49:
192:, optical fiber has advantages over copper wire in long-distance, high-bandwidth applications. However, infrastructure development within cities is relatively difficult and time-consuming, and fiber-optic systems can be complex and expensive to install and operate. Due to these difficulties, early fiber-optic communication systems were primarily installed in long-distance applications, where they can be used to their full transmission capacity, offsetting the increased cost. The prices of fiber-optic communications have dropped considerably since 2000.
836:
33:
6387:
5305:
5315:
523:
6397:
2596:
6376:
2608:
6407:
828:
1186:·km. This value is a product of bandwidth and distance because there is a trade-off between the bandwidth of the signal and the distance over which it can be carried. For example, a common multi-mode fiber with bandwidth–distance product of 500 MHz·km could carry a 500 MHz signal for 1 km or a 1000 MHz signal for 0.5 km.
1134:
replace all of the repeaters. Third, optical amplifiers are much simpler than a repeater with the same capabilities and are therefore significantly more reliable. Optical amplifiers have largely replaced repeaters in new installations, although electronic repeaters are still widely used when signal conditioning beyond amplification is required.
2369:. Material absorption for pure silica is only around 0.03 dB/km. Impurities in early optical fibers caused attenuation of about 1000 dB/km. Modern fiber has attenuation around 0.3 dB/km. Other forms of attenuation are caused by physical stresses to the fiber, microscopic fluctuations in density, and imperfect
2302:, the spreading of optical pulses as they travel along the fiber. Dispersion limits the bandwidth of the fiber because the spreading optical pulse limits the rate which pulses can follow one another on the fiber and still be distinguishable at the receiver. Dispersion in optical fibers is caused by a variety of factors.
2327:, another source of limitation, occurs because although the single-mode fiber can sustain only one transverse mode, it can carry this mode with two different polarizations, and slight imperfections or distortions in a fiber can alter the propagation velocities for the two polarizations. This phenomenon is called
2536:
has largely replaced DSL as a broadband
Internet source. The largest FTTH deployments are in Japan, South Korea, and China. Singapore started implementation of their all-fiber Next Generation Nationwide Broadband Network (Next Gen NBN), which is slated for completion in 2012 and is being installed by
2483:
Historically, there was a window of wavelengths shorter than O band, called the first window, at 800–900 nm; however, losses are high in this region so this window is used primarily for short-distance communications. The current lower windows (O and E) around 1300 nm have much lower losses.
1148:
Wavelength-division multiplexing (WDM) is the technique of transmitting multiple channels of information through a single optical fiber by sending multiple light beams of different wavelengths through the fiber, each modulated with a separate information channel. This allows the available capacity of
328:
After a period of research starting from 1975, the first commercial fiber-optic telecommunications system was developed which operated at a wavelength around 0.8 ÎĽm and used GaAs semiconductor lasers. This first-generation system operated at a bit rate of 45 Mbit/s with repeater spacing of
180:
is used by telecommunications companies to transmit telephone signals, Internet communication and cable television signals. It is also used in other industries, including medical, defense, government, industrial and commercial. In addition to serving the purposes of telecommunications, it is used as
4785:
Hu, Hao; Da Ros, Francesco; Pu, Minhao; Ye, Feihong; Ingerslev, Kasper; Porto Da Silva, Edson; Nooruzzaman, Md.; Amma, Yoshimichi; Sasaki, Yusuke; Mizuno, Takayuki; Miyamoto, Yutaka; Ottaviano, Luisa; Semenova, Elizaveta; Guan, Pengyu; Zibar, Darko; Galili, Michael; Yvind, Kresten; Morioka, Toshio;
1098:
repeaters, these problems have been eliminated. These repeaters convert the signal into an electrical signal and then use a transmitter to send the signal again at a higher intensity than was received, thus counteracting the loss incurred in the previous segment. Because of the high complexity with
324:
in
Huntsville, Alabama, the system was intended to allow a short-range missile with video processing to communicate by laser to the ground by means of a five-kilometer long optical fiber that unspooled from the missile as it flew. Optelecom then delivered the first commercial optical communications
2507:
of the optical signal is only needed over distances of hundreds of kilometers. This has greatly reduced the cost of optical networking, particularly over undersea spans where the cost and reliability of repeaters is one of the key factors determining the performance of the whole cable system. The
601:
rather than spontaneous emission, which results in high output power (~100 mW) as well as other benefits related to the nature of coherent light. The output of a laser is relatively directional, allowing high coupling efficiency (~50%) into single-mode fiber. Common VCSEL devices also couple
2630:
and power issues common to long parallel electric conductor runs (due to its reliance on light rather than electricity for transmission, and the dielectric nature of fiber optic), and its inherently high data-carrying capacity. Thousands of electrical links would be required to replace a single
1133:
channels, eliminating the need to demultiplex signals at each amplifier. Second, optical amplifiers operate independently of the data rate and modulation format, enabling multiple data rates and modulation formats to co-exist and enabling upgrading of the data rate of a system without having to
360:
was revealed to greatly improve system performance, however practical connectors capable of working with single mode fiber proved difficult to develop. Canadian service provider SaskTel had completed construction of what was then the world's longest commercial fiber optic network, which covered
248:
transmission between two buildings, some 213 meters apart. Due to its use of an atmospheric transmission medium, the
Photophone would not prove practical until advances in laser and optical fiber technologies permitted the secure transport of light. The Photophone's first practical use came in
2289:
Research conducted by the RMIT University, Melbourne, Australia, have developed a nanophotonic device that carries data on light waves that have been twisted into a spiral form and achieved a 100-fold increase in current attainable fiber optic speeds. The technique is known as orbital angular
4696:
Jørgensen, A. A.; Kong, D.; Henriksen, M. R.; Klejs, F.; Ye, Z.; Helgason, Ò. B.; Hansen, H. E.; Hu, H.; Yankov, M.; Forchhammer, S.; Andrekson, P.; Larsson, A.; Karlsson, M.; Schröder, J.; Sasaki, Y.; Aikawa, K.; Thomsen, J. W.; Morioka, T.; Galili, M.; Torres-Company, V.; Oxenløwe, L. K.
586:(VCSEL) devices, which offer improved speed, power and spectral properties, at a similar cost. However, due to their relatively simple design, LEDs are very useful for very low-cost applications. Commonly used classes of semiconductor laser transmitters used in fiber optics include VCSEL,
212:/s was completed, and although specific network capacities are privileged information, telecommunications investment reports indicate that network capacity has increased dramatically since 2004. As of 2020, over 5 billion kilometers of fiber-optic cable has been deployed around the globe.
195:
The price for rolling out fiber to homes has currently become more cost-effective than that of rolling out a copper-based network. Prices have dropped to $ 850 per subscriber in the US and lower in countries like The
Netherlands, where digging costs are low and housing density is high.
561:. The emitted light is incoherent with a relatively wide spectral width of 30–60 nm. The large spectrum width of LEDs is subject to higher fiber dispersion, considerably limiting their bit rate-distance product (a common measure of usefulness). LEDs are suitable primarily for
3402:
422:, as WDM became the technology of choice for fiber-optic bandwidth expansion. The first to market with a dense WDM system was Ciena Corp., in June 1996. The introduction of optical amplifiers and WDM caused system capacity to double every six months from 1992 until a bit rate of
2650:
For comparison, while single-line, voice-grade copper systems longer than a couple of kilometers require in-line signal repeaters for satisfactory performance, it is not unusual for optical systems to go over 100 kilometers (62 mi), with no active or passive processing.
2484:
This region has zero dispersion. The middle windows (S and C) around 1500 nm are the most widely used. This region has the lowest attenuation losses and achieves the longest range. It does have some dispersion, so dispersion compensator devices are used to address this.
2290:
momentum (OAM). The nanophotonic device uses ultra-thin sheets to measure a fraction of a millimeter of twisted light. Nano-electronic device is embedded within a connector smaller than the size of a USB connector and may be fitted at the end of an optical fiber cable.
1049:
and assembled into a cable. After that, it can be laid in the ground and then run through the walls of a building and deployed aerially in a manner similar to copper cables. These fibers require less maintenance than common twisted pair wires once they are deployed.
550:, while laser diodes produce coherent light. For use in optical communications, semiconductor optical transmitters must be designed to be compact, efficient and reliable, while operating in an optimal wavelength range and directly modulated at high frequencies.
3005:
2388:
Each effect that contributes to attenuation and dispersion depends on the optical wavelength. There are wavelength bands (or windows) where these effects are weakest, and these are the most favorable for transmission. These windows have been standardized.
712:
Coherent receivers use a local oscillator laser in combination with a pair of hybrid couplers and four photodetectors per polarization, followed by high-speed ADCs and digital signal processing to recover data modulated with QPSK, QAM, or OFDM.
3410:
2710:
Optical fiber cables can be installed in buildings using the same equipment that is used to install copper and coaxial cables, with some modifications due to the small size and limited allowable pull tension and bend radius of optical cables.
3930:
1076:. This exploits power transmission rights of way effectively, ensures a power company can own and control the fiber required to monitor its own devices and lines, is effectively immune to tampering, and simplifies the deployment of
433:
was reached over a single 160 km (99 mi) line using optical amplifiers. As of 2021, Japanese scientists transmitted 319 terabits per second over 3,000 kilometers with four-core fiber cables with standard cable diameter.
641:
in directly modulated lasers, increasing the chromatic dispersion in the fiber. For very high bandwidth efficiency, coherent modulation can be used to vary the phase of the light in addition to the amplitude, enabling the use of
1157:
are commonly used for multiplexing and demultiplexing in WDM. Using WDM technology now commercially available, the bandwidth of a fiber can be divided into as many as 160 channels to support a combined bit rate in the range of
2835:(GaAs). Because InGaAsP LEDs operate at a longer wavelength than GaAs LEDs (1.3 micrometers vs. 0.81–0.87 micrometers), their output spectrum, while equivalent in energy is wider in wavelength terms by a factor of about 1.7.
2342:. This works by using a specially prepared length of fiber that has the opposite dispersion to that induced by the transmission fiber, and this sharpens the pulse so that it can be correctly decoded by the electronics.
2230:
is notable in that the team was able to reduce the power consumption of the optics to around 5% compared with more mainstream techniques, which could lead to a new generation of very power-efficient optic components.
3009:
2323:, which occurs because the index of the glass varies slightly depending on the wavelength of the light, and, due to modulation, light from optical transmitters necessarily occupies a (narrow) range of wavelengths.
351:
The second generation of fiber-optic communication was developed for commercial use in the early 1980s, operated at 1.3 ÎĽm and used InGaAsP semiconductor lasers. These early systems were initially limited by
902:
10 micrometers) and requires more expensive components and interconnection methods, but allows much longer and higher-performance links. Both single- and multi-mode fiber is offered in different grades.
203:
became commercially available, the telecommunications industry has laid a vast network of intercity and transoceanic fiber communication lines. By 2002, an intercontinental network of 250,000 km of
1198:, each fiber can carry many independent channels, each using a different wavelength of light. The net data rate (data rate without overhead bytes) per fiber is the per-channel data rate reduced by the
2703:
Much smaller cable size—important where the pathway is limited, such as networking an existing building, where smaller channels can be drilled and space can be saved in existing cable ducts and trays.
3934:
4091:
756:) diminishes the system performance due to linear and non-linear transmitter effects. These effects can be categorized as linear distortions due to DAC bandwidth limitation and transmitter I/Q
458:
In the late 1990s through 2000, industry promoters, and research companies such as KMI, and RHK predicted massive increases in demand for communications bandwidth due to increased use of the
4137:
2661:
In short-distance and relatively low-bandwidth applications, electrical transmission is often preferred because of its lower cost. Optical communication is not common in short box-to-box,
4187:
Corcoran, Bill; Tan, Mengxi; Xu, Xingyuan; Boes, Andreas; Wu, Jiayang; Nguyen, Thach G.; Chu, Sai T.; Little, Brent E.; Morandotti, Roberto; Mitchell, Arnan; Moss, David J. (2020-05-22).
4262:
4650:
4604:
654:. "Dual-polarization quadrature phase shift keying is a modulation format that effectively sends four times as much information as traditional optical transmissions of the same speed."
4443:
4425:
4066:
1682:
The following summarizes research using specialized cables that allow spatial multiplexing to occur, use specialized tri-mode fiber cables or similar specialized fiber optic cables.
1099:
modern wavelength-division multiplexed signals, including the fact that they had to be installed about once every 20 km (12 mi), the cost of these repeaters is very high.
800:
2719:
In order for various manufacturers to be able to develop components that function compatibly in fiber optic communication systems, a number of standards have been developed. The
344:
aimed to test fiber optics in an urban environment: in
September 1977, the second cable in this test series, named COS-2, was experimentally deployed in two lines (9 km) in
1129:
Optical amplifiers have several significant advantages over electrical repeaters. First, an optical amplifier can amplify a very wide band at once which can include hundreds of
4031:
Hillerkuss, D.; Schmogrow, R.; Schellinger, T.; et al. (2011). "26 Tbit s line-rate super-channel transmission utilizing all-optical fast
Fourier transform processing".
