cement paste become progressively carbonated and the high pH gradually decreases from 13.5 – 12.5 to 8.5, the pH of water in equilibrium with
1124:
of water, is probably one of the primary causes of premature failure of reinforced or prestressed concrete bridge decks, roadways, and parking garages. The use of
849:
beam is one in which the concrete element is only reinforced near the tensile face and the reinforcement, called tension steel, is designed to resist the tension.
2722:. George Weidmann, P. R. Lewis, Nick Reid, Open University. Materials Department. Milton Keynes, U.K.: Materials Dept., Open University. 1990. pp. 372–373.
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Distribution of concrete (in spite of reinforcement) strength characteristics along the cross-section of vertical reinforced concrete elements is inhomogeneous.
239:
235:
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1413:-reinforced plastic fibers, which are nearly as strong as steel, lighter in weight, and corrosion-proof. Some experiments have had promising early results with
1335:) in the soil or in groundwater, in sufficient concentration, can react with the Portland cement in concrete causing the formation of expansive products, e.g.,
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are replaced, and bathroom floors in multi-story construction where the service life of the floor structure is likely to be many times the service life of the
1184:
of the concrete. Chloride ions, which make up about 50% of these ions, are particularly aggressive as a cause of corrosion of carbon steel reinforcement bars.
1010:
Detailed view of spalling probably caused by a too thin layer of concrete between the steel and the surface, accompanied by corrosion from external exposure.
3120:. George Weidmann, P. R. Lewis, Nick Reid, Open University. Materials Department. Milton Keynes, U.K.: Materials Dept., Open University. 1990. p. 357.
2496:. George Weidmann, P. R. Lewis, Nick Reid, Open University. Materials Department. Milton Keynes, U.K.: Materials Dept., Open University. 1990. p. 357.
1720:. George Weidmann, P. R. Lewis, Nick Reid, Open University. Materials Department. Milton Keynes, U.K.: Materials Dept., Open University. 1990. p. 360.
710:
salt may benefit from use of corrosion-resistant reinforcement such as uncoated, low carbon/chromium (micro composite), epoxy-coated, hot dip galvanized or
2593:"Effect of zinc phosphate chemical conversion coating on corrosion behavior of mild steel in alkaline medium: protection of rebars in reinforced concrete"
2263:
514:
Concrete is a mixture of coarse (stone or brick chips) and fine (generally sand and/or crushed stone) aggregates with a paste of binder material (usually
1485:. FRP rods may also be useful in situations where it is likely that the concrete structure may be compromised in future years, for example the edges of
985:
or failure of the rebar when bending or shear stresses exceed the strength of the reinforcement, or by bond failure between the concrete and the rebar.
2983:
1435:. Also, the behavior of such reinforcing materials differs from the behavior of metals, for instance in terms of shear strength, creep and elasticity.
325:, constructed in 1905. In 1906, 16 building permits were reportedly issued for reinforced concrete buildings in the City of Los Angeles, including the
2542:
1801:
Condit, Carl W. (January 1968). "The First
Reinforced-Concrete Skyscraper: The Ingalls Building in Cincinnati and Its Place in Structural History".
119:
is also employed as a technique to reinforce the concrete. In terms of volume used annually, it is one of the most common engineering materials. In
3778:
2448:. Charles Newey, Graham Weaver, Open University. Materials Department. Milton Keynes, England: Materials Dept., Open University. 1990. p. 61.
1307:
Resistant to weak acids and especially sulfates, this cement cures quickly and has very high durability and strength. It was frequently used after
1920:
459:
When reinforced concrete elements are used in construction, these reinforced concrete elements exhibit basic behavior when subjected to external
857:
resist the compressive moment (positive moment), extra reinforcement has to be provided if the architect limits the dimensions of the section.
608:
than it would be in neutral or acidic conditions. When the cement paste is exposed to the air and meteoric water reacts with the atmospheric CO
1043:. If the reinforcement is too close to the surface, early failure due to corrosion may occur. The concrete cover depth can be measured with a
648:
of steel required for typical reinforced concrete is usually quite small and varies from 1% for most beams and slabs to 6% for some columns.
2957:
2919:
1659:
981:
Ultimate failure leading to collapse can be caused by crushing the concrete, which occurs when compressive stresses exceed its strength, by
3051:
1852:
2681:"Energy based structural damage index based on nonlinear numerical simulation of structures subjected to oriented lateral cyclic loading"
2237:
2171:
902:
is the strength of a material, including a material-safety factor. The value of the safety factor generally ranges from 0.75 to 0.85 in
3869:
3799:
3078:. Charles Newey, Graham Weaver, Open University. Materials Department. Milton Keynes, England: Materials Dept., Open University. 1990.
2206:
1457:. The cost of these materials has dropped dramatically since their widespread adoption in the aerospace industry and by the military.
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are likely to be higher than for equivalent steel-reinforced units. Structures with internal FRP reinforcement typically have an
881:
concrete crushes at the same time of the tensile steel yields, which gives a very little warning of distress in tension failure.
706:
In wet and cold climates, reinforced concrete for roads, bridges, parking structures and other structures that may be exposed to
289:
still stands on
Shelter Island in New Yorks East End, One of the first concrete buildings constructed in the United States was a
197:
Thermal compatibility, not causing unacceptable stresses (such as expansion or contraction) in response to changing temperatures.
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well enough to be used as direct reinforcement. New materials use plastic binders to isolate the basalt fiber from the cement.
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3025:
2126:
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1006:
409:
Many different types of structures and components of structures can be built using reinforced concrete elements including
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913:
is the theoretical failure point with a certain probability. It is stated under factored loads and factored resistances.
2905:
BS EN 1169:1999 Precast concrete products. General rules for factory production control of glass-fiber reinforced cement
1320:
in 1976. Subsequent inquiries into the matter showed that the beams were improperly manufactured, but the ban remained.
1039:
for the rebar (the depth of the rebar within the object). The minimum concrete cover is normally regulated by design or
756:
Penetrating sealants typically must be applied some time after curing. Sealants include paint, plastic foams, films and
1951:
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A heavy, reinforced concrete column, seen before and after the concrete has been cast in place around its rebar frame
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In particular, FRP rods are useful for structures where the presence of steel would not be acceptable. For example,
250:
bridge, with a 50' (15.25 meter) span, over the river
Waveney, between the English counties of Norfolk and Suffolk.
3526:
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due to the presence of chlorides in the magnesite. Over a period of time (typically decades), the solution causes
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statue in Rio de
Janeiro, Brazil. It is made of reinforced concrete clad in a mosaic of thousands of triangular
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2000:
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tension zone steel yields, which does not provide any warning before failure as the failure is instantaneous.
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and/or structural failure. Modern reinforced concrete can contain varied reinforcing materials made of steel,
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349:
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rebar. Good design and a well-chosen concrete mix will provide additional protection for many applications.
