2759:), and formation of musket and artillery units. Portuguese weaponry proved superior in accuracy, safety, ballistic weight, and rapidity of fire than Asian-made counterparts. The first special musket and artillery units, made up mostly of Portuguese and Indian Ocean (mostly Muslim) mercenaries, were formed in the late 1530s. The Burmese later learned to integrate matchlocks into both infantry and elephanteer units. In some late 16th-century campaigns, as high as 20â33 percent of the troops were equipped with muskets. But artillery units continued to be manned by foreign mercenaries throughout the 16th century. Toungoo artillery corps never acquired massive siege guns of Europe but they "used Portuguese cannon to good effect by mounting them on high mounds or towers, and then shooting down into besieged towns". Portuguese firearms proved particularly effective against interior states like the Shan states. However, the advantage of firearms was neutralised against Siam, a prosperous coastal power with its own well-equipped military.
3388:
in a period when the arrival of
European firearms and an increase in Indian Ocean commerce enabled lowland polities to project power into interior states. The advantages of the lowland states persisted even after the monumental collapse of the empire. Of the successor states, Restored Toungoo and Siam were the two winners that emerged to dominate the western and central mainland Southeast Asia, respectively, although Ayutthaya's sway in the central mainland was less complete than Restored Toungoo's near complete domination of the western mainland. (Whereas only Arakan escaped Restored Toungoo's restoration, Lan Xang and Cambodia remained independent, albeit greatly weakened, out of Siam's grasp till the 19th century. On the other hand, Lan Na's loss of independence was permanent: after 1558, she remained a Burmese province for the better part of two centuries whereupon Lan Na entered the Siamese empire.) Still, the accelerated thrusts towards regional hegemony were comparable in both sectors.
1595:
supported a Chiang Rai rebellion against Lan Na (Chiang Mai) in 1599. By 1601, Lan Na was divided into three spheres: Chiang Mai, Siam-backed Chiang Rai, Lan Xang-backed Nan. Chiang Mai defeated the Siam-backed rebellion in Chiang Rai in 1602 only to submit to
Ayutthaya later that year. Chiang Mai retook Nan from Lan Xang in 1603. In the western mainland, Siam invaded Lower Burma in 1600, and went on to attack Toungoo only to be driven back by Toungoo's ally Arakan. The Portuguese garrison at Syriam switched allegiance from Arakan to Goa in 1603. Siamese vassal Martaban then entered into an alliance with Portuguese Syriam. Ava had seized cis-Salween Shan states by 1604. Siam planned to invade Ava's vassal southern Shan states in 1605 before cancelling it because of the sudden death of its warrior king
1562:(r. 1581â99) never gained the full support of his father's chosen vassal rulers. Within the first three years of his reign, both Ava and Ayutthaya revolted. Though he managed to defeat the Ava rebellion in 1584, the king never did establish firm control over Upper Burma and the surrounding Shan states. He could not get the most populous region in Burma to contribute much to his war effort in Siam. (His best troop levels were never more than a third of his father's.) He should have focused on reestablishing his authority in Upper Burma, and let Siam goâbut he could not see it. He feared that acknowledging Ayutthaya's independence would invite yet more Tai rebellions, some perhaps closer to home. Nanda launched
3404:, Bayinnaung is the favourite king of the present-day Burmese generals, who often see themselves "as fighting the same enemies and in the same places... their soldiers slugging their way through the same thick jungle, preparing to torch a town or press-gang villagers. The past closer, more comparable, a way to justify present action. His statues are there because the ordeal of welding a nation together by force is not just history." On the opposite side of the same token, warrior kings Naresuan of Ayutthaya and Setthathirath of Lan Xang remain the most celebrated kings in Thailand and Laos respectivelyâNaresuan for returning Siam to independence and Setthathirath for his pesky resistance to the empire.
3616:(Lieberman 1984: 18): No large-scale censuses of any kind were conducted. Extant censuses from the period cover just four corridors of settlement in Lower Burma: Bassein-Myaungmya in the western delta; Martaban-Moulmein littoral; Myan Aung to Danubyu in the eastern delta; Pegu-Syriam-Dagonâcapital region. (Lieberman 1984: 21â22): In 1581, a regional census of the 16 leading townships of Lower Burma showed a combined population of less than 28,000 households (~200,000 people). (Lieberman 1984: 20): The first-ever Irrawaddy valley-wide census was conducted only in 1638, and the results did not survive.
1430:
1320:
41:
2920:
unconscious) strategy of group mobilization. Shan raids on Upper Burma, which bred bitter anti-Shan diatribes, offer the most dramatic example." But the weak link between ethnicity and political loyalty meant patron-client relationships remained the single most important factor in state building. One figure who successfully exploited this at the grandest scale was
Bayinnaung. The emperor formed patron-client relationships based on universal Buddhist cultural conceptsâalongside the threat of massive military reprisalsâto hold the empire. He presented himself as
1535:'s empire was "probably the largest empire in the history of Southeast Asia," and what the Portuguese regarded as "the most powerful monarchy in Asia except that of China". The king standardized laws, calendars, weights and measurements, and Buddhist religious practices throughout the land. But he introduced administrative reforms only at the margins. The "absurdly overextended" empire was largely held together by his personal relationships with the vassal rulers, who were loyal to him and not to Toungoo Burma.
2795:, first took the field in their teenage years. This kind of martial tradition simply did not exist in "far larger, more secure" kingdoms like Siam. (Indeed, the same kind of complacency afflicted later Restored Toungoo kings, who from 1650 onwards stopped taking the field as the country became largely stable.) Their more martial culture and battlefield successes gave the Toungoo command an increasingly greater field experience, which their rival commands in the region simply could not match. According to
609:
2768:
1551:
1288:
2646:
3375:
as âthe powerfullest
Monarchy in Asia, except that of Chinaâ. The prosperous life at the capital, however, was probably not replicated at the countryside. Annual mobilisations of men greatly reduced the manpower necessary to cultivate the rice fields. Even during at the peak of the empire, harvests at times fell perilously low, causing severe rice shortages such as in 1567. By the mid-1590s, constant warfare left Lower Burma severely depopulated and rice prices at unheard of levels.
1584:
1575:
Asiaâ, in 1600. The First
Toungoo Dynasty, âthe most adventurous and militarily successful in the country's historyâ, ceased to exist; it was also the "shortest-lived" major dynasty. The First Toungoo Empire was "a victim of its own success." Its "stunning military conquests were not matched by stable administrative controls in the Tai world or outlying areas of the Irrawaddy basin," and the "overheated" empire "disintegrated no less rapidly than it had been constructed".
1137:
6301:
2903:
distinctive local traditions and in many cases different dialects. The same was true for smaller minorities stillâindeed, terms like
Kachins, Karens, and Chins are exonyms given by Burmans that summarily group several different groups. In the central mainland, the main Siamese, Lao and Yuan ethnicities were still in an embryonic stage, and a chiefly elite concept. In Siam, the Siamese language and ethnicity were the âpreserveâ of the aristocracy called the
1267:(r. 1510â30). It would be yet another rebellion except that Nyo won Minkhaung's acquiescence by offering his full support to the embattled king. Nyo turned out to be an able leader. He quickly brought law and order to the region, which attracted refugees from other parts of Central and Upper Burma. Using increased manpower, he sponsored a series of elaborate reclamation and irrigation projects to compensate for the Sittaung valley's modest agriculture.
6325:
1603:
Restored
Toungoo Dynasty or Nyaungyan Dynasty) had succeeded in reconstituting a major portion of the First Toungoo Empire, except for Siam, Lan Xang and Manipur. The new dynasty did not overextend itself by trying to take over Siam or Lan Xang. This was a more ârealistic and organicâ polity that would last until the mid-18th century. The new dynasty proceeded to create a political and legal system whose basic features would continue under the
912:
1328:
1773:
involved in local administration; its remit was national. The court launched standardisation drives to unify laws, weights and measurements, calendars, and
Buddhist reforms throughout the empire. The court also drew the borders between the vassal states. But the centuries-old disputes never went away. They resurfaced as soon as Pegu's authority waned, and resulted in the confused, multi-party wars of 1590s and 1600s.
1453:(r. 1550â81) to reunify the kingdom in the next two years. Bayinnaung then pushed up the Irrawaddy in an effort to join Upper Burma and Lower Burma for the first time since Pagan. Victory in the north "promised to strengthen control over interior gems and bullion, and to supply additional levies." In 1555, Upper Burma fell to the southern forces. Over the next decade, a series of âbreathtaking campaignsâ reduced
2895:
deportees from the conquered states as far away as Lan Xang were settled in Lower Burma. In Upper Burma, Shans, Kadus, Karens, Chins and other minorities still occupied dry zone fringes. The Shan states had Chins, Kachins, Was, Palaungs, Karennis, etc. Over in the central mainland, several linguistically distinct Tai groups coexisted alongside sizeable numbers of Mons, Khmers, and a host of hill minorities. The
6313:
2391:, the armies received tribute from border vassal states of Lan Xang, which are now part of Vietnam. At any rate, the tribute, even if true, most certainly did not translate into any lasting control. Indeed, Pegu's authority dissipated as soon as the armies departed. The lack of firm authority over Lan Xang was the reason why the fruitless campaigns had to be undertaken year-after-year in the first place.
3392:
responses to similar challengesâ but they also suggest âa degree of squint-eyed mutual borrowing.â In both sectors, the crown reduced or stopped the appointment of senior princes to provincial towns, and obliged them to reside at the capital in special palaces where they could more easily be monitored. The actual administrators of the provinces went to commoner officials with no claims to the throne.
1311:, and would ultimately fall in 1527. In the meantime, Nyo focused on strengthening the economy and the stability of his kingdom. His policy of non-interference attracted refugees to the only region in Upper Burma at peace. By his death in 1530, Mingyi Nyo had successfully turned Toungoo into a small but strong regional power. History shows that the former vassal was about to "overawe the metropole".
1438:
3176:
2839:, who grew up in Pegu, and were most probably exposed to Toungoo military strategy. By 1600, Siam had not only regained the Tenasserim coast from Burma but also expanded deeper into Cambodia. After 1614, an equilibrium of sorts prevailed between the two successor states. Neither state extended in any direction to a point her supply lines were more extended than those of her nearest rival.
2441:. According to Huxley, the 16th-century Burmese legalism was "quite different from those of its neighbors in East and South Asia", and some aspects "are reminiscent of Western European approaches to law and kingship." Bayinnaung promoted the new law throughout the empire so far as it was compatible with customs and practices of local society. The adoption of Burmese customary law and the
1620:
was even more decentralised and stretched thinner still. At any rate, it was the only system the
Toungoo kings knew, and they "had no choice but to retain it." The kings attempted administrative reforms only at the margins, which proved insufficient to hold the empire after Bayinnaung. Indeed, "Bayinnaung's goal of controlling virtually the entire mainland from Pegu proved utterly mad."
3162:) remained "quite a luxury.". In Lan Xang and Lan Na too, the literacy in Lao and Lan Na scripts was the preserve of the aristocrats. The Siamese language (central Thai), a mixture of a more northerly Tai dialect with Khmerized Tai from the Ayutthaya area, was coalescing. The Siamese script too underwent several modifications before achieving its final form by about 1600.
2032:
keep an eye on the local ruler in the peacetime. As a result, the High King heavily depended on the vassal king to be both loyal and able. Ineffective vassal rulers, who did not command respect from their local sub-vassal rulers, such as those in Lan Xang and in Upper Burma after 1584, only brought constant trouble for the crown. On the other hand, able kings such as
1218:(1385â1424) left Ava exhausted. From 1425 onwards, Ava regularly faced rebellions whenever a new king came to power, who then had to restore order, often by war. Toungoo's ârelentlessly ambitious leadersâ repeatedly tested Ava's resolve by staging assassinations (in 1440, 1452, and 1459) and rebellions (in 1426â40, 1452â59 and 1468â70) at times with Pegu's help.
3467:(Sein Lwin Lay 2006: 19â20): Pinya responded to the first assassination, of Thuwun Gyi in 1317 by Thawun Nge, by sending an army there. Even then, the army returned when Thawun Nge agreed to submit, and allowed Thawun Nge to remain in office. Similarly, later assassin-turned-rulers per (Sein Lwin Lay 2006: 20â22) may have nominally submitted to Pinya.
3323:
supervise lucrative trade between Siam and India. His majesty's government was actively involved in the import-export business. The crown exported luxury products (musk, gold, gems) obtained through the tribute quotas from the interior states. Bayinnaung built a fleet of oceangoing vessels in the 1570s to undertake voyages on behalf of the crown.
3121:. The Burmese language and script continued to affect other languages and scripts in the Irrawaddy valley. Since the 15th century, Mon inscriptions had adopted Burmese orthographic conventions and to incorporate, consciously or not, large numbers of Burmese loan words. Various Tai-Shan scripts were developed based on the Burmese script.
1303:. In 1503, Nyo's forces began surreptitiously aiding ongoing rebellions in the south. In 1504, he openly entered into an alliance with Prome with the intention of taking over all of Central Burma. But Ava was not yet a spent force. It decisively defeated the alliance's raids in 1504â05 and in 1507â08.