3108:
568:
LED light transmission is inefficient, with only about 1% of input power, or about 100 microwatts, eventually converted into launched power coupled into the optical fiber.
617:, that is the light output is controlled by a current applied directly to the device. For very high data rates or very long distance links, a laser source may be operated
291:
showed that the losses of 1,000 dB/km in existing glass (compared to 5–10 dB/km in coaxial cable) were due to contaminants which could potentially be removed.
4750:
2508:
main advances contributing to these performance improvements are dispersion management, which seeks to balance the effects of dispersion against non-linearity; and
4787:
3674:
Berenguer, P. W.; Nölle, M.; Molle, L.; Raman, T.; Napoli, A.; Schubert, C.; Fischer, J. K. (2016). "Nonlinear
Digital Pre-Distortion of Transmitter Components".
799:
use a memory polynomial to model the transmitter components jointly. In both approaches the
Volterra series or the memory polynomial coefficients are found using
807:
records, for each branch of the Mach-Zehnder modulator, several signals at different polarity and phases. The signals are used to calculate the optical field.
105:
Optical fiber is used by many telecommunications companies to transmit telephone signals, internet communication, and cable television signals. Researchers at
4468:
534:, a device combining a transmitter and a receiver in a single housing. The electrical connector is at top right and the optical connectors are at bottom left.
506:
to carry the signal, optical amplifiers, and optical receivers to convert the signal back into an electrical signal. The information transmitted is typically
2975:
2738:
Other standards specify performance criteria for fiber, transmitters, and receivers to be used together in conforming systems. Some of these standards are:
2631:
high-bandwidth fiber cable. Another benefit of fibers is that even when run alongside each other for long distances, fiber cables experience effectively no
5651:
1065:) typically have four strands of fiber and signals cross the Atlantic (NYC-London) in 60–70 ms. The cost of each such cable was about $ 300M in 2011.
5134:
3717:
Khanna, G.; Spinnler, B.; Calabro, S.; De Man, E.; Hanik, N. (2016). "A Robust
Adaptive Pre-Distortion Method for Optical Communication Transmitters".
1058:
383:
Third-generation fiber-optic systems operated at 1.55 ÎĽm and had losses of about 0.2 dB/km. This development was spurred by the discovery of
4569:
4095:
1094:
The transmission distance of a fiber-optic communication system has traditionally been limited by fiber attenuation and by fiber distortion. By using
1106:
which amplify the optical signal directly without having to convert the signal to the electrical domain. One common type of optical amplifier is an
890:), allowing less precise, cheaper transmitters and receivers to connect to it as well as cheaper connectors. However, a multi-mode fiber introduces
4162:
4141:
3485:
1149:
optical fibers to be multiplied. This requires a wavelength division multiplexer in the transmitting equipment and a demultiplexer (essentially a
1951:
1888:
2626:
The main benefits of fiber are its exceptionally low loss (allowing long distances between repeaters), its absence of ground currents and other
4266:
2619:) transmission for a particular system is made based on a number of trade-offs. Optical fiber is generally chosen for systems requiring higher
4654:
4608:
2654:
Optical fibers are more difficult and expensive to splice than electrical conductors. And at higher powers, optical fibers are susceptible to
4546:"Success of ultra-high capacity optical fibre transmission breaking the world record by a factor of five and reaching 10 Petabits per second"
3833:
4447:
4070:
494:
have taken advantage of fiber-optic communications to deliver a variety of high-throughput data and broadband services to consumers' homes.
6359:
6331:
6326:
5351:
5093:
3372:
4957:
Conference on Lasers and
Electro-Optics/Quantum Electronics and Laser Science Conference and Photonic Applications Systems Technologies
4116:
3973:
3006:"Press release: Alcatel-Lucent Bell Labs announces new optical transmission record and breaks 100 Petabit per second kilometer barrier"
2568:
networks. All of the major access networks use fiber for the bulk of the distance from the service provider's network to the customer.
102:
is required. This type of communication can transmit voice, video, and telemetry through local area networks or across long distances.
3578:
502:
Modern fiber-optic communication systems generally include optical transmitters that convert electrical signals into optical signals,
17:
3901:
3519:
1178:
Because the effect of dispersion increases with the length of the fiber, a fiber transmission system is often characterized by its
701:
to produce a digital signal in the electrical domain recovered from the incoming optical signal. Further signal processing such as
181:
light guides, for imaging tools, lasers, hydrophones for seismic waves, SONAR, and as sensors to measure pressure and temperature.
437:
The focus of development for the fifth generation of fiber-optic communications is on extending the wavelength range over which a
5127:
5101:
4949:
4514:
3158:
2668:
In certain situations, fiber may be used even for short-distance or low-bandwidth applications, due to other important features:
2350:
898:
content, multi-mode fibers are usually expensive and exhibit higher attenuation. The core of a single-mode fiber is smaller (<
288:
5005:
Optical sensors are advantageous in hazardous environments because there are no sparks when a fiber breaks or its cover is worn.
4836:
441:
system can operate. The conventional wavelength window, known as the C band, covers the wavelength range 1525–1565 nm, and
48:
6353:
2354:
2332:
871:
and requires special skills and interconnection technology due to the microscopic precision required to align the fiber cores.
780:
performs digital predistortion on the input signals using the inverse transmitter model before sending the samples to the DAC.
583:
2700:
Not electromagnetically radiating, and difficult to tap without disrupting the signal—important in high-security environments.
2492:
When a communications link must span a larger distance than existing fiber-optic technology is capable of, the signal must be
309:
were developed that were compact and therefore suitable for transmitting light through fiber optic cables for long distances.
6348:
6338:
6318:
6120:
5041:
3877:
3817:
3356:
3196:
3038:
2933:
2904:
2720:
1045:
In order to package fiber into a commercially viable product, it typically is protectively coated by using ultraviolet cured
783:
Older digital predistortion methods only addressed linear effects. Recent publications also consider non-linear distortions.
2537:
OpenNet. Since they began rolling out services in September 2010, network coverage in Singapore has reached 85% nationwide.
2480:
Note that this table shows that current technology has managed to bridge the E and S windows that were originally disjoint.
607:
445:
has a low-loss window promising an extension of that range to 1300–1650 nm. Other developments include the concept of
5485:
851:, and a buffer (a protective outer coating), in which the cladding guides the light along the core by using the method of
6431:
6410:
6343:
6189:
5172:
4426:"Researchers create fiber network that operates at 99.7% speed of light, smashes speed and latency records - ExtremeTech"
3294:
Bhatt, Jaimin; Jones, Adam; Foley, Stephen; Shah, Zaheer; Malone, Peter; Fawcett, Derek; Kumar, Sunil (27 October 2010).
693:
Since light may be attenuated and distorted while passing through the fiber, photodetectors are typically coupled with a
3931:"Alcatel-Lucent Bell Labs announces new optical transmission record and breaks 100 Petabit-per-second-kilometer barrier"
760:
as well as non-linear effects caused by gain saturation in the driver amplifier and the Mach–Zehnder modulator. Digital
387:
and the development of the indium gallium arsenide photodiode by Pearsall. Engineers overcame earlier difficulties with
6115:
5280:
5120:
5081:
4336:
1844:
1054:
2647:, and railroad tracks. Nonmetallic all-dielectric cables are also ideal for areas of high lightning-strike incidence.
2298:
For modern glass optical fiber, the maximum transmission distance is limited not by direct material absorption but by
6209:
5067:
4998:
3433:
3061:
2828:
1330:
361:
3,268 km (2,031 mi) and linked 52 communities. By 1987, these systems were operating at bit rates of up to
330:
241:
333:
sent the first live telephone traffic through fiber optics at a 6 Mbit/s throughput in Long Beach, California.
5994:
5542:
5344:
5237:
4591:"Demonstration of World Record Transmission Capacity in a Single Optical Fiber over a 38-core 3-mode Optical Fiber"
2808:
2572:
2549:
2500:. Repeaters add substantial cost to a communication system, and so system designers attempt to minimize their use.
1195:
1143:
1130:
576:
470:
data traffic was increasing exponentially, at a faster rate than integrated circuit complexity had increased under
438:
411:
4675:
6105:
5308:
5232:
3134:
2983:
2503:
Recent advances in fiber and optical communications technology have reduced signal degradation to the point that
2497:
2219:
2118:
1815:
630:
602:
well to multimode fiber. The narrow spectral width also allows for high bit rates since it reduces the effect of
5021:
4630:"World's First Successful Transmission of 1 Petabit per Second in a Standard Cladding Diameter Multi-core Fiber"
3780:
3762:"Characterization and Pre-Distortion of Linear and Non-Linear Transmitter Impairments for PM-64QAM Applications"
6100:
2772:
2521:
2227:
1919:
1394:
1278:
205:
6125:
2767:
1848:
1214:
The following summarizes research using standard telecoms-grade single-mode, single-solid-core fiber cables.
369:
3270:
1607:
The following summarizes research using standard telecoms-grade multi-mode, single-solid-core fiber cables.
547:
6400:
6161:
6058:
5601:
5396:
5368:
5252:
2723:
publishes several standards related to the characteristics and performance of fibers themselves, including
2640:
2548:
to selected high-average-revenue-per-user markets within its existing territory. The other major surviving
2324:
1107:
626:
189:
99:
4357:
6390:
5897:
5337:
5242:
3505:
Wavelength Division Multiplexing: A Practical Engineering Guide (Wiley Series in Pure and Applied Optics)
2584:
726:
273:
4166:
2623:, operating in harsh environments or spanning longer distances than electrical cabling can accommodate.
6249:
6171:
6110:
5817:
5290:
4960:
4837:"Groundbreaking new technology could allow 100-times-faster internet by harnessing twisted light beams"
734:
591:
253:
2512:, which use nonlinear effects in the fiber to enable dispersion-free propagation over long distances.
678:. Several types of photodiodes include p–n photodiodes, p–i–n photodiodes, and avalanche photodiodes.
6021:
5827:
5727:
5656:
5589:
5416:
5264:
2777:
1784:
1154:
879:
852:
679:
575:
to emit light at different wavelengths over a broad spectrum and are currently in use for local-area
37:
2316:. Because single-mode fiber supports only one transverse mode, intermodal dispersion is eliminated.
6380:
5622:
5557:
5510:
5470:
5318:
3854:
1199:
875:
863:
glass, although they can both be made of plastic as well. Connecting two optical fibers is done by
777:
694:
606:. Furthermore, semiconductor lasers can be modulated directly at high frequencies because of short
479:
392:
162:
relaying the signal along the fiber, ensuring that the signal does not become too distorted or weak
41:
3841:
565:
applications with bit rates of 10–100 Mbit/s and transmission distances of a few kilometers.
395:
designed to have minimal dispersion at 1.55 ÎĽm or by limiting the laser spectrum to a single
320:, received a contract from ARPA for one of the first optical communication systems. Developed for
6219:
6204:
6048:
5999:
5922:
5822:
5500:
5386:
5381:
5223:
4930:
2920:
2658:, resulting in catastrophic destruction of the fiber core and damage to transmission components.
2533:
2366:
1111:
848:
671:
384:
5016:
6141:
5927:
5742:
5687:
5682:
5495:
5460:
3465:
3188:
2541:
2339:
618:
507:
225:
52:
4469:"255Tbps: World's fastest network could carry all of the internet's traffic on a single fiber"
3380:
894:, which often limits the bandwidth and length of the link. Furthermore, because of its higher
6043:
5847:
5812:
5732:
5712:
5634:
5522:
5443:
5143:
4570:"Researchers in Japan 'break transmission record' over 1,045km with three-mode optical fibre"
3909:
3760:
Duthel, T.; Hermann, P.; Schiel, J.; Fludger, C. R. S.; Bisplinghoff, A.; Kupfer, T. (2016).