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722:
Standard
Specification for Deformed and Plain Low-carbon, Chromium, Steel Bars for Concrete Reinforcement,
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Standard Specifications for Portland Cement of the American Society for Testing Materials, Standard No. 1
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279:, and having been reintroduced in the early 19th century, was not yet a proven scientific technology.
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1295:". This reaction occurs independently of the presence of rebars; massive concrete structures such as
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67:
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Without reinforcement, constructing modern structures with concrete material would not be possible.
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of concrete is similar to that of steel, eliminating large internal stresses due to differences in
782:(Fe) present at the surface of the corroding steel and causes them to precipitate as an insoluble
200:
Durability in the concrete environment, irrespective of corrosion or sustained stress for example.
3536:
2941:
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601:
318:
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1255:) dissolves and dissociates at high pH (12.5 - 13.5) in alkaline water. The soluble dissociated
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if present in sufficiently high concentration. Chloride anions induce both localized corrosion (
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Austin, J. C.; Neher, O. H.; Hicks, L. A.; Whittlesey, C. F.; Leonard, J. B. (November 1906).
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Annual Report of the City Auditor, City of Los Angeles, California for the Year Ending June 30
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terms, when designed correctly, the alkalinity of the concrete protects the steel rebar from
120:
2893:
Fiber Concrete in Construction, Wietek B., Springer 2021, pages 268; ISBN 978-3-658-34480-1
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Glass fiber is inexpensive and corrosion-proof, but not as ductile as steel. Recently, spun
553:" resists tension can be made into almost any shape and size for the construction industry.
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than reinforcing steels. Also, because it resists corrosion, it does not need a protective
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160:
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BS EN 1170-5:1998 Precast concrete products. Test method for glass-fiber reinforced cement
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8:
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767:
734:
Standard Specification for Deformed and Plain Stainless Bars for Concrete Reinforcement.
531:
480:
230:
2608:
3614:
3531:
3185:
3143:
3101:
3047:
2745:
2625:
2616:
2592:
2519:
2471:
1826:
1818:
1743:
1101:
975:
891:
is the strength of a material where less than 5% of the specimen shows lower strength.
519:
247:
143:
139:
115:) and is usually embedded passively in the concrete before the concrete sets. However,
96:
55:
2991:
Proceedings of the Rapid Excavation & Tunneling Conference, New Orleans, June 2003
2227:
827:
A short video of the last beam being placed on a raised road, part of a new road near
385:
3843:
3599:
3594:
3569:
3551:
3465:
3445:
3266:
3173:
3163:
3131:
3121:
3089:
3079:
3036:
3021:
2947:
2909:
2766:
2733:
2723:
2692:
2630:
2560:"Monotonic and Cyclic Seismic Analyses of Old-Type RC Columns with Short Lap Splices"
2507:
2497:
2459:
2449:
2423:
2099:
2029:
1996:
1830:
1731:
1721:
1639:
1609:
1505:
1288:
1260:
1207:. This was most commonly found in wet areas or areas repeatedly exposed to moisture.
1196:
1192:
1145:
1078:
1025:
638:
621:
597:
464:
282:
136:
3722:
2846:
2767:"Remote sensing and photogrammetry techniques in diagnostics of concrete structures"
940:
3695:
3604:
3470:
3430:
3309:
3271:
2778:
2620:
2612:
2571:
1942:
1810:
1690:
1629:
1619:
1414:
1113:
1029:
783:
527:
418:
311:
214:
2539:"Concrete Inhomogeneity of Vertical Cast-In-Situ Elements In Frame-Type Buildings"
1426:
incorporated into the cement matrix. For example, there is increasing interest in
3639:
3490:
3394:
3304:
2546:
2120:
2018:
1974:
1513:
1482:
1403:
1291:(RH) within the concrete. This phenomenon is sometimes popularly referred to as "
1149:
1141:
1055:
771:
711:
515:
460:
561:
Three physical characteristics give reinforced concrete its special properties:
174:
construction the reinforcement needs to have the following properties at least:
3712:
3644:
3485:
3404:
3374:
3369:
3261:
2782:
2576:
2559:
1574:
1509:
1399:
1317:
1280:
1121:
1036:
1021:
839:
750:
738:
254:
41:
3361:
3198:
2337:"How one building survived the San Francisco earthquake and changed the world"
658:
275:
Before the 1870s, the use of concrete construction, though dating back to the
3858:
3685:
3584:
3574:
3480:
2696:
2287:"Julia Morgan-designed Mills bell tower counts down to its 115th anniversary"
1579:
1494:
1140:. Sea water contains by weight approximately 3.5% salts. These salts include
1040:
757:
578:
410:
358:
345:
341:
265:
152:
3177:
3135:
3093:
2737:
2511:
2463:
1735:
1660:"16 Materials Every Architect Needs to Know (And Where to Learn About Them)"
3589:
3475:
3450:
3243:
2634:
1541:
1465:
1454:
1432:
1395:
1308:
1256:
604:
film to form on the surface of the steel, making it much more resistant to
476:
337:
276:
3399:
2808:
2125:. Vol. 2. Los Angeles, CA: American Historical Society. p. 176.
246:
Messrs W & T Phillips of London construct the wrought iron reinforced
209:
3690:
3409:
3346:
3157:
3115:
3073:
3055:
Journal of Research of the National Institute of Standards and Technology
2765:
Janowski, A.; Nagrodzka-Godycka, K.; Szulwic, J.; Ziółkowski, P. (2016).
2717:
2491:
2443:
1715:
1599:
1589:
1477:
1473:
1469:
1264:
1153:
1044:
1015:
828:
779:
593:
322:
293:, completed in 1876. The home was particularly designed to be fireproof.
1251:
ions (OH) from the cement pore solution. Poorly crystallized silica (SiO
794:
oxidation sites. Nitrite is a much more active corrosion inhibitor than
692:
3794:
3579:
3559:
3351:
1822:
1490:
1340:
1336:
1229:
307:
2872:
380:
317:
The first reinforced concrete building in Southern California was the
3825:
1594:
1472:
that read radio tags need reinforced concrete that is transparent to
1450:
1373:
1313:
1240:
1237:
1222:
1200:
1188:
1181:
1137:
949:
761:
605:
402:
167:
124:
108:
2310:"Bay Area Architect Julia Morgan's Legacy Wasn't Just Hearst Castle"
1814:
935:
392:
142:
in particular regions of the concrete that might cause unacceptable
3809:
3804:
3440:
3235:
3019:
Reynolds's Reinforced Concrete Designer's Handbook – 11th ed.
1604:
1410:
1284:
1248:
1070:
775:
746:
730:
Standard Specification for Epoxy Coated Steel Reinforcing Bars and
634:
518:) and water. When cement is mixed with a small amount of water, it
497:
441:
364:
In 1906, the National Association of Cement Users (NACU) published
218:
191:
100:
2151:. Los Angeles, CA: Los Angeles City Auditor. 1905. pp. 71–73.