3277:
was under cultivation in the 16th century. Upper Burma had about 730,000 hectares (1.8 million acres) under cultivation c. 1600, divided even between rice and dry crops. In addition to rice, New World peanuts, tobacco and maize were grown. Cotton became the major crop in dry zone areas ill-suited for
2739:
were within 200 km of the capital Ava). It meant that the High King of the First
Toungoo period needed to rely far more on his vassal rulers to raise the troops. The weakness was brutally exposed when the High King was not Bayinnaung. Nanda's troops most probably never totalled more than 25,000.
2730:
The ability to raise more conscripts depended greatly on the High King's grip over his vassals. Bayinnaung required newly conquered states to provide their quota of manpower for the next campaign. According to scholarship, at the peak of the empire, the imperial army could perhaps raise about 100,000
1574:
in 1595, and the rest of the vassals had broken awayâde jure or de factoâby 1597. The breakaway state of Toungoo and the western kingdom of Arakan jointly invaded Lower Burma in 1598, and captured Pegu in 1599. The allies thoroughly looted, and burned down the imperial capital, âone of the wonders of
1420:
Despite the setbacks, Tabinshwehti had founded the most powerful polity in Burma since the fall of Pagan in 1287. The king attempted to forge a "MonâBurman synthesis" by actively courting the support of ethnic Mons of Lower Burma, many of whom were appointed to the highest positions in his government
3211:
Bayinnaung brought Dhammazedi's Sinhalese-style orthodox reforms to lands throughout his domain. Viewing himself as the "model Buddhist king," the king distributed copies of the scriptures, fed monks, and built pagodas at every new conquered state from Upper Burma and Shan states to Lan Na and Siam.
2861:
The low population spread across a comparatively large region meant that the rulers prized manpower more than land. Winners of wars never failed to deport the local population to their capital region where they can be controlled closer. The deportations also deprived the defeated regions of valuable
2857:
Estimates of the population of the empire point to over 6 million. In 1600, the most populous region of the erstwhile empire was Siam (2.5 million), followed by Upper Burma (1.5 million), the Shan high lands (1 million) and Lower Burma (0.5 million)âfor a total of at least 5.5 million. Estimates for
2812:
of Lan Xang (r. 1548â72) was assassinated by a local rival. After Bayinnaung, Lower Burma lost the manpower advantage over a far more populous Siam. Ayutthaya's larger, well-equipped armies not only repulsed Nanda's undermanned invasions but also ended up seizing the Tenasserim coast in the process.
2402:
Chronicles say Bayinnaung considered Kotte a protectorate and got involved in the affairs of the island only because the king wished to protect Theravada Buddhism on the island from the Portuguese. He competed with Portuguese Goa for influence on the island with other Ceylonese kingdoms. After 1576,
2312:
own family. The key innovation was that he required sons of his vassal rulers to reside in the palace as pages, who served a dual purpose: they were hostages for good conduct of their fathers and they received valuable training in Burmese court life. His Shan policy was followed by all Burmese kings
2031:
The Pegu court did not possess a centrally run bureaucracy, as Restored Toungoo and Konbaung dynasties would attempt, to administer the vassal states. Unlike in later periods, Pegu even at the height of the empire maintained no permanent military garrisons, or representatives in the vassal states to
1619:
in which the high king ruled the core while semi-independent tributaries, autonomous viceroys, and governors actually controlled day-to-day administration and manpower. The system did not work well even for mid-size kingdoms like Ava and Siam. Now, because of the sheer size of the empire, the system
1602:
Still, in contrast to 250 years of political fragmentation that followed Pagan's collapse, this interregnum proved brief. As ephemeral as the overextended Toungoo Empire was, the underlying forces that underpinned its rise were not. By 1622, a branch of the fallen house (known retrospectively as the
1508:
in the extreme north also revolted in 1571âproved far more difficult. Toungoo armies suffered heavy casualties from disease and starvation in their fruitless annual campaigns in search of elusive bands of rebels. Pegu reestablished some semblance of control over Lan Xang only in 1575 and Mohnyin and
3512:
These were ethnic Mon titles, and the majority of them were likely ethnic Mons. But not all officials with Mon titles were ethnic Mons. For example, per (Maha Yazawin Vol. 2 2006: 280), the leader of the 1565 rebellion at Pegu, was styled as Binnya Kyan Htaw but was an ethnic Shan. Similarly, about
3391:
Another key legacy was the 17th-century administrative reforms that addressed the empire's numerous shortcomings. In both Restored Toungoo Burma and Siam, monarchs worked to reduce the power of viceroys and governors. Similarities between Burmese and Siamese reforms âreflected, in part, independent
3387:
The empire marked the end of the period of petty kingdoms in mainland Southeast Asia. Not only did the dynasty successfully reunify the Irrawaddy valley for the first time since the late 13th century but it also absorbed the surrounding highlands into the lowland orbit for good. Toungoo came of age
3374:
Maritime trade wealth sustained Pegu's military might, enabling Pegu to pay for Portuguese firearms and mercenaries. Contemporary European travellers reported immense wealth of Pegu during Bayinnaung's reign. By the 1570s, Pegu's âwealth and power were now unequaledâ, and regarded by the Portuguese
3322:
The crown closely supervised trade, and collected duties on any trade that touched the coasts of Lower Burma and Siam. At Pegu, overseas trade was in the hands of eight brokers appointed by the king. Their fee was two percent. The crown appointed officials at Mergui, a former Siamese dependency, to
3224:
Many of Bayinnaung's reforms were continued by his successors of the Restored Toungoo Dynasty. The Forest dweller sect virtually disappeared. Over time, Theravada practices became more regionally uniform, the hill regions were drawn into closer contact with the basin in the 17th and 18th centuries.
2807:
Even at the peak of its might, the Toungoo military had the most difficult time controlling remote hill states. They never solved the sheer logistical issues of transporting and feeding large numbers of troops for sustained periods of time. Bayinnaung's persistence in sending troops year after year
1528:
for military aid, he finally sent an elite army in 1576 to Kotte, which he considered a protectorate, ostensibly to protect Theravada Buddhism on the island from the Portuguese threat. Goa considered it was technically at war with Pegu although no war ever broke out. Closer to home, he responded to
1499:
Bayinnaung's authority would be vigorously contested in the following decade. His forces never quite vanquished the Lan Xang resistance in the Laotian hills and jungles, and in 1568, Siam, the most powerful vassal state, revolted. Leveraging the manpower of much of the western and central mainland,
1376:
was assassinated a few months later, and the coalition suddenly ceased to be a coherent force. Tabinshwehti and his court decided to take advantage of the lull, and break out of their increasingly narrow realm by attacking Hanthawaddy, the larger and wealthier but disunited kingdom to the south. In
1116:
This article, for the most part, uses prevailing academic names for place names, not the current official English transliterations in use in Myanmar since 1989. For example, the official English spelling of the city after which the dynasty is named since 1989 has been "Taungoo", replacing the older
3106:
Literacy throughout the empire remained essentially the preserve of the aristocrats and the monks. In the Irrawaddy valley, the system of near-universal village monasteries and male education characteristic of later centuries was not fully yet developed. Unlike in later periods, monks continued to
2915:
Weak or embryonic ethnic identities had broad geopolitical implications. One key result was that patron-client structures often preempted ethnic identity, giving rise to frequent political alliances across ethnic lines. The same phenomenon was also prevalent in states as diverse as Vietnam, Russia
2870:
The First Toungoo Empire was a multi-ethnic society although the concept of ethnicity was still highly fluid, heavily influenced by language, culture, class, locale, and political power. Still, by the 16th century, broad âpoliticizedâ ethnic patterns had emerged. In the western mainland, four main
2821:
The First Toungoo dynasty's military organisation and strategy were adapted by its two main successor states: Restored Toungoo and Siam. Restored Toungoo kings used the First Toungoo's formula of greater military experience, modern firearms and (comparatively greater) manpower to partially restore
2295:
Bayinnaung considered control of the Shan states of utmost strategic importance for his hold of the upcountry. Raids by nearby highland Shan states had been an overhanging concern for successive lowland regimes since the 14th century. The most feared were Mohnyin and Mogaung, the twin Shan states,
1075:
The polity is known by a number of names. The prevailing terms used by most international scholars are the "First Toungoo Dynasty"; the "First Toungoo Empire"; and/or the "Second Burmese Empire". In traditional Burmese historiography, however, the period is known as either the "ToungooâHanthawaddy
3383:
The First Toungoo Empire left no monumental architecture as the Pagan Empire did. The grandeur of Pegu was forever lost, and is known only from contemporary European accounts. Unlike the Ava period, few literary innovations came out. Its main legacies were political and cultural consolidations in
3331:
annually. Burma also exported finished Indian (and possibly Burmese) textiles as well as spices, gems, and salt to Yunnan. These goods were moved by boat to the upper Irrawaddy, where they were transferred to north-bound trains of oxen and ponies. In the opposite direction flowed Chinese iron and
3243:
also came to settle. The foreign merchants and mercenaries brought their Islam and Roman Catholicism. In the 1550s, the Muslim merchants at Pegu erected what appears to have been their first mosque. The descendants of Muslim and Catholic mercenaries continued to fill the ranks of the army's elite
3606:
Chronicles claim over 500,000 troops for a single campaign. But (Harvey 1925: 333â336) rejects the claim, saying that Bayinnaung at most could have raised 300,000 men, based on the size of the population but such "so high a figure is improbable: he had no transport, and could not have fed them."
3207:
favourite servants and animals were customarily killed and buried with him. Even in predominantly Buddhist lowland Upper Burma, down to the 16th century, animal sacrifices were still regularly performed and distilled liquored was consumed in Buddhist-sanctioned events (often attended by Buddhist
2371:
presumably could have served as the natural border). After 1594, China established eight frontier âIron Gatesâ inside Yunnan, which Restored Toungoo kings came to regard as the de facto border. To be sure, Ming China did not view the gates as the extent of its realm, and continued to claim lands
1634:
which had the authority over the entire Irrawaddy basin, was located near the coast. The Toungoo kings retained the traditional three-province structure of the old Hanthawaddy Kingdom; Bayinnaung later annexed the Siamese Province of Mergui into the core administration for its maritime revenues.
1633:
The dynasty's original home was the Toungoo region, with the capital at Toungoo. But from 1539 onward, the High King, styled as âKing of Kingsâ, moved the capital to Pegu (Bago), and governed only what used to be the Hanthawaddy Kingdom. This was the first time in Burmese history that a capital,
1566:
between 1584 and 1593, all of which failed disastrously. With each Siamese victory, other vassals grew more inclined to throw off allegiance and more reluctant to contribute military forces. By the late 1580s and early 1590s, Pegu had to lean ever more heavily on the already modest population of
3395:
As a result of political and economic integration, the cultural norms in the Irrawaddy valley continued to synthesize in the 17th century. More orthodox practices of Theravada Buddhism of Hanthawaddy and Ceylon spread to the upcountry and the Shan states. The Burmese language and customs pushed
2778:
Another key factor was Toungoo's "more martial culture" and "more aggressive leadership". Toungoo was a product of Upper Burma's ceaseless wars of the prior centuries. In the age of rampant gubernatorial revolts, any rulers hoping to rule a kingdom needed to take command of the army. All senior
1594:
Prome attacked Toungoo in 1595. Prome and Ava fought for central Burma in 1596â97. Prome and Toungoo later agreed to attack Ava in 1597 but Toungoo broke off the alliance and attacked Prome in 1597. In the central mainland, Lan Xang and Lan Na went to war in 1595â96 and again in 1598â1603. Siam
1495:
The victories were enabled by a more martial culture and greater military experience of Toungoo armies, Portuguese firearms, and the greater manpower that came with each successive victory. The conquests ended at a stroke, over two centuries of Shan raids into Upper Burma, and "extended lowland
3124:
Low literacy rates notwithstanding, this period saw the continued growth of Burmese literature both in terms of quantity and genresâa trend that began in the Ava period (1364â1555). Chiefly through the efforts of monks and aristocrats, a new generation of chronicles, law codes, and poetry were
1772:
Surrounding the core region were the tributary kingdoms. The vassal rulers were still styled as kings, and were allowed to retain full royal regalia. They were required to send tributes to the crown but they generally had a freehand in the rest of the administration. Pegu generally did not get
1189:
The narrow valley at the southern edge of the dry zone was not easily accessible from Central or Upper Burma; the best access to the region was from the south, via the Sittaung. Its hard-to-reach location would shape much of its early history. In the 14th century, the settlement grew to be the
2894:
Alongside the main politico-ethnicities were several smaller ethnic minority groups. In predominantly Mon-speaking Lower Burma, a sizeable number of Burmans, Karens, and Shans (as well as a host of Europeans, Jews, Armenians, Persians, etc. at key ports) came to settle in this period. Several
2665:
The Toungoo military organisation drew on its Upper Burma precedent. The military was organised into a small standing army of a few thousand, which defended the capital and the palace, and a much larger conscript-based wartime army. The wartime army consisted of infantry, cavalry, elephantry,
2086:. From 1584 onwards except for 1587â93, Nanda pursued a policy of devolution in the upcountry in which Ava's role was essentially eliminated. The direct rule did not work as evidenced by the near total absence of contribution from the Shan states and Manipur towards Pegu's war effort in Siam.