3552:"14 Tbit/s over a single optical fiber: successful demonstration of world's largest capacity"
3344:
3212:
2792:
2727:
ITU-T G.651, "Characteristics of a 50/125 ÎĽm multimode graded index optical fibre cable"
2680:
2673:
2627:
2620:
2525:
2305:
407:
257:
221:
95:
5376:
399:. These developments eventually allowed third-generation systems to operate commercially at
5957:
5917:
5887:
5644:
5579:
5401:
5285:
5033:
4870:
4802:
4710:
4210:
4040:
3985:
3726:
3683:
3638:
3228:
3024:
2742:
2684:
2565:
2320:
2194:
1122:
it with light with a shorter wavelength than the communications signal (typically 980
891:
667:
603:
554:
539:
321:
306:
4991:
Military Laser Technology for Defense: Technology for Revolutionizing 21st Century Warfare
4698:
4017:
8:
5967:
5907:
5666:
5628:
5426:
5411:
5167:
4699:"Petabit-per-second data transmission using a chip-scale microcomb ring resonator source"
3602:
2747:
2358:
2299:
1625:
1232:
1202:(FEC) overhead, multiplied by the number of channels (usually up to eighty in commercial
1073:
844:
687:
598:
558:
503:
388:
299:
4874:
4806:
4714:
4214:
4044:
3989:
3730:
3687:
3642:
3232:
3086:
268:, proposed the use of optical fibers for communications in 1963. Nishizawa invented the
244:
of sound on a beam of light. On June 3, 1880, Bell conducted the world's first wireless
6436:
6194:
6151:
6082:
5952:
5882:
5857:
5792:
5639:
5360:
4891:
4858:
4818:
4726:
4316:"1.53 Petabit per Second Transmission in 55-mode Fiber with Standard Cladding Diameter"
4302:"World Record 402 Tb/s Transmission in a Standard Commercially Available Optical Fiber"
4288:"World Record 301 Tb/s Transmission in a Standard Commercially Available Optical Fiber"
4244:
4231:
4200:
4188:
3949:"World Record 69-Terabit Capacity for Optical Transmission over a Single Optical Fiber"
3742:
3699:
3325:
3244:
3181:
1161:
1069:
816:
683:
562:
451:, pulses that preserve their shape by counteracting the effects of dispersion with the
419:
377:
261:
130:
67:
5105:
4964:
4772:"World Record Optical Fiber Transmission Capacity Doubles to 22.9 Petabits per Second"
4545:
4521:
4403:
4163:"Researchers just recorded world's fastest internet speed using a single optical chip"
3997:
3551:
2949:
587:
6234:
6156:
6070:
6053:
6016:
5862:
5692:
5661:
5527:
5421:
5314:
5218:
5177:
5077:
5063:
5037:
4994:
4896:
4859:"Angular-momentum nanometrology in an ultrathin plasmonic topological insulator film"
4822:
4788:"Single-source chip-based frequency comb enabling extreme parallel data transmission"
4730:
4248:
4236:
4189:"Ultra-dense optical data transmission over standard fibre with a single chip source"
3883:
3873:
3813:
3656:
3527:
3429:
3352:
3317:
3312:
3295:
3248:
3192:
3109:"Fiber Optics Market by Application and Region – Global Forecast to 2024 | Technavio"
3034:
2929:
2900:
2636:
2557:
2529:
1955:
1884:
1103:
1089:
1062:
1046:
1030:
1016:
868:
835:
808:
706:
622:
511:
467:
396:
357:
265:
200:
157:
5902:
4771:
4751:"Record 1.84 Petabit/s Data Transfer Achieved With Photonic Chip, Fibre Optic Cable"
4629:
4590:
4315:
4301:
4287:
3703:
3329:
2683:, making it safe to use near high-voltage equipment or between areas with different
294:
Optical fiber with attenuation low enough for communication purposes (about 20
152:
The process of communicating using fiber optics involves the following basic steps:
6239:
6199:
6179:
6146:
6075:
6033:
5947:
5802:
5787:
5762:
5737:
5697:
5547:
5406:
5391:
4886:
4878:
4810:
4718:
4226:
4218:
4092:"Scientists Successfully Push Fibre Optic Transmissions Close to the Shannon Limit"
4048:
3993:
3948:
3746:
3734:
3691:
3646:
3307:
3255:
3236:
2832:
2796:
2757:
2509:
2382:
2313:
1390:
1068:
Another common practice is to bundle many fiber optic strands within long-distance
856:
452:
447:
415:
353:
237:
233:
142:
3579:"With 319 Tb/s, Japan Absolutely Smashes World Record For Data Transmission Speed"
633:. External modulation increases the achievable link distance by eliminating laser
462:, and commercialization of various bandwidth-intensive consumer services, such as
5867:
5722:
5490:
5465:
5453:
2600:
2564:
with twisted-pair to the home. Their MSO competitors employ FTTN with coax using
2309:
1386:
1002:
988:
974:
957:
940:
923:
864:
819:
and the non-linear effects are determined by the indirect-learning architecture.
792:
491:
463:
146:
134:
791:
and the DAC and the driver amplifier are modeled by a truncated, time-invariant
276:, both of which contributed to the development of optical fiber communications.
156:
creating the optical signal involving the use of a transmitter, usually from an
6065:
5937:
5912:
5872:
5842:
5717:
5552:
5505:
5480:
5438:
4882:
4722:
4493:
4222:
3761:
2892:
2362:
1419:
1252:
1095:
702:
475:
471:
284:
280:
4950:"The Fiber Fuse Phenomenon in Polarization-Maintaining Fibers at 1.55 ÎĽm"
4915:
4814:
3240:
538:
The most commonly used optical transmitters are semiconductor devices such as
6425:
6214:
5987:
5977:
5892:
5782:
5777:
5767:
5752:
5574:
5433:
5213:
3887:
3738:
3695:
3660:
3603:"The FOA Reference For Fiber Optics – Fiber Optic Transmitters and Receivers"
3531:
2887:; Parker, Philip; Gibson, Carrie; Grant, R. G.; Regan, Sally (October 2014).
2880:
2856:
2788:
2752:
2576:
2328:
1597:
1119:
1053:
Specialized cables are used for long-distance subsea data transmission, e.g.
788:
761:
663:
177:
79:
75:
32:
5112:
4515:"One Petabit per Second Fiber Transmission over a Record Distance of 200 km"
4052:
3651:
3626:
391:
using conventional InGaAsP semiconductor lasers at that wavelength by using
240:
Bell considered it his most important invention. The device allowed for the
6092:
5932:
5877:
5807:
5772:
5707:
5606:
5596:
5448:
5157:
4900:
4240:
3321:
2884:
2370:
1755:
1150:
572:
487:
317:
83:
4358:"Speed record shattered for data transmission over standard optical fiber"
4337:"Speed record shattered for data transmission over standard optical fiber"
4067:"BT Trial 5.6Tbps on a Single Optical Fibre and 2Tbps on a Live Core Link"
3867:
3159:"Corning Celebrates Delivering its 1 Billionth Kilometer of Optical Fiber"
380:
optimized laser amplification technology. It went into operation in 1988.
6292:
5942:
5852:
5837:
5797:
5757:
5616:
5257:
5187:
4857:
Yue, Zengji; Ren, Haoran; Wei, Shibiao; Lin, Jiao; Gu, Min (2018-10-24).
4117:"65Tbps over a single fibre: Nokia sets new submarine cable speed record"
3030:
2896:
2580:
812:
757:
722:
543:
531:
530:
module (shown here with its cover removed), is an optical and electrical
185:
3766:
42nd European Conference and Exhibition on Optical Communications (ECOC)
2193:
New record for throughput using a single core cable, that is, not using
6297:
6004:
5702:
5611:
5567:
5537:
5515:
5192:
5182:
3451:
Laser: The Inventor, the Nobel Laureate, and the Thirty-Year Patent War
2655:
2644:
2520:
Although fiber-optic systems excel in high-bandwidth applications, the
1077:
887:
738:
675:
483:
229:
56:
4676:"Blistering data transmission record clocks over 1 petabit per second"
3345:"Terahertz wave generation and light amplification using Raman effect"
6282:
5747:
5562:
5329:
4494:"Realization of World Record Fiber-Capacity of 2.15Pb/s Transmission"
2662:
2632:
1203:
1123:
874:
Two main types of optical fiber used in optic communications include
746:
730:
698:
638:
614:
313:
269:
245:
141:, optical fibers have largely replaced copper wire communications in
106:
87:
3467:
Optical fibre field experiments in Italy: COS1, COS2 and COS3/FOSTER
3216:
2976:"What are the Basic Elements of a Fibre Optic Communication System?"
2575:(EPON). In Europe, and among telcos in the United States, ATM-based
546:. The difference between LEDs and laser diodes is that LEDs produce
522:
6277:
6267:
6184:
6009:
5832:
4947:
4916:"Fiber Optic Technology and its Role in the Information Revolution"
4869:(1). Nature Communications (volume 9, Article number: 4413): 4413.
4205:
3426:
Laser: The Inventor, the Nobel Laureate, the Thirty-year Patent War
2595:
2338:
Some dispersion, notably chromatic dispersion, can be removed by a
2223:
1443:
1356:
459:
348:, for the first time in a big city, at a speed of 140 Mbit/s.
129:
First developed in the 1970s, fiber-optics have revolutionized the
71:
44:: 62.5/125 ÎĽm OM1 and 50/125 ÎĽm OM3 fibers, respectively.
670:. The primary photodetectors for telecommunications are made from
336:
In October 1973, Corning Glass signed a development contract with
228:
created a very early precursor to fiber-optic communications, the
6272:
6257:
5475:
2784:
2561:
2553:
773:
341:
295:
209:
116:
4444:"A Single Laser and Cable Delivers Fibre Optic Speeds of 43Tbps"
4382:
3187:. Sterling Biographies. New York: Sterling Publishing. pp.
1011:
3500 MHz·km @ 850 nm + 1850 MHz·km @ 950 nm
682:(MSM) photodetectors are also used due to their suitability for
406:
The fourth generation of fiber-optic communication systems used
260:
showed that rolled fiber glass allowed light to be transmitted.
59:
cable underneath the streets of Midtown Manhattan, New York City
6302:
6262:
5584:
5162:
4361:
3062:"As telecom demands grow, optical fibers will need to level up"
2706:
Resistance to corrosion due to non-metallic transmission medium
2694:
2616:
2607:
1447:
1360:
1115:
895:
860:
827:
769:
764:
counteracts the degrading effects and enables Baud rates up to
478:
through 2006, however, the main trend in the industry has been
4030:
2587:(FSAN) and ITU-T standards organizations under their control.
831:
A cable reel trailer with conduit that can carry optical fiber
6287:
6224:
5532:
5247:
2762:
2731:
1057:. New (2011–2013) cables operated by commercial enterprises (
742:
634:
403:
with repeater spacing in excess of 100 km (62 mi).
373:
345:
337:
5102:"Fiber Optics – Internet, Cable and Telephone Communication"
3342:
3023:
Alwayn, Vivek (April 23, 2004). "Fiber-Optic Technologies".
2672:
Immunity to electromagnetic interference, including nuclear
776:
with the commercially available components. The transmitter
138:
91:
6229:
4801:(8). Nature Photonics (volume 12, pages 469–473): 469–473.
4695:
4263:"London UK Team Achieves Record 178Tbps Single Fibre Speed"
3933:(Press release). Alcatel-Lucent. 2009-10-28. Archived from
3716:
2545:
1989:
1880:
1723:
1648:
651:
643:
527:
425:
303:
133:
industry and have played a major role in the advent of the
4651:"New Record Fibre Optic Speed of 1.02Pbps Hit Over 51.7km"
4605:"New World Record as Fibre Optic Speeds Pushed to 319Tbps"
3759:
3403:"New Medal Honors Japanese Microelectrics Industry Leader"
2879:
2590:
2532:(FTTH) deployment has accelerated. In Japan, for instance
4948:
Lee, M. M.; J. M. Roth; T. G. Ulmer; C. V. Cryan (2006).
4138:"BT Labs delivers ultra-efficient terabit 'superchannel'"
3351:. New Delhi, India: Narosa Publishing House. p. 27.
2319:
In single-mode fiber performance is primarily limited by
1751:
1304:
1183:
1126:). EDFAs provide gain in the ITU C band at 1550 nm.
752:
647:
36:
An optical fiber patching cabinet. The yellow cables are
3673:
2734:, "Characteristics of a single-mode optical fibre cable"
4743:
2381:"Optical band" redirects here. Not to be confused with
674:. The photodetector is typically a semiconductor-based
121:
kilometers per second using fiber-optic communication.
4383:"NEC and Corning achieve petabit optical transmission"
3473:. International Conference on Communications. Seattle.
3217:"On the Production and Reproduction of Sound by Light"
2697:—important in flammable or explosive gas environments.
839:
Multi-mode optical fiber in an underground service pit
5074:
Optical Fiber Communications: Principles and Practice
3796:
An optical fiber will break if it is bent too sharply
3211:
2611:
An underground fiber optic splice enclosure opened up
365:
with repeater spacing up to 50 km (31 mi).
4668:
4643:
4350:
4084:
4059:
3008:. Alcatel-Lucent. September 28, 2009. Archived from
2615:
The choice between optical fiber and electrical (or
2308:, caused by the different axial speeds of different
787:
models the Mach–Zehnder modulator as an independent
621:, and the light modulated by an external device, an
486:
of manufacturing to reduce costs. Companies such as
3923:
3869:
Advanced optical communication systems and networks
3807:
3293:
3253:also published as "Selenium and the Photophone" in
2690:
Lighter weight—important, for example, in aircraft.
2571:The globally dominant access network technology is
1137:
249:military communication systems many decades later.
4562:
4396:
3865:
3180:
709:may also be applied before the data is passed on.
455:of the fiber by using pulses of a specific shape.
4186:
4109:
3520:"Fiber-Optic Technology Draws Record Stock Value"
3407:Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers
3347:. In Bhat, K. N. & DasGupta, Amitava (eds.).
882:. A multi-mode optical fiber has a larger core (≥
553:In its simplest form, an LED emits light through
316:, Inc., co-founded by the inventor of the laser,
6423:
4913:
4461:
3834:"Fiber Optic Upgrade Will Upturn Yards, Streets"
3428:(reprint ed.). Universe. pp. 169–171.
