374:
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fertility. Studies suggest that in many sub-Saharan
African countries fertility decline is linked to female education. Having said this, fertility in undeveloped countries can still be significantly reduced in the absence of any improvement in the general level of formal education. For example, During the period 1997-2002 (15 years), fertility in Bangladesh fell by almost 40%, despite the fact that literacy rates (especially those of women) did not increase significantly. This reduction has been attributed to that country's family planning program, which could be called a form of informal education.
281:) has been a core area of fertility research. The assumption is that parents transmit these family values, preferences, attitudes and religiosity to their children, all of which have long-term effects analogous to genetics. Researchers have tried to find a causal relationship between, for example, the number of parents' siblings and the number of children born by the parents own children (a quantum effect), or between the age of the first birth of the parents' generation and age of first birth of any of their own children (a tempo effect).
1045:
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understand their ability to manage another child. Individuals intending to have children immediately are more likely to achieve this within two years, whereas in contrast, the fertility rate was found to be higher among those intending to have children in the long term (after four years). Stability of fertility intentions further improves the chance to realize them. Such stability is increased by the belief that having a child will improve
1102:
541:
997:. A study in the United Kingdom found that partners with children from previous unions have a higher likelihood of having children together. A study in France found the opposite, that childbearing rates are lowest after re-partnering if both partners are already parents. The French study also found that in couples where only one was already a parent, fertility rates were about the same as in childless couples.
405:. Field researchers have found that fertility rates are high and remain relatively stable among rural populations. Little evidence exists to suggest that high-fertility parents appear to be economically disadvantaged, further strengthening the fact that total fertility rates tend to be higher among women in rural areas. On the other hand, studies have suggested that a higher
120:(TPB). According to the TPB, intentions stem from three factors: attitudes regarding children, including the cost of raising them versus perceived benefits; subjective norms, for example the influence of others; and perceived control over behavior, that is, how much control an individual has over their own behavior.
624:
Results from research which attempts to find causality between education and fertility is mixed. One theory holds that higher educated women are more likely to become career women. Also, for higher educated women, there is a higher opportunity cost to bearing children. Both would lead higher educated
423:
Many studies have attempted to determine the causal link between government policies and fertility. However, as this article suggests, there are many factors that can potentially affect decisions to have children, how many to have, and when to have them, and separating these factors from effects of a
309:
Other studies, however, show that this effect can be balanced by the child's own attitudes that result from personal experiences, religiosity, education, etc. So, although the mother's preference of family size may influence that of the children through early adulthood, the child's own attitudes then
414:
are consistently found to have higher fertility. Some research indicates that population density may explain up to 31% of the variance in fertility rates, although the effect of population density on fertility can be moderated by other factors such as environmental conditions, religiosity and social
409:
is associated with decreased fertility rates. It is shown through studies that fertility rates differ between regions in ways that reflect the opportunity costs of child rearing. In a region with high population density, women restrain themselves from having many children due to the costs of living,
268:
A 2020 study found that the relation between religiosity and fertility was driven by the lower aggregate fertility of secular individuals. While religiosity did not prevent low fertility levels (as some highly religious countries had low fertility rates), secularism did prevent high fertility (as no
333:
among both highly educated and limited-education people to approximately 1.4. Among those cohabiting, on the other hand, a lower level of education increased the fertility rate to 1.7, and a higher level of education decreased it to 0.7. Another study found that
Romanian women with little education
123:
Fertility intentions tend to boil down to quantum intentions, or how many children to bear, and tempo intentions, meaning when to have them. Of these, quantum intention is the poor predictor because it tends to change as a result of the ups and downs of a typical life. Tempo intention is a somewhat
959:
Nevertheless, delayed childbirth alone is not sufficient to reduce fertility rates: in France despite the average high age at first birth, fertility rate remains close to the 2.1 replacement value. The aggregate effects of delayed childbearing tend to be relatively minor, because most women still
691:
in China fell from 2.8 births per woman in 1979 to 1.5 in 2010. However, the efficacy of the one-child policy itself is not clear, since there was already a sharp reduction from more than five births per woman in the early 1970s, before the introduction of the one-child policy. It has thereby been
217:
Preferences can also apply to the sex of the children born, and can therefore influence the decisions to have more children. For instance, if a couple's preference is to have at least one boy and one girl, and the first two children born are boys, there is a significantly high likelihood that the
213:
suggests that a woman's attitudes towards having children are shaped early in life. Furthermore, these attitudes tend to hold across the life course, and boil down to three main types: career-oriented, family-oriented, and a combination of both work and family. Research shows that family-oriented
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at the university level and the secondary school level is associated with higher fertility, even when accounting for the confounding effect that higher religiosity leads to a higher probability of attending a religiously affiliated school. Higher income is also associated with slightly increased
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found that both men receiving no support at all and receiving support from many different people have a lower probability of intending to have another child than those with a moderate degree of support. The negative effect of support from many different people is probably related to coordination
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of having children, either by increasing family income or reducing the cost of children. One study has found a positive effect on number of children during life due to family policy programs that make it easier for women to combine family and employment. Again, the idea here is to reduce the
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showed that women with living mothers had earlier first births, while a mother's death early in a daughter's life correlated with a higher probability of childlessness. On the other hand, the survival of fathers had no effect on either outcome. Co-residence with parents delayed first births and
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The level of a country's development often determines the level of women's education required to affect fertility. Countries with lower levels of development and gender equivalence are likely to find that a higher level of women's education, greater than secondary level, is required to affect
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have earlier and higher fertility than other racial and ethnic groups. In 2009, the teen birth rate for
Hispanics between the age 15-19 was roughly 80 births per 1000 women. The teen birth rate for African Americans in 2009 was 60 births per 1000 women and 20 for non Hispanic teens (white).
134:
A comparison of a survey to birth registers in Norway found that parents were more likely to realize their fertility intentions than childless respondents. It was also suggested that childless individuals may underestimate the effort of having children. On the other hand, parents may better
632:, a large survey found that women with a bachelor's degree or higher had an average of 1.1 children, while those with no high school diploma or equivalent had an average of 2.5 children. For men with the same levels of education, the number of children was 1.0 and 1.7, respectively.
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at the university level and, to a lesser degree, at the secondary school level, is associated with higher fertility, even when accounting for the confounding effect that higher religiosity among
Catholics leads to a higher probability of attending a religiously affiliated school.
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due to fears of side effects have been linked with increased fertility in the United
Kingdom. Introductions of laws that increase access to contraceptives have been associated with decreased fertility in the United States. However, short-term decreases in fertility may reflect a
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if they focus on childbirth and parenting rather than continuing their careers, that women who can economically sustain themselves have less incentive to become married, and that higher income parents value quality over quantity and so spend their resources on fewer children.
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Fertility is declining in advanced societies because couples are having fewer children or none at all, or they are delaying childbirth beyond the woman's most fertile years. The factors that lead to this trend are complex and probably vary from country to country.
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The last several decades have also seen changes in partnership dynamics. This has led to a tendency toward later marriages and a rise in unmarried cohabitation. Both of these have been linked to the postponement of parenthood (tempo) and thus reduced fertility.