1035:
When a concrete structure is designed, it is usual to specify the
194:
to the concrete, irrespective of pH, moisture, and similar factors
3768:
3336:
1695:
EKA Concrete | Direct Supplier of Ready Mix and Site Mix Concrete
1551:
Another problem is the effectiveness of shear reinforcement. FRP
1486:
1446:
1328:
795:
742:
707:
617:
539:
472:
437:
222:
147:
2984:"Chapter 57: The Airside Road Tunnel, Heathrow Airport, England"
2377:
Standard Building Regulations for the Use of Reinforced Concrete
1417:, but the material is still far too expensive for any building.
1054:
a fresh hole in the surface and then treat the cut surface with
726:
Standard Specification for Hot Dip Galvanized Reinforcing Bars,
370:
Standard Building Regulations for the Use of Reinforced Concrete
3495:
3455:
3289:
2379:. Philadelphia, PA: National Association of Cement Users. 1910.
2365:. Philadelphia, PA: National Association of Cement Users. 1906.
1910:
1268:
1225:
1084:
1020:
Carbonation, or neutralisation, is a chemical reaction between
791:
737:
Another, cheaper way of protecting rebars is coating them with
589:
530:(about 4,000 psi (28 MPa)); however, any appreciable
501:
422:
3199:
Short documentary about reinforced concrete and its challenges
3414:
3316:
2845:. British Cement Association. January 4, 2006. Archived from
1768:"Building construction: The invention of reinforced concrete"
1552:
1545:
1380:
1233:
1204:
1125:
1074:
1051:
832:
806:
649:
550:
546:
509:
112:
2056:. The Engineering News Publishing Company. pp. 204–210.
1156:. In water these salts dissociate in free ions (Na, Mg, Cl,
3204:
1059:
958:
749:
anions present in the cement pore water and forms a stable
659:
Mechanism of composite action of reinforcement and concrete
645:
570:
414:
1516:
will be price-competitive with steel-reinforced concrete.
1379:
Concrete reinforced with fibers (which are usually steel,
1050:
One method of testing a structure for carbonatation is to
798:, which is a less powerful oxidizer of the divalent iron.
1461:
1296:
1187:
In the 1960s and 1970s it was also relatively common for
1120:
The use of de-icing salts on roadways, used to lower the
1088:
Rebar for foundations and walls of a sewage pump station.
801:
637:
ingress are amongst the chief reasons for the failure of
2591:
Simescu, Florica; Idrissi, Hassane (December 19, 2008).
2603:(4). National Institute for Materials Science: 045009.
585:
3052:"Electromagnetic Metrology on Concrete and Corrosion."
944:
Concrete spalling from the ceiling of an office unit (
760:, felts or fabric mats sealed with tar, and layers of
1556:
techniques are necessary to deal with such problems.
693:
Anchorage (bond) in concrete: Codes of specifications
545:
If a material with high strength in tension, such as
155:, the most common methods of doing this are known as
135:
Reinforcing schemes are generally designed to resist
3000:
on May 22, 2006 – via www.tunnels.mottmac.com.
2392:"Christ the Redeemer (last updated 13 January 2014)"
2260:"El Campanil, Mills College: Julia Morgan 1903-1904"
2020:
Biographical Dictionary of the History of Technology
1464:
machines have huge magnets, and accordingly require
1302:
3159:
Corrosion of reinforcement in concrete construction
3008:
2558:Megalooikonomou, Konstantinos G. (March 31, 2024).
2417:
2230:"Partial Collapse of the Bixby Hotel at Long Beach"
2195:"Reinforced Concrete Buildings at Los Angeles, Cal"
2098:. McGill-Queen's University Press. pp. 61–64.
1995:. McGill-Queen's University Press. pp. 58–60.
1941:
2908:. British Standards Institute. November 15, 1999.
2017:
1766:
600:) contained in the hardened cement paste causes a
936:Common failure modes of steel reinforced concrete
463:. Reinforced concrete elements may be subject to
3856:
3779:International Federation for Structural Concrete
2054:Concrete-steel Construction: (Der Eisenbetonbau)
1279:(ASR) causes localised swelling responsible for
1108:was a pioneer in the use of reinforced concrete.
2981:
2946:. British Standards Institute. March 15, 1998.
2557:
790:). This causes the passivation of steel at the
454:
310:made with reinforced concrete was the 16-story
2590:
2069:"Episode 81: Rebar and the Alvord Lake Bridge"
3220:
2839:"Special Section: South West Alkali Incident"
2651:. the MacGraw-Hill Education, 2003. p. 80-90.
2236:. Vol. VII, no. 1. pp. 44–48.
1980:. private circulation, at the Chiswick Press.
1136:Another important source of chloride ions is
348:. Two years later, El Campanil survived the
272:of concrete was improved by the reinforcing.
2597:Science and Technology of Advanced Materials
2420:Reinforced Concrete Design of Tall Buildings
2093:
1990:
1843:
1361:
3057:, Vol. 116, No. 3 (May–June 2011): 655–669.
2339:. California Science Weekly. Archived from
2301:
2278:
2252:
1913:"History of Concrete Building Construction"
1761:
1759:
1346:
581:or cohesion between the concrete and steel.
361:to allow wider use of reinforced concrete.
3227:
3213:
2685:International Journal of Civil Engineering
2096:Concrete: The Vision of a New Architecture
1993:Concrete: The Vision of a New Architecture
1906:
1904:
1691:"When should you use reinforced concrete?"
1420:
40:
2977:
2975:
2624:
2575:
2122:Los Angeles from the Mountains to the Sea
2118:
2047:
2045:
1876:
1625:Reinforced concrete structures durability
1210:
701:
436:Reinforced concrete can be classified as
3732:
2161:
1911:Department of Civil Engineering (2015).
1796:
1794:
1756:
1128:reinforcing bars and the application of
1091:
1083:
1058:indicator solution. This solution turns
1005:
992:
939:
814:
805:
624:) and the steel is no longer passivated.
391:
379:
242:stands as a testament to his technique.
208:
2678:
2307:
2240:from the original on September 20, 2020
2209:from the original on September 19, 2020
1901:
1779:from the original on September 28, 2018
920:
764:clay, sometimes used to seal roadbeds.
344:, which is located across the bay from
14:
3857:
2972:
2819:from the original on February 23, 2009
2284:
2266:from the original on December 30, 2018
2192:
2174:from the original on September 1, 2020
2051:
2042:
1923:from the original on February 27, 2017
1897:– via John F. Claydon's website.
1800:
1428:glass fiber reinforced concrete (GFRC)
1372:Fiber reinforcement is mainly used in
1180:) and migrate with the water into the
1073:can promote the corrosion of embedded
802:Reinforcement and terminology of beams
556:
375:
225:was achieved using reinforced concrete
3208:
2679:Sadeghi, Kabir (September 15, 2011).