3183:Alexander Graham Bell: Giving Voice To The World
2827:Communications LEDs are most commonly made from
2603:lab used to access and splice underground cables
2393:Standard bands for optical fiber communications
2206:New record for throughput using a photonic chip.
1583:
1581:
666:which converts light into electricity using the
4622:
4538:
4308:
4024:
3178:
3135:"15 Largest Fiber Optic Companies in the World"
855:. The core and the cladding (which has a lower-
662:The main component of an optical receiver is a
110:
70:from one place to another by sending pulses of
4597:
4436:
4329:
4255:
3087:"Guide To Fiber Optics & Permises Cabling"
1114:a length of fiber with the rare-earth mineral
811:in-phase and quadrature fields identifies the
5345:
5142:
5128:
4180:
4165:. www.rmit.edu.au. 2020-05-22. Archived from
3974:"Ultrafast fibre optics set new speed record"
1578:
1173:
5017:Encyclopedia of Laser Physics and Technology
4856:
4784:
4417:
3866:Cvijetic, Milorad; Djordjevic, Ivan (2013).
3463:
3343:Nishizawa, Jun-ichi & Suto, Ken (2004).
2639:. Fiber can be installed in areas with high
6360:Global telecommunications regulation bodies
4689:
4375:
4018:"Laser puts record data rate through fibre"
3801:
3627:"Ultrafast networks gear-up for deployment"
3502:
2922:Future Trends in Fiber Optics Communication
2857:"Understanding Wavelengths In Fiber Optics"
1587:Used a single source to drive all channels.
429:was reached by 2001. In 2006 a bit-rate of
418:. The introduction of WDM was the start of
27:Transmitting information over optical fiber
6396:
5352:
5338:
5135:
5121:
3365:
3296:"Harold Horace Hopkins: A Short Biography"
3271:"A Brief History Of Optical Communication"
2635:, in contrast to some types of electrical
1474:RMIT, Monash & Swinburne Universities
597:A semiconductor laser emits light through
571:LEDs have been developed that use several
4890:
4486:
4230:
4204:
4155:
3650:
3311:
3026:Optical Network Design and Implementation
2266:Hao Hu, et al. (DTU, Fujikura & NTT)
329:up to 10 km. Soon on 22 April 1977,
4507:
4010:
3967:
3965:
3941:
2606:
2594:
1209:
834:
826:
716:
521:
47:
31:
5027:
4988:
4778:
4653:. ISPreview. 2022-06-07. Archived from
4607:. ISPreview. 2021-07-16. Archived from
4446:. ISPreview. 2014-07-03. Archived from
4423:
4360:. ISPreview. 2022-11-12. Archived from
4265:. ISPreview. 2020-08-15. Archived from
4130:
4094:. ISPreview. 2016-09-19. Archived from
4069:. ISPreview. 2016-05-25. Archived from
3517:
3132:
2591:Comparison with electrical transmission
2376:
289:Standard Telecommunication Laboratories
168:converting it into an electrical signal
139:advantages over electrical transmission
14:
6424:
5359:
5099:
5094:"Understanding Optical Communications"
3778:
3503:Grobe, Klaus; Eiselt, Michael (2013).
3448:
3423:
3059:
3022:
2795:to connect digital sources to digital
2714:
2528:has experienced slow uptake. However,
2496:at intermediate points in the link by
2333:polarization-maintaining optical fiber
1596:First result that pushes close to the
690:and wavelength-division multiplexers.
584:vertical-cavity surface-emitting laser
5333:
5116:
4928:
4424:Anthony, Sebastian (March 25, 2013).
4404:"Big data, now at the speed of light"
3971:
3962:
3902:"Infinera Introduces New Line System"
3576:
3544:
3483:
2889:History of the World in 1,000 Objects
2721:International Telecommunication Union
1677:
582:LEDs have been largely superseded by
410:to reduce the need for repeaters and
6406:
3453:. Simon & Schuster. p. 226.
3395:
3336:
822:
3484:Rigby, Pauline (January 22, 2014).
1039:0.4 dB/km @ 1300/1550 nm
1025:1.0 dB/km @ 1300/1550 nm
859:) are usually made of high-quality
24:
5052:
4774:(Press release). NICT. 2023-11-05.
4593:(Press release). NICT. 2020-02-14.
4304:(Press release). NICT. 2024-06-26.
4290:(Press release). NICT. 2024-01-29.
3768:: 785–787 – via IEEE Xplore.
3464:Buzzelli, S.; et al. (1980).
3268:
3133:Novicio, Trish (3 December 2020).
1845:Eindhoven University of Technology
1102:An alternative approach is to use
1055:transatlantic communications cable
55:fiber crew installing a 432-count
25:
6448:
5087:
5062:, 4th ed. New York: McGraw-Hill,
5030:Fiber-optic communication systems
4520:. NTT. 2017-03-23. Archived from
3719:IEEE Photonics Technology Letters
2873:
2829:Indium gallium arsenide phosphide
2213:
331:General Telephone and Electronics
92:preferred over electrical cabling
40:; the orange and blue cables are
6405:
6395:
6386:
6385:
6374:
5995:Free-space optical communication
5313:
5304:
5303:
4786:Oxenløwe, Leif K. (2018-07-02).
4140:. BT. 2017-06-19. Archived from
3951:(Press release). NTT. 2010-03-25
3812:(2nd ed.). O'Reilly Media.
3577:Starr, Michelle (16 July 2021).
3349:Physics of semiconductor devices
3313:10.1111/j.1464-410X.2010.09717.x
3060:Jacoby, Mitch (March 16, 2020).
2928:. WCE, London UK. July 2, 2014.
2809:Free-space optical communication
2665:, or chip-to-chip applications.
2573:Ethernet passive optical network
2550:incumbent local exchange carrier
2498:optical communications repeaters
1700:Spectral efficiency, (bit/s)/Hz
1196:wavelength-division multiplexing
1189:
1182:, usually expressed in units of
1144:Wavelength-division multiplexing
1138:Wavelength-division multiplexing
1083:
721:An optical communication system
613:Laser diodes are often directly
577:wavelength-division multiplexing
412:wavelength-division multiplexing
98:, long distance, or immunity to
4982:
4941:
4922:
4907:
4850:
4829:
4764:
4583:
4294:
4280:
3894:
3859:
3848:
3826:
3772:
3753:
3710:
3676:Journal of Lightwave Technology
3667:
3619:
3595:
3570:
3511:
3496:
3477:
3457:
3442:
3417:
3287:
3262:
3205:
3172:
3151:
3126:
3101:
3066:Chemical & Engineering News
2821:
2544:provides a FTTH service called
2487:
2200:
2187:
2119:Technical University of Denmark
1816:Technical University of Denmark
1590:
997:3500 MHz·km @ 850 nm
983:1500 MHz·km @ 850 nm
517:
172:
90:to carry information. Fiber is
4931:"Optical Fiber Communications"
3810:Ethernet: The Definitive Guide
3089:. The Fiber Optics Association
3079:
3053:
3016:
2998:
2968:
2942:
2913:
2849:
2787:is the most common format for
2773:Synchronous Optical Networking
2353:is caused by a combination of
2345:
1564:1505 (O, E, S, C, L, U bands)
1395:Technical University of Munich
1153:) in the receiving equipment.
1072:cable using, for instance, an
969:500 MHz·km @ 850 nm
952:200 MHz·km @ 850 nm
935:160 MHz·km @ 850 nm
801:indirect-learning architecture
557:, a phenomenon referred to as
298:/km) was developed in 1970 by
232:, at Bell's newly established
206:submarine communications cable
13:
1:
4989:McAulay, Alastair D. (2011).
3998:10.1016/S0262-4079(11)60912-3
3486:"Three decades of innovation"
2842:
2768:Synchronous Digital Hierarchy
2293:
2269:768 Tbit/s (661 Tbit/s)
1849:University of Central Florida
1168:
497:
370:transatlantic telephone cable
201:optical-amplification systems
124:
6381:Telecommunication portal
6162:Telecommunications equipment
5060:Optical fiber communications
4753:. Tom's Hardware. 2022-10-20
3808:Charles E. Spurgeon (2014).
3779:Alwayn, Vivek (2004-04-23).
3518:Markoff, John (1997-03-03).
2641:electromagnetic interference
2524:problem remains unsolved as
2515:
2325:Polarization mode dispersion
2312:, limits the performance of
1108:erbium-doped fiber amplifier
768:and modulation formats like
657:
627:electro-absorption modulator
356:dispersion, and in 1981 the
165:receiving the optical signal
100:electromagnetic interference
7:
5898:Alexander Stepanovich Popov
5028:Agrawal, Govind P. (2002).
4572:. Fibre Systems. 2018-04-16
4406:. New Scientist. 2013-03-30
3906:Infinera Corp press release
3221:American Journal of Science
2802:
2585:Full Service Access Network
2331:and can be counteracted by
2078:3001 km (69.8 km)
907:Comparison of fiber grades
737:. The deployment of higher
727:digital-to-analog converter
631:Mach–Zehnder interferometer
274:static induction transistor
10:
6453:
6432:Fiber-optic communications
5602:Telecommunications history
5291:Modulating retro-reflector
4961:Optical Society of America
4883:10.1038/s41467-018-06952-1
4723:10.1038/s41566-022-01082-z
4223:10.1038/s41467-020-16265-x
4119:. ARS Technica. 2016-12-10
3972:Hecht, Jeff (2011-04-29).
2380:
1662:55 (110-MIMO multiplexer)
1180:bandwidth–distance product
1174:Bandwidth–distance product
1155:Arrayed waveguide gratings
1141:
1110:(EDFA). These are made by
1087:
880:single-mode optical fibers
592:distributed-feedback laser
510:generated by computers or
264:, a Japanese scientist at
215:
111:bandwidth–distance product
6369:
6311:
6248:
6210:Public Switched Telephone
6170:
6134:
6091:
6032:
6022:telecommunication circuit
5983:Fiber-optic communication
5966:
5728:Francis Blake (telephone)
5675:
5523:Optical telecommunication
5367:
5299:
5273:
5265:Optical Transport Network
5201:
5150:
5144:Optical telecommunication
5076:, 3rd ed. Prentice Hall.
4993:. John Wiley & Sons.
4815:10.1038/s41566-018-0205-5
3558:. NTT. September 29, 2006
3241:10.2475/ajs.s3-20.118.305
2778:Optical transport network
2643:(EMI), such as alongside
2246:No. of Propagation Modes
2071:552 (S, C & L bands)
1785:University of Southampton
1703:No. of propagation modes
1598:Shannon theoretical limit
1378:about 140 km ?
876:multi-mode optical fibers
853:total internal reflection
705:from data performed by a
680:Metal-semiconductor-metal
393:dispersion-shifted fibers
372:to use optical fiber was
82:. The light is a form of
64:Fiber-optic communication
18:Fibre-optic communication
6121:Orbital angular-momentum
5558:Satellite communications
5397:Communications satellite
5022:Fiber-Optic Technologies
4551:. Global Sei. 2017-10-13
4385:. Optics.org. 2013-01-22
3872:. Boston: Artech House.
3855:Halifax Chronicle Herald
3785:Fiber-Optic Technologies
3749:– via IEEE Xplore.
3739:10.1109/LPT.2015.2509158
3706:– via IEEE Xplore.
3696:10.1109/JLT.2015.2510962
3179:Mary Kay Carson (2007).
2814:
2583:(GPON) had roots in the
2252:WDM channels (per core)
1709:WDM channels (per core)
1538:1097 (E, S, C, L bands)
1200:forward error correction
778:digital signal processor
695:transimpedance amplifier
208:with a capacity of 2.56
68:transmitting information
6000:Molecular communication
5823:Gardiner Greene Hubbard
5652:Undersea telegraph line
5387:Cable protection system
4929:Paschotta, Dr RĂĽdiger.
4709:(11). Nature: 798–802.
4339:. New Atlas. 2022-11-10
4053:10.1038/NPHOTON.2011.74
3652:10.1038/nphoton.2010.23
2950:"How Fiber Optics Work"
672:Indium gallium arsenide
474:. From the bust of the
385:indium gallium arsenide
6142:Communication protocol
5928:Charles Sumner Tainter
5743:Walter Houser Brattain
5688:Edwin Howard Armstrong
5496:Information revolution
5072:Senior, John. (2008).
5058:Keiser, Gerd. (2011).
4914:Christopher C. Davis.
4839:. Phys.org. 2018-10-24
4678:. newatlas. 2022-06-01
3637:(3): 144. March 2010.
2674:electromagnetic pulses
2612:
2604:
2560:(FTTN) service called
2542:Verizon Communications
2471:Ultralong wavelengths
2340:dispersion compensator
840:
832:
735:Mach–Zehnder modulator
535:
226:Charles Sumner Tainter
109:have reached a record
60:
53:Stealth Communications
45:
6116:Polarization-division
5848:Narinder Singh Kapany
5813:Erna Schneider Hoover
5733:Jagadish Chandra Bose
5713:Alexander Graham Bell
5444:online video platform
5034:John Wiley & Sons
4863:Nature Communications
4193:Nature Communications
3449:Taylor, Nick (2000).