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sometimes increases fertility rates of a country because of the births to the immigrant groups. However, over succeeding generations, migrant fertility often converges to that of their new country. The religiosity factor above, however, provides for various
269:
highly secular country had high fertility rates). Societal level secularism was also a better predictor of religious individuals' fertility than secular individuals, largely due to the effects of cultural values on reproduction, gender and personal autonomy.
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A study of the United States, and multiple countries in Europe, found that women who continue to cohabit after giving birth have a significantly lower probability of having a second child than married women in all countries, except those in
Eastern Europe.
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systems, where the majority of the economic and caring responsibilities rest on the family (such as in
Southern Europe), as opposed to defamilialized systems, where welfare and caring responsibilities are largely supported by the state (such as Nordic
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The trend of couples forming partnerships and marrying at later ages has been going on for some time. For example, in the US, during the period 1970 to 2006, the average age of first-time mothers increased by 3.6 years, from 21.4 years to 25.0 years.
321:
In the US cohabitation is generally associated with lower fertility. However, another study found that cohabiting couples in France have equal fertility as married ones. Russians have also been shown to have a higher fertility within cohabitation.
450:: Women have an increased probability to have another child when there is social pressure from parents, relatives, and friends to do so. For example, fertility increases during the one to two years after a sibling or a co-worker has a child.
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On the other hand, there is some evidence that with rising economic development, fertility rates drop at first, but then begin to rise again as the level of social and economic development increases, while still remaining below the
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women to postpone marriage and births. However, other studies suggest that, although higher educated women may postpone marriage and births, they can recuperate at a later age so that the impact of higher education is negligible.
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couples. Among
Catholics, increased religiosity is associated with the intention to have more children, while on the other hand, increased religiousness among Protestants is associated with the intention to have fewer children.
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A comparative study in Europe found that family-oriented women had the most children, work-oriented women had fewer or no children, and that among other factors, preferences play a major role in deciding to remain childless.
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of later childbearing, with individuals using contraceptives catching up later in life. A review of long-term fertility in Europe did not find fertility rates to be directly affected by availability of contraceptives.
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While some researchers cite economic factors as the main driver of fertility decline, socio-cultural theories focus on changes in values and attitudes toward children as being primarily responsible. For example, the
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attempts to explain how women's choices regarding work versus family have changed and how the expansion of options and the freedom to choose the option that seems best for them are the keys to recent declines in
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The decision to bear a child in advanced societies generally requires agreement between both partners. Disagreement between partners may mean that the desire for children of one partner are not realized.
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An Indian study found that couples where the woman is less than one year younger than the man have a total mean number of children of 3.1, compared to 3.5 when the woman is 7–9 years younger than the man.
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For many religions, religiosity is directly associated with an increase in the intention to have children. This appears to be the main means by which religion increases fertility. For example, as of 1963,
369:
Research in the U.S. shows that the extended family willing to provide support becomes a "safety net". This is particularly important for single mothers and situations involving partnership instability.
639:, on the other hand, women who are more educated eventually have about as many children as do the less educated, but that education results in having children at an older age. Likewise, a study in
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Anderson SE, Dallal GE, Must A (April 2003). "Relative weight and race influence average age at menarche: results from two nationally representative surveys of US girls studied 25 years apart".
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Women who work in nurturing professions such as teaching and health generally have children at an earlier age. It is theorized that women often self-select themselves into jobs with a favorable
435:
However, other empirical studies show that these programs are expensive and their impact tends to be small, so currently there is no broad consensus on their effectiveness in raising fertility.
1177: use) + 0.03 (male age at marriage*) − 0.21 (female age at marriage) − 0.16 (birth interval) − 0.26 (use of improved
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projects an increase in fertility, as a result of ART, that could increase the 1975 birth cohort by 5%. In addition, ART seems to challenge the biological limits of successful childbearing.
707:. The fertility rate has dropped from 5.7 in 1966 to 2.4 in 2016. Still, India's family planning program has been regarded as only partially successful in controlling fertility rates.
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Rotella, Amanda, Michael EW Varnum, Oliver Sng, and Igor
Grossmann. "Increasing population densities predict decreasing fertility rates over time: A 174-nation investigation." (2020).
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19:
This article is about determinants that are associated with how many children a person will have in total during their lifetime. For determinants of childbearing timing, see
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like IVF, whereas policies that transfer cash to families for pregnancy, and child support have only a limited effect on total fertility rate, according to the same review.
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809:, men have decreased pregnancy rates, increased time to pregnancy, and increased infertility as they age, although the correlation is not as substantial as in women. When
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According to the United States census, State Health Serve and the CDC, Hispanics accounted for 23% of the birth in 2014 out of the 1,000,000 births in the United States.
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Cooper TG, Noonan E, von
Eckardstein S, Auger J, Baker HW, Behre HM, et al. (2009). "World Health Organization reference values for human semen characteristics".
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The predictive power of intentions continues to be debated. Research that argues that intentions are a good predictor of actual results tends to draw ideas from the
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Krzyżanowska M, Mascie-Taylor CG, Thalabard JC (2015). "Is human mating for height associated with fertility? Results from a British National Cohort Study".
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1162:, where parameters preceded by a plus were associated with increased fertility, and parameters preceded by a minus were associated with decreased fertility:
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2722:"Regression Analysis of Collinear Data using r-k Class Estimator: Socio-Economic and Demographic Factors Affecting the Total Fertility Rate (TFR) in India"
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Most studies concerning tempo focus on teenage mothers and show that having had a young mother increases the likelihood of having a child at a young age.
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is also a great determinant of the state of health of the unborn child, mother's death in childbirth means almost certain death for her newly born child.
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are generally associated with decreased fertility rates. Economic theories about declining fertility postulate that people earning more have a higher
127:
The intention to have children generally increases the probability of having children. This relation is well evidenced in advanced societies, where
3608:"The Influence of Partner Relationship Quality on Fertility [L'influence de la qualité de la relation avec le partenaire sur la fécondité]"
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Parents' religiosity is positively associated with their children's fertility. Therefore, more religious parents will tend to increase fertility.
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the age of the female partner, comparisons between men under 30 and men over 50 found relative decreases in pregnancy rates between 23% and 38%.
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It has also been suggested that religions generally encourage lifestyles with fertility factors that, in turn, increase fertility. For example,
1980:
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found that better-educated males have a decreased probability of remaining childless, although they generally became fathers at an older age.
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particular government policy is difficult. Making this even more difficult is the time lag between government policy initiation and results.
825:
The "contraceptive revolution" has played a crucial role in reducing the number of children (quantum) and postponing child-bearing (tempo).
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found this effect to be strongest among women aged 20–39, with a less strong but persistent effect among older women as well. International
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temporarily increased birth rates in communist Romania for a few years, but this was followed by a later decline due to an increased use of
254:
are, in many religions, more restrictive than secular views, and such religious restrictions have been associated with increased fertility.
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have complex relations to fertility, wherein couples with a medium-quality relationship appear to be the most likely to have another child.
904:. A Dutch study found that couples are likely to have fewer children if they have high levels of either negative or positive interaction.
291:, the number of children a person has strongly correlates with the number of children that each of those children will eventually have.
926:. A study in the USA shows that unemployment in women has effects both in the short and the long term in reducing their fertility rate.
230:
as "very important" in their everyday lives had a higher fertility than those reporting it as "somewhat important" or "not important".
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data suggests that women who work because of economic necessity have higher fertility than those who work because they want to do so.