3202:
The state of religious practices in western and central mainland Southeast Asia before the rise of the empire was highly fragmented. In general, the lowland areas were largelyânominallyâTheravada Buddhist, and highland regions were a mix of Theravada Buddhist and animist to strictly animist.
2902:
To be sure, the ethnic definitions were loose categorisations. Overarching politico-ethnic identities were still in their early stages of development. In the western mainland, even the so-called major ethnic groupsâsuch as Burmans, Mons, Shansâwere themselves divided into rival centres, with
2919:
This is not to say that neither wars nor population movements had little effect. In the Irrawaddy valley, for example, north-to-south migrations "pitted newcomers against established populations and encouraged stereotyping both as an emotional response to an alien presence and as a (perhaps
2656:
The First Toungoo Dynasty was "the most adventurous and militarily successful in the countryâs history." It founded the largest empire in Southeast Asia on the back of âbreathtakingâ military conquests. The success has been attributed to a "more martial culture" of Toungoo, incorporation of
1547:, every new high king had to establish his authority with the vassals all over again. This was already a difficult task when vassals were situated in the same geographic region but nearly impossible with faraway lands, given inherent difficulties in bringing serious warfare to those lands.
1743:
The provinces and their constituent divisions were ruled by vassal rulers, who lived off apanage grants and local taxes. The core region's bureaucracy was a continuation of the old Hanthawaddy court. Most local governors as well as most officials and ministers at the Pegu courtâe.g.,
1306:
The setbacks forced Mingyi Nyo to recalibrate his ambitions. He formally declared independence from Ava in 1510 but also withdrew from participating in the internecine warfare. Ava could not and did not take any action. It was facing an existential threat in the ongoing war with the
2409:
The expansive spheres of influence shrank greatly after Bayinnaung's death. Nanda, according to a 1593 inscription, continued to claim his father's realm even after his latest defeat in Siam. In reality, he never had full control of the upcountry, let alone the peripheral states.
2916:
and France during this period. Not surprisingly, all armies and courts of the era consisted of significant minority ethnicities. Frequent cross-ethnic defections "bore no particular stigma." States large and small readily shifted alliances with little regard to ethnic loyalties.
2942:
The First Toungoo society in the Irrawaddy valley followed Pagan and Ava precedents. At the top of the pyramid were the immediate royal family, followed by the upper officialdom made up of extended royal family members. Royalty and officialsâ known collectively as ârulersâ or
3286:
The coastal region instead relied heavily on trade. The main ports were Pegu, Martaban, Tavoy, and Mergui. Products and goods from the interiorârice, and other food stuffs, as well as a variety of luxury goods (rubies, sapphires, musk, lac, benzoin, gold)âwere exported to
2321:
According to contemporary sources, Pegu also claimed lands far beyond the princely states as tributaries or protectorates. Scholarship does not accept the claims of control; the states were at least what Pegu considered within its sphere of influence. The claims include:
2731:
troops, and the largest initial troop level for a single campaign was about 70,000. A major weakness of the system was that the vast majority of the potential levy hailed from outside the capital region. In 1581, only 21% of residents within a 200-km radius of Pegu were
2682:
were a class of people, who were exempt from most personal taxes in exchange for regular or military service of the crown. The quotas were fixed until the 17th century, when Restored Toungoo kings instituted variable quotas to take advantage of demographic fluctuations.
1392:
firearms and maritime wealth to pay for them. And Tabinshwehti would quickly exploit these newfound assets for further expansions. By incorporating Portuguese mercenaries, firearms and military tactics as well as experienced former Hanthawaddy military commanders to the
3252:
Agriculture, and maritime trade dominated the economy of the empire. Maritime trade was most prevalent in Lower Burma and southern Siam. Agriculture was dominant in Upper Burma and surrounding highlands. The Ayutthaya region also had a strong agriculture-based economy.
1095:
Furthermore, in international usage, the terms "Toungoo Dynasty/Empire" cover both "First Toungoo Dynasty/Empire" and "Restored Toungoo Dynasty/Empire". Traditional Burmese historiography treats the Restored Toungoo Dynasty/Empire period as a separate era called the
3114:
Burmese orthography continued to follow the antique square format developed for aristocratic stone inscriptions, rather than the cursive format that took hold from the 17th century, when popular writings led to wider use of palm leaves and folded papers known as
1567:
Lower Burma for the debilitating war effort. Able men all over Lower Burma fled military service to become monks, debt slaves, private retainers, or refugees in nearby kingdoms. As more cultivators fled, rice prices in Lower Burma reached unheard of levels.
2690:
dates only from 1605 but the organizational structure of the earlier First Toungoo era is likely to be similar, if not essentially the same. A 1605 royal order decreed that each regiment shall consist of 1000 foot soldiers under 100 company leaders called
1371:
The initial impetus for Toungoo's military campaigns was defensive. The landlocked state was being encircled by the powerful Confederation, which by 1533 had defeated its erstwhile ally Prome. Fortunately for Toungoo, the Confederation's paramount leader
1368:. Though Arakan would become a power in its own right, its geographic isolation meant it would remain a marginal player in mainland affairs. This left the tiny Toungoo, which would bring war to much of mainland Southeast Asia till the end of the century.
3315:. In return, Pegu imported Chinese manufactures and spices from Malacca and Sumatra, and Indian textiles from the Indian states; and indeed highly sought after state-of-the-art firearms from the Portuguese. Pegu established maritime links with the
2858:
Lan Na, Lan Xang and Manipur are not known. The size of the population of the empire before the devastating wars of 1584â99 was probably over 6 million. The population of the Pegu capital region, according to a 1581 census, was only about 200,000.
2657:
Portuguese firearms and foreign mercenaries, and larger forces. But even at its peak, the vaunted Toungoo military had trouble dealing with guerrilla warfare, and faced severe logistic issues in suppressing rebellions in remote hill states.
3476:(Sein Lwin Lay 2006: 103â106): Though Toungoo stayed out of the warfare, for the most part, it continued to aid Ava's enemies. It even seized Yamethin and Taungdwin in March 1523. But Ava counterattacked and retook the lands in early 1526.
2538:
3485:
The province was annexed at least by 1568 per (Maha Yazawin Vol. 2 2006: 295) when the governor of Tenasserim built a gate at the new Pegu city. Since the construction of the city began in 1565, the annexation may have taken place in
3629:(r. 1426â39) celebrated their kingâs access by sacrificing horses and cattle to the Mahagiri spirit. Still in Upper Burma, down to the 16th century, forest dweller monks presided over land-transfer rituals in which distilled liquor (
3208:
abbots and the royalty). Even in Lower Burma, where Theravada Buddhist practices had become more orthodox since the 1480s, "monastic practices were deficient by later standards, and spirit propitiation was a dominant local concern."
3530:
Pegu kept Prome and Toungoo, traditional vassal states of Ava, as separate kingdoms. It also annexed Tennaserim from Siam to Hanthawaddy. The court also placed much contested regions between Lan Na and Lan Xang under the Chiang Mai
3457:
See (Lieberman 2003), (Myint-U 2006), (Aung-Thwin and Aung-Thwin 2012). Even historians such as Michael Aung-Thwin and Thant Myint-U, who use Myanmar to refer to the country, nonetheless use older terms such as Ava, Toungoo, Pegu,
3216:
at Pegu in his orthodox Theravada Buddhism in the name of purifying the religion. He prohibited all human and animal sacrifices throughout the kingdom. The ban also extended to the foreign settlersâ animal sacrifices such as the
3212:
Some of the pagodas are still to be seen, and in later ages the Burmese would point to them as proof of their claim to rule those countries still. Following in the footsteps of Dhammazedi, he supervised mass ordinations at the
3107:
staff the modest royal secretariats of the regional courts, and most of the Burmese (and certainly Pali) literature of the era were produced by the aristocrats and the clergy. Because scribal talent remained rare, the cost of
3597:(Harvey 1925: 172â173) Bayinnaung had been greatly concerned about the Portuguese effect on the health of Theravada Buddhism since the Portuguese Archbishop of Goa grounded the Buddha Tooth Relic of Ceylon to powder in 1561.
1057:
The First Toungoo Empire marked the end of the period of petty kingdoms in mainland Southeast Asia. Although the overextended empire proved ephemeral, the forces that underpinned its rise were not. Its two main successor
2040:(r. 1555â84) kept their kingdoms peaceful for the High King they were loyal to: Bayinnaung. The downside was that the able rulers were also the most likely to revolt when the High King was not Bayinnaung; and they did.
1117:
spelling of Toungoo; likewise, the older spellings such as Ava, Pegu, Martaban are now Inwa, Bago and Mottama; and so on. However, the changes have not been adopted in international publications on Burmese history.
3447:
Some historians of Burmese origin have used âToungoo Dynastyâ in English language publications to mean just the First Toungoo period as used in Burmese historiography. See (Aung-Thwin and Aung-Thwin 2012: 129) for
2082:(áááŻááșáž)). During Bayinnaung's reign, Ava served as the intermediary between Pegu and the hill states. But in Nanda's reign, the court became concerned by the overly close relationship between Thado Minsaw and the
3052:
Royal servicemen who worked a specified period each year (possibly six months) for the crown. They were normally prevented from leaving their village except to perform corvees or military services. Similar to the
3399:
The memories of the First Toungoo Empire still loom large not just in Myanmar but also in Thailand and Laos. In Myanmar, Tabinshwehti's and Bayinnaung's exploits are widely recounted in schoolbooks. According to
2779:
princes of the House of Toungoo received a military style education since childhood, and were expected to take the field in person. Several Toungoo leaders of the era, including Tabinshwehti, Bayinnaung, Nanda,
2418:
In Bayinnaung's reign, the king introduced a measure of legal uniformity by summoning learned monks and officials from all over dominions to prescribe an official collection of law books. The scholars compiled
1194:
had little control over it. Usurpers routinely seized office by assassinating the governorâin 1325, 1344 and 1347âwithout incurring any reprisals by Pinya. In 1358, Toungoo outright revolted. Pinya's successor
3566:
See the maps in (Harvey 1925: 151) and (Sein Lwin Lay 2006: 44) both of which mark the border with Ming China on the Mekong at Kenghung. Sein Lwin Lay's border goes farther up along the Mekong's than Harvey's.
3326:
Overland trade was principally with China. Burma's principal export to China was cotton. Based on Sun Laichen's analysis of Chinese sources, exports to Yunnan of Burmese raw cotton by c. 1600 had reached 1000
1270:
By the 1490s, Toungoo had grown, and a more confident Nyo began to test the limits of his authority. He built a new âpalaceâ, replete with royal pretensions, in 1491. He then, without Ava's permission, raided
3085:
males on balance were more likely to study for long periods in monasteries, to be knowledgeable in Pali, even Sanskrit; to wear Indian and Chinese textiles, to be familiar with foreign conventions than their
3366:, which an "inordinately bulky medium", and became the standard medium of exchange by the early 17th century. The greater availability of silver greatly aided commercial expansion throughout the empire.
2830:
system in the 1570sâindeed to fulfill Bayinnaung's demands for conscripts. Likewise, the First Toungoo dynasty's military strategy and tactics were likely adopted by Siam's new generation of leadership,
3588:(Yule 1857: 88â89): The "Nine Shan States" (Ko Shan Pyay) paid tribute to both China and Burma down to the 19th century. Only Kaingma (north of Theinni, in China today) was absent from the Chinese list.
2974:
in the Pagan period. Their authority crosscut the territorial jurisdictions of local governors and headmen. They provided the crown with labour on a fixed or rotational basis. Besides military service,
2062:
that ringed the upper Irrawaddy valley (i.e. the Kingdom of Ava) from the Kalay State in the northwest to the Mong Pai State in the southeast. Manipur was not a Shan state, and its ruler styled himself
2633:
2508:
1299:(r. 1501â27) was greeted with a new round of rebellions. By 1502, Mingyi Nyo had already decided to break away despite Narapati's desperate attempt to retain his loyalty by granting the all-important
2583:
2573:
2907:, and most commoners in Ayutthaya, according to an early 16th-century Portuguese observer, still spoke Mon dialects rather than still emerging Siamese, and cut their hair like the Mons of Pegu.
2618:
2613:
2603:
3607:(Lieberman 1984: 98) concurs: "Military mobilizations were probably more of a boast than a realistic estimate. Modern industrial states have difficulty placing 10% of their people under arms."
3579:
says that the extent of Nyaungyan's domain included the Iron Bridge in the east, Siam in the south, the sea coast in the west, and Manipur and northern Shan states (Kachin State) in the north.
2628:
1240:, the general who put down the latest Toungoo rebellion, viceroy-general of the restive province. A distant member of the Ava royalty, Sithu Kyawhtin remained loyal to Thihathura's successor
2548:
2367:
The Province of Sein ("Chinese Province") reportedly included lands beyond Kawsampi (Ko Shan Pyay). The exact border was not mentioned during Bayinnaung's and Nanda's reigns (although the
1529:
the Mughals' 1576 annexation of Bengal by claiming the entire swath of lands in present-day northeast India, as far west as the Ganges and by sending an invasion force to Abakan in 1580.
3098:
was possible but between social classes was "out of the question." What subsequently became known as Siamese language, culture and ethnicity were their more or less exclusive preserve.