3424:Taylor, Nick (2007).
3383:on September 29, 2009
3213:Alexander Graham Bell
3161:. Corning. 2017-09-28
2793:plastic optical fiber
2681:electrical resistance
2610:
2598:
2526:fiber to the premises
2377:Transmission windows
2306:Intermodal dispersion
1210:Standard fiber cables
1206:systems as of 2008).
926:FDDI 62.5/125 µm
838:
830:
717:Digital predistortion
637:, which broadens the
540:light-emitting diodes
525:
408:optical amplification
258:Narinder Singh Kapany
222:Alexander Graham Bell
51:
35:
5958:Vladimir K. Zworykin
5918:Almon Brown Strowger
5888:Charles Grafton Page
5543:Prepaid mobile phone
5471:Electrical telegraph
5286:Intensity modulation
3012:on October 18, 2009.
2743:100 Gigabit Ethernet
2566:hybrid fiber-coaxial
2321:chromatic dispersion
2195:spatial multiplexing
2171:750 (S, C, L bands)
1512:660 (S, C, L bands)
1420:Nokia-Alcatel-Lucent
943:OM1 62.5/125 µm
892:multimode distortion
847:consists of a core,
668:photoelectric effect
604:chromatic dispersion
579:(WDM) applications.
555:spontaneous emission
504:optical fiber cables
322:Army Missile Command
307:semiconductor lasers
302:. At the same time,
5908:Johann Philipp Reis
5667:Wireless revolution
5629:The Telephone Cases
5486:Hydraulic telegraph
5168:Hydraulic telegraph
4875:2018NatCo...9.4413Y
4807:2018NaPho..12..469H
4715:2022NaPho..16..798J
4215:2020NatCo..11.2568C
4199:(1). Nature: 2568.
4045:2011NaPho...5..364H
3990:2011NewSc.210R..24H
3731:2016IPTL...28..752K
3688:2016JLwT...34.1739B
3643:2010NaPho...4..144.
3507:. Wiley. p. 2.
3233:1880AmJS...20..305B
2748:10 Gigabit Ethernet
2715:Governing standards
2394:
2359:Rayleigh scattering
2355:material absorption
1626:Spectral efficiency
1233:Spectral efficiency
1074:optical ground wire
908:
869:mechanical splicing
845:optical fiber cable
684:circuit integration
599:stimulated emission
559:electroluminescence
508:digital information
325:system to Chevron.
300:Corning Glass Works
6106:Frequency-division
6083:Telephone exchange
5953:Charles Wheatstone
5883:Jun-ichi Nishizawa
5858:Innocenzo Manzetti
5793:Reginald Fessenden
5528:Optical telegraphy
5361:Telecommunications
4632:. NICT. 2022-05-30
4496:. NICT. 2015-10-13
4318:. NICT. 2022-11-10
4020:. BBC. 2011-05-22.
3524:The New York Times
2637:transmission lines
2613:
2605:
2474:1625–1675 nm
2463:1565–1625 nm
2452:1530–1565 nm
2437:1460–1530 nm
2434:Short wavelengths
2426:1360–1460 nm
2415:1260–1360 nm
2392:
2255:Per channel speed
1960:10.16 Pbit/s
1712:Per channel speed
1678:Specialized cables
1637:Per-channel speed
1241:Per-channel speed
1104:optical amplifiers
1070:power transmission
1033:OS2 9/125 µm
1019:OS1 9/125 µm
1005:OM5 50/125 µm
991:OM4 50/125 µm
977:OM3 50/125 µm
960:OM2 50/125 µm
906:
841:
833:
817:frequency response
739:modulation formats
608:recombination time
563:local-area-network
536:
420:optical networking
414:(WDM) to increase
262:Jun-ichi Nishizawa
224:and his assistant
131:telecommunications
61:
46:
38:single mode fibers
6419:
6418:
6157:Store and forward
6152:Data transmission
6066:Network switching
6017:Transmission line
5863:Guglielmo Marconi
5828:Internet pioneers
5693:Mohamed M. Atalla
5662:Whistled language
5327:
5326:
5178:Optical telegraph
5043:978-0-471-21571-4
3879:978-1-60807-556-0
3819:978-1-4493-6184-6
3413:on June 29, 2011.
3358:978-81-7319-567-9
3306:(10): 1425–1428.
3300:BJU International
3269:By (2021-02-18).
3259:, September 1880.
3198:978-1-4027-3230-0
3139:finance.yahoo.com
3040:978-1-58705-105-0
2986:on 15 August 2020
2935:978-988-19252-7-5
2906:978-1-4654-2289-7
2693:No potential for
2558:fiber to the node
2530:fiber to the home
2478:
2477:
2460:Long wavelengths
2404:Wavelength range
2351:Fiber attenuation
2287:
2286:
2183:
2182:
2041:368 (C, L bands)
1956:Sumitomo Electric
1893:2.15 Pbit/s
1885:Sumitomo Electric
1869:~728 Gbit/s
1675:
1674:
1574:
1573:
1483:10.4 (10.1–10.4)
1477:39.0–40.1 Tbit/s
1452:11.2 Tbit/s
1090:Optical amplifier
1063:Hibernia Atlantic
1047:acrylate polymers
1043:
1042:
823:Fiber cable types
809:Cross-correlating
707:phase-locked loop
623:optical modulator
512:telephone systems
468:Internet Protocol
453:nonlinear effects
397:longitudinal mode
358:single-mode fiber
266:Tohoku University
199:Since 1990, when
158:electrical signal
143:backbone networks
137:. Because of its
42:multi-mode fibers
16:(Redirected from
6444:
6409:
6408:
6399:
6398:
6389:
6388:
6379:
6378:
6377:
6250:Notable networks
6240:Wireless network
6180:Cellular network
6172:Types of network
6147:Computer network
6034:Network topology
5948:Thomas A. Watson
5803:Oliver Heaviside
5788:Philo Farnsworth
5763:Daniel Davis Jr.
5738:Charles Bourseul
5698:John Logie Baird
5407:Data compression
5402:Computer network
5354:
5347:
5340:
5331:
5330:
5317:
5307:
5306:
5233:Optical wireless
5137:
5130:
5123:
5114:
5113:
5109:
5104:. Archived from
5047:
5008:
5007:
4986:
4980:
4979:
4977:
4975:
4970:on July 17, 2011
4969:
4963:. Archived from
4954:
4945:
4939:
4938:
4935:rp-photonics.com
4926:
4920:
4919:
4911:
4905:
4904:
4894:
4854:
4848:
4847:
4845:
4844:
4833:
4827:
4826:
4795:Nature Photonics
4792:
4782:
4776:
4775:
4768:
4762:
4761:
4759:
4758:
4747:
4741:
4740:
4738:
4737:
4703:Nature Photonics
4693:
4687:
4686:
4684:
4683:
4672:
4666:
4665:
4663:
4662:
4647:
4641:
4640:
4638:
4637:
4626:
4620:
4619:
4617:
4616:
4601:
4595:
4594:
4587:
4581:
4580:
4578:
4577:
4566:
4560:
4559:
4557:
4556:
4550:
4542:
4536:
4535:
4533:
4532:
4526:
4519:
4511:
4505:
4504:
4502:
4501:
4490:
4484:
4483:
4481:
4480:
4465:
4459:
4458:
4456:
4455:
4440:
4434:
4433:
4421:
4415:
4414:
4412:
4411:
4400:
4394:
4393:
4391:
4390:
4379:
4373:
4372:
4370:
4369:
4354:
4348:
4347:
4345:
4344:
4333:
4327:
4326:
4324:
4323:
4312:
4306:
4305:
4298:
4292:
4291:
4284:
4278:
4277:
4275:
4274:
4259:
4253:
4252:
4234:
4208:
4184:
4178:
4177:
4175:
4174:
4159:
4153:
4152:
4150:
4149:
4134:
4128:
4127:
4125:
4124:
4113:
4107:
4106:
4104:
4103:
4088:
4082:
4081:
4079:
4078:
4063:
4057:
4056:
4033:Nature Photonics
4028:
4022:
4021:
4014:
4008:
4007:
4005:
4004:
3969:
3960:
3959:
3957:
3956:
3945:
3939:
3938:
3927:
3921:
3920:
3918:
3917:
3908:. Archived from
3898:
3892:
3891:
3863:
3857:
3852:
3846:
3845:
3840:. Archived from
3830:
3824:
3823:
3805:
3799:
3798:
3793:
3792:
3776:
3770:
3769:
3757:
3751:
3750:
3714:
3708:
3707:
3682:(8): 1739–1745.
3671:
3665:
3664:
3654:
3631:Nature Photonics
3623:
3617:
3616:
3614:
3613:
3599:
3593:
3592:
3590:
3589:
3574:
3568:
3567:
3565:
3563:
3548:
3542:
3541:
3539:
3538:
3515:
3509:
3508:
3500:
3494:
3493:
3481:
3475:
3474:
3472:
3461:
3455:
3454:
3446:
3440:
3439:
3421:
3415:
3414:
3409:. Archived from
3399:
3393:
3392:
3390:
3388:
3379:. Archived from
3369:
3363:
3362:
3340:
3334:
3333:
3315:
3291:
3285:
3284:
3282:
3281:
3266:
3260:
3252:
3227:(118): 305–324.
3223:. Third Series.
3215:(October 1880).
3209:
3203:
3202:
3186:
3176:
3170:
3169:
3167:
3166:
3155:
3149:
3148:
3146:
3145:
3130:
3124:
3123:
3121:
3120:
3105:
3099:
3098:
3096:
3094:
3083:
3077:
3076:
3074:
3072:
3057:
3051:
3050:
3048:
3047:
3020:
3014:
3013:
3002:
2996:
2995:
2993:
2991:
2982:. Archived from
2972:
2966:
2965:
2963:
2961:
2946:
2940:
2939:
2927:
2917:
2911:
2910:
2877:
2871:
2870:
2868:
2867:
2853:
2836:
2833:gallium arsenide
2825:
2758:Gigabit Ethernet
2685:earth potentials
2395:
2391:
2383:Optical spectrum
2365:, and losses in
2314:multi-mode fiber
2310:transverse modes
2281:320 Gbit/s
2243:Effective speed
2234:
2233:
2207:
2204:
2198:
2191:
2010:414 Gbit/s
1978:120 Gbit/s
1975:739 (C+L bands)
1940:680 Gbit/s
1908:243 Gbit/s
1905:402 (C+L bands)
1804:256 Gbit/s
1694:Aggregate speed
1685:
1684:
1631:Number of modes
1619:Aggregate speed
1610:
1609:
1601:
1594:
1588:
1585:
1463:400 Gbit/s
1391:Deutsche Telekom
1226:Aggregate speed
1217:
1216:
1164:
1059:Emerald Atlantis
968:
951:
934:
909:
905:
901:
885:
857:refractive-index
767:
755:
731:driver amplifier
548:incoherent light
448:optical solitons
432:
428:
402:
364:
354:multi-mode fiber
238:Washington, D.C.
234:Volta Laboratory
120:
21:
6452:
6451:
6447:
6446:
6445:
6443:
6442:
6441:
6422:
6421:
6420:
6415:
6375:
6373:
6365:
6307:
6244:
6166:
6130:
6087:
6036:
6028:
5969:
5962:
5868:Robert Metcalfe
5723:Tim Berners-Lee
5671:
5491:Information Age
5363:
5358:
5328:
5323:
5295:
5269:
5197:
5146:
5141:
5090:
5055:
5053:Further reading
5050:
5044:
5024:by Vivek Alwayn
5012:
5011:
5001:
4987:
4983:
4973:
4971:
4967:
4959:. paper JWB66.