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policy. In 2015 China ended its one child policy, allowing couples to have two children. This was a result of China having a large
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in the form of personal relationships, goods, information, money, work capacity, influence, power, and personal help from others.
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2010:
Spéder Z, Kapitány B (2014). "Failure to Realize Fertility Intentions: A Key Aspect of the Post-communist Fertility Transition".
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Caldwell JC (March 1977). "The economic rationality of high fertility: An investigation illustrated with Nigerian survey data".
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reflects changes in personal goals, religious preferences, relationships, and perhaps most important, family formations. Also,
2409:"How Similar are Cohabiting and Married Parents? Second Conception Risks by Union Type in the United States and Across Europe"
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refers to the timing and frequency of pregnancies. Childbirth to a mother is affected by this factor in one way or the other.
932:. It has been theorized that social security systems decrease the incentive to have children to provide security in old age.
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influences fertility intentions, with an increased number of nephews and nieces increasing the preferred number of children.
42:
4084:"Fertility in Advanced Societies: A Review of Research: La fécondité dans les sociétés avancées: un examen des recherches"
1363:"Fertility in Advanced Societies: A Review of Research: La fécondité dans les sociétés avancées: un examen des recherches"
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women have the most children, and work-oriented women have the least, or none at all, although causality remains unclear.
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2318:"Family Formation Trajectories in Romania, the Russian Federation and France: Towards the Second Demographic Transition?"
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Male Fertility Patterns and Determinants. Volume 27 of The Springer Series on Demographic Methods and Population Analysis
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resulted in lower total fertility and higher probability of childlessness. This effect is even stronger for poor women.
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Birth Rates Among Hispanics and Non-Hispanics and Their Representation in Clinical Trials in Obstetrics and Gynecology
1962:"Differences in childbearing by time frame of fertility intention. A study using survey and register data from Norway"
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Also, fertility postponement has become common in all European countries, including those of the former Soviet Union.
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1981:"How expected life and partner satisfaction affect women's fertility outcomes: the role of uncertainty in intentions"
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fertility among Catholic couples, however, is associated with slightly decreased fertility among Protestant couples.
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Causality analyses indicate that fertility rate influences female labor participation, not the other way around.
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indicated that genetic influences in themselves largely override previously shared environmental influences. The
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Help add sources such as review articles, monographs, or textbooks. Please also establish the relevance for any
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The following have been reported, at least in the primary research literature, to have no or uncertain effects.
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1473:"Fertility of men and women aged 15-44 years in the United States: National Survey of Family Growth, 2006-2010"
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opportunity cost of children. These positive results have been found in Germany, Sweden, Canada, and the US.
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Social support from the extended family and friends can help a couple decide to have a child, or another one.
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Studies mainly in ex-communist Eastern European countries have associated increased fertility with increased
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Schnabel, Landon. 2016. "Secularism and Fertility Worldwide". SocArXiv. July 19. doi:10.31235/osf.io/pvwpy.
3286:"A Note on the Changing Relationship between Fertility and Female Employment Rates in Developed Countries"
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Russel Hopfenburg, David Pimentel, Duke University, Durham, NC, USA;2Cornell University, Ithaca, NY, USA
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Myrskylä M, Kohler HP, Billari FC (August 2009). "Advances in development reverse fertility declines".
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Hesketh T, Zhou X, Wang Y (2015). "The End of the One-Child Policy: Lasting Implications for China".
2990:"Women's Education and Fertility Rates in Developing Countries, With Special Reference to Bangladesh"
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616:, where values of increased autonomy and independence have been associated with decreased fertility.
2848:"Changing Relationships between Education and Fertility: A Study of Women and Men Born 1940 to 1964"
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3379:"Age at menarche in Canada: results from the National Longitudinal Survey of Children & Youth"
2269:"Cross-national patterns of intergenerational continuities in childbearing in developed countries"
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is ovulatory problems, which generally manifest themselves by sparse or absent menstrual periods.
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was introduced between 1978 and 1980, and began to be formally phased out in 2015 in favor of a
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is seen in people with a tendency to seek acquaintance among those with common characteristics.
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Factors associated with increased fertility include the intention to have children, remaining
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of family size, which influences that of the children through early adulthood. Likewise, the
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Schenker JG, Rabenou V (June 1993). "Family planning: cultural and religious perspectives".
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Part of the research project Family Dynamics, Fertility Choices and Family Policy (FAMDYN)
1562:"Wealth modifies relationships between kin and women's fertility in high-income countries"
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2906:"Stalls in Africa's fertility decline partly result from disruptions in female education"
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area, increased female labor participation has been associated with increased fertility.
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Gauthier A, Hatzius J (1997). "Family benefits and fertility: An econometric analysis".
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Please help update this article to reflect recent events or newly available information.
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suggested that a decline in fertility rate would have continued even without the strict
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Freeing American Families: Reforms to Make Family Life Easier and More Affordable
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are determinants of the number of children that an individual is likely to have.
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3465:"Effects of male age on semen quality and fertility: a review of the literature"
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A survey taken place in 2002 in the United States found that women who reported
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Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America
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3708:"Maybe Next Month? Temperature Shocks and Dynamic Adjustments in Birth Rates"
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Religion sometimes modifies the fertility effects of education and income.
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cited. Unsourced or poorly sourced material may be challenged and removed.
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There are many determinants of the intention to have children, including:
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have no significant effect on fertility, according to one primary source.
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2579:"The impact of family policy expenditure on fertility in western Europe"
1889:"Exposure to air pollution seems to negatively affect women's fertility"
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3866:
3312:
2874:
2594:
2463:
2072:
1542:
1432:
467:
394:
390:
243:
1516:"Family policies in the context of low fertility and social structure"
410:
therefore lowering the fertility rates. Within urban areas, people in
3506:"Influence of age gap between couples on contraception and fertility"
2778:"The best of all possible worlds? A link between wealth and breeding"
2114:
1421:
Social Forces; A Scientific Medium of Social Study and Interpretation
1182:
1007:
priming for other instinctual functions associated with reproduction.
779:
481:
460:
454:
88:
71:
Factors generally associated with decreased fertility include rising
38:
2357:"Recent Features of Cohabitational and Marital Fertility in Romania"
2063:
2046:
1201:
895:
438:
68:
such as conscientiousness, and generally increased food production.
52:, general inter-generational transmission of values, high status of
3885:"Second-Union Fertility in France: Partners' Age and Other Factors"
1601:
Shatz SM (March 2008). "IQ and fertility: A cross-national study".
1211:
1080:
1026:
791:
334:
have about equal fertility in marital and cohabiting partnerships.
235:
227:
61:
53:
3921:
3130:
World Population: A Reference Handbook (Contemporary world issues)
540:
124:
better predictor, but still a weak way to predict actual results.
60:, maternal and social support, rural residence, a small subset of
798:
during the early 30s, and during the early 40s most women become
508:
326:
318:
The effect of cohabitation on fertility varies across countries.
92:
3612:
European Journal of Population / Revue Européenne de Démographie
3570:
1158:
on a population in India resulted in the following equation of
640:
636:
411:
239:
4130:
Calder, Vanessa Brown, and Chelsea Follett (August 10, 2023).