2543:
1449:
But the nascent empire fell apart right after Tabinshwehti was assassinated in 1550. Several vassal rulers immediately declared independence, forcing Tabinshwehti's chosen successor
2563:
2484:
2891:(âland of the Rakhinesâ). Similarly, in the central mainland, nascent politico-ethnic identities of Tai Yuans in Lan Na; Laotians in Lan Xang, and the Siamese in Siam had emerged.
2296:
which led most of the raids. Bayinnaung introduced a key administrative reform, which turned out to be his most important and most enduring of his legacies. The king permitted the
1199:(Inwa) regained Toungoo in 1367 but gubernatorial assassinations continued: 1375, 1376 and 1383, at times with Ava's own permission. Only in 1399 could Ava impose tighter control.
2593:
2553:
2808:
cost an untold number of lives, which at one point caused his senior advisers to murmur loudly. The conqueror king was fortunate that a charismatic guerrilla leader like King
2979:
also supplied the palace with a âvariety of specialized services ranging from bird-shooing to perfume-making to the painting of magical signs.â In the late 16th century, the
2934:(obligation). The tradition of cross-ethnic patron-client relationships continued to thrive, albeit at smaller scales, in mainland Southeast Asia down to the 19th century.
2598:
2513:
2678:, "crown service") system, which required local chiefs to supply their predetermined quota of men from their jurisdiction on the basis of population in times of war. The
3544:
was a costly exception. Pegu kept a garrison there throughout the 1560s and 1570s when the garrison was not overrun (1568, and 1571/72), or kept out (1568â69; 1572â74).
1496:
control much farther than Pagan had dreamed possible:" Pegu now âexercised suzerainty from Manipur to the Cambodian marches and from the borders of Arakan to Yunnan.â
581:
567:
553:
539:
514:
500:
486:
472:
458:
444:
430:
2075:", and treated Manipur as another princely state, albeit a major one. Two other major states were Kengtung and Mogaung, whose rulers retained the full royal regalia.
2623:
1030:
then greatly expanded the empire, conquering much of mainland Southeast Asia by 1565. He spent the next decade keeping the empire intact, putting down rebellions in
5376:
3362:) to the 1560s. But New World silver began arriving via the Spanish Philippines and India in the last centuries of the 16th century, and silver gradually overtook
3203:
Pre-Buddhist rituals remained part and parcel of accepted religious practices throughout the mainland. For example, on the Shan highlands, as late as 1557, Shan
7890:
3017:
Private bondsmen who owed labour only to monasteries and temples but not to the crown. They paid no taxes, and could not be conscripted into military service.
2970:
Royal servicemen who received land grants from the crown, and were exempt from most personal taxes in exchange for regular military service. They were called
2947:âwere "divided into numerous sub-grades, each with its own sumptuary insignia". The majority of the people belonged to one of four broad group of commoners (
2477:
3557:
in 1579 after Mughals' annexation of Bengal in 1575â76. The 1580â81 Toungoo invasion of Arakan may have been in response to the Moghul takeover of Bengal.
7885:
3278:
rice, as in Meiktila, Yamethin and Myingyan districts. Cotton was Burma's principal export commodity to China, and drove domestic handicraft industry.
3081:
In both sectors of the empire, the society was deeply stratified: the division between the elite and the commoners was stark. In the Irrawaddy valley,
2352:. Chronicles say rulers of Cachar, Calcutta, and Golkonda paid tribute. The expansive claims may have been Bayinnaung's attempt to check the advancing
2002:
2727:), and all must be equipped with weapons including guns and cannon. A typical 17th-century regiment was armed with 10 cannon, 100 guns and 300 bows.
3273:âas had been the case since the 13th century. Lower Burma's agriculture was not well developedâless than 10% of the acreage of the mid-1930s in the
765:
2470:
1615:
The Toungoo Empire was âin theory and fact, a poly-ethnic political formation.â The Toungoo kings largely employed then prevailing Southeast Asian
3158:
In the Chao Phraya valley, literacy in Siamese, not to mention Pali, were strictly the domain of the elite. Monastic education for the commoners (
2666:
artillery and naval units. The navy was mainly river-borne, and used mostly for transportation of troops and cargo. Conscription was based on the
1591:
Even before the fall of Pegu, the breakaway states of the empire had been engaged in a series of âconfused, many-sided warsâ since the mid-1590s.
1938:
1340:
The period between 1526 and 1533 saw power change hands in all of the major states of Burma. Three of the states were succeeded by weak rulers:
7860:
2007:
6719:
1409:, however, fell short. In both campaigns, Toungoo forces won all major open battles but could not overcome the heavily fortified defences of
1599:(r. 1590â1605). Ava conquered Prome (1608), Toungoo (1610), Portuguese Syriam (1613), Siamese Martaban and Tavoy (1613), and Lan Na (1614).
1210:
raids in the second half of the 14th century, and both southern vassal states had emerged as new centres of economic activity as well as of
1190:
principal city of the frontier region, which remained a lawless place. Toungoo's first rebellion of 1317â18 failed but its nominal overlord
7910:
7855:
3233:
Various animist practices remained alive and well, not just hill regions but even in the lowlands. Bayinnaung's attempts to rid of animist
1500:
he managed to defeat the Siamese rebellion with great difficulty in 1569. Yet defeating the guerrilla resistance at the remote hill statesâ
940:
2210:
1275:
territory, during the southern kingdom's succession crisis. It was a disaster: Toungoo barely survived the 1495â96 counterattack by King
2022:
3540:
Pegu maintained garrisons only for short durations: e.g., at Chiang Mai (1558â59, 1564â65), at Ayutthaya (1569â70), at Ava (1593â97).
1003:" and was "probably the largest empire in the history of Southeast Asia." The "most adventurous and militarily successful" dynasty in
7905:
7865:
2518:
2372:
beyond the gates. Chinese records show that eight out of nine states of Ko Shan Pyay paid tribute to China down to the 19th century.
2033:
1973:
1616:
1544:
1385:
1381:(Bago) and the Irrawaddy delta. In 1539, Tabinshwehti moved the capital to Pegu where it would remain until the end of the century.
40:
5760:
5611:
3191:(Mahavihara school of Ceylon) to Upper Burma and the Shan States. The Toungoo reforms were modelled after those instituted by King
7900:
5780:
3007:
Bondsmen who owed labour to individual patron, and outside of royal obligation. The debt was not hereditary. They paid no taxes.
2588:
2233:
853:
803:
5211:
1062:
and Ayutthaya Siamâwent on to dominate western and central mainland Southeast Asia, respectively, down to the mid-18th century.
6240:
5967:
1054:
never gained the full support of the vassal rulers, and presided over the empire's precipitous collapse in the next 18 years.
7672:
7054:
5402:
5366:
5158:
5139:
2608:
2578:
2568:
2558:
2533:
2528:
1563:
1406:
1402:
1140:
A depiction of old Toungoo (Taungoo) from a later period, though the 14th-century Toungoo might not have been much different.
2308:
could now be removed by the king for gross misconduct although the king's choice of successor was limited to members of the
7895:
5986:
5795:
7578:
5905:
5790:
5770:
5276:
Huxley, Andrew (2012). "Lord Kyaw Thu's Precedent: a Sixteenth Century Law Report". In Paul Dresch; Hannah Skoda (eds.).
3633:) was consumed, and cattle, pigs, and fowls were slaughtered. Princes and even Buddhist abbots attended these ceremonies.
3575:(Than Tun Vol. 1 1983: 18â19, 181â182): The royal order dated 14 November 1598 (1st waning of Tazaungmon 960 ME) by King
2799:, this was a key factor that enabled a western mainland polity "to conquer the central mainland rather than vice versa".
2458:
847:
2494:
7724:
6724:
6008:
5859:
3344:. According to European company records, non-barter trade was chiefly conducted in lumps of copper-lead alloys called
7880:
6368:
5514:
5492:
5461:
5433:
5344:
5308:
5285:
5200:
5181:
3133:
2523:
1959:
1398:
6117:
3500:
933:
841:
835:
1377:
1534, Toungoo forces began annual raids into Hanthawaddy territory. They finally broke through in 1538, capturing
809:
7350:
6112:
3180:
6512:
2997:
The commoners who did not live on royal land. They paid substantial taxes but owed no regular military service.
1042:. From 1576 onwards, he declared a large sphere of influence in westerly landsâtrans-Manipur states, Arakan and
7875:
5874:
5755:
2788:
1862:
1753:
5785:
3094:
like the aristocrats in Lan Xang and Lan Na "were a kind of a caste." Marriage between capital and provincial
7850:
7788:
6051:
5996:
5839:
1857:
1279:(r. 1492â1526). At Ava, Minkhaung ignored Nyo's transgressions for he needed Nyo's support against Yamethin.
1168:âfounded a new settlement of 370 households, about 40 km farther south. It was named Toungoo (Taungoo) (
1153:
2983:
system broke down as people fled to avoid military service. Early Restored Toungoo kings had to rebuild the
7783:
7667:
6127:
6071:
5979:
5940:
5925:
5879:
5854:
5750:
5725:
5604:
2784:
1899:
1852:
1308:
859:
815:
773:
7793:
6830:
6260:
6185:
6085:
6046:
5844:
5819:
3428:
2871:
politico-ethnic groups had emergedâMons in the region south of 18:30N, known in contemporary writings as
1252:(1481) and Prome (1482). Sithu Kyawhtin died in action at Yamethin in 1481, and was succeeded by his son
926:
893:
878:
873:
829:
2387:
paid tribute. According to Harvey, Annam and Cambodia may have paid âpropitiatory homageâ. According to
6265:
6152:
5581:
5359:
Strange Parallels: Southeast Asia in Global Context, c. 800â1830, volume 1, Integration on the Mainland
2748:
One crucial factor in Toungoo's success was the army's early adoption of Portuguese firearms (arquebus
1442:
1394:
692:
7870:
7751:
6899:
6463:
6003:
5864:
5849:
5824:
2987:
system from ground up by deporting large number of prisoners to lowland areas, close to the capital.
1760:. The word used by European visitors to describe a court official was semini, Italian translation of
1260:
1237:
1206:(Pyay), had received waves of Burmese-speaking migrants, driven out of Upper Burma by the successive
1131:
5212:"The Flight of Lao War Captives from Burma back to Laos in 1596: A Comparison of Historical Sources"
1356:(r. 1533â42) at Ava (Confederation). Two of the states were succeeded by ambitious and able rulers:
1295:
Toungoo's inevitable break with Ava came soon after the death of Minkhaung II in 1501. The new king
7709:
7684:
7534:
7193:
7188:
6317:
5962:
5834:
5572:, Capt. Henry (1857). Dr. Norton Shaw (ed.). "On the Geography of Burma and Its Tributary States".
3423:
3187:
An enduring legacy of the First Toungoo Dynasty was the introduction of a more orthodox version of
2772:
2159:
2103:
898:
162:
7776:
7657:
7198:
7151:
7094:
6793:
6737:
6485:
6275:
6147:
6102:
6041:
5930:
5910:
5597:
3521:
of the Restored Hanthawaddy, despite their Mon titles, were ethnic Burman and Shan, respectively.
3496:
2445:
in Siam began in his reign. He also standardised the weights and measurements such as the cubit,
2356:. Later Restored Toungoo kings claimed only to Manipur, which they never controlled in any case.
1894:
1817:
984:
883:
3261:
In the western mainland, the three principal irrigated regions were all located in Upper Burma:
7798:
7699:
7694:
7382:
7330:
7250:
7183:
7087:
7072:
6965:
6732:
6686:
6527:
6414:
6036:
5935:
1993:
133:
7729:
7689:
7502:
7377:
6441:
6431:
6390:
6361:
6200:
6180:
5915:
5745:
5658:
3274:
2926:, or World Ruler, par excellence, and formed personal relationships based on the concepts of
791:
618:
7617:
7822:
7652:
7622:
7497:
7428:
7399:
6652:
6490:
6480:
6270:
6132:
6107:
6066:
5991:
5952:
5920:
5807:
5412:
3514:
1963:
1847:
1253:
7602:
3332:
copper vessels, weapons, tea, and silk as well as copper and silver from Yunnanese mines.
8:
7514:
7394:
7360:
7262:
7082:
7077:
6889:
6608:
6544:
6419:
6404:
6280:
6137:
5893:
5869:
5703:
3240:
3196:
3127:
2780:
2037:
1919:
1915:
1812:
1512:
No sooner than the Tai-Shan world finally became quiet, the king turned his attention to
1272:
1215:
733:
684:
449:
7230:
7220:
1429:
1319:
987:
in the second half of the 16th century. At its peak, Toungoo "exercised suzerainty from
7627:
7607:
7590:
7541:
7406:
7215:
7166:
7099:
7017:
6958:
6953:
6948:
6904:
6874:
6766:
6664:
6532:
6507:
6335:
6245:
6162:
6061:
6024:
5974:
5829:
5775:
5708:
5650:
5624:
5169:
3188:
2687:
2649:
1997:
1989:
1722:
1698:
1004:
996:
888:
797:
745:
666:
634:
600:
5327:(in Burmese). Vol. 1â3 (2006, 4th printing ed.). Yangon: Ya-Pyei Publishing.