2334:
1972:
1889:from the original on October 12, 2018
1791:
1688:
964:
778:that oxidizes the soluble and mobile
588:chemical environment provided by the
291:private home designed by William Ward
3342:Ground granulated blast-furnace slag
2383:
2234:Architect and Engineer of California
2066:
1851:. The Aberdeen Group. Archived from
741:. Zinc phosphate slowly reacts with
314:in Cincinnati, constructed in 1904.
3759:Institution of Structural Engineers
2316:from the original on April 20, 2019
2129:from the original on August 9, 2016
2075:from the original on August 8, 2014
2015:
952:, possibly due to rebar corrosion.
24:
2960:from the original on June 12, 2018
2922:from the original on June 12, 2018
2389:
1952:National Heritage List for England
355:San Francisco Board of Supervisors
25:
3896:
3870:Concrete buildings and structures
3075:Materials principles and practice
2789:from the original on July 9, 2021
2445:Materials principles and practice
2285:Callen, Will (February 4, 2019).
1670:from the original on July 9, 2021
1303:Conversion of high alumina cement
1259:reacts in the porewater with the
3839:
3838:
3009:Further reading / External links
2308:Littman, Julie (March 7, 2018).
1570:Anchorage in reinforced concrete
1439:Fiber-reinforced plastic/polymer
567:coefficient of thermal expansion
2934:
2896:
2887:
2861:
2831:
2801:
2758:
2710:
2672:
2664:. April 2, 2015. Archived from
2654:
2641:
2584:
2551:
2532:
2484:
2436:
2411:
2369:
2355:
2328:
2221:
2186:
2155:
2141:
2119:McGroarty, John Steven (1921).
2112:
2087:
2060:
2009:
1984:
1966:
1917:CIVL 1101 – History of Concrete
1500:Plastic reinforcement often is
3257:Roman architectural revolution
2162:Williams, D. (February 1907).
1947:"HOMERSFIELD BRIDGE (1262142)"
1935:
1870:
1837:
1708:
1682:
1652:
988:
388:'s roof in construction (2009)
257:, published a report entitled
130:
13:
1:
2993:. p. 645. Archived from
2649:Design of Concrete Structures
1645:
644:The relative cross-sectional
350:1906 San Francisco earthquake
3234:
3066:"Concrete frame structures."
2617:10.1088/1468-6996/9/4/045009
2418:Bungale S. Taranath (2009).
2094:Collins, Peter (1920–1981).
2067:Mars, Roman (June 7, 2013).
1991:Collins, Peter (1920–1981).
1065:
592:reserve (KOH, NaOH) and the
491:
455:Reinforced concrete elements
7:
3774:Portland Cement Association
3749:American Concrete Institute
3201:, 2024 (The Aesthetic City)
2335:Olsen, Erik (May 1, 2020).
1615:Interfacial transition zone
1563:
1534:reinforced concrete columns
1504:, or at least has a better
1445:(GRP) consist of fibers of
1323:
1271:paste to form an expansive
1243:) sometimes present in the
486:
329:and 8-story Hayward Hotel.
10:
3901:
3252:Ancient Roman architecture
3035:, Ashgate Variorum, 2001,
2783:10.12989/cac.2016.18.3.405
2577:10.3390/constrmater4020018
1365:
1350:
1214:
1013:
924:
495:
204:
3834:
3818:
3787:
3764:Indian Concrete Institute
3741:
3678:
3550:
3504:
3423:
3360:
3280:
3242:
3033:Early Reinforced Concrete
2197:. Letters to the Editor.
2193:W.P.H. (April 19, 1906).
2164:"What Builders are Doing"
1919:. University of Memphis.
1883:The Elements of Structure
1368:Fiber-reinforced concrete
1362:Fiber-reinforced concrete
904:Permissible stress design
573:expansion or contraction.
66:
61:
51:
39:
34:
2982:Arthur W. Darby (2003).
2815:. BBC. March 15, 2012 .
2422:. CRC Press. p. 7.
1973:Hyatt, Thaddeus (1877).
1689:Sarah (March 22, 2017).
1506:strength to weight ratio
1443:glass-reinforced plastic
1353:Steel plate construction
1347:Steel plate construction
1273:calcium silicate hydrate
614:calcium silicate hydrate
2647:Nilson, Darwin, Dolan.
2397:Encyclopædia Britannica
2199:Engineering News-Record
1773:Encyclopedia Britannica
1421:Non-steel reinforcement
1409:The premium fibers are
1112:It was once common for
1104:rail line project. The
889:characteristic strength
631:Carbonation of concrete
213:The novel shape of the
3875:Structural engineering
3542:Alkali–silica reaction
3300:Energetically modified
3190:: CS1 maint: others (
3148:: CS1 maint: others (
3106:: CS1 maint: others (
3046:Kim, S., Surek, J and
2771:Computers and Concrete
2750:: CS1 maint: others (
2564:Construction Materials
2524:: CS1 maint: others (
2476:: CS1 maint: others (
2168:Carpentry and Building
1803:Technology and Culture
1748:: CS1 maint: others (
1277:alkali–silica reaction
1217:Alkali–silica reaction
1211:Alkali silica reaction
1109:
1089:
1011:
1003:
953:
835:
812:
702:Anticorrosion measures
612:, portlandite and the
506:Construction aggregate
442:cast-in-place concrete
406:
389:
226:
82:Stronger than concrete
2875:on September 11, 2005
2869:"High Alumina Cement"
2052:Mörsch, Emil (1909).
2024:. Routledge. p.
1879:"Reinforced Concrete"
1846:"History of Concrete"
1844:Richard W. S (1995).
1666:. December 19, 2016.
1635:Structural robustness
1585:Corrosion engineering
1529:elastic deformability
1095:
1087:
1009:
996:
943:
826:
809:
395:
383:
212:
121:corrosion engineering
62:Mechanical properties
3527:Environmental impact
3385:Reversing drum mixer
3117:Structural materials
2719:Structural materials
2493:Structural materials
1717:Structural materials
1398:, long available in
1098:Paulins Kill Viaduct
927:Prestressed concrete
921:Prestressed concrete
911:ultimate limit state
768:Corrosion inhibitors
3865:Reinforced concrete
2849:on October 29, 2006
2843:the cement industry
2609:2008STAdM...9d5009S
2016:Day, Lance (2003).
1521:material properties
1497:building membrane.
1221:This a reaction of
1130:cathodic protection
1106:Lackawanna Railroad
878:balanced-reinforced
838:A beam bends under
557:Key characteristics
398:Christ the Redeemer
376:Use in construction
357:changed the city's
301:Wayss & Freytag
231:rue Charles Michels
184:High toleration of
89:Reinforced concrete
35:Reinforced concrete
27:Concrete with rebar
3630:Self-consolidating
3322:Water–cement ratio
2545:2021-01-15 at the
2390:Murray, Lorraine.
1877:W. Morgan (1995).