3177:
Brothers and sisters in India: a study of urban adult siblings
2965:"Female Education and Childbearing: A Closer Look at the Data"
1714:"Female Education and Childbearing: A Closer Look at the Data"
1667:
526:
98:
16:
Factors influencing the likelihood of a person having children
3915:
3825:"Fertility in Europe: Diverse, delayed and below replacement"
3762:
960:
have their first child well before the onset of infertility.
885:
672:
668:
443:
Other factors associated with increase of fertility include:
3377:
Al-Sahab B, Ardern CI, Hamadeh MJ, Tamim H (November 2010).
3011:
Ahmad A (2013). "Global Population and Demographic Trends".
238:
couples generally had intentions to have more children than
3649:"Short- and long-term effects of unemployment on fertility"
2379:"The Role of Consensual Unions in Romanian Total Fertility"
272:
3706:
Barreca, Alan; Deschenes, Olivier; Guldi, Melanie (2018).
3376:
1959:
766:
Cumulative percentage and average age for women reaching
947:
719:
is associated with decreased fertility. A multi-country
242:
couples, who in turn, tended to have more children than
1908:
Journal of the Turkish German Gynecological Association
1629:"Human population numbers as a function of food supply"
471:: Male-dominated families generally have more children.
142:
Chances of realizing fertility intentions are lower in
3969:"Healthy Mothers and Healthy Newborns: The Vital Link"
2044:
1739:
1470:
612:
Another example of this can be found in Europe and in
277:
The transmission of values from parents to offspring (
112:
A Norwegian family ca 1900, parents plus five children
3705:
2794:
2627:"Birth Rates Rising in Some Low Birth-Rate Countries"
1870:
European Society of Human Reproduction and Embryology
3503:
3435:(2nd ed.). Blackwell Publishing. Archived from
2093:
2045:
Axinn WG, Clarkberg ME, Thornton A (February 1994).
188:, with happier people tending to want more children.
87:, partner reluctance to child-bearing, infertility,
3599:
3462:
2994:
Eubios Journal of Asian and International Bioethics
2839:
2315:
2163:
Third Child: A Study in the Prediction of Fertility
1555:
1553:
1410:
1408:
1406:
744:in order to pursue both motherhood and employment.
710:
3341:
2354:
2160:
2038:
892:is used as a surrogate measure of male fecundity.
4081:
4048:"American Journal of Obstetrics & Gynecology"
3463:Kidd SA, Eskenazi B, Wyrobek AJ (February 2001).
1955:
1953:
1951:
1949:
1947:
1509:
1360:
1025:The fertility impact is unknown in country-level
896:Other factors associated with decreased fertility
550:GDP (PPP) per capita of the corresponding country
484:arrangements, according to studies both from the
439:Other factors associated with increased fertility
418:
4142:
3427:
2903:
2454:
2452:
1670:"Europe the continent with the lowest fertility"
1550:
1403:
3844:
3605:
3092:
3086:
2845:
2219:
1820:"The variability of female reproductive ageing"
1817:
1471:Martinez G, Daniels K, Chandra A (April 2012).
884:is most commonly caused by deficiencies in the
865:20-30% percent of infertility cases are due to
794:, typically around age 12-13 Most women become
427:The purpose of these programs is to reduce the
306:does not seem to have any effect on fertility.
298:growing up in the same environment compared to
4082:Balbo N, Billari FC, Mills M (February 2013).
3763:Tulane University, USA; Barreca, Alan (2017).
3646:
2719:
2406:
2047:"Family influences on family size preferences"
2009:
1974:
1972:
1944:
1361:Balbo N, Billari FC, Mills M (February 2013).
1003:. Could be explained by all manner of visible
700:with its ageing population and working force.
3996:
3504:Das KC, Gautam V, Das K, Tripathy PK (2011).
3157:"China to end one-child policy and allow two"
2530:"Economic geography, fertility and migration"
2449:
2262:
2260:
2167:. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.
2158:
1978:
1775:
1773:
1771:
1740:Bloom D, Canning D, Fink G, Finlay J (2009).
1559:
1414:
586:
310:take over and influence fertility decisions.
3878:
3876:
3838:
3458:
3456:
3201:"CIA, The World Fact Book, India, 7/24/2017"
2904:Kebede E, Goujon A, Lutz W (February 2019).
2687:"Country Comparison: GDP - Per Capita (PPP)"
2566:
1960:Dommermuth L, Klobas J, Lappegård T (2014).
1859:
1857:
1855:
1813:
1811:
1809:
1735:
1733:
1356:
1354:
1352:
1350:
1348:
1346:
1344:
1342:
1340:
1338:
1336:
1334:
1332:
1330:
1328:
1326:
1324:
1322:
1320:
1318:
1316:
1314:
1312:
1310:
1308:
1306:
1304:
1302:
1300:
1298:
1296:
1294:
1292:
1290:
1288:
1286:
1284:
1282:
1280:
1278:
1276:
1274:
1272:
1270:
1268:
1266:
1264:
1262:
1260:
1258:
1256:
1034:
313:
3430:"Obstetrics and Gynaecology: Lecture Notes"
2523:
2521:
2376:
1969:
1904:"Impact of obesity on infertility in women"
1254:
1252:
1250:
1248:
1246:
1244:
1242:
1240:
1238:
1236:
1218:, promoting and opposing human reproduction
527:Factors associated with decreased fertility
171:from kin and friends to have another child.
99:Factors associated with increased fertility
3963:
3961:
3765:"Does hot weather affect human fertility?"
2715:
2713:
2257:
2154:
2152:
2150:
2148:
2146:
2144:
2142:
2140:
2138:
1779:
1768:
1663:
1661:
1659:
1657:
1655:
1653:
1651:
1649:
1647:
1645:
1505:
1503:
1501:
1091:
938:is suggested as a factor in some research.
841:
4138:no. 955, Cato Institute, Washington, DC.
4107:
4063:
4014:
3882:
3873:
3778:
3739:
3682:
3672:
3623:
3480:
3453:
3404:
3394:
3069:
2939:
2929:
2602:
2432:
2292:
2199:. Springer Science & Business Media.
2062:
1927:
1901:
1852:
1835:
1806:
1797:
1759:
1730:
1688:
1577:
1541:
1531:
1440:
1386:
1142:Learn how and when to remove this message
75:, value and attitude changes, education,
3167:
2518:
2489:
2383:Stockholm Research Reports in Demography
1466:
1464:
1462:
1460:
1233:
761:
539:
372:
273:Intergenerational transmission of values
107:
41:factors are mostly positive or negative
3958:
3793:
3564:
3283:
3127:
2962:
2710:
2135:
2094:Vignoli D, Rinesi F, Mussino E (2013).
1711:
1668:The ESHRE Capri Workshop Group (2010).
1642:
1498:
963:
942:
218:couple will opt to have another child.
204:
43:correlations without certain causations
4143:
3213:
2576:
2355:Hoem JM, Mureşan C, Hărăguş M (2013).
2316:Potârcă G, Mills M, Lesnard L (2013).
2266:
27:. For the factor in microbiology, see
3822:
3818:
3816:
3647:Currie J, Schwandt H (October 2014).