3125:
written in vernacular Burmese, or in addition to Pali. Some of the chronicles such as
3111:
transcriptions as late as 1509 may not have been much lower than in the 13th century.
7736:
7632:
7568:
7563:
7492:
7389:
7104:
7032:
7027:
6869:
6798:
6781:
6776:
6771:
6571:
6522:
6324:
6230:
6205:
6122:
5678:
5510:
5488:
5480:
5457:
5429:
5398:
5362:
5340:
5304:
5281:
5226:
5196:
5177:
5154:
5135:
3148:
3143:, first pioneered in the Ava period, flourished. Indeed, some of the most well-known
2255:
1951:
1654:
1485:
1389:
1349:
1233:
1031:
703:
546:
491:
106:
5234:
2403:
Goa considered it was technically at war with Burma for her interference in Ceylon.
7585:
7372:
7367:
7323:
7310:
7240:
7208:
7203:
7067:
7062:
7044:
7005:
6938:
6921:
6862:
6852:
6847:
6788:
6744:
6714:
6674:
6657:
6640:
6603:
6354:
6305:
6255:
6250:
6225:
6210:
6190:
6142:
6097:
5947:
5730:
5502:
5354:
5332:
3418:
3358:
3296:
2822:
the empire in the following two decades. Likewise, Siam's military service system,
2796:
2645:
2442:
2195:
1884:
1604:
1571:
1525:
1521:
1513:
1414:
1300:
1157:
1097:
1059:
967:
958:
779:
157:
82:
5301:
Southeast Asia: a historical encyclopedia, from Angkor Wat to East Timor, Volume 2
7803:
7771:
7644:
7612:
7595:
7551:
7546:
7524:
7519:
7477:
7470:
7445:
7305:
7300:
7141:
7022:
6916:
6911:
6879:
6704:
6694:
6588:
6581:
6576:
6561:
6517:
6399:
6385:
6235:
6215:
5713:
5688:
5663:
3413:
2214:
2179:
1968:
1943:
1801:
1735:
1726:
1365:
1296:
1227:
753:
713:
638:
624:
574:
532:
519:
7225:
5254:
7746:
7741:
7704:
7679:
7662:
7573:
7558:
7529:
7487:
7335:
7295:
7290:
7245:
7171:
7131:
7121:
7111:
6926:
6805:
6699:
6566:
6448:
6329:
6195:
6170:
5740:
5693:
5668:
3316:
2767:
2122:
1843:
1797:
1249:
1175:
916:
719:
657:
101:
2462:
1550:
608:
7844:
7827:
7714:
7509:
7482:
7455:
7433:
7411:
7178:
7161:
7146:
6990:
6943:
6931:
6857:
6749:
6623:
6618:
6593:
6475:
6220:
5765:
5698:
5683:
5673:
5390:
5230:
3626:
3576:
3401:
3304:
3139:
3108:
2899:
of Ayutthaya hosted significant communities of Bengalis, Arabs and Persians.
2809:
2353:
2017:
2012:
1839:
1829:
1745:
1711:
1673:
1517:
1458:
1276:
1149:
1145:
1023:
725:
707:
697:
678:
121:
93:
69:
7255:
7235:
1520:
in the west. In response to competing requests by the Ceylonese kingdoms of
1144:
The earliest known record of administration of the region dates to the late
1010:
The empire grew out of the principality of Toungoo, a minor vassal state of
7719:
7460:
7450:
7416:
7345:
7340:
7267:
7057:
7039:
7000:
6995:
6975:
6970:
6842:
6835:
6825:
6820:
6815:
6709:
6647:
6628:
6613:
6549:
6175:
6056:
5381:
5323:
5296:
3235:
3152:
3042:
Tax-exempt administrative elite in the capital and administrative centres.
2922:
2836:
2792:
2753:
2446:
2146:
1927:
1731:
1583:
1357:
1333:
1241:
1015:
647:
248:
197:
145:
113:
97:
2078:
For administrative purposes, the court grouped the states into provinces (
1287:
1263:
to be assassinated in office. The assassin was none other than his nephew
7438:
7423:
7272:
6985:
6894:
6884:
6810:
6458:
6453:
5735:
3518:
3218:
2887:(âland of the Shansâ); and Rakhines in the western coastal region called
2287:
2270:
2224:
Kaingma, Maing Maw, Mowun, Latha, Hotha, Sanda, Mona, Maing Lyin, Sigwin
2059:
1923:
1878:
1874:
1833:
1702:
1677:
1559:
1465:
1378:
1207:
1196:
1136:
1051:
1047:
1039:
1014:
until 1510. The landlocked petty state began its rise in the 1530s under
1011:
739:
463:
435:
272:
126:
2896:
7465:
7282:
7156:
7116:
7049:
5569:
5548:
5385:(in Burmese). Vol. 1â3 (2nd ed.). Yangon: Ya-Pyei Publishing.
3192:
3067:
Commoners with no obligation to the crown. They vastly outnumbered the
2433:
2388:
2279:
2266:
2250:
2190:
2174:
2126:
1889:
1757:
1532:
1450:
1388:
by 1541, gaining complete control of Lower Burma's manpower, access to
1345:
1264:
1183:
1165:
1161:
1027:
260:
236:
1433:
Major military campaigns and the expansion of Toungoo Empire (1550â65)
1244:(r. 1480â1501), who was greeted with a wave of rebellions by lords of
7355:
7126:
7010:
6980:
6761:
6635:
6426:
5264:
5193:
Seventeenth-century Burma and the Dutch East India Company, 1634â1680
3541:
3396:
outward of Upper Burma in all directions in the following centuries.
2749:
2300:
to retain their feudal rights over their subjects. The office of the
2135:
1756:, Binnya Law, Daw Binnya, Binnya Kyan Htawâwere most probably ethnic
1749:
1694:
1663:
1477:
1353:
1341:
1179:
181:
5447:(in Burmese) (2006, 2nd printing ed.). Yangon: Yan Aung Sarpay.
2348:
The Province of Tammaleitta reportedly stretched as far west as the
2048:
A rank below the vassal kingdoms were the princely states, ruled by
1174:, "Hill's Spur") because of its location by the hills in the narrow
6756:
6539:
6497:
6436:
5957:
5589:
5536:
5524:
3270:
3117:
2879:(âland of the Monsâ); Burmans in the region north of 18.30N called
2832:
2283:
2239:
1981:
1683:
1596:
1489:
1481:
1327:
1245:
1035:
992:
560:
505:
202:
150:
5509:. Vol. 2 (illustrated ed.). Cambridge University Press.
5176:. Translated by Aung Thein (2001 ed.). Bangkok: White Lotus.
2313:
right up to the final fall of the kingdom to the British in 1885.
6669:
6598:
6554:
6409:
5620:
5337:
Burmese Administrative Cycles: Anarchy and Conquest, c. 1580â1760
3312:
3300:
3292:
3288:
3262:
2735:(whereas in 1650 in the Restored Toungoo period, over 40% of the
2384:
2218:
2155:
2151:
2108:
2055:
1707:
1659:
1570:
The empire's precipitous collapse ensued. Siam seized the entire
1505:
1501:
1473:
1462:
1454:
1410:
1361:
1214:(Bamar) culture. Toungoo's growth continued especially after the
1019:
988:
286:
192:
64:
6470:
6502:
6377:
5318:
5134:(illustrated ed.). Honolulu: University of Hawai'i Press.
3308:
3175:
2756:
2428:
2368:
2349:
2342:
2275:
2206:
2050:
1933:
1907:
1469:
1373:
1043:
1000:
477:
138:
54:
5473:
Siam; Or, the History of the Thais: From 1569 A.D. to 1824 A.D
3553:(Phayre 1967: 118â119): Bayinnaung sent an embassy to Emperor
7136:
3554:
3328:
3266:
2163:
2131:
1437:
1211:
1191:
207:
5129:
3495:
One exception was that the Martaban Province had a viceroy,
1809:
Tammadipa (Ava, Pagan, Pinya, Myinsaing, Nyaungyan, Pakhan)
1554:
Portrait of Burmese nobility painted by Qing dynasty in 1751
5259:. London: Frank Cass & Co. Ltd – via archive.org.
3341:
1587:
The restored Taungoo dynasty, or Nyaungyan dynasty, c. 1650
1203:
401:
397:
6346:
5256:
History of Burma: From the Earliest Times to 10 March 1824
5174:
Our Wars with the Burmese: ThaiâBurmese Conflict 1539â1767
2883:(âland of the Burmansâ); Shans in the hill regions called
5564:(in Burmese) (2011, 3rd ed.). Yangon: Khit-Pya Taik.
5445:
Mintaya Shwe Hti and Bayinnaung: Ketumadi Taungoo Yazawin
5423:
5167:
5424:
Ratchasomphan (SĂŠnluang.) (1994). David K. Wyatt (ed.).
3137:
have survived to this day. A new form of poetry, called
2413:
1050:, declined soon after his death in 1581. His successor
1401:
from the Confederation by 1545. The campaigns against
2910:
2437:. The decisions given in his court were collected in
5151:
History of the Shan State: From Its Origins to 1962
5130:Aung-Thwin, Michael A.; Maitrii Aung-Thwin (2012).
5636:
5454:The Kingdoms of Laos: Six Hundred Years of History
5271:. New York and London: Cambridge University Press.
5067:
5065:
5063:
5017:
5015:
5013:
4819:
4817:
4259:
4257:
3384:both western and central mainland Southeast Asia.
3147:poets such as Shin Htwe Hla, Yaza Thara, Nawaday,
2686:The earliest extant record of organisation of the
5092:
4831:
4829:
4514:
4512:
4510:
1160:. In 1279, two great-grandsons of Ananda Thuriyaâ
7842:
5451:
4646:
3625:(Lieberman 2003: 135â136): The soldiers of King
5060:
5010:
4992:
4940:
4938:
4928:
4926:
4924:
4814:
4678:
4676:
4630:
4628:
4588:
4586:
4584:
4254:
2492:
1331:King Tabinshwehti depicted as the Tabinshwehti
5395:The River of Lost FootstepsâHistories of Burma
5195:(illustrated ed.). Singapore: NUS Press.
4826:
4805:
4507:
4386:
4384:
4382:
4380:
4352:
4350:
4328:
4326:
4107:
4105:
4061:
4059:
4057:
4055:
4053:
4006:
4004:
3677:
3675:
3673:
3671:
7891:States and territories disestablished in 1599
6362:
5605:
5574:The Journal of the Royal Geographical Society
5442:
5083:
4726:
4402:
3731:
3729:
3701:
3699:
3689:
3687:
3661:
3659:
3657:
3655:
3653:
3651:
3649:
3349:
3090:counterparts. In the Chao Phraya valley, the
2720:
2708:
2696:
2671:
2478:
1169:
1101:
1085:
1077:
934:
7819:"Empire" as a description of foreign policy
5559:
5101:
4974:
4965:
4947:
4935:
4921:
4912:
4903:
4894:
4703:
4694:
4673:
4625:
4581:
4470:
4468:
4197:
4022:
4020:
4018:
4016:
3926:
3811:
45:Toungoo Empire at its greatest extent (1580)
5053:
5051:
4878:
4876:
4874:
4864:
4862:
4852:
4850:
4798:
4796:
4794:
4792:
4782:
4780:
4768:
4752:
4750:
4740:
4738:
4719:
4717:
4715:
4618:
4616:
4604:
4574:
4572:
4377:
4347:
4323:
4293:
4211:
4209:
4188:
4158:
4123:
4102:
4050:
4001:
3953:
3935:
3917:
3892:
3668:
3239:worship from Buddhism failed. Adherents of
2802:
1623:
1221:
1018:who went on to found the largest polity in
7886:States and territories established in 1510
6369:
6355:
5612:
5598:
5547:
5479:
5456:(illustrated ed.). Psychology Press.
5375:
4544:
4542:
4540:
4538:
4528:
4526:
4524:
4491:
4489:
4340:
4338:
4307:
4305:
4172:
4170:
4151:
4149:
4147:
4137:
4135:
4095:
4093:
4091:
4089:
4087:
4085:
4075:
4073:
4071:
3994:
3992:
3980:
3971:
3910:
3908:
3906:
3904:
3804:
3802:
3800:
3798:
3726:
3696:
3684:
3646:
3101:
2485:
2471:
2067:(king). Nevertheless, Pegu classified the
1564:five major punitive campaigns against Siam
1441:Statue of King Bayinnaung in front of the
1125:
941:
927:
39:
5529:The Royal Orders of Burma, A.D. 1598â1885
5353:
5331:
5263:
5209:
4655:
4465:
4013:
3874:
3856:
3838:
3829:
3820:
3786:
3743:
3741:
5535:
5523:
5379:(2012) . Kyaw Win; Thein Hlaing (eds.).
5148:
5132:A History of Myanmar Since Ancient Times
5074:
5048:
5024:
5001:
4983:
4956:
4871:
4859:
4847:
4838:
4789:
4777:
4759:
4747:
4735:
4712:
4685:
4664:
4637:
4613:
4595:
4569:
4560:
4551:
4266:
4227:
4206:
4034:
4032:
3750:
3174:
2766:
2644:
1607:(1752â1885) well into the 19th century.