1476:. Also, where the
1468:buildings. Again,
1191:, a chloride rich
1110:
1102:Lackawanna Cut-Off
1090:
1012:
1004:
976:limit state design
965:Mechanical failure
954:
836:
813:
639:reinforcement bars
407:
390:
368:and, in 1910, the
248:Homersfield Bridge
227:
103:'s relatively low
97:composite material
56:Composite material
3885:Civil engineering
3880:Materials science
3852:
3851:
3844:Category:Concrete
3625:Roller-compacting
3446:Climbing formwork
3295:Calcium aluminate
3267:Roman engineering
3041:978-0-86078-760-0
3026:978-0-419-25830-8
2809:"Concrete Cancer"
2668:on April 2, 2015.
2071:. 99% Invisible.
1640:Types of concrete
1610:Henri de Miffonis
1299:can be affected.
1289:relative humidity
1267:) present in the
1261:calcium hydroxide
1197:hydrochloric acid
1193:carbonate mineral
1146:magnesium sulfate
1079:pitting corrosion
1032:in the concrete.
1026:calcium hydroxide
854:doubly reinforced
847:singly reinforced
824:
680:for concrete and
622:calcium carbonate
598:calcium hydroxide
327:Temple Auditorium
306:One of the first
283:Ernest L. Ransome
86:
85:
16:(Redirected from
3892:
3842:
3841:
3754:Concrete Society
3565:Fiber-reinforced
3380:Volumetric mixer
3272:Roman technology
3229:
3222:
3215:
3206:
3205:
3195:
3189:
3181:
3153:
3147:
3139:
3111:
3105:
3097:
3002:
3001:
2999:
2988:
2979:
2970:
2969:
2967:
2965:
2938:
2932:
2931:
2929:
2927:
2900:
2894:
2891:
2885:
2884:
2882:
2880:
2871:. Archived from
2865:
2859:
2858:
2856:
2854:
2835:
2829:
2828:
2826:
2824:
2805:
2799:
2798:
2796:
2794:
2762:
2756:
2755:
2749:
2741:
2714:
2708:
2707:
2705:
2703:
2676:
2670:
2669:
2658:
2652:
2645:
2639:
2638:
2628:
2588:
2582:
2581:
2579:
2555:
2549:
2536:
2530:
2529:
2523:
2515:
2488:
2482:
2481:
2475:
2467:
2440:
2434:
2433:
2415:
2409:
2408:
2406:
2404:
2387:
2381:
2380:
2373:
2367:
2366:
2359:
2353:
2352:
2350:
2348:
2332:
2326:
2325:
2323:
2321:
2305:
2299:
2298:
2296:
2294:
2282:
2276:
2275:
2273:
2271:
2256:
2250:
2249:
2247:
2245:
2225:
2219:
2218:
2216:
2214:
2190:
2184:
2183:
2181:
2179:
2159:
2153:
2152:
2145:
2139:
2138:
2136:
2134:
2116:
2110:
2109:
2091:
2085:
2084:
2082:
2080:
2064:
2058:
2057:
2049:
2040:
2039:
2023:
2013:
2007:
2006:
1988:
1982:
1981:
1970:
1964:
1963:
1961:
1959:
1943:Historic England
1939:
1933:
1932:
1930:
1928:
1908:
1899:
1898:
1896:
1894:
1874:
1868:
1867:
1865:
1863:
1857:
1850:
1841:
1835:
1834:
1798:
1789:
1788:
1786:
1784:
1770:
1763:
1754:
1753:
1747:
1739:
1712:
1706:
1705:
1703:
1701:
1686:
1680:
1679:
1677:
1675:
1656:
1630:Reinforced solid
1620:Precast concrete
1415:carbon nanotubes
1203:of the embedded
1179:
1178:
1177:
1167:
1166:
1165:
1114:calcium chloride
1030:calcium silicate
900:nominal strength
862:under-reinforced
825:
784:ferric hydroxide
745:cations and the
687:
685:
679:
677:
671:
669:
650:Reinforcing bars
312:Ingalls Building
270:tensile strength
215:Philips Pavilion
105:tensile strength
79:
68:Tensile strength
44:
32:
31:
21:
18:Ferrous concrete
3900:
3899:
3895:
3894:
3893:
3891:
3890:
3889:
3855:
3854:
3853:
3848:
3830:
3814:
3783:
3737:
3674:
3546:
3500:
3419:
3395:Flow table test
3356:
3276:
3238:
3233:
3183:
3182:
3170:
3156:
3141:
3140:
3128:
3114:
3099:
3098:
3086:
3072:
3048:J. Baker-Jarvis
3011:
3006:
3005:
2997:
2986:
2980:
2973:
2963:
2961:
2954:
2940:
2939:
2935:
2925:
2923:
2916:
2902:
2901:
2897:
2892:
2888:
2878:
2876:
2867:
2866:
2862:
2852:
2850:
2837:
2836:
2832:
2822:
2820:
2807:
2806:
2802:
2792:
2790:
2763:
2759:
2743:
2742:
2730:
2716:
2715:
2711:
2701:
2699:
2677:
2673:
2660:
2659:
2655:
2646:
2642:
2589:
2585:
2556:
2552:
2547:Wayback Machine
2537:
2533:
2517:
2516:
2504:
2490:
2489:
2485:
2469:
2468:
2456:
2442:
2441:
2437:
2430:
2416:
2412:
2402:
2400:
2388:
2384:
2375:
2374:
2370:
2361:
2360:
2356:
2346:
2344:
2343:on July 2, 2020
2333:
2329:
2319:
2317:
2306:
2302:
2292:
2290:
2283:
2279:
2269:
2267:
2258:
2257:
2253:
2243:
2241:
2226:
2222:
2212:
2210:
2191:
2187:
2177:
2175:
2160:
2156:
2147:
2146:
2142:
2132:
2130:
2117:
2113:
2106:
2092:
2088:
2078:
2076:
2065:
2061:
2050:
2043:
2036:
2014:
2010:
2003:
1989:
1985:
1971:
1967:
1957:
1955:
1940:
1936:
1926:
1924:
1909:
1902:
1892:
1890:
1875:
1871:
1861:
1859:
1855:
1848:
1842:
1838:
1815:10.2307/3102041
1799:
1792:
1782:
1780:
1765:
1764:
1757:
1741:
1740:
1728:
1714:
1713:
1709:
1699:
1697:
1687:
1683:
1673:
1671:
1658:
1657:
1653:
1648:
1566:
1514:whole-life cost
1483:intertidal zone
1423:
1404:Portland cement
1370:
1364:
1355:
1349:
1334:
1326:
1305:
1293:concrete cancer
1254:
1219:
1213:
1176:
1173:
1172:
1171:
1169:
1164:
1161:
1160:
1159:
1157:
1150:calcium sulfate
1142:sodium chloride
1068:
1056:phenolphthalein
1024:in the air and
1018:
991:
967:
938:
929:
923:
896:design strength
870:over-reinforced
815:
804:
789:
772:calcium nitrite
712:stainless steel
704:
695:
683:
681:
675:
673:
667:
665:
661:
611:
559:
516:Portland cement
512:
494:
489:
457:
386:Sagrada Família
378:
336:In April 1904,
236:Pippen building
207:
161:post-tensioning
133:
117:post-tensioning
77:
70:
47:
28:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