4952:
4946:
4942:
4927:
4923:
4912:
4908:
4855:
4851:
4842:
4840:
4835:
4834:
4830:
4790:
4783:
4779:
4770:
4769:
4765:
4756:
4754:
4749:
4748:
4744:
4735:
4733:
4694:
4690:
4681:
4679:
4674:
4673:
4669:
4660:
4658:
4649:
4648:
4644:
4635:
4633:
4628:
4627:
4623:
4614:
4612:
4603:
4602:
4598:
4589:
4588:
4584:
4575:
4573:
4568:
4567:
4563:
4554:
4552:
4548:
4544:
4543:
4539:
4530:
4528:
4524:
4517:
4513:
4512:
4508:
4499:
4497:
4492:
4491:
4487:
4478:
4476:
4467:
4466:
4462:
4453:
4451:
4442:
4441:
4437:
4422:
4418:
4409:
4407:
4402:
4401:
4397:
4388:
4386:
4381:
4380:
4376:
4367:
4365:
4356:
4355:
4351:
4342:
4340:
4335:
4334:
4330:
4321:
4319:
4314:
4313:
4309:
4300:
4299:
4295:
4286:
4285:
4281:
4272:
4270:
4261:
4260:
4256:
4185:
4181:
4172:
4170:
4161:
4160:
4156:
4147:
4145:
4136:
4135:
4131:
4122:
4120:
4115:
4114:
4110:
4101:
4099:
4090:
4089:
4085:
4076:
4074:
4065:
4064:
4060:
4029:
4025:
4016:
4015:
4011:
4002:
4000:
3970:
3963:
3954:
3952:
3947:
3946:
3942:
3929:
3928:
3924:
3915:
3913:
3900:
3899:
3895:
3880:
3864:
3860:
3853:
3849:
3838:Observer Online
3832:
3831:
3827:
3820:
3806:
3802:
3790:
3788:
3787:. Cisco Systems
3777:
3773:
3758:
3754:
3715:
3711:
3672:
3668:
3625:
3624:
3620:
3611:
3609:
3601:
3600:
3596:
3587:
3585:
3575:
3571:
3561:
3559:
3550:
3549:
3545:
3536:
3534:
3516:
3512:
3501:
3497:
3482:
3478:
3470:
3462:
3458:
3447:
3443:
3436:
3422:
3418:
3401:
3400:
3396:
3386:
3384:
3373:"Optical Fiber"
3371:
3370:
3366:
3359:
3341:
3337:
3292:
3288:
3279:
3277:
3267:
3263:
3210:
3206:
3199:
3177:
3173:
3164:
3162:
3157:
3156:
3152:
3143:
3141:
3131:
3127:
3118:
3116:
3107:
3106:
3102:
3092:
3090:
3085:
3084:
3080:
3070:
3068:
3058:
3054:
3045:
3043:
3041:
3021:
3017:
3004:
3003:
2999:
2989:
2987:
2974:
2973:
2969:
2959:
2957:
2954:How Stuff Works
2948:
2947:
2943:
2936:
2925:
2919:
2918:
2914:
2907:
2899:. p. 382.
2878:
2874:
2865:
2863:
2855:
2854:
2850:
2845:
2840:
2839:
2826:
2822:
2817:
2805:
2717:
2628:parasite signal
2599:A mobile fiber
2593:
2518:
2490:
2386:
2379:
2348:
2296:
2216:
2211:
2210:
2205:
2201:
2192:
2188:
1801:3x96 (mode DM)
1680:
1605:
1604:
1595:
1591:
1586:
1579:
1567:170–320 Gbit/s
1544:50–150 km
1541:250–300 Gbit/s
1424:65 Tbit/s
1387:Nokia Bell Labs
1212:
1192:
1176:
1171:
1159:
1146:
1140:
1092:
1086:
966:
949:
932:
899:
883:
865:fusion splicing
825:
793:Volterra series
785:Berenguer et al
765:
750:
719:
697:and a limiting
660:
619:continuous wave
520:
500:
464:video on demand
430:
423:
401:2.5 Gbit/s
400:
389:pulse-spreading
363:1.7 Gbit/s
362:
218:
175:
147:developed world
135:Information Age
127:
114:
66:is a method of
28:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
6450:
6440:
6439:
6434:
6417:
6416:
6414:
6413:
6403:
6393:
6383:
6370:
6367:
6366:
6364:
6363:
6356:
6351:
6346:
6341:
6336:
6335:
6334:
6329:
6321:
6315:
6313:
6309:
6308:
6306:
6305:
6300:
6295:
6290:
6285:
6280:
6275:
6270:
6265:
6260:
6254:
6252:
6246:
6245:
6243:
6242:
6237:
6232:
6227:
6222:
6217:
6212:
6207:
6202:
6197:
6192:
6187:
6182:
6176:
6174:
6168:
6167:
6165:
6164:
6159:
6154:
6149:
6144:
6138:
6136:
6132:
6131:
6129:
6128:
6123:
6118:
6113:
6108:
6103:
6101:Space-division
6097:
6095:
6089:
6088:
6086:
6085:
6080:
6079:
6078:
6073:
6063:
6062:
6061:
6051:
6046:
6040:
6038:
6030:
6029:
6027:
6026:
6025:
6024:
6014:
6013:
6012:
6002:
5997:
5992:
5991:
5990:
5980:
5974:
5972:
5964:
5963:
5961:
5960:
5955:
5950:
5945:
5940:
5938:Camille Tissot
5935:
5930:
5925:
5920:
5915:
5913:Claude Shannon
5910:
5905:
5903:Tivadar Puskás
5900:
5895:
5890:
5885:
5880:
5875:
5873:Antonio Meucci
5870:
5865:
5860:
5855:
5850:
5845:
5843:Charles K. Kao
5840:
5835:
5830:
5825:
5820:
5818:Harold Hopkins
5815:
5810:
5805:
5800:
5795:
5790:
5785:
5780:
5775:
5770:
5765:
5760:
5755:
5750:
5745:
5740:
5735:
5730:
5725:
5720:
5718:Emile Berliner
5715:
5710:
5705:
5700:
5695:
5690:
5685:
5679:
5677:
5673:
5672:
5670:
5669:
5664:
5659:
5657:Videotelephony
5654:
5649:
5648:
5647:
5642:
5632:
5625:
5620:
5614:
5609:
5604:
5599:
5594:
5593:
5592:
5587:
5582:
5572:
5571:
5570:
5560:
5555:
5553:Radiotelephone
5550:
5545:
5540:
5535:
5530:
5525:
5520:
5519:
5518:
5508:
5503:
5498:
5493:
5488:
5483:
5478:
5473:
5468:
5463:
5458:
5457:
5456:
5451:
5446:
5441:
5439:Internet video
5431:
5430:
5429:
5424:
5419:
5414:
5404:
5399:
5394:
5389:
5384:
5379:
5373:
5371:
5365:
5364:
5357:
5356:
5349:
5342:
5334:
5325:
5324:
5322:
5321:
5311:
5300:
5297:
5296:
5294:
5293:
5288:
5283:
5277:
5275:
5271:
5270:
5268:
5267:
5262:
5261:
5260:
5255:
5250:
5245:
5240:
5230:
5229:
5228:
5227:
5226:
5221:
5205:
5203:
5199:
5198:
5196:
5195:
5190:
5185:
5180:
5175:
5170:
5165:
5160:
5154:
5152:
5148:
5147:
5140:
5139:
5132:
5125:
5117:
5111:
5110:
5108:on 2016-10-22.
5097:
5096:An IBM redbook
5089:
5088:External links
5086:
5085:
5084:
5082:978-0130326812
5070:
5054:
5051:
5049:
5048:
5042:
5025:
5019:
5013:
5010:
5009:
4999:
4981:
4940:
4921:
4906:
4849:
4828:
4777:
4763:
4742:
4697:(2022-10-20).
4688:
4667:
4642:
4621:
4596:
4582:
4561:
4537:
4506:
4485:
4460:
4435:
4416:
4395:
4374:
4349:
4328:
4307:
4293:
4279:
4254:
4179:
4154:
4129:
4108:
4083:
4058:
4023:
4009:
3961:
3940:
3937:on 2013-07-18.
3922:
3893:
3878:
3858:
3847:
3844:on 2007-09-27.
3825:
3818:
3800:
3771:
3752:
3725:(7): 752–755.
3709:
3666:
3618:
3594:
3569:
3543:
3510:
3495:
3476:
3456:
3441:
3434:
3416:
3394:
3364:
3357:
3335:
3286:
3261:
3204:
3197:
3171:
3150:
3125:
3100:
3078:
3052:
3039:
3015:
2997:
2967:
2956:. 6 March 2001
2941:
2934:
2912:
2905:
2881:McIntosh, Jane
2872:
2847:
2846:
2844:
2841:
2838:
2837:
2819:
2818:
2816:
2813:
2812:
2811:
2804:
2801:
2782:
2781:
2775:
2770:
2765:
2760:
2755:
2750:
2745:
2736:
2735:
2728:
2716:
2713:
2708:
2707:
2704:
2701:
2698:
2691:
2688:
2677:
2592:
2589:
2517:
2514:
2489:
2486:
2476:
2475:
2472:
2469:
2465:
2464:
2461:
2458:
2454:
2453:
2450:
2445:Conventional (
2443:
2439:
2438:
2435:
2432:
2428:
2427:
2424:
2421:
2417:
2416:
2413:
2410:
2406:
2405:
2402:
2399:
2378:
2375:
2363:Mie scattering
2347:
2344:
2295:
2292:
2285:
2284:
2282:
2279:
2276:
2273:
2270:
2267:
2264:
2260:
2259:
2256:
2253:
2250:
2247:
2244:
2241:
2238:
2218:Research from
2215:
2214:New techniques
2212:
2209:
2208:
2199:
2185:
2184:
2181:
2180:
2177:
2172:
2169:
2164:
2161:
2158:
2155:
2150:
2147:
2143:
2142:
2139:
2136:
2133:
2130:
2128:
2126:
2124:
2121:
2116:
2112:
2111:
2108:
2106:
2105:(S+C+L bands)
2100:
2097:
2095:
2093:
2091:
2088:
2085:
2081:
2080:
2075:
2072:
2069:
2066:
2063:
2061:
2059:
2056:
2053:
2049:
2048:
2045:
2042:
2039:
2034:
2031:
2028:
2025:
2022:
2019:
2015:
2014:
2011:
2008:
2005:
2002:
1999:
1997:
1995:
1992:
1987:
1983:
1982:
1979:
1976:
1973:
1970:
1965:
1963:
1961:
1958:
1949:
1945:
1944:
1943:205.6 km
1941:
1938:
1935:
1932:
1929:
1927:
1925:
1924:1 Pbit/s
1922:
1917:
1913:
1912:
1909:
1906:
1903:
1900:
1898:
1896:
1894:
1891:
1878:
1874:
1873:
1870:
1867:
1864:
1861:
1859:
1857:
1855:
1852:
1842:
1838:
1837:
1834:
1832:
1830:
1827:
1825:
1823:
1821:
1818:
1813:
1809:
1808:
1805:
1802:
1799:
1796:
1794:
1792:
1790:
1787:
1782:
1778:
1777:
1774:
1772:
1770:
1767:
1765:
1763:
1761:
1758:
1749:
1745:
1744:
1742:
1740:
1738:
1735:
1733:
1731:
1729:
1726:
1721:
1717:
1716:
1713:
1710:
1707:
1704:
1701:
1698:
1695:
1692:
1689:
1679:
1676:
1673:
1672:
1669:
1666:
1663:
1660:
1657:
1654:
1651:
1646:
1642:
1641:
1638:
1635:
1632:
1629:
1623:
1620:
1617:
1614:
1603:
1602:
1589:
1576:
1575:
1572:
1571:
1568:
1565:
1562:
1559:
1556:
1553:
1550:
1546:
1545:
1542:
1539:
1536:
1533:
1530:
1527:
1524:
1520:
1519:
1516:
1513:
1510:
1507:
1504:
1503:178.08 Tbit/s
1501:
1498:
1494:
1493:
1490:
1487:
1484:
1481:
1478:
1475:
1472:
1468:
1467:
1464:
1461:
1458:
1455:
1453:
1450:
1441:
1437:
1436:
1433:
1431:
1429:
1427:
1425:
1422:
1417:
1413:
1412:
1410:
1407:
1404:
1402:
1400:
1397:
1384:
1380:
1379:
1376:
1373:
1370:
1368:
1366:
1363:
1354:
1350:
1349:
1346:
1343:
1340:
1338:
1336:
1333:
1328:
1324:
1323:
1320:
1317:
1314:
1312:
1310:
1307:
1302:
1298:
1297:
1294:
1291:
1288:
1286:
1284:
1281:
1276:
1272:
1271:
1268:
1265:
1262:
1260:
1258:
1255:
1253:Alcatel-Lucent
1250:
1246:
1245:
1242:
1239:
1236:
1230:
1227:
1224:
1221:
1211:
1208:
1191:
1188:
1175:
1172:
1170:
1167:
1142:Main article:
1139:
1136:
1096:optoelectronic
1088:Main article:
1085:
1082:
1041:
1040:
1037:
1034:
1027:
1026:
1023:
1020:
1013:
1012:
1009:
1006:
999:
998:
995:
992:
985:
984:
981:
978:
971:
970:
964:
961:
954:
953:
947:
944:
937:
936:
930:
927:
920:
919:
916:
913:
824:
821:
725:consists of a
718:
715:
703:clock recovery
659:
656:
519:
516:
499:
496:
476:dot-com bubble
285:George Hockham
281:Charles K. Kao
254:Harold Hopkins
217:
214:
174:
171:
170:
169:
166:
163:
160:
126:
123:
26:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