3010:
2987:
2656:"Field Listing: Total Fertility Rate"
2234:10.1093/oxfordjournals.humrep.a138176
2194:
2012:Population Research and Policy Review
1600:
1484:National Center for Health Statistics
1457:
1207:List of people with the most children
989:Governmental maternity leave benefits
948:Delayed childbearing and tempo effect
703:Extensive efforts have been put into
657:
4045:
4003:The Journal of Economic Perspectives
3997:Kearney MS, Levine PB (2012-01-01).
3173:
2527:
1482:(51). Division of Vital Statistics,
1095:
1038:
3257:Completing the Fertility Transition
3243:"Female Labour-Force Participation"
3220:. Penguin Books India. p. 98.
3043:
3037:
679:programs in the world. In China, a
341:
329:showed that marriage equalized the
13:
4125:
3813:
2981:
2720:Rai PK, Pareek S, Joshi H (2013).
1480:National Health Statistics Reports
983:Relationship quality and stability
381:
14:
4167:
3924:American Journal of Human Biology
1786:Population and Development Review
1167:human development index
354:
3606:Rijken AJ, Liefbroer AC (2008).
3428:Hamilton-Fairley, Diana (2004).
3050:Archives of Disease in Childhood
2273:Biodemography and Social Biology
1902:Dağ ZÖ, Dilbaz B (1 June 2015).
1818:te Velde ER, Pearson PL (2002).
1799:10.1111/j.1728-4457.2013.00555.x
1100:
1043:
975:assisted reproductive technology
820:
711:Female labor force participation
675:have the oldest and the largest
535:
503:Assisted reproduction technology
252:religious views on birth control
4039:
3990:
3787:
3756:
3699:
3640:
3537:
3497:
3421:
3370:
3335:
3293:Journal of Population Economics
3277:
3240:
3234:
3207:
3193:
3180:, University of Toronto Press,
3149:
3121:
3004:
2956:
2897:
2846:Rindfuss RR, Kravdal O (2008).
2788:
2770:
2679:
2648:
2619:
2557:
2483:
2400:
2370:
2348:
2309:
2248:
2213:
2184:
2087:
2003:
1895:
1881:
1171:infant mortality rate
4088:European Journal of Population
2504:10.1080/00324728.1977.10412744
2413:European Journal of Population
2322:European Journal of Population
2159:Westoff CF, Potter RG (1963).
1705:
1621:
1594:
1415:Hayford SR, Morgan SP (2008).
1367:European Journal of Population
854:
730:However, for countries in the
419:Pro-family government programs
221:
1:
3482:10.1016/S0015-0282(00)01679-4
3046:"The one child family policy"
1780:Feng W, Yong C, Gu B (2012).
1560:Schaffnit SB, Sear R (2014).
1227:
1165:Total Fertility Rate = 0.02 (
1117:secondary or tertiary sources
995:Children from previous unions
930:Generosity of public pensions
594:Second Demographic Transition
348:Generations and Gender Survey
3217:Better India, A Better World
2855:American Sociological Review
2285:10.1080/19485565.2013.833779
1979:Cavalli L, Klobas J (2013).
1865:"ART fact sheet (July 2014)"
1615:10.1016/j.intell.2007.03.002
1188:* = Parameter did not reach
828:Periods of decreased use of
619:
103:
7:
3859:10.1080/0032472031000150066
2741:10.6339/JDS.2013.11(2).1030
2575:(see top of list), citing:
2377:Hoem JM, Muresan C (2011).
2103:Population, Space and Place
1195:
715:Increased participation of
480:have higher fertility than
139:and partner relationships.
29:Fertility factor (bacteria)
10:
4172:
4075:
4065:10.1016/j.ajog.2015.10.595
3889:Population English Edition
3794:Mathews TJ (August 2009).
2867:10.1177/000312240807300508
2756:(primary research article)
2537:Journal of Urban Economics
2364:Population English Edition
1747:Journal of Economic Growth
858:
751:
661:
587:Value and attitude changes
555:
492:Illegalization of abortion
389:are higher among women in
192:A secure housing situation
118:theory of planned behavior
77:female labor participation
62:pro-family social programs
18:
4100:10.1007/s10680-012-9277-y
3724:10.1007/s13524-018-0690-7
3625:10.1007/s10680-008-9156-8
3573:Human Reproduction Update
3513:Journal of Family Welfare
2425:10.1007/s10680-014-9320-2
2407:Perelli-Harris B (2014).
2334:10.1007/s10680-012-9279-9
2024:10.1007/s11113-013-9313-6
1824:Human Reproduction Update
1761:10.1007/s10887-009-9039-9
1677:Human Reproduction Update
1533:10.4054/DemRes.2013.29.37
1476:(primary research report)
1379:10.1007/s10680-012-9277-y
1222:Sub-replacement fertility
1124:primary research articles
1052:This section needs to be
1035:Racial and ethnic factors
1001:Spousal height difference
876:The most common cause of
325:Survey data from 2003 in
314:Marriage and cohabitation
4046:Kahr MK (January 2016).
3396:10.1186/1471-2458-10-736
2963:Pradhan E (2015-11-24).
1997:10.1353/prv.2013.a523812
1920:10.5152/jtgga.2015.15232
1712:Pradhan E (2015-11-24).
1190:statistical significance
788:age and female fertility
705:family planning in India
677:human population control
664:Human population control
377:A family of rural Africa
3674:10.1073/pnas.1408975111
3550:National Health Service
3545:"Causes of infertility"
3469:Fertility and Sterility
3107:10.1001/jama.2015.16279
3021:10.1057/9781137319494_3
2931:10.1073/pnas.1717288116
2729:Journal of Data Science
2528:Sato Y (30 July 2006),
1092:Multifactorial analyses
842:Partner and partnership
131:is the default option.
3901:10.3917/pope.1102.0239
3356:10.1542/peds.111.4.844
3284:Ahn N, Mira P (2002).
1837:10.1093/humupd/8.2.141
973:Government support of
908:Unstable relationships
807:age and male fertility
790:, fertility starts at
783:
776:irregular menstruation
747:
717:women in the workforce
553:
378:
113:
3823:Freja T (July 2008).
3585:10.1093/humupd/dmp048
3305:10.1007/s001480100078
3013:New Age Globalization
2577:Kalwij A (May 2010).
1690:10.1093/humupd/dmq023
1579:10.1093/beheco/aru059
902:Intense relationships
859:Further information:
765:
754:Advanced maternal age
662:Further information:
543:
520:systematic exceptions
403:high-income countries
387:Total fertility rates
376:
289:high-income countries
111:
21:Advanced maternal age
4016:10.1257/jep.26.2.141
3883:Beaujouan E (2011).
3834:. 19, Article 3: 20.
3832:Demographic Research
3263:Publications. 2009.
3062:10.1136/adc.88.6.463
3044:Zhu WX (June 2003).
2466:Publications. 2015.
1520:Demographic Research
1160:total fertility rate
964:Additional variables
943:More complex factors
869:, 20–35% are due to
558:Income and fertility
546:total fertility rate
401:, middle-income and
397:, as evidenced from
393:than among women in
331:total fertility rate
205:Fertility preference
3780:10.15185/izawol.375
3665:2014PNAS..11114734C
3519:(2). Archived from
2969:Investing in Health
2922:2019PNAS..116.2891K
2817:10.1038/nature08230
2809:2009Natur.460..741M
2758:on 25 November 2019
1718:Investing in Health
1156:regression analysis
830:contraceptive pills
758:Paternal age effect
296:non-identical twins
159:mother's preference
25:Paternal age effect
3936:10.1002/ajhb.22684
3847:Population Studies
3770:IZA World of Labor
3350:(4 Pt 1): 844–50.