3898:
3888:
3887:
3882:
3877:
3872:
3867:
3850:
3849:
3847:
3846:
3835:
3832:
3831:
3829:
3828:
3822:
3820:
3816:
3815:
3813:
3812:
3807:
3802:
3797:
3791:
3789:
3785:
3784:
3782:
3781:
3776:
3771:
3766:
3761:
3756:
3751:
3745:
3743:
3739:
3738:
3736:
3735:
3730:
3725:
3720:
3715:
3713:Concrete block
3710:
3709:
3708:
3703:
3701:voided biaxial
3698:
3693:
3682:
3680:
3676:
3675:
3673:
3672:
3671:
3670:
3665:
3657:
3652:
3647:
3642:
3637:
3632:
3627:
3622:
3617:
3612:
3607:
3602:
3597:
3592:
3587:
3582:
3577:
3572:
3567:
3562:
3556:
3554:
3548:
3547:
3545:
3544:
3539:
3534:
3529:
3524:
3519:
3514:
3508:
3506:
3502:
3501:
3499:
3498:
3493:
3488:
3483:
3478:
3473:
3468:
3463:
3458:
3453:
3448:
3443:
3438:
3433:
3427:
3425:
3421:
3420:
3418:
3417:
3412:
3407:
3405:Concrete cover
3402:
3397:
3392:
3387:
3382:
3377:
3375:Concrete mixer
3372:
3366:
3364:
3358:
3357:
3355:
3354:
3349:
3344:
3339:
3334:
3329:
3324:
3319:
3314:
3313:
3312:
3307:
3302:
3297:
3286:
3284:
3278:
3277:
3275:
3274:
3269:
3264:
3262:Roman concrete
3259:
3254:
3248:
3246:
3240:
3239:
3232:
3231:
3224:
3217:
3209:
3203:
3202:
3196:
3168:
3154:
3126:
3112:
3084:
3070:
3058:
3044:
3029:
3014:Threlfall A.,
3010:
3007:
3004:
3003:
2971:
2952:
2933:
2914:
2895:
2886:
2860:
2830:
2800:
2777:(3): 405–420.
2757:
2728:
2709:
2691:(3): 155–164.
2671:
2662:"Techno Press"
2653:
2640:
2583:
2570:(2): 329–341.
2550:
2531:
2502:
2483:
2454:
2435:
2428:
2410:
2382:
2368:
2354:
2327:
2312:. busnow.com.
2300:
2289:. hoodline.com
2277:
2251:
2220:
2185:
2154:
2140:
2111:
2104:
2086:
2059:
2041:
2034:
2008:
2001:
1983:
1965:
1934:
1900:
1869:
1858:on 28 May 2015
1836:
1790:
1755:
1726:
1707:
1681:
1650:
1649:
1647:
1644:
1643:
1642:
1637:
1632:
1627:
1622:
1617:
1612:
1607:
1602:
1597:
1592:
1587:
1582:
1577:
1575:Concrete cover
1572:
1565:
1562:
1510:concrete cover
1422:
1419:
1400:Eastern Europe
1385:plastic fibers
1366:Main article:
1363:
1360:
1351:Main article:
1348:
1345:
1332:
1325:
1322:
1304:
1301:
1281:tensile stress
1252:
1215:Main article:
1212:
1209:
1174:
1162:
1122:freezing point
1067:
1064:
1041:building codes
1037:concrete cover
1022:carbon dioxide
1014:Main article:
990:
987:
972:serviceability
966:
963:
937:
934:
925:Main article:
922:
919:
840:bending moment
803:
800:
787:
751:hydroxyapatite
739:zinc phosphate
703:
700:
694:
691:
660:
657:
626:
625:
609:
582:
574:
558:
555:
493:
490:
488:
485:
456:
453:
377:
374:
366:Standard No. 1
359:building codes
319:Laughlin Annex
255:Thaddeus Hyatt
206:
203:
202:
201:
198:
195:
188:
186:tensile strain
182:
178:High relative
166:For a strong,
157:pre-tensioning
132:
129:
91:, also called
84:
83:
80:
75:
64:
63:
59:
58:
53:
49:
48:
45:
37:
36:
26:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
3897:
3886:
3883:
3881:
3878:
3876:
3873:
3871:
3868:
3866:
3863:
3862:
3860:
3845:
3837:
3836:
3833:
3827:
3824:
3823:
3821:
3817:
3811:
3808:
3806:
3803:
3801:
3798:
3796:
3793:
3792:
3790:
3786:
3780:
3777:
3775:
3772:
3770:
3767:
3765:
3762:
3760:
3757:
3755:
3752:
3750:
3747:
3746:
3744:
3742:Organizations
3740:
3734:
3731:
3729:
3726:
3724:
3721:
3719:
3716:
3714:
3711:
3707:
3706:slab on grade
3704:
3702:
3699:
3697:
3694:
3692:
3689:
3688:
3687:
3684:
3683:
3681:
3677:
3669:
3666:
3664:
3661:
3660:
3658:
3656:
3653:
3651:
3648:
3646:
3643:
3641:
3638:
3636:
3635:Self-leveling
3633:
3631:
3628:
3626:
3623:
3621:
3618:
3616:
3613:
3611:
3608:
3606:
3603:
3601:
3598:
3596:
3593:
3591:
3588:
3586:
3583:
3581:
3578:
3576:
3573:
3571:
3568:
3566:
3563:
3561:
3558:
3557:
3555:
3553:
3549:
3543:
3540:
3538:
3535:
3533:
3530:
3528:
3525:
3523:
3520:
3518:
3515:
3513:
3510:
3509:
3507:
3503:
3497:
3494:
3492:
3489:
3487:
3484:
3482:
3479:
3477:
3474:
3472:
3469:
3467:
3464:
3462:
3459:
3457:
3454:
3452:
3449:
3447:
3444:
3442:
3439:
3437:
3436:Cast-in-place
3434:
3432:
3429:
3428:
3426:
3422:
3416:
3413:
3411:
3408:
3406:
3403:
3401:
3398:
3396:
3393:
3391:
3388:
3386:
3383:
3381:
3378:
3376:
3373:
3371:
3368:
3367:
3365:
3363:
3359:
3353:
3350:
3348:
3345:
3343:
3340:
3338:
3335:
3333:
3332:Reinforcement
3330:
3328:
3325:
3323:
3320:
3318:
3315:
3311:
3308:
3306:
3303:
3301:
3298:
3296:
3293:
3292:
3291:
3288:
3287:
3285:
3283:
3279:
3273:
3270:
3268:
3265:
3263:
3260:
3258:
3255:
3253:
3250:
3249:
3247:
3245:
3241:
3237:
3230:
3225:
3223:
3218:
3216:
3211:
3210:
3207:
3200:
3197:
3193:
3187:
3179:
3175:
3171:
3169:0-85404-731-X
3165:
3161:
3160:
3155:
3151:
3145:
3137:
3133:
3129:
3127:0-408-04658-9
3123:
3119:
3118:
3113:
3109:
3103:
3095:
3091:
3087:
3085:0-408-02730-4
3081:
3077:
3076:
3071:
3068:
3067:
3063:
3059:
3056:
3053:
3049:
3045:
3042:
3038:
3034:
3030:
3027:
3023:
3020:
3017:
3013:
3012:
2996:
2992:
2985:
2978:
2976:
2959:
2955:
2953:0-580-29202-9
2949:
2945:
2944:
2937:
2921:
2917:
2915:0-580-32052-9
2911:
2907:
2906:
2899:
2890:
2874:
2870:
2864:
2848:
2844:
2840:
2834:
2818:
2814:
2810:
2804:
2788:
2784:
2780:
2776:
2772:
2768:
2761:
2753:
2747:
2739:
2735:
2731:
2729:0-408-04658-9
2725:
2721:
2720:
2713:
2698:
2694:
2690:
2686:
2682:
2675:
2667:
2663:
2657:
2650:
2644:
2636:
2632:
2627:
2622:
2618:
2614:
2610:
2606:
2602:
2598:
2594:
2587:
2578:
2573:
2569:
2565:
2561:
2554:
2548:
2544:
2540:
2535:
2527:
2521:
2513:
2509:
2505:
2503:0-408-04658-9
2499:
2495:
2494:
2487:
2479:
2473:
2465:
2461:
2457:
2455:0-408-02730-4
2451:
2447:
2446:
2439:
2431:
2429:9781439804810
2425:
2421:
2414:
2399:
2398:
2393:
2386:
2378:
2372:
2364:
2358:
2342:
2338:
2331:
2315:
2311:
2304:
2288:
2281:
2265:
2261:
2255:
2239:
2235:
2231:
2224:
2208:
2204:
2200:
2196:
2189:
2173:
2169:
2165:
2158:
2150:
2144:
2128:
2124:
2123:
2115:
2107:
2101:
2097:
2090:
2074:
2070:
2063:
2055:
2048:
2046:
2037:
2035:0-203-02829-5
2031:
2027:
2022:
2021:
2012:
2004:
1998:
1994:
1987:
1979:
1978:
1969:
1954:
1953:
1948:
1944:
1938:
1922:
1918:
1914:
1907:
1905:
1888:
1884:
1880:
1873:
1854:
1847:
1840:
1832:
1828:
1824:
1820:
1816:
1812:
1808:
1804:
1797:
1795:
1783:September 27,
1778:
1774:
1769:
1762:
1760:
1751:
1745:
1737:
1733:
1729:
1727:0-408-04658-9
1723:
1719:
1718:
1711:
1696:
1692:
1685:
1669:
1665:
1661:
1655:
1651:
1641:
1638:
1636:
1633:
1631:
1628:
1626:
1623:
1621:
1618:
1616:
1613:
1611:
1608:
1606:
1603:
1601:
1598:
1596:
1593:
1591:
1588:
1586:
1583:
1581:
1580:Concrete slab
1578:
1576:
1573:
1571:
1568:
1567:
1561:
1557:
1554:
1549:
1547:
1543:
1537:
1535:
1530:
1526:
1522:
1517:
1515:
1511:
1507:
1503:
1498:
1496:
1495:waterproofing
1492:
1488:
1484:
1479:
1475:
1471:
1467:
1463:
1458:
1456:
1452:
1448:
1444:
1440:
1436:
1434:
1429:
1418:
1416:
1412:
1407:
1405:
1401:
1397:
1392:
1388:
1386:
1382:
1377:
1375:
1369:
1359:
1354:
1344:
1342:
1338:
1330:
1321:
1319:
1315:
1310:
1300:
1298:
1294:
1290:
1286:
1282:
1278:
1274:
1270:
1266:
1262:
1258:
1250:
1246:
1242:
1239:
1235:
1231:
1227:
1224:
1218:
1208:
1206:
1202:
1198:
1194:
1190:
1185:
1183:
1155:
1151:
1147:
1143:
1139:
1134:
1131:
1127:
1123:
1118:
1115:
1107:
1103:
1099:
1094:
1086:
1082:
1080:
1076:
1072:
1063:
1061:
1057:
1053:
1048:
1046:
1042:
1038:
1033:
1031:
1028:and hydrated
1027:
1023:
1017:
1008:
1001:
995:
986:
984:
979:
977:
973:
962:
960:
951:
947:
942:
933:
928:
918:
914:
912:
907:
905:
901:
897:
892:
890:
885:
882:
879:
874:
871:
866:
863:
858:
855:
850:
848:
843:
841:
834:
830:
808:
799:
797:
793:
785:
781:
777:
773:
769:
765:
763:
759:
758:aluminum foil
754:
752:
748:
744:
740:
735:
733:
729:
725:
721:
715:
713:
709:
699:
690:
656:
653:
651:
647:
642:
641:in concrete.
640:
636:
632:
623:
619:
615:
607:
603:
599:
595:
591:
587:
583:
580:
575:
572:
568:
564:
563:
562:
554:
552:
548:
543:
541:
537:
533:
529:
526:
521:
517:
511:
507:
503:
499:
484:
482:
478:
474:
470:
466:
462:
452:
449:
445:
443:
439:
434:
432:
428:
424:
420:
416:
412:
404:
400:
399:
394:
387:
382:
373:
371:
367:
362:
360:
356:
351:
347:
346:San Francisco
343:
342:Mills College
339:
334:
330:
328:
324:
320:
315:
313:
309:
304:
302:
298:
294:
292:
288:
284:
280:
278:
273:
271:
267:
266:Joseph Monier
263:
261:
256:
251:
249:
243:
241:
237:
232:
224:
220:
216:
211:
199:
196:
193:
189:
187:
183:
181:
177:
176:
175:
173:
169:
164:
162:
158:
154:
153:United States
149:
145:
141:
138:
128:
126:
122:
118:
114:
110:
106:
102:
98:
94:
93:ferroconcrete
90:
81:
74:
69:
65:
60:
57:
54:
52:Material type
50:
43:
38:
33:
30:
19:
3718:Step barrier
3679:Applications
3619:
3590:Nanoconcrete
3476:Power trowel
3461:Power screed
3451:Slip forming
3424:Construction
3331:
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2853:November 26,
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2793:December 14,
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2341:the original
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2254:
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2233:
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2213:November 29,
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2178:November 29,
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1853:the original
1839:
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1694:
1684:
1672:. Retrieved
1663:
1654:
1558:
1550:
1542:fireproofing
1538:
1518:
1499:
1466:non-magnetic
1459:
1455:service life
1437:
1433:service life
1424:
1408:
1396:basalt fiber
1393:
1389:
1378:
1371:
1356:
1327:
1309:World War II
1306:
1257:silicic acid
1220:
1186:
1154:bicarbonates
1135:
1126:epoxy-coated
1119:
1111:
1069:
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1019:
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780:ferrous ions
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720:A1035/A1035M
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338:Julia Morgan
335:
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316:
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277:Roman Empire
274:
264:
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3696:hollow-core
3655:Waste light
3650:Translucent
3610:Prestressed
3537:Segregation
3522:Degradation
3410:Cover meter
3347:Silica fume
3282:Composition
3062:Formwork UK
3060:Daniel R.,
2879:October 14,
2823:October 14,
2403:November 5,
1809:(1): 1–33.