1582:
1549:
1436:
1428:
1326:
1318:
1291:Political map of Burma (Myanmar) in 1530
1286:
1135:
7643:
5531:. Vol. 1. Kyoto: Kyoto University.
5507:The Cambridge History of Southeast Asia
5501:
5389:
5110:
4885:
4732:Aung-Thwin and Aung-Thwin 2012: 132-133
4535:
4521:
4498:
4486:
4477:
4456:
4429:
4411:
4393:
4368:
4335:
4302:
4284:
4245:
4179:
4167:
4144:
4132:
4114:
4082:
4068:
4041:
3989:
3962:
3944:
3901:
3883:
3795:
3681:Aung-Thwin and Aung-Thwin 2012: 137â138
3023:A similar system was in place in Siam.
2383:Chronicles claim states as far east as
2316:
2304:remained hereditary. But the incumbent
1026:by 1550. His more celebrated successor
7843:
5562:Research Dictionary of Burmese History
5553:Aspects of Myanmar History and Culture
5411:
5275:
5252:
5044:. Oxford University Press. p. 74.
5039:
4447:
4438:
4420:
4359:
4314:
3865:
3847:
3777:
3768:
3759:
3738:
3717:
3708:
2842:
2826:, was reorganised, modelled after the
1873:Eastern central Myanmar (northeastern
1617:administrative model of solar polities
7861:Former countries in Cambodian history
6350:
5593:
5470:
5419:(1967 ed.). London: Susil Gupta.
5294:
4275:
4236:
4218:
4029:
3735:Lieberman 1984: transcriptions, dates
3357:
2852:
2771:Statue of Bayinnaung in front of the
2466:
2439:Hanthawaddy Hsinbyumyashin Hpyat-hton
2414:Legal and commercial standardisations
1070:
966:
6312:
5619:
5568:
5543:(in Burmese). Yangon: Gangaw Myaing.
5317:
5190:
3826:Sein Lwin Lay 2006: 28â30, 33â35, 37
1545:Southeast Asian administrative model
1323:Toungoo military campaigns (1534â47)
16:16th-century Southeast Asian kingdom
7911:Former monarchies of Southeast Asia
7856:Former countries in Burmese history
5771:State Peace and Development Council
5539:(2011). "23. Nga Zinga and Thida".
5280:. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
4661:Aung-Thwin and Aung-Thwin 2012: 131
3756:Aung-Thwin and Aung-Thwin 2012: 143
3499:between 1552 and 1556 and another,
3340:The Toungoo empire had no official
3170:
2459:Military history of Toungoo Dynasty
1543:In the tradition of the prevailing
1538:
1084:), or simply the "Toungoo Period" (
13:
5452:Simms, Peter; Sanda Simms (2001).
5278:Legalism: Anthropology and History
3228:
2911:Effects of fluid ethnic identities
2762:
2703:), 10 battalion commanders called
2043:
14:
7922:
5443:Sein Lwin Lay, Kahtika U (1968).
5415:, Lt. Gen. Sir Arthur P. (1883).
4203:Maha Yazawin Vol. 3 2006: 112â113
4194:Maha Yazawin Vol. 3 2006: 97, 112
3134:Hanthawaddy Hsinbyushin Ayedawbon
2937:
2594:Nyaungyan Restoration (1599â1626)
2539:Central and Lower Burma (1551â52)
1282:
7906:Early modern history of Thailand
7866:Former countries in Thai history
6323:
6311:
6300:
6299:
5033:
3619:
3610:
3179:Wat Phu Khao Thong just outside
2865:
995:marches and from the borders of
910:
607:
579:
565:
551:
537:
512:
498:
484:
470:
456:
442:
428:
5219:SOAS Bulletin of Burma Research
5153:. Chiang Mai: Silk Worm Books.
5122:
4026:Yazawin Thit Vol. 2 2012: lxxxx
3986:Maha Yazawin Vol. 3 2006: 48â50
3977:Maha Yazawin Vol. 3 2006: 44â45
3600:
3591:
3582:
3569:
3560:
3547:
3534:
3524:
3513:two hundred years later, kings
3506:
3489:
3479:
3470:
3461:
3451:
2862:manpower with which to revolt.
2660:
2449:, basket throughout the realm.
1807:Thunaparana (Sagaing, Tagaung)
1461:world to tributary status: cis-
1046:. The empire, held together by
1007:was also the "shortest-lived."
7901:1599 disestablishments in Asia
5582:The Royal Geographical Society
5361:. Cambridge University Press.
5339:. Princeton University Press.
5210:Fernquest, Jon (Spring 2005).
5042:The Ottoman Age of Exploration
3817:Sein Lwin Lay 2006: 30, 33, 34
3441:
3256:
2054:(chiefs, princes). Except for
1956:Central and Southern Thailand
1628:
1259:In 1485, Min Sithu became the
1111:
1:
5485:Historical Dictionary of Laos
5475:. Vol. 2. Decatur Press.
5471:Smith, Ronald Bishop (1966).
5397:. Farrar, Straus and Giroux.
4272:Maha Yazawin Vol. 3 2006: 128
3640:
3369:
3025:
2953:
2847:
2324:
2088:
1775:
1636:
1610:
1360:(r. 1530â50) at Toungoo, and
1344:(r. 1526â39) at Hanthawaddy;
1202:By then, Toungoo, along with
1065:
319:âą Independence from Ava
5980:State Administration Council
5726:Restored Hanthawaddy Kingdom
4652:Lieberman 2003: 267â268, 271
4185:Maha Yazawin Vol. 3 2006: 96
4038:Maha Yazawin Vol. 3 2006: 76
3932:Hmannan Vol. 2 2003: 220â222
1986:Laos, Northeastern Thailand
1578:
1424:
1309:Confederation of Shan States
983:) was the dominant power in
7:
7896:1510 establishments in Asia
6376:
5781:2011â2015 political reforms
5172:(1928). Chris Baker (ed.).
4408:Than Tun Vol. 1 1983: 18â19
3429:Military history of Myanmar
3407:
3378:
3335:
3165:
2951:lit. âpeople of povertyâ).
2743:
2496:Wars of the Taungoo dynasty
2452:
2138:, Myet-Hna-Me (Chin Hills)
1767:
1352:(r. 1532â39) at Prome; and
1048:patron-client relationships
10:
7927:
5040:Casale, Giancarlo (2010).
3247:
2624:Manipuri raids (1724â1749)
2456:
1399:seized up to Pagan (Bagan)
1386:conquer all of Lower Burma
1225:
1129:
1120:
7812:
7764:
7281:
6685:
6384:
6295:
6161:
6093:
6084:
6032:
6023:
5901:
5892:
5815:
5806:
5649:
5637:Myanmar is also known as
5635:
5631:
4215:Ratchasomphan 1994: 68â69
3880:Sein Lwin Lay 2006: 66â67
3862:Sein Lwin Lay 2006: 59â61
3844:Sein Lwin Lay 2006: 51â52
3835:Sein Lwin Lay 2006: 37â38
3792:Sein Lwin Lay 2006: 23â25
3350:
3155:hailed from this period.
3031:
3028:
2959:
2956:
2816:
2721:
2715:) and 1 commander called
2709:
2697:
2672:
2504:
2333:
2330:
2327:
2097:
2094:
2091:
2036:(r. 1569â90) of Siam and
1828:Western central Myanmar (
1787:
1784:
1781:
1778:
1645:
1642:
1639:
1261:eleventh ruler of Toungoo
1170:
1152:(r. 1174â1211) appointed
1132:List of rulers of Toungoo
1102:
1086:
1078:
962:
407:
393:
389:
379:
366:
353:
340:
327:
317:
304:
300:
292:
282:
278:
266:
254:
242:
230:
226:
218:
175:
76:
60:
50:
38:
33:
23:
7881:16th century in Thailand
5906:Administrative divisions
5560:Thein Hlaing, U (2000).
5555:. Yangon: Gangaw Myaing.
4918:Lieberman 2003: 266, 269
4900:Lieberman 2003: 131, 134
4774:Thaw Kaung 2010: 115â116
4682:Lieberman 2003: 267, 273
4224:Simms and Simms 2001: 92
3503:, between 1581 and 1584.
3434:
3281:
2803:Limits of military power
2599:Portuguese Syriam (1613)
2202:Kawsampi (Ko Shan Pyay)
1930:â 57 provinces in total
1624:Administrative Divisions
1222:Start of Toungoo dynasty
533:Restored Taungoo dynasty
6276:Twelve Auspicious Rites
6057:Myanmar kyat (currency)
5107:Lieberman 2003: 188â192
5098:Lieberman 1984: 121â122
4971:Lieberman 2003: 191â192
4944:Lieberman 2003: 135â136
4700:Lieberman 2003: 134â135
4610:Lieberman 2003: 52, 175
4592:Lieberman 2003: 275â276
4557:Sein Lwin Lay 2006: 109
4399:Hmannan Vol. 3 2003: 67
4390:Htin Aung 1967: 117â118
4332:Lieberman 2003: 154â156
4111:Lieberman 2003: 154â155
3898:Lieberman 2003: 150â151
3889:Sein Lwin Lay 2006: 107
3665:Lieberman 2003: 151â152
3275:British colonial period
3102:Literacy and literature
2345:and Northeastern India
1788:King (reign as vassal)
1314:
1236:(r. 1468â80) appointed
1126:Principality of Toungoo
985:mainland Southeast Asia
792:British colonial period
308:Toungoo Dynasty founded
5541:Myanmar History Briefs
5253:Harvey, G. E. (1925).
5149:Aung Tun, Sai (2009).
4835:Aung Thwin 1985: 87â91
4811:Aung-Thwin 1985: 71â73
4365:Sein Lwin Lay 2006: 44
4263:Than Tun 2011: 135â136
4164:Liberman 2003: 155â156
3871:Sein Lwin Lay 2006: 64
3853:Sein Lwin Lay 2006: 57
3783:Sein Lwin Lay 2006: 22
3774:Sein Lwin Lay 2006: 15
3765:Sein Lwin Lay 2006: 18
3184:
2957:Commoner social class
2775:
2653:
2652:mobilisation (1530â99)
2095:Present-day region(s)
2034:Maha Thammarachathirat
1588:
1555:
1446:
1434:
1397:, the upstart kingdom
1337:
1324:
1292:
1141:
1060:Restored Toungoo Burma
67:(Taungoo) (1510â1539)
7876:16th century in Burma
7789:Medieval great powers
5428:. SEAP Publications.
5295:James, Helen (2004).
5191:Dijk, Wil O. (2006).
5071:Lieberman 1984: 31â32
5021:Lieberman 1984: 27â28
4998:Lieberman 1984: 18â19
4823:Lieberman 1984: 97â98
4518:Lieberman 1984: 28â29
4233:Fernquest 2005: 50â51
3183:donated by Bayinnaung
3178:
3075:(private retainers).
3071:. Similar to Burmese
2789:Thado Dhamma Yaza III
2770:
2648:
2634:Hanthawaddy (1740â52)
2549:Shan states (1557â63)
2519:Hanthawaddy (1534â41)
2509:Hanthawaddy (1495â96)
1974:Mahathammarachathirat
1863:Thado Dhamma Yaza III
1586:
1553:
1440:
1432:
1330:
1322:
1290:
1139:
1038:and the northernmost
977:Second Burmese Empire
973:First Toungoo Dynasty
766:Nyaungyan Restoration
693:Warring states period
619:Prehistory of Myanmar
77:Common languages
7851:First Toungoo Empire
7799:European colonialism
7784:Ancient great powers
6113:Environmental issues
6072:Units of measurement
5719:First Toungoo Empire
5357:, Victor B. (2003).
5335:, Victor B. (1984).
4953:Harvey 1925: 166â167
4932:Harvey 1925: 172â173
4909:Harvey 1925: 170â171
4444:Thaw Kaung 2010: 113
4299:Harvey 1925: 185â189
4010:Phayre 1967: 118â119
3959:Harvey 1925: 168â169
3941:Harvey 1925: 158â160
3923:Harvey 1925: 154â155
3515:Smim Htaw Buddhaketi
3501:Thiri Thudhamma Yaza
3424:BurmeseâSiamese wars
2331:Present-day regions
2317:Spheres of influence
1858:Thado Dhamma Yaza II
1782:Present-day regions
1643:Present-day regions
1395:Toungoo armed forces
1080:áá±áŹááșáá°âáá¶ááŹáááź áá±ááș
971:; also known as the
968:[tĂ ÊÉŽĆĂčkÊ°ÉȘÊ]
955:First Toungoo Empire
810:Nationalist movement
774:Restored Hanthawaddy
760:First Toungoo Empire
736:1287â1539, 1550â1552
381:âą Fall of Pegu
25:First Toungoo Empire
7794:Modern great powers
5751:Japanese occupation
5704:Hanthawaddy Kingdom
5505:, Nicholas (1999).
5487:. Scarecrow Press.