3163:. 29 October 2015.
3128:Gilbert G (2005).
3015:. pp. 33–60.
2692:The World Factbook
2661:The World Factbook
2595:10.1353/dem.0.0104
2546:on 6 February 2016
2492:Population Studies
2222:Human Reproduction
1566:Behavioral Ecology
1433:10.1353/sof.0.0000
1202:Family § Size
1183:maternal care
1179:water quality
1005:sexual dimorphisms
878:female infertility
871:female infertility
784:
658:Population control
647:Catholic education
614:post-Soviet states
554:
482:cooperative living
407:population density
379:
259:Catholic education
144:post-Soviet states
114:
81:population control
3383:BMC Public Health
3214:Murthy N (2010).
3203:. 10 August 2022.
3187:978-0-8020-9077-5
3030:978-1-349-45115-9
2784:. August 6, 2009.
2699:on April 27, 2015
2267:Murphy M (2013).
1985:Population Review
1510:Fent T, Diaz BA,
1152:
1151:
1144:
1111:needs additional
1085:African Americans
1073:
1072:
910:, according to a
742:work–life balance
598:Preference Theory
568:human development
294:Danish data from
211:Preference Theory
137:life satisfaction
35:Fertility factors
4163:
4121:
4111:
4070:
4069:
4067:
4043:
4037:
4036:
4018:
3994:
3988:
3987:
3985:
3984:
3975:. Archived from
3965:
3956:
3955:
3919:
3913:
3912:
3880:
3871:
3870:
3842:
3836:
3835:
3829:
3820:
3811:
3810:
3800:
3791:
3785:
3784:
3782:
3760:
3754:
3753:
3743:
3718:(4): 1269–1293.
3703:
3697:
3696:
3686:
3676:
3644:
3638:
3637:
3627:
3603:
3597:
3596:
3568:
3562:
3561:
3559:
3558:
3541:
3535:
3534:
3532:
3531:
3525:
3510:
3501:
3495:
3494:
3484:
3460:
3451:
3450:
3448:
3447:
3441:
3434:
3425:
3419:
3418:
3408:
3398:
3374:
3368:
3367:
3339:
3333:
3332:
3290:
3281:
3275:
3274:
3253:
3247:
3238:
3232:
3231:
3211:
3205:
3204:
3197:
3191:
3190:
3174:Ramu GN (2006),
3171:
3165:
3164:
3153:
3147:
3143:
3125:
3119:
3118:
3090:
3084:
3083:
3073:
3041:
3035:
3034:
3008:
3002:
3001:
2988:Akmam W (2002).
2985:
2979:
2978:
2976:
2975:
2960:
2954:
2953:
2943:
2933:
2916:(8): 2891–2896.
2901:
2895:
2894:
2852:
2843:
2837:
2836:
2792:
2786:
2785:
2774:
2768:
2767:
2765:
2763:
2757:
2751:. Archived from
2726:
2717:
2708:
2707:
2705:
2704:
2695:. Archived from
2683:
2677:
2676:
2674:
2673:
2668:on June 13, 2007
2664:. Archived from
2652:
2646:
2645:
2643:
2642:
2633:. Archived from
2623:
2617:
2616:
2606:
2570:
2564:
2561:
2555:
2554:
2553:
2551:
2545:
2539:, archived from
2534:
2525:
2516:
2515:
2487:
2481:
2477:
2456:
2447:
2446:
2436:
2404:
2398:
2397:
2395:
2394:
2385:. Archived from
2374:
2368:
2367:
2361:
2352:
2346:
2345:
2313:
2307:
2306:
2296:
2264:
2255:
2252:
2246:
2245:
2217:
2211:
2210:
2195:Zhang L (2010).
2188:
2182:
2178:
2166:
2156:
2133:
2132:
2130:
2129:
2123:
2117:. Archived from
2115:10.1002/psp.1716
2100:
2091:
2085:
2084:
2066:
2042:
2036:
2035:
2007:
2001:
2000:
1976:
1967:
1965:
1957:
1942:
1941:
1931:
1899:
1893:
1892:
1885:
1879:
1878:
1873:. Archived from
1861:
1850:
1849:
1839:
1815:
1804:
1803:
1801:
1777:
1766:
1765:
1763:
1737:
1728:
1727:
1725:
1724:
1709:
1703:
1702:
1692:
1674:
1665:
1640:
1639:
1633:
1625:
1619:
1618:
1598:
1592:
1591:
1581:
1557:
1548:
1547:
1545:
1535:
1507:
1496:
1495:
1477:
1468:
1455:
1454:
1444:
1427:(3): 1163–1188.
1412:
1401:
1400:
1390:
1358:
1173:*) − 0.34 (
1169:*) + 0.07 (
1147:
1140:
1136:
1133:
1127:
1104:
1103:
1096:
1068:
1065:
1059:
1047:
1046:
1039:
918:Higher tax rates
882:Male infertility
867:male infertility
698:dependency ratio
685:two-child policy
681:one-child policy
581:replacement rate
572:opportunity cost
496:illegal abortion
429:opportunity cost
342:Maternal support
148:Western European
4171:
4170:
4166:
4165:
4164:
4162:
4161:
4160:
4151:Family planning
4141:
4140:
4136:Policy Analysis
4128:
4126:Further reading
4078:
4073:
4044:
4040:
3995:
3991:
3982:
3980:
3967:
3966:
3959:
3920:
3916:
3881:
3874:
3843:
3839:
3827:
3821:
3814:
3803:NCHS Data Brief
3798:
3792:
3788:
3761:
3757:
3704:
3700:
3659:(41): 14734–9.
3645:
3641:
3604:
3600:
3569:
3565:
3556:
3554:
3543:
3542:
3538:
3529:
3527:
3523:
3508:
3502:
3498:
3461:
3454:
3445:
3443:
3439:
3432:
3426:
3422:
3375:
3371:
3340:
3336:
3288:
3282:
3278:
3271:
3255:
3245:
3239:
3235:
3228:
3212:
3208:
3199:
3198:
3194:
3188:
3172:
3168:
3155:
3154:
3150:
3140:
3126:
3122:
3101:(24): 2619–20.
3091:
3087:
3042:
3038:
3031:
3009:
3005:
2986:
2982:
2973:
2971:
2961:
2957:
2902:
2898:
2850:
2844:
2840:
2803:(7256): 741–3.
2793:
2789:
2776:
2775:
2771:
2761:
2759:
2755:
2724:
2718:
2711:
2702:
2700:
2685:
2684:
2680:
2671:
2669:
2654:
2653:
2649:
2640:
2638:
2625:
2624:
2620:
2571:
2567:
2562:
2558:
2549:
2547:
2543:
2532:
2526:
2519:
2488:
2484:
2474:
2458:
2457:
2450:
2405:
2401:
2392:
2390:
2375:
2371:
2359:
2353:
2349:
2314:
2310:
2265:
2258:
2253:
2249:
2218:
2214:
2207:
2189:
2185:
2175:
2157:
2136:
2127:
2125:
2121:
2098:
2092:
2088:
2064:10.2307/2061908
2043:
2039:
2008:
2004:
1977:
1970:
1958:
1945:
1900:
1896:
1887:
1886:
1882:
1863:
1862:
1853:
1816:
1807:
1778:
1769:
1738:
1731:
1722:
1720:
1710:
1706:
1672:
1666:
1643:
1631:
1627:
1626:
1622:
1599:
1595:
1558:
1551:
1526:(37): 963–998.