1600:Ferrocement
1590:Cover meter
1525:deflections
1491:balustrades
1478:design life
1474:radio waves
1470:toll booths
1275:(CSH). The
1265:portlandite
1182:capillaries
1045:cover meter
1016:Carbonation
989:Carbonation
974:failure in
829:Cardiff Bay
633:along with
602:passivating
594:portlandite
525:compressive
469:compression
427:foundations
323:Los Angeles
308:skyscrapers
297:G. A. Wayss
131:Description
3859:Categories
3795:Eurocode 2
3733:Structures
3620:Reinforced
3580:Lunarcrete
3560:AstroCrete
3517:Durability
3512:Properties
3390:Slump test
3362:Production
3352:Metakaolin
3031:Newby F.,
2105:0773525645
2002:0773525645
1646:References
1441:(FRP) and
1341:thaumasite
1337:ettringite
1245:aggregates
1230:chalcedony
970:This is a
770:, such as
496:See also:
448:building.
433:and more.
384:Rebars of
3826:Hempcrete
3788:Standards
3615:Ready-mix
3532:Recycling
3327:Aggregate
3310:Rosendale
3186:cite book
3144:cite book
3102:cite book
2746:cite book
2697:1735-0522
2520:cite book
2472:cite book
2320:April 18,
2293:April 18,
2270:April 18,
2079:August 6,
1958:March 26,
1927:April 25,
1893:April 25,
1831:113019875
1744:cite book
1664:ArchDaily
1595:Falsework
1487:balconies
1451:corrosion
1374:shotcrete
1247:with the
1241:limestone
1238:siliceous
1223:amorphous
1201:corrosion
1189:magnesite
1138:sea water
1071:Chlorides
1066:Chlorides
950:Singapore
762:bentonite
606:corrosion
492:Materials
479:, and/or
403:soapstone
253:In 1877,
217:built in
125:corrosion
109:ductility
99:in which
3819:See also
3810:EN 10080
3805:EN 206-1
3800:EN 197-1
3659:Aerated
3600:Polished
3595:Pervious
3570:Filigree
3466:Finisher
3441:Formwork
3305:Portland
3236:Concrete
3178:35233292
3136:20693897
3094:19553645
2958:Archived
2920:Archived
2817:Archived
2787:Archived
2738:20693897
2635:27878037
2543:Archived
2512:20693897
2464:19553645
2314:Archived
2264:Archived
2238:Archived
2207:Archived
2172:Archived
2127:Archived
2073:Archived
1977:Surfaces
1921:Archived
1887:Archived
1862:25 April
1777:Archived
1736:20693897
1668:Archived
1605:Formwork
1564:See also
1546:spalling
1502:stronger
1411:graphite
1329:Sulfates
1324:Sulfates
1285:cracking
1249:hydroxyl
1000:spalling
983:yielding
946:interior
776:oxidizer
747:hydroxyl
635:chloride
586:alkaline
528:stresses
520:hydrates
498:Concrete
487:Behavior
260:Surfaces
240:Brooklyn
219:Brussels
180:strength
148:polymers
144:cracking
140:stresses
101:concrete
3769:Nanocem
3728:Columns
3605:Polymer
3505:Science
3471:Grinder
3431:Precast
3337:Fly ash
3244:History
2964:May 29,
2926:May 29,
2626:5099651
2605:Bibcode
2347:July 1,
2244:May 29,
2205:: 449.
1823:3102041
1700:July 9,
1674:July 9,
1447:polymer
1316:in the
796:nitrate
786:(Fe(OH)
753:layer.
743:calcium
708:deicing
618:calcite
571:thermal
540:bending
538:due to
532:tension
481:torsion
473:bending
465:tension
438:precast
423:columns
287:bridges
223:Expo 58
205:History
172:durable
168:ductile
137:tensile
95:, is a
3691:waffle
3640:Sulfur
3496:Tremie
3491:Sealer
3456:Screed
3400:Curing
3290:Cement
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1269:cement
1226:silica
1205:rebars
1152:, and
792:anodic
590:alkali
508:, and
502:Cement
431:frames
405:tiles.
3723:Roads
3645:Tabby
3552:Types
3486:Float
3415:Rebar
3370:Plant
3317:Water
2998:(PDF)
2987:(PDF)
1856:(PDF)
1849:(PDF)
1827:S2CID
1819:JSTOR
1553:rebar
1489:when
1381:glass
1234:chert
1075:rebar
1052:drill
948:) in
833:Wales
551:rebar
547:steel
536:e.g.,
510:Rebar
477:shear
461:loads
419:beams
415:walls
411:slabs
190:Good
113:rebar
3686:Slab
3668:RAAC
3585:Mass
3575:Foam
3481:Pump
3192:link
3174:OCLC
3164:ISBN
3150:link
3132:OCLC
3122:ISBN
3108:link
3090:OCLC
3080:ISBN
3037:ISBN
3022:ISBN
2966:2018
2948:ISBN
2928:2018
2910:ISBN
2881:2009
2855:2006
2825:2009
2813:h2g2
2795:2016
2752:link
2734:OCLC
2724:ISBN
2704:2016
2693:ISSN
2631:PMID
2526:link
2508:OCLC
2498:ISBN
2478:link
2460:OCLC
2450:ISBN
2424:ISBN
2405:2022
2349:2020
2322:2019
2295:2019
2272:2019
2246:2018
2215:2017
2180:2017
2135:2017
2100:ISBN
2081:2014
2030:ISBN
1997:ISBN
1960:2014
1929:2015
1895:2015
1864:2015
1785:2018
1750:link
1732:OCLC
1722:ISBN
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1676:2021
1519:The
1297:dams
1283:and
1096:The
1060:pink
959:rust
909:The
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887:The
732:A955
728:A775
724:A767
646:area
584:The
579:bond
565:The
221:for
192:bond
170:and
159:and
107:and
3663:AAC
2779:doi
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2613:doi
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