5089:Lieberman 1984: 121
5080:Lieberman 2003: 145
5030:Lieberman 2003: 168
5007:Lieberman 2003: 174
4989:Lieberman 2003: 166
4962:Lieberman 2003: 159
4882:Lieberman 2003: 136
4868:Lieberman 2003: 280
4856:Lieberman 2003: 271
4844:Lieberman 2003: 272
4802:Lieberman 2003: 113
4786:Lieberman 2003: 194
4765:Lieberman 2003: 154
4756:Lieberman 2003: 133
4744:Lieberman 2003: 135
4723:Lieberman 2003: 273
4691:Lieberman 2003: 254
4670:Lieberman 2003: 134
4643:Lieberman 2003: 132
4622:Lieberman 2003: 175
4601:Lieberman 2003: 295
4548:Lieberman 2003: 274
4532:Lieberman 2003: 153
4504:Lieberman 2003: 163
4462:Lieberman 2003: 185
4344:Lieberman 2003: 275
4311:Lieberman 2003: 161
4290:Htin Aung 1967: 139
4251:Htin Aung 1967: 134
4176:Lieberman 2003: 158
4155:Lieberman 2003: 156
4079:Htin Aung 1967: 127
4065:Tarling 1999: 72â73
4047:Lieberman 2003: 152
3950:Lieberman 2003: 199
3914:Lieberman 2003: 151
3808:Lieberman 2003: 150
3723:Htin Aung 1967: 104
3128:Razadarit Ayedawbon
2843:Culture and society
2584:Civil War (1594â99)
2377:Annam and Cambodia
2038:Thado Minsaw of Ava
2005:(1565â68; 1570â72)
1897:(1549â50; 1551â84)
1853:Thado Dhamma Yaza I
1482:Chinese Shan States
1384:Toungoo went on to
1182:range and southern
1178:valley between the
842:Ne Win dictatorship
816:Japanese occupation
804:Resistance movement
734:Hanthawaddy Kingdom
685:Early Pagan Kingdom
450:Hanthawaddy Kingdom
6336:Outline of Myanmar
6052:Telecommunications
5968:commander-in-chief
5761:Socialist Republic
5709:Kingdom of Mrauk U
5269:A History of Burma
5240:on 18 January 2022
5170:Damrong Rajanubhab
4980:Lieberman 1984: 28
4709:Lieberman 1984: 17
4634:Lieberman 1984: 21
4426:Than Tun 1985: xiv
4356:Lieberman 1984: 31
4320:Lieberman 2003: 35
4281:Fernquest 2005: 53
4242:Fernquest 2005: 52
4129:Lieberman 1984: 39
3705:Lieberman 1984: 15
3693:Lieberman 1984: 13
3189:Theravada Buddhism
3185:
2853:Size of population
2776:
2688:Royal Burmese Army
2654:
2650:Royal Burmese Army
2574:Lan Xang (1568â74)
2380:Vietnam, Cambodia
2339:Tammaleitta Taing
1912:Northern Thailand
1796:Northern Myanmar (
1723:Tanintharyi Region
1699:Tanintharyi Region
1589:
1556:
1516:and the advancing
1447:
1435:
1421:and armed forces.
1338:
1325:
1293:
1142:
1071:Name of the period
917:Myanmar portal
848:SLORC / SPDC junta
798:Anglo-Burmese Wars
746:Kingdom of Mrauk U
667:Arakanese kingdoms
635:Sri Ksetra Kingdom
601:History of Myanmar
182:Theravada Buddhism
72:(Bago) (1539â1599)
7838:
7837:
7760:
7759:
7725:PolishâLithuanian
6900:Gurjara-Pratihara
6344:
6343:
6291:
6290:
6128:Human trafficking
6080:
6079:
6019:
6018:
5987:Political parties
5926:Foreign relations
5888:
5887:
5679:Myinsaing Kingdom
5645:
5644:
5483:, Martin (2008).
5426:The Nan Chronicle
5404:978-0-374-16342-6
5368:978-0-521-80496-7
5160:978-974-9511-43-5
5141:978-1-86189-901-9
4891:Aung Tun 2009: 27
3244:artillery units.
3149:Hsinbyushin Medaw
3079:
3078:
3021:
3020:
2930:(allegiance) and
2642:
2641:
2407:
2406:
2293:
2292:
2232:Southern Yunnan (
2029:
2028:
1900:Minye Thihathu II
1741:
1740:
1655:Ayeyarwady Region
1509:Mogaung in 1576.
1348:(r. 1527â32) and
1234:Thihathura of Ava
951:
950:
854:Political reforms
627:200 BCE â 1050 CE
595:
594:
591:
590:
587:
586:
547:Ayutthaya Kingdom
525:
524:
492:Ayutthaya Kingdom
166:
154:
142:
130:
118:
110:
7918:
7871:Burmese monarchy
7641:
7640:
7306:Austro-Hungarian
7006:Chagatai Khanate
6371:
6364:
6357:
6348:
6347:
6327:
6315:
6314:
6303:
6302:
6261:National symbols
6091:
6090:
6047:Opium production
6030:
6029:
5899:
5898:
5813:
5812:
5731:Konbaung dynasty
5633:
5632:
5614:
5607:
5600:
5591:
5590:
5585:
5565:
5556:
5544:
5532:
5520:
5498:
5476:
5467:
5448:
5439:
5420:
5417:History of Burma
5408:
5393:, Thant (2006).
5386:
5372:
5350:
5328:
5314:
5291:
5272:
5267:, Maung (1967).
5260:
5249:
5247:
5245:
5239:
5233:. Archived from
5216:
5206:
5187:
5164:
5145:
5117:
5116:Myint-U 2006: 71
5114:
5108:
5105:
5099:
5096:
5090:
5087:
5081:
5078:
5072:
5069:
5058:
5057:Harvey 1925: 175
5055:
5046:
5045:
5037:
5031:
5028:
5022:
5019:
5008:
5005:
4999:
4996:
4990:
4987:
4981:
4978:
4972:
4969:
4963:
4960:
4954:
4951:
4945:
4942:
4933:
4930:
4919:
4916:
4910:
4907:
4901:
4898:
4892:
4889:
4883:
4880:
4869:
4866:
4857:
4854:
4845:
4842:
4836:
4833:
4824:
4821:
4812:
4809:
4803:
4800:
4787:
4784:
4775:
4772:
4766:
4763:
4757:
4754:
4745:
4742:
4733:
4730:
4724:
4721:
4710:
4707:
4701:
4698:
4692:
4689:
4683:
4680:
4671:
4668:
4662:
4659:
4653:
4650:
4644:
4641:
4635:
4632:
4623:
4620:
4611:
4608:
4602:
4599:
4593:
4590:
4579:
4578:Harvey 1925: 177
4576:
4567:
4566:Phayre 1967: 116
4564:
4558:
4555:
4549:
4546:
4533:
4530:
4519:
4516:
4505:
4502:
4496:
4495:Harvey 1925: 334
4493:
4484:
4483:Harvey 1925: 164
4481:
4475:
4474:Dijk 2006: 35â37
4472:
4463:
4460:
4454:
4453:Huxley 2012: 230
4451:
4445:
4442:
4436:
4435:Harvey 1925: 151
4433:
4427:
4424:
4418:
4417:Harvey 1925: 323
4415:
4409:
4406:
4400:
4397:
4391:
4388:
4375:
4374:Harvey 1925: 178
4372:
4366:
4363:
4357:
4354:
4345:
4342:
4333:
4330:
4321:
4318:
4312:
4309:
4300:
4297:
4291:
4288:
4282:
4279:
4273:
4270:
4264:
4261:
4252:
4249:
4243:
4240:
4234:
4231:
4225:
4222:
4216:
4213:
4204:
4201:
4195:
4192:
4186:
4183:
4177:
4174:
4165:
4162:
4156:
4153:
4142:
4141:Harvey 1925: 180
4139:
4130:
4127:
4121:
4120:Harvey 1925: 181
4118:
4112:
4109:
4100:
4099:Harvey 1925: 171
4097:
4080:
4077:
4066:
4063:
4048:
4045:
4039:
4036:
4027:
4024:
4011:
4008:
3999:
3998:Harvey 1925: 174
3996:
3987:
3984:
3978:
3975:
3969:
3968:Harvey 1925: 170
3966:
3960:
3957:
3951:
3948:
3942:
3939:
3933:
3930:
3924:
3921:
3915:
3912:
3899:
3896:
3890:
3887:
3881:
3878:
3872:
3869:
3863:
3860:
3854:
3851:
3845:
3842:
3836:
3833:
3827:
3824:
3818:
3815:
3809:
3806:
3793:
3790:
3784:
3781:
3775:
3772:
3766:
3763:
3757:
3754:
3748:
3747:Harvey 1925: 153
3745:
3736:
3733:
3724:
3721:
3715:
3714:James 2004: 1291
3712:
3706:
3703:
3694:
3691:
3682:
3679:
3666:
3663:
3634:
3623:
3617:
3614:
3608:
3604:
3598:
3595:
3589:
3586:
3580:
3573:
3567:
3564:
3558:
3551:
3545:
3538:
3532:
3528:
3522:
3510:
3504:
3493:
3487:
3483:
3477:
3474:
3468:
3465:
3459:
3455:
3449:
3445:
3419:Nyaungyan period
3361:
3359:[gÉȘÌÉŽzĂ ]
3355:
3354:
3353:
3297:Coromandel Coast
3241:Abrahamic faiths
3171:Buddhist reforms
3026:
2954:
2726:
2725:
2724:
2714:
2713:
2712:
2702:
2701:
2700:
2677:
2676:
2675:
2629:Lan Na (1727â32)
2589:Siam (1594â1605)
2529:Arakan (1545â47)
2499:
2497:
2487:
2480:
2473:
2464:
2463:
2443:Burmese calendar
2427:, based on King
2364:Southern Yunnan
2325:
2143:MohnyinâMogaung
2089:
2058:, they were all
2003:Maing Pat Sawbwa
1890:Minye Thihathu I
1818:Minye Kyawswa II
1802:Mandalay Regions
1776:
1764:, Mon for lord.
1637:
1605:Konbaung dynasty
1572:Tenasserim coast
1539:Decline and fall
1403:Arakan (1545â47)
1366:Mrauk-U (Arakan)
1364:(r. 1531â54) at
1216:Forty Years' War
1173:
1172:
1148:. In 1191, King
1107:
1106:
1105:
1098:Nyaungyan period
1091:
1090:
1089:
1083:
1082:
1081:
970:
964:
943:
936:
929:
915:
914:
913:
894:Military history
889:Royal chronicles
879:List of capitals
836:AFPFL government
780:Konbaung dynasty
661:
642:
611:
597:
596:
583:
582:
569:
568:
555:
554:
541:
540:
529:
528:
516:
515:
502:
501:
488:
487:
474:
473:
460:
459:
446:
445:
432:
431:
425:
424:
409:
408:
385:19 December 1599
371:
358:
345:
332:
309:
160:
148:
136:
124:
116:
104:
43:
21:
20:
7926:
7925:
7921:
7920:
7919:
7917:
7916:
7915:
7841:
7840:
7839:
7834:
7823:American Empire
7808:
7804:African empires
7756:
7639:
7331:Central African
7277:
7095:Romano-Germanic
6681:
6415:Middle Assyrian
6388:
6380:
6375:
6345:
6340:
6287:
6266:Public holidays
6157:
6153:Sex trafficking
6076:
6015:
5953:Law enforcement
5884:
5860:Protected areas
5802:
5714:Toungoo dynasty
5689:Sagaing Kingdom
5664:Pyu city-states
5641:
5627:
5618:
5588:
5517:
5495:
5464:
5436:
5405:
5369:
5347:
5311:
5288:
5243:
5241:
5237:
5214:
5203:
5184:
5161:
5142:
5125:
5120:
5115:
5111:
5106:
5102:
5097:
5093:
5088:
5084:
5079:
5075:
5070:
5061:
5056:
5049:
5038:
5034:
5029:
5025:
5020:
5011:
5006:
5002:
4997:
4993:
4988:
4984:
4979:
4975:
4970:
4966:
4961:
4957:
4952:
4948:
4943:
4936:
4931:
4922:
4917:
4913:
4908:
4904:
4899:
4895:
4890:
4886:
4881:
4872:
4867:
4860:
4855:
4848:
4843:
4839:
4834:
4827:
4822:
4815:
4810:
4806:
4801:
4790:
4785:
4778:
4773:
4769:
4764:
4760:
4755:
4748:
4743:
4736:
4731:
4727:
4722:
4713:
4708:
4704:
4699:
4695:
4690:
4686:
4681:
4674:
4669:
4665:
4660:
4656:
4651:
4647:
4642:
4638:
4633:
4626:
4621:
4614:
4609:
4605:
4600:
4596:
4591:
4582:
4577:
4570:
4565:
4561:
4556:
4552:
4547:
4536:
4531:
4522:
4517:
4508:
4503:
4499:
4494:
4487:
4482:
4478:
4473:
4466:
4461:
4457:
4452:
4448:
4443:
4439:
4434:
4430:
4425:
4421:
4416:
4412:
4407:
4403:
4398:
4394:
4389:
4378:
4373:
4369:
4364:
4360:
4355:
4348:
4343:
4336:
4331:
4324:
4319:
4315:
4310:
4303:
4298:
4294:
4289:
4285:
4280:
4276:
4271:
4267:
4262:
4255:
4250:
4246:
4241:
4237:
4232:
4228:
4223:
4219:
4214:
4207:
4202:
4198:
4193:
4189:
4184:
4180:
4175:
4168:
4163:
4159:
4154:
4145:
4140:
4133:
4128:
4124:
4119:
4115:
4110:
4103:
4098:
4083:
4078:
4069:
4064:
4051:
4046:
4042:
4037:
4030:
4025:
4014:
4009:
4002:
3997:
3990:
3985:
3981:
3976:
3972:
3967:
3963:
3958:
3954:
3949:
3945:
3940:
3936:
3931:
3927:
3922:
3918:
3913:
3902:
3897:
3893:
3888:
3884:
3879:
3875:
3870:
3866:
3861:
3857:
3852:
3848:
3843:
3839:
3834:
3830:
3825:
3821:
3816:
3812:
3807:
3796:
3791:
3787:
3782:
3778:
3773:
3769:
3764:
3760:
3755:
3751:
3746:
3739:
3734:
3727:
3722:
3718:
3713:
3709:
3704:
3697:
3692:
3685:
3680:
3669:
3664:
3647:
3643:
3638:
3637:
3624:
3620:
3615:
3611:
3605:
3601:
3596:
3592:
3587:
3583:
3574:
3570:
3565:
3561:
3552:
3548:
3539:
3535:
3531:administration.