1508:
1499:
1475:
1469:
1458:
1413:
1404:
1359:
1234:
1230:
1198:
1148:
1137:
1131:
1128:
1121:
1105:
1101:
1094:
1069:
1063:
1060:
1057:
1048:
1044:
1037:
1011:Mother's health
966:
950:
945:
898:
863:
857:
844:
823:
811:controlling for
792:onset of menses
760:
752:Main articles:
750:
713:
666:
660:
622:
589:
560:
538:
529:
507:One study from
448:Social pressure
441:
421:
384:
382:Rural residence
357:
344:
316:
300:identical twins
275:
224:
207:
177:. A study from
169:Social pressure
163:extended family
106:
101:
32:
17:
12:
11:
5:
4169:
4159:
4158:
4153:
4127:
4124:
4123:
4122:
4077:
4074:
4072:
4071:
4038:
3989:
3957:
3914:
3872:
3853:(3): 295–306.
3837:
3812:
3786:
3755:
3698:
3639:
3598:
3563:
3536:
3496:
3452:
3420:
3369:
3334:
3299:(4): 667–682.
3276:
3269:
3261:United Nations
3250:United Nations
3233:
3226:
3206:
3192:
3186:
3166:
3148:
3138:
3120:
3085:
3036:
3029:
3003:
2980:
2955:
2896:
2861:(5): 854–873.
2838:
2787:
2769:
2735:(2): 323–342.
2709:
2678:
2647:
2618:
2565:
2556:
2517:
2482:
2472:
2448:
2419:(4): 437–464.
2399:
2369:
2347:
2308:
2256:
2247:
2212:
2205:
2183:
2173:
2134:
2086:
2037:
2018:(3): 393–418.
2002:
1968:
1943:
1894:
1880:
1877:on 2016-03-04.
1851:
1805:
1767:
1729:
1704:
1683:(6): 590–602.
1641:
1620:
1609:(2): 109–111.
1593:
1572:(4): 834–842.
1549:
1497:
1456:
1402:
1231:
1229:
1226:
1225:
1224:
1219:
1209:
1204:
1197:
1194:
1150:
1149:
1108:
1106:
1099:
1093:
1090:
1071:
1070:
1051:
1049:
1042:
1036:
1033:
1032:
1031:
1020:
1014:
1008:
998:
992:
986:
980:
965:
962:
949:
946:
944:
941:
940:
939:
933:
927:
921:
915:
905:
897:
894:
856:
853:
843:
840:
822:
819:
749:
746:
725:United Nations
712:
709:
689:fertility rate
659:
656:
621:
618:
588:
585:
556:Main article:
537:
534:
528:
525:
524:
523:
512:
499:
489:
476:Nuclear family
472:
464:
451:
440:
437:
420:
417:
383:
380:
364:social capital
356:
355:Social support
353:
346:Data from the
343:
340:
315:
312:
274:
271:
223:
220:
206:
203:
202:
201:
195:
189:
183:
175:Social support
172:
166:
105:
102:
100:
97:
15:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
4168:
4157:
4154:
4152:
4149:
4148:
4146:
4139:
4137:
4133:
4119:
4115:
4110:
4105:
4101:
4097:
4093:
4089:
4085:
4080:
4079:
4066:
4061:
4058:: S296–S297.
4057:
4053:
4049:
4042:
4034:
4030:
4026:
4022:
4017:
4012:
4009:(2): 141–66.
4008:
4004:
4000:
3993:
3979:on 2017-03-30
3978:
3974:
3970:
3964:
3962:
3953:
3949:
3945:
3941:
3937:
3933:
3930:(4): 553–63.
3929:
3925:
3918:
3910:
3906:
3902:
3898:
3894:
3890:
3886:
3879:
3877:
3868:
3864:
3860:
3856:
3852:
3848:
3841:
3833:
3826:
3819:
3817:
3808:
3804:
3797:
3790:
3781:
3776:
3772:
3771:
3766:
3759:
3751:
3747:
3742:
3737:
3733:
3729:
3725:
3721:
3717:
3713:
3709:
3702:
3694:
3690:
3685:
3680:
3675:
3670:
3666:
3662:
3658:
3654:
3650:
3643:
3635:
3631:
3626:
3621:
3617:
3613:
3609:
3602:
3594:
3590:
3586:
3582:
3579:(3): 231–45.
3578:
3574:
3567:
3552:
3551:
3546:
3540:
3526:on 2019-08-19
3522:
3518:
3514:
3507:
3500:
3492:
3488:
3483:
3478:
3475:(2): 237–48.
3474:
3470:
3466:
3459:
3457:
3442:on 2018-10-09
3438:
3431:
3424:
3416:
3412:
3407:
3402:
3397:
3392:
3388:
3384:
3380:
3373:
3365:
3361:
3357:
3353:
3349:
3345:
3338:
3330:
3326:
3322:
3318:
3314:
3310:
3306:
3302:
3298:
3294:
3287:
3280:
3272:
3270:9789211513707
3266:
3262:
3258:
3251:
3244:
3237:
3229:
3227:9780143068570
3223:
3219:
3218:
3210:
3202:
3196:
3189:
3183:
3179:
3178:
3170:
3162:
3158:
3152:
3146:
3141:
3139:9781851099276
3135:
3131:
3124:
3116:
3112:
3108:
3104:
3100:
3096:
3089:
3081:
3077:
3072:
3067:
3063:
3059:
3055:
3051:
3047:
3040:
3032:
3026:
3022:
3018:
3014:
3007:
2999:
2995:
2991:
2984:
2970:
2966:
2959:
2951:
2947:
2942:
2937:
2932:
2927:
2923:
2919:
2915:
2911:
2907:
2900:
2892:
2888:
2884:
2880:
2876:
2872:
2868:
2864:
2860:
2856:
2849:
2842:
2834:
2830:
2826:
2822:
2818:
2814:
2810:
2806:
2802:
2798:
2791:
2783:
2782:The Economist
2779:
2773:
2754:
2750:
2746:
2742:
2738:
2734:
2730:
2723:
2716:
2714:
2698:
2694:
2693:
2688:
2682:
2667:
2663:
2662:
2657:
2651:
2637:on 2017-03-30
2636:
2632:
2628:
2622:
2614:
2610:
2605:
2600:
2596:
2592:
2589:(2): 503–19.
2588:
2584:
2580:
2574:
2569:
2560:
2542:
2538:
2531:
2524:
2522:
2513:
2509:
2505:
2501:
2497:
2493:
2486:
2480:
2475:
2473:9781464806704
2469:
2465:
2461:
2455:
2453:
2444:
2440:
2435:
2430:
2426:
2422:
2418:
2414:
2410:
2403:
2389:on 2016-03-03
2388:
2384:
2380:
2373:
2365:
2358:
2351:
2343:
2339:
2335:
2331:
2327:
2323:
2319:
2312:
2304:
2300:
2295:
2290:
2286:
2282:
2279:(2): 101–26.