6449:
6438:
6435:
6433:
6430:
6429:
6427:
6412:
6404:
6402:
6394:
6392:
6384:
6382:
6372:
6371:
6368:
6361:
6357:
6355:
6352:
6350:
6347:
6345:
6342:
6340:
6337:
6333:
6330:
6328:
6325:
6324:
6322:
6320:
6317:
6316:
6314:
6310:
6304:
6301:
6299:
6296:
6294:
6291:
6289:
6286:
6284:
6281:
6279:
6276:
6274:
6271:
6269:
6266:
6264:
6261:
6259:
6256:
6255:
6253:
6251:
6247:
6241:
6238:
6236:
6233:
6231:
6228:
6226:
6223:
6221:
6218:
6216:
6213:
6211:
6208:
6206:
6203:
6201:
6198:
6196:
6193:
6191:
6188:
6186:
6183:
6181:
6178:
6177:
6175:
6173:
6169:
6163:
6160:
6158:
6155:
6153:
6150:
6148:
6145:
6143:
6140:
6139:
6137:
6133:
6127:
6126:Code-division
6124:
6122:
6119:
6117:
6114:
6112:
6111:Time-division
6109:
6107:
6104:
6102:
6099:
6098:
6096:
6094:
6090:
6084:
6081:
6077:
6074:
6072:
6069:
6068:
6067:
6064:
6060:
6057:
6056:
6055:
6052:
6050:
6047:
6045:
6042:
6041:
6039:
6037:and switching
6035:
6031:
6023:
6020:
6019:
6018:
6015:
6011:
6008:
6007:
6006:
6003:
6001:
5998:
5996:
5993:
5989:
5988:optical fiber
5986:
5985:
5984:
5981:
5979:
5978:Coaxial cable
5976:
5975:
5973:
5971:
5965:
5959:
5956:
5954:
5951:
5949:
5946:
5944:
5941:
5939:
5936:
5934:
5931:
5929:
5926:
5924:
5921:
5919:
5916:
5914:
5911:
5909:
5906:
5904:
5901:
5899:
5896:
5894:
5893:Radia Perlman
5891:
5889:
5886:
5884:
5881:
5879:
5876:
5874:
5871:
5869:
5866:
5864:
5861:
5859:
5856:
5854:
5851:
5849:
5846:
5844:
5841:
5839:
5836:
5834:
5831:
5829:
5826:
5824:
5821:
5819:
5816:
5814:
5811:
5809:
5806:
5804:
5801:
5799:
5796:
5794:
5791:
5789:
5786:
5784:
5783:Lee de Forest
5781:
5779:
5778:Thomas Edison
5776:
5774:
5771:
5769:
5768:Donald Davies
5766:
5764:
5761:
5759:
5756:
5754:
5753:Claude Chappe
5751:
5749:
5746:
5744:
5741:
5739:
5736:
5734:
5731:
5729:
5726:
5724:
5721:
5719:
5716:
5714:
5711:
5709:
5706:
5704:
5701:
5699:
5696:
5694:
5691:
5689:
5686:
5684:
5681:
5680:
5678:
5674:
5668:
5665:
5663:
5660:
5658:
5655:
5653:
5650:
5646:
5643:
5641:
5638:
5637:
5636:
5633:
5631:
5630:
5626:
5624:
5621:
5618:
5615:
5613:
5610:
5608:
5605:
5603:
5600:
5598:
5597:Smoke signals
5595:
5591:
5588:
5586:
5583:
5581:
5578:
5577:
5576:
5575:Semiconductor
5573:
5569:
5566:
5565:
5564:
5561:
5559:
5556:
5554:
5551:
5549:
5546:
5544:
5541:
5539:
5536:
5534:
5531:
5529:
5526:
5524:
5521:
5517:
5514:
5513:
5512:
5509:
5507:
5504:
5502:
5499:
5497:
5494:
5492:
5489:
5487:
5484:
5482:
5479:
5477:
5474:
5472:
5469:
5467:
5464:
5462:
5459:
5455:
5452:
5450:
5447:
5445:
5442:
5440:
5437:
5436:
5435:
5434:Digital media
5432:
5428:
5425:
5423:
5420:
5418:
5415:
5413:
5410:
5409:
5408:
5405:
5403:
5400:
5398:
5395:
5393:
5390:
5388:
5385:
5383:
5380:
5378:
5375:
5374:
5372:
5370:
5366:
5362:
5355:
5350:
5348:
5343:
5341:
5336:
5335:
5332:
5320:
5316:
5312:
5310:
5302:
5301:
5298:
5292:
5289:
5287:
5284:
5282:
5279:
5278:
5276:
5272:
5266:
5263:
5259:
5256:
5254:
5251:
5249:
5246:
5244:
5243:Visible light
5241:
5239:
5236:
5235:
5234:
5231:
5225:
5222:
5220:
5217:
5216:
5215:
5214:Optical fiber
5212:
5211:
5210:
5207:
5206:
5204:
5200:
5194:
5191:
5189:
5186:
5184:
5181:
5179:
5176:
5174:
5171:
5169:
5166:
5164:
5161:
5159:
5156:
5155:
5153:
5149:
5145:
5138:
5133:
5131:
5126:
5124:
5119:
5118:
5115:
5107:
5103:
5098:
5095:
5092:
5091:
5083:
5079:
5075:
5071:
5069:
5068:9780073380711
5065:
5061:
5057:
5056:
5045:
5039:
5035:
5031:
5026:
5023:
5020:
5018:
5015:
5014:
5006:
5002:
5000:9781118019542
4996:
4992:
4985:
4966:
4962:
4958:
4951:
4944:
4936:
4932:
4925:
4917:
4910:
4902:
4898:
4893:
4888:
4884:
4880:
4876:
4872:
4868:
4864:
4860:
4853:
4838:
4832:
4824:
4820:
4816:
4812:
4808:
4804:
4800:
4796:
4789:
4781:
4773:
4767:
4752:
4746:
4732:
4728:
4724:
4720:
4716:
4712:
4708:
4704:
4700:
4692:
4677:
4671:
4657:on 2022-11-11
4656:
4652:
4646:
4631:
4625:
4611:on 2023-04-04
4610:
4606:
4600:
4592:
4586:
4571:
4565:
4547:
4541:
4527:on 2018-06-30
4523:
4516:
4510:
4495:
4489:
4474:
4470:
4464:
4450:on 2023-04-04
4449:
4445:
4439:
4431:
4427:
4420:
4405:
4399:
4384:
4378:
4364:on 2022-11-11
4363:
4359:
4353:
4338:
4332:
4317:
4311:
4303:
4297:
4289:
4283:
4269:on 2022-09-28
4268:
4264:
4258:
4250:
4246:
4242:
4238:
4233:
4228:
4224:
4220:
4216:
4212:
4207:
4202:
4198:
4194:
4190:
4183:
4169:on 2020-05-22
4168:
4164:
4158:
4144:on 2018-08-04
4143:
4139:
4133:
4118:
4112:
4098:on 2023-03-29
4097:
4093:
4087:
4073:on 2023-04-08
4072:
4068:
4062:
4054:
4050:
4046:
4042:
4038:
4034:
4027:
4019:
4013:
3999:
3995:
3991:
3987:
3983:
3979:
3978:New Scientist
3975:
3968:
3966:
3950:
3944:
3936:
3932:
3926:
3912:on 2010-01-15
3911:
3907:
3903:
3897:
3889:
3885:
3881:
3875:
3871:
3870:
3862:
3856:
3851:
3843:
3839:
3835:
3829:
3821:
3815:
3811:
3804:
3797:
3786:
3782:
3775:
3767:
3763:
3756:
3748:
3744:
3740:
3736:
3732:
3728:
3724:
3720:
3713:
3705:
3701:
3697:
3693:
3689:
3685:
3681:
3677:
3670:
3662:
3658:
3653:
3648:
3644:
3640:
3636:
3632:
3628:
3622:
3608:
3604:
3598:
3584:
3580:
3573:
3557:
3553:
3547:
3533:
3529:
3525:
3521:
3514:
3506:
3499:
3491:
3487:
3480:
3469:
3468:
3460:
3452:
3445:
3437:
3435:9780595465286
3431:
3427:
3420:
3412:
3408:
3404:
3398:
3382:
3378:
3374:
3368:
3360:
3354:
3350:
3346:
3339:
3331:
3327:
3323:
3319:
3314:
3309:
3305:
3301:
3297:
3290:
3276:
3272:
3265:
3258:
3257:
3250:
3246:
3242:
3238:
3234:
3230:
3226:
3222:
3218:
3214:
3208:
3200:
3194:
3190:
3185:
3184:
3175:
3160:
3154:
3140:
3136:
3129:
3114:
3110:
3104:
3088:
3082:
3067:
3063:
3056:
3042:
3036:
3032:
3028:
3027:
3019:
3011:
3007:
3001:
2985:
2981:
2977:
2971:
2955:
2951:
2945:
2937:
2931:
2924:
2923:
2916:
2908:
2902:
2898:
2894:
2890:
2886:
2885:Chrisp, Peter
2882:
2876:
2862:
2858:
2852:
2848:
2834:
2831:(InGaAsP) or
2830:
2824:
2820:
2810:
2807:
2806:
2800:
2798:
2794:
2790:
2789:digital audio
2786:
2779:
2776:
2774:
2771:
2769:
2766:
2764:
2761:
2759:
2756:
2754:
2753:Fibre Channel
2751:
2749:
2746:
2744:
2741:
2740:
2739:
2733:
2729:
2726:
2725:
2724:
2722:
2712:
2705:
2702:
2699:
2696:
2692:
2689:
2686:
2682:
2678:
2675:
2671:
2670:
2669:
2666:
2664:
2659:
2657:
2652:
2648:
2646:
2642:
2638:
2634:
2629:
2624:
2622:
2618:
2609:
2602:
2597:
2588:
2586:
2582:
2578:
2577:Broadband PON
2574:
2569:
2567:
2563:
2559:
2555:
2551:
2547:
2543:
2538:
2535:
2531:
2527:
2523:
2513:
2511:
2506:
2501:
2499:
2495:
2485:
2481:
2473:
2470:
2467:
2466:
2462:
2459:
2456:
2455:
2451:
2448:
2447:erbium window
2444:
2441:
2440:
2436:
2433:
2430:
2429:
2425:
2422:
2419:
2418:
2414:
2411:
2408:
2407:
2403:
2400:
2397:
2396:
2390:
2384:
2374:
2372:
2368:
2364:
2360:
2356:
2352:
2343:
2341:
2336:
2334:
2330:
2329:birefringence
2326:
2322:
2317:
2315:
2311:
2307:
2303:
2301:
2291:
2283:
2280:
2277:
2274:
2271:
2268:
2265:
2262:
2261:
2257:
2254:
2251:
2249:No. of cores
2248:
2245:
2242:
2240:Organization
2239:
2236:
2235:
2232:
2229:
2225:
2221:
2203:
2196:
2190:
2186:
2178:
2176:
2173:
2170:
2168:
2165:
2162:
2159:
2156:
2154:
2151:
2148:
2145:
2144:
2140:
2137:
2134:
2131:
2129:
2127:
2125:
2122:
2120:
2117:
2114:
2113:
2110:51.7 km
2109:
2107:
2104:
2101:
2098:
2096:
2094:
2092:
2089:
2086:
2083:
2082:
2079:
2076:
2074:144.5 Gbit/s
2073:
2070:
2067:
2064:
2062:
2060:
2057:
2054:
2051:
2050:
2046:
2043:
2040:
2038:
2035:
2032:
2029:
2026:
2024:10.66 Pbit/s
2023:
2020:
2017:
2016:
2013:1045 km
2012:
2009:
2006:
2003:
2000:
1998:
1996:
1993:
1991:
1988:
1985:
1984:
1981:11.3 km
1980:
1977:
1974:
1971:
1969:
1966:
1964:
1962:
1959:
1957:
1953:
1952:KDDI Research
1950:
1947:
1946:
1942:
1939:
1936:
1933:
1930:
1928:
1926:
1923:
1921:
1918:
1915:
1914:
1910:
1907:
1904:
1901:
1899:
1897:
1895:
1892:
1890:
1889:RAM Photonics
1886:
1882:
1879:
1876:
1875:
1871:
1868:
1865:
1862:
1860:
1858:
1856:
1853:
1850:
1846:
1843:
1840:
1839:
1836:1045 km
1835:
1833:
1831:
1828:
1826:
1824:
1822:
1819:
1817:
1814:
1811:
1810:
1806:
1803:
1800:
1797:
1795:
1793:
1791:
1788:
1786:
1783:
1780:
1779:
1776:52.4 km
1775:
1773:
1771:
1768:
1766:
1764:
1762:
1759:
1757:
1753:
1750:
1747:
1746:
1743:
1741:
1739:
1736:
1734:
1732:
1730:
1728:109.2 Tbit/s
1727:
1725:
1722:
1719:
1718:
1714:
1711:
1708:
1706:No. of cores
1705:
1702:
1699:
1696:
1693:
1691:Organization
1690:
1687:
1686:
1683:
1671:25.9 km
1670:
1667:
1665:184 (C-band)
1664:
1661:
1658:
1655:
1652:
1650:
1647:
1644:
1643:
1639:
1636:
1634:WDM channels
1633:
1630:
1628:, (bit/s)/Hz
1627:
1624:
1621:
1618:
1616:Organization
1615:
1612:
1611:
1608:
1599:
1593:
1584:
1582:
1577:
1569:
1566:
1563:
1560:
1557:
1554:
1551:
1548:
1547:
1543:
1540:
1537:
1534:
1531:
1528:
1525:
1522:
1521:
1517:
1514:
1511:
1508:
1505:
1502:
1499:
1496:
1495:
1492:76.6 km
1491:
1488:
1485:
1482:
1479:
1476:
1473:
1470:
1469:
1465:
1462:
1459:
1456:
1454:
1451:
1449:
1445:
1442:
1439:
1438:
1435:6600 km
1434:
1432:
1430:
1428:
1426:
1423:
1421:
1418:
1415:
1414:
1411:
1408:
1405:
1403:
1401:
1398:
1396:
1392:
1388:
1385:
1382:
1381:
1377:
1374:
1371:
1369:
1367:
1364:
1362:
1358:
1355:
1352:
1351:
1347:
1344:
1341:
1339:
1337:
1334:
1332:
1329:
1326:
1325:
1321:
1318:
1315:
1313:
1311:
1309:101.7 Tbit/s
1308:
1306:
1303:
1300:
1299:
1295:
1292:
1289:
1287:
1285:
1282:
1280:
1277:
1274:
1273:
1270:7000 km
1269:
1266:
1263:
1261:
1259:
1256:
1254:
1251:
1248:
1247:
1243:
1240:
1238:WDM channels
1237:
1235:, (bit/s)/Hz
1234:
1231:
1228:
1225:
1223:Organization
1222:
1219:
1218:
1215:
1207:
1205:
1201:
1197:
1190:Record speeds
1187:
1185:
1181:
1166:
1163:
1156:
1152:
1145:
1135:
1132:
1127:
1125:
1121:
1120:laser pumping
1117:
1113:
1109:
1105:
1100:
1097:
1091:
1084:Amplification
1081:
1079:
1075:
1071:
1066:
1064:
1060:
1056:
1051:
1048:
1038:
1035:
1032:
1029:
1028:
1024:
1021:
1018:
1015:
1014:
1010:
1007:
1004:
1001:
1000:
996:
993:
990:
987:
986:
982:
979:
976:
973:
972:
965:
962:
959:
956:
955:
948:
945:
942:
939:
938:
931:
928:
925:
922:
921:
917:
914:
911:
910:
904:
897:
893:
889:
881:
877:
872:
870:
866:
862:
858:
854:
850:
846:
837:
829:
820:
818:
814:
810:
806:
802:
798:
794:
790:
789:Wiener system
786:
781:
779:
775:
771:
763:
762:predistortion
759:
754:
748:
744:
740:
736:
732:
728:
724:
714:
710:
708:
704:
700:
696:
691:
689:
685:
681:
677:
673:
669:
665:
664:photodetector
655:
653:
649:
645:
640:
636:
632:
628:
625:, such as an
624:
620:
616:
611:
609:
605:
600:
595:
593:
589:
585:
580:
578:
574:
573:quantum wells
569:
566:
564:
560:
556:
551:
549:
545:
541:
533:
529:
524:
515:
513:
509:
505:
495:
493:
489:
485:
482:of firms and
481:
480:consolidation
477:
473:
469:
465:
461:
456:
454:
450:
449:
444:
440:
435:
427:
421:
417:
416:data capacity
413:
409:
404:
398:
394:
390:
386:
381:
379:
375:
371:
366:
359:
355:
349:
347:
343:
339:
334:
332:
326:
323:
319:
315:
310:
308:
305:
301:
297:
292:
290:
286:
282:
277:
275:
271:
267:
263:
259:
255:
250:
247:
243:
239:
235:
231:
227:
223:
213:
211:
207:
202:
197:
193:
191:
187:
184:Due to lower
182:
179:
178:Optical fiber
167:
164:
161:
159:
155:
154:
153:
150:
148:
144:
140:
136:
132:
122:
118:
112:
108:
103:
101:
97:
93:
89:
85:
81:
80:optical fiber
77:
76:visible light
73:
69:
65:
58:
54:
50:
43:
39:
34:
30:
19:
6093:Multiplexing
5982:
5968:Transmission
5933:Nikola Tesla
5923:Henry Sutton
5878:Samuel Morse
5808:Robert Hooke
5773:Amos Dolbear
5708:John Bardeen
5627:
5607:Telautograph
5511:Mobile phone
5466:Edholm's law
5449:social media
5382:Broadcasting
5274:Technologies
5209:Fiber-optics
5208:
5173:Ships' flags
5158:Smoke signal
5106:the original
5100:Julia Hall.
5073:
5059:
5032:. New York:
5029:
5004:
4990:
4984:
4972:. Retrieved
4965:the original
4956:
4943:
4934:
4924:
4909:
4866:
4862:
4852:
4841:. Retrieved
4831:
4798:
4794:
4780:
4766:
4755:. Retrieved
4745:
4734:. Retrieved
4706:
4702:
4691:
4680:. Retrieved
4670:
4659:. Retrieved
4655:the original
4645:
4634:. Retrieved
4624:
4613:. Retrieved
4609:the original
4599:
4585:
4574:. Retrieved
4564:
4553:. Retrieved
4540:
4529:. Retrieved
4522:the original
4509:
4498:. Retrieved
4488:
4477:. Retrieved
4475:. 2014-10-27
4472:
4463:
4452:. Retrieved
4448:the original
4438:
4429:
4419:
4408:. Retrieved
4398:
4387:. Retrieved
4377:
4366:. Retrieved
4362:the original
4352:
4341:. Retrieved
4331:
4320:. Retrieved
4310:
4296:
4282:
4271:. Retrieved
4267:the original
4257:
4196:
4192:
4182:
4171:. Retrieved
4167:the original
4157:
4146:. Retrieved
4142:the original
4132:
4121:. Retrieved
4111:
4100:. Retrieved
4096:the original
4086:
4075:. Retrieved
4071:the original
4061:
4036:
4032:
4026:
4012:
4001:. Retrieved
3984:(2809): 24.
3981:
3977:
3953:. Retrieved
3943:
3935:the original
3925:
3914:. Retrieved
3910:the original
3905:
3896:
3868:
3861:
3850:
3842:the original
3837:
3828:
3809:
3803:
3795:
3789:. Retrieved
3784:
3774:
3765:
3755:
3722:
3718:
3712:
3679:
3675:
3669:
3634:
3630:
3621:
3610:. Retrieved
3606:
3597:
3586:. Retrieved
3583:ScienceAlert
3582:
3572:
3560:. Retrieved
3556:News release
3555:
3546:
3535:. Retrieved
3523:
3513:
3504:
3498:
3489:
3479:
3466:
3459:
3450:
3444:
3425:
3419:
3411:the original
3406:
3397:
3385:. Retrieved
3381:the original
3376:
3367:
3348:
3338:
3303:
3299:
3289:
3278:. Retrieved
3274:
3264:
3254:
3224:
3220:
3207:
3182:
3174:
3163:. Retrieved
3153:
3142:. Retrieved
3138:
3128:
3117:. Retrieved
3115:. 2020-11-10
3113:BusinessWire
3112:
3103:
3093:December 22,
3091:. Retrieved
3081:
3069:. Retrieved
3065:
3055:
3044:. Retrieved
3025:
3018:
3010:the original
3000:
2988:. Retrieved
2984:the original
2979:
2970:
2958:. Retrieved
2953:
2944:
2921:
2915:
2891:. New York:
2888:
2875:
2864:. Retrieved
2860:
2851:
2823:
2791:cable using
2783:
2737:
2718:
2709:
2667:
2660:
2653:
2649:
2625:
2614:
2601:optic splice
2570:
2539:
2519:
2505:regeneration
2504:
2502:
2493:
2491:
2488:Regeneration
2482:
2479:
2446:
2401:Description
2387:
2373:techniques.
2349:
2337:
2318:
2304:
2297:
2288:
2272:Single-mode
2217:
2202:
2189:
2175:803.5 Gbit/s
2174:
2166:
2152:
2141:7.9 km
2123:1.84 Pbit/s
2102:
2090:1.02 Pbit/s
2077:
2065:single-mode
2036:
1967:
1931:single-mode
1789:73.7 Tbit/s
1760:1.05 Pbit/s
1681:
1668:1.03 Tbit/s
1653:1.53 Pbit/s
1606:
1592:
1466:250 km
1322:165 km
1296:240 km
1283:69.1 Tbit/s
1257:15.5 Tbit/s
1213:
1193:
1179:
1177:
1151:spectrometer
1147:
1128:
1101:
1093:
1080:technology.
1067:
1052:
1044:
918:Performance
873:
842:
805:Duthel et al
804:
797:Khanna et al
796:
784:
782:
745:) or higher
720:
711:
692:
688:regenerators
661:
612:
596:
581:
570:
567:
552:
544:laser diodes
537:
518:Transmitters
501:
457:
446:
442:
436:
431:14 Tb/s
405:
382:
367:
350:
335:
327:
318:Gordon Gould
311:
293:
278:
251:
242:transmission
219:
198:
194:
190:interference
183:
176:
173:Applications
151:
128:
104:
84:carrier wave
63:
62:
29:
6293:NPL network
6005:Radio waves
5943:Alfred Vail
5853:Hedy Lamarr
5838:Dawon Kahng
5798:Elisha Gray
5758:Yogen Dalal
5683:Nasir Ahmed
5617:Teleprinter
5481:Heliographs
5258:Consumer IR
5188:Signal lamp
4473:ExtremeTech
4430:Extremetech
3031:Cisco Press
2897:Smithsonian
2645:power lines
2581:Gigabit PON
2579:(BPON) and
2540:In the US,
2494:regenerated
2346:Attenuation
2179:13 km
2153:22.9 Pbit/s
2138:223 Gbit/s
2058:319 Tbit/s
2047:13 km
2044:762 Gbit/s
1994:159 Tbit/s
1911:31 km
1854:255 Tbit/s
1847:(TU/e) and
1807:310 m
1798:1 (hollow)
1570:50 km
1555:402 Tbit/s
1529:301 Tbit/s
1518:40 km
1515:270 Gbit/s
1489:244 Gbit/s
1375:200 Gbit/s
1365:5.6 Tbit/s
1348:50 km
1319:273 Gbit/s
1293:171 Gbit/s
1267:100 Gbit/s
1131:multiplexed
888:micrometers
813:timing skew
766:56 GBd
723:transmitter
588:Fabry–Pérot
542:(LEDs) and
532:transceiver
472:Moore's Law
376:, based on
186:attenuation
78:through an
6426:Categories
6339:Antarctica
6298:Toasternet
6220:Television
5703:Paul Baran
5635:Television
5619:(teletype)
5612:Telegraphy
5590:transistor
5568:Phryctoria
5538:Photophone
5516:Smartphone
5506:Mass media
5238:Free-space
5224:Connectors
5193:Photophone
5183:Heliograph
4843:2018-10-25
4757:2022-10-23
4736:2022-10-23
4682:2022-11-11
4661:2022-11-11
4636:2022-11-11
4615:2021-07-18
4576:2018-06-30
4555:2018-08-25
4531:2018-06-30
4500:2018-08-25
4479:2018-06-30
4454:2018-06-30
4410:2018-08-03
4389:2013-01-23
4368:2022-11-11
4343:2022-11-11
4322:2022-11-11
4273:2021-07-18
4206:2003.11893
4173:2020-05-23
4148:2018-08-03
4123:2018-06-30
4102:2018-06-30
4077:2018-06-30
4039:(6): 364.
4003:2012-02-26
3955:2010-04-03
3916:2009-08-26
3791:2006-12-31
3781:"Splicing"
3612:2021-04-18
3607:thefoa.org
3588:2021-11-09
3537:2021-11-09
3377:Sendai New
3280:2021-04-18
3165:2021-11-23
3144:2021-04-18
3119:2021-04-18
3046:2020-08-08
2866:2019-12-16
2861:thefoa.org
2843:References
2656:fiber fuse
2367:connectors
2300:dispersion
2294:Dispersion
1872:1 km
1820:43 Tbit/s
1697:Bandwidth
1622:Bandwidth
1506:16.83 THz
1345:77 Gbit/s
1335:26 Tbit/s
1229:Bandwidth
1169:Parameters
1078:smart grid
915:Introduced
912:Fibre type
747:baud Rates
676:photodiode
498:Technology
484:offshoring
368:The first
230:Photophone
125:Background
94:when high
57:dark fiber
6437:Photonics
6323:Americas
6312:Locations
6283:Internet2
6044:Bandwidth
5748:Vint Cerf
5645:streaming
5623:Telephone
5563:Semaphore
5454:streaming
4974:March 14,
4823:116723996
4731:253055705
4249:214667352
3888:875895386
3661:1749-4885
3532:0362-4331
3490:Lightwave
3249:130048089
2797:receivers
2663:backplane
2633:crosstalk
2621:bandwidth
2556:, uses a
2522:last mile
2516:Last mile
2423:Extended
2412:Original
2258:Distance
2163:tri-mode
2157:18.8 THz
2033:tri-mode
2001:tri-mode
1715:Distance
1640:Distance
1558:37.6 THz
1532:27.8 THz
1409:1 Tbit/s
1399:1 Tbit/s
1244:Distance
1204:dense WDM
1160:1.6
729:(DAC), a
699:amplifier
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