2278:
2274:
2270:
2263:
2261:
2251:
2243:
2239:
2235:
2231:
2228:(6): 969–76.
2227:
2223:
2216:
2208:
2206:9789048189397
2202:
2198:
2192:
2187:
2181:
2180:Pages 238-244
2176:
2174:9781400876426
2170:
2165:
2164:
2155:
2153:
2151:
2149:
2147:
2145:
2143:
2141:
2139:
2124:on 2018-07-22
2120:
2116:
2112:
2108:
2104:
2097:
2090:
2082:
2078:
2074:
2070:
2065:
2060:
2056:
2052:
2048:
2041:
2033:
2029:
2025:
2021:
2017:
2013:
2006:
1998:
1994:
1990:
1986:
1982:
1975:
1973:
1963:
1956:
1954:
1952:
1950:
1948:
1939:
1935:
1930:
1925:
1921:
1917:
1913:
1909:
1905:
1898:
1890:
1884:
1876:
1872:
1871:
1866:
1860:
1858:
1856:
1847:
1843:
1838:
1833:
1830:(2): 141–54.
1829:
1825:
1821:
1814:
1812:
1810:
1800:
1795:
1791:
1787:
1783:
1776:
1774:
1772:
1762:
1757:
1754:(2): 79–101.
1753:
1749:
1748:
1743:
1736:
1734:
1719:
1715:
1708:
1700:
1696:
1691:
1686:
1682:
1678:
1671:
1664:
1662:
1660:
1658:
1656:
1654:
1652:
1650:
1648:
1646:
1637:
1630:
1624:
1616:
1612:
1608:
1604:
1597:
1589:
1585:
1580:
1575:
1571:
1567:
1563:
1556:
1554:
1544:
1539:
1534:
1529:
1525:
1521:
1517:
1513:
1506:
1504:
1502:
1493:
1489:
1485:
1481:
1474:
1467:
1465:
1463:
1461:
1452:
1448:
1443:
1438:
1434:
1430:
1426:
1422:
1418:
1411:
1409:
1407:
1398:
1394:
1389:
1384:
1380:
1376:
1372:
1368:
1364:
1357:
1355:
1353:
1351:
1349:
1347:
1345:
1343:
1341:
1339:
1337:
1335:
1333:
1331:
1329:
1327:
1325:
1323:
1321:
1319:
1317:
1315:
1313:
1311:
1309:
1307:
1305:
1303:
1301:
1299:
1297:
1295:
1293:
1291:
1289:
1287:
1285:
1283:
1281:
1279:
1277:
1275:
1273:
1271:
1269:
1267:
1265:
1263:
1261:
1259:
1257:
1255:
1253:
1251:
1249:
1247:
1245:
1243:
1241:
1239:
1237:
1232:
1223:
1220:
1217:
1213:
1210:
1208:
1205:
1203:
1200:
1199:
1193:
1191:
1186:
1184:
1180:
1176:
1175:contraceptive
1172:
1168:
1163:
1161:
1157:
1146:
1143:
1135:
1125:
1119:
1118:
1114:
1109:This section
1107:
1098:
1097:
1089:
1086:
1082:
1078:
1077:United States
1067:
1055:
1050:
1041:
1040:
1028:
1024:
1021:
1018:
1017:Birth spacing
1015:
1012:
1009:
1006:
1002:
999:
996:
993:
990:
987:
984:
981:
978:
976:
971:
970:
969:
961:
957:
954:
937:
934:
931:
928:
925:
922:
919:
916:
913:
909:
906:
903:
900:
899:
893:
891:
890:semen quality
887:
883:
879:
874:
872:
868:
862:
852:
848:
839:
836:
831:
826:
821:Contraception
818:
814:
812:
808:
803:
801:
797:
793:
789:
781:
777:
773:
769:
764:
759:
755:
745:
743:
738:
735:
733:
728:
726:
722:
718:
708:
706:
701:
699:
695:
690:
686:
682:
678:
674:
670:
665:
655:
651:
648:
644:
642:
638:
633:
631:
630:United States
626:
617:
615:
610:
606:
604:
599:
595:
584:
582:
576:
573:
569:
565:
559:
551:
547:
542:
536:Rising income
533:
522:to that rule.
521:
516:
513:
510:
506:
504:
500:
497:
493:
490:
487:
486:Western World
483:
479:
477:
473:
470:
469:
465:
462:
459:an increased
458:
456:
452:
449:
446:
445:
444:
436:
433:
430:
425:
416:
413:
408:
404:
400:
396:
392:
388:
375:
371:
367:
365:
360:
352:
349:
339:
335:
332:
328:
323:
319:
311:
307:
305:
301:
297:
292:
290:
285:
282:
280:
270:
266:
263:
260:
255:
253:
248:
245:
241:
237:
231:
229:
219:
215:
212:
199:
196:
193:
190:
187:
184:
180:
176:
173:
170:
167:
164:
160:
156:
155:
154:
151:
149:
145:
140:
138:
132:
130:
129:birth control
125:
121:
119:
110:
96:
94:
90:
86:
85:contraception
82:
78:
74:
69:
67:
63:
59:
55:
51:
46:
44:
40:
36:
30:
26:
22:
4135:
4129:
4091:
4087:
4055:
4051:
4041:
4006:
4002:
3992:
3981:. Retrieved
3977:the original
3972:
3927:
3923:
3917:
3892:
3888:
3850:
3846:
3840:
3831:
3806:
3802:
3789:
3768:
3758:
3715:
3711:
3701:
3656:
3652:
3642:
3618:(1): 27–44.
3615:
3611:
3601:
3576:
3572:
3566:
3555:. Retrieved
3553:. 2017-10-23
3548:
3539:
3528:. Retrieved
3521:the original
3516:
3512:
3499:
3472:
3468:
3444:. Retrieved
3437:the original
3423:
3386:
3382:
3372:
3347:
3343:
3337:
3296:
3292:
3279:
3256:
3236:
3216:
3209:
3195:
3176:
3169:
3160:
3151:
3132:. ABC-CLIO.
3129:
3123:
3098:
3094:
3088:
3056:(6): 463–4.
3053:
3049:
3039:
3012:
3006:
2997:
2993:
2983:
2972:. Retrieved
2968:
2958:
2913:
2909:
2899:
2858:
2854:
2841:
2800:
2796:
2790:
2781:
2772:
2760:. Retrieved
2753:the original
2732:
2728:
2701:. Retrieved
2697:the original
2690:
2681:
2670:. Retrieved
2666:the original
2659:
2650:
2639:. Retrieved
2635:the original
2630:
2621:
2586:
2582:
2568:
2559:
2548:, retrieved
2541:the original
2536:
2495:
2491:
2485:
2459:
2416:
2412:
2402:
2391:. Retrieved
2387:the original
2382:
2372:
2363:
2350:
2325:
2321:
2311:
2276:
2272:
2250:
2225:
2221:
2215:
2196:
2186:
2162:
2126:. Retrieved
2119:the original
2106:
2102:
2089:
2057:(1): 65–79.
2054:
2050:
2040:
2015:
2011:
2005:
1988:
1984:
1914:(2): 111–7.
1911:
1907:
1897:
1883:
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