3529:
3525:
3511:
3507:
3494:
3490:
3484:
3480:
3475:
3471:
3466:
3462:
3456:
3452:
3446:
3442:
3437:
3414:Toungoo dynasty
3410:
3381:
3372:
3351:
3338:
3284:
3259:
3250:
3231:
3229:Other practices
3173:
3168:
3104:
2940:
2913:
2868:
2855:
2850:
2845:
2819:
2805:
2765:
2763:Martial culture
2752:and cast-metal
2746:
2722:
2710:
2698:
2673:
2663:
2643:
2638:
2564:Lan Xang (1565)
2500:
2495:
2493:
2491:
2461:
2455:
2421:Dhammathat Kyaw
2416:
2319:
2046:
2044:Princely states
2021:
2016:
2011:
2006:
1972:
1969:Mahinthrathirat
1944:Nawrahta Minsaw
1942:
1937:
1898:
1893:
1861:
1856:
1832:, northwestern
1816:
1808:
1770:
1727:Phuket Province
1631:
1626:
1613:
1581:
1541:
1457:and the entire
1443:National Museum
1427:
1317:
1301:Kyaukse granary
1285:
1230:
1228:Toungoo dynasty
1224:
1134:
1128:
1123:
1114:
1103:
1087:
1079:
1073:
1068:
1005:Burmese history
947:
911:
909:
754:Toungoo dynasty
714:Sagaing Kingdom
655:
639:Tagaung Kingdom
632:
625:Pyu city-states
580:
575:Manipur Kingdom
566:
552:
538:
520:Manipur Kingdom
513:
499:
485:
471:
457:
443:
429:
382:
372:
369:
359:
356:
346:
343:
333:
330:
323:16 October 1510
320:
310:
307:
269:
268:âą 1581â99
257:
256:âą 1550â81
245:
244:âą 1530â50
233:
232:âą 1510â30
214:
213:
212:
187:
180:
171:
170:
169:
88:
81:
68:
46:
29:
26:
17:
12:
11:
5:
7924:
7914:
7913:
7908:
7903:
7898:
7893:
7888:
7883:
7878:
7873:
7868:
7863:
7858:
7853:
7836:
7835:
7833:
7832:
7831:
7830:
7825:
7816:
7814:
7810:
7809:
7807:
7806:
7801:
7796:
7791:
7786:
7781:
7780:
7779:
7768:
7766:
7762:
7761:
7758:
7757:
7755:
7754:
7749:
7744:
7739:
7734:
7733:
7732:
7722:
7717:
7712:
7707:
7702:
7697:
7692:
7687:
7682:
7677:
7676:
7675:
7670:
7660:
7655:
7649:
7647:
7638:
7637:
7636:
7635:
7630:
7625:
7620:
7615:
7605:
7600:
7599:
7598:
7588:
7583:
7582:
7581:
7576:
7571:
7561:
7556:
7555:
7554:
7549:
7539:
7538:
7537:
7532:
7527:
7522:
7517:
7507:
7506:
7505:
7500:
7490:
7485:
7480:
7475:
7474:
7473:
7468:
7463:
7458:
7453:
7443:
7442:
7441:
7436:
7426:
7421:
7420:
7419:
7414:
7404:
7403:
7402:
7397:
7387:
7386:
7385:
7380:
7370:
7365:
7364:
7363:
7358:
7353:
7348:
7343:
7333:
7328:
7327:
7326:
7321:
7313:
7308:
7303:
7298:
7293:
7287:
7285:
7279:
7278:
7276:
7275:
7270:
7265:
7260:
7259:
7258:
7253:
7248:
7243:
7238:
7233:
7228:
7218:
7213:
7212:
7211:
7206:
7201:
7196:
7191:
7186:
7176:
7175:
7174:
7169:
7164:
7159:
7149:
7144:
7139:
7134:
7129:
7124:
7119:
7114:
7109:
7108:
7107:
7102:
7092:
7091:
7090:
7085:
7080:
7075:
7070:
7065:
7052:
7047:
7042:
7037:
7036:
7035:
7030:
7025:
7015:
7014:
7013:
7008:
7003:
6998:
6988:
6983:
6978:
6973:
6968:
6963:
6962:
6961:
6956:
6951:
6946:
6936:
6935:
6934:
6929:
6924:
6919:
6909:
6908:
6907:
6902:
6897:
6887:
6882:
6877:
6872:
6867:
6866:
6865:
6860:
6855:
6845:
6840:
6839:
6838:
6833:
6828:
6823:
6818:
6813:
6803:
6802:
6801:
6796:
6786:
6785:
6784:
6779:
6774:
6769:
6759:
6754:
6753:
6752:
6742:
6741:
6740:
6735:
6727:
6722:
6717:
6712:
6707:
6702:
6697:
6691:
6689:
6687:Post-classical
6683:
6682:
6680:
6679:
6678:
6677:
6667:
6662:
6661:
6660:
6655:
6645:
6644:
6643:
6633:
6632:
6631:
6626:
6621:
6616:
6611:
6606:
6596:
6591:
6586:
6585:
6584:
6579:
6574:
6569:
6559:
6558:
6557:
6552:
6542:
6537:
6536:
6535:
6530:
6525:
6520:
6515:
6505:
6500:
6495:
6494:
6493:
6488:
6486:Middle Kingdom
6483:
6473:
6468:
6467:
6466:
6461:
6456:
6446:
6445:
6444:
6442:Neo-Babylonian
6439:
6434:
6432:Old Babylonian
6424:
6423:
6422:
6417:
6407:
6402:
6396:
6394:
6382:
6381:
6374:
6373:
6366:
6359:
6351:
6342:
6341:
6339:
6338:
6333:
6321:
6309:
6296:
6293:
6292:
6289:
6288:
6286:
6285:
6284:
6283:
6273:
6268:
6263:
6258:
6253:
6248:
6243:
6238:
6233:
6228:
6223:
6218:
6213:
6208:
6203:
6198:
6193:
6188:
6183:
6178:
6173:
6167:
6165:
6159:
6158:
6156:
6155:
6150:
6145:
6140:
6135:
6130:
6125:
6120:
6115:
6110:
6105:
6100:
6094:
6088:
6082:
6081:
6078:
6077:
6075:
6074:
6069:
6067:Transportation
6064:
6059:
6054:
6049:
6044:
6039:
6033:
6027:
6021:
6020:
6017:
6016:
6014:
6013:
6012:
6011:
6004:Prime Minister
6001:
6000:
5999:
5989:
5984:
5983:
5982:
5972:
5971:
5970:
5965:
5955:
5950:
5945:
5944:
5943:
5941:Women's rights
5938:
5928:
5923:
5918:
5913:
5908:
5902:
5896:
5890:
5889:
5886:
5885:
5883:
5882:
5877:
5872:
5867:
5862:
5857:
5852:
5847:
5842:
5837:
5832:
5827:
5822:
5816:
5810:
5804:
5803:
5801:
5800:
5799:
5798:
5793:
5783:
5778:
5773:
5768:
5763:
5758:
5756:Union of Burma
5753:
5748:
5743:
5741:Karenni States
5738:
5733:
5728:
5723:
5722:
5721:
5711:
5706:
5701:
5696:
5694:Kingdom of Ava
5691:
5686:
5681:
5676:
5671:
5669:Thaton Kingdom
5666:
5661:
5655:
5653:
5647:
5646:
5643:
5642:
5629:
5628:
5617:
5616:
5609:
5602:
5594:
5587:
5586:
5566:
5557:
5545:
5533:
5521:
5515:
5499:
5493:
5477:
5468:
5462:
5449:
5440:
5434:
5421:
5409:
5403:
5387:
5373:
5367:
5351:
5345:
5329:
5315:
5309:
5292:
5286:
5273:
5261:
5250:
5207:
5201:
5188:
5182:
5165:
5159:
5146:
5140:
5126:
5124:
5121:
5119:
5118:
5109:
5100:
5091:
5082:
5073:
5059:
5047:
5032:
5023:
5009:
5000:
4991:
4982:
4973:
4964:
4955:
4946:
4934:
4920:
4911:
4902:
4893:
4884:
4870:
4858:
4846:
4837:
4825:
4813:
4804:
4788:
4776:
4767:
4758:
4746:
4734:
4725:
4711:
4702:
4693:
4684:
4672:
4663:
4654:
4645:
4636:
4624:
4612:
4603:
4594:
4580:
4568:
4559:
4550:
4534:
4520:
4506:
4497:
4485:
4476:
4464:
4455:
4446:
4437:
4428:
4419:
4410:
4401:
4392:
4376:
4367:
4358:
4346:
4334:
4322:
4313:
4301:
4292:
4283:
4274:
4265:
4253:
4244:
4235:
4226:
4217:
4205:
4196:
4187:
4178:
4166:
4157:
4143:
4131:
4122:
4113:
4101:
4081:
4067:
4049:
4040:
4028:
4012:
4000:
3988:
3979:
3970:
3961:
3952:
3943:
3934:
3925:
3916:
3900:
3891:
3882:
3873:
3864:
3855:
3846:
3837:
3828:
3819:
3810:
3794:
3785:
3776:
3767:
3758:
3749:
3737:
3725:
3716:
3707:
3695:
3683:
3667:
3644:
3642:
3639:
3636:
3635:
3618:
3609:
3599:
3590:
3581:
3568:
3559:
3546:
3533:
3523:
3505:
3488:
3478:
3469:
3460:
3450:
3439:
3438:
3436:
3433:
3432:
3431:
3426:
3421:
3416:
3409:
3406:
3380:
3377:
3371:
3368:
3337:
3334:
3317:Ottoman Empire
3283:
3280:
3258:
3255:
3249:
3246:
3230:
3227:
3199:(r. 1471â92).
3172:
3169:
3167:
3164:
3103:
3100:
3077:
3076:
3065:
3059:
3058:
3050:
3044:
3043:
3040:
3034:
3033:
3030:
3019:
3018:
3015:
3009:
3008:
3005:
2999:
2998:
2995:
2989:
2988:
2968:
2962:
2961:
2958:
2939:
2938:Social classes
2936:
2912:
2909:
2867:
2864:
2854:
2851:
2849:
2846:
2844:
2841:
2818:
2815:
2804:
2801:
2785:Minye Thihathu
2764:
2761:
2745:
2742:
2662:
2659:
2640:
2639:
2637:
2636:
2631:
2626:
2621:
2619:Siam (1700â01)
2616:
2614:Siam (1675â76)
2611:
2609:Siam (1662â64)
2606:
2604:Siam (1613â14)
2601:
2596:
2591:
2586:
2581:
2579:Siam (1584â93)
2576:
2571:
2569:Siam (1568â69)
2566:
2561:
2559:Siam (1563â64)
2556:
2551:
2546:
2541:
2536:
2534:Siam (1547â49)
2531:
2526:
2521:
2516:
2511:
2505:
2502:
2501:
2490:
2489:
2482:
2475:
2467:
2457:Main article:
2454:
2451:
2415:
2412:
2405:
2404:
2400:
2397:
2393:
2392:
2381:
2378:
2374:
2373:
2365:
2362:
2358:
2357:
2346:
2340:
2336:
2335:
2332:
2329:
2318:
2315:
2291:
2290:
2273:
2263:
2259:
2258:
2253:
2247:
2243:
2242:
2237:
2230:
2226:
2225:
2222:
2203:
2199:
2198:
2193:
2187:
2186:Gantala Rahta
2183:
2182:
2177:
2171:
2167:
2166:
2160:Khamti (Putao)
2149:
2144:
2140:
2139:
2129:
2123:Sagaing Region
2119:
2115:
2114:
2111:
2106:
2100:
2099:
2096:
2093:
2045:
2042:
2027:
2026:
2000:
1987:
1984:
1978:
1977:
1966:
1957:
1954:
1948:
1947:
1931:
1913:
1910:
1904:
1903:
1887:
1882:
1871:
1867:
1866:
1850:
1837:
1826:
1822:
1821:
1810:
1805:
1794:
1790:
1789:
1786:
1785:Key provinces
1783:
1780:
1769:
1766:
1739:
1738:
1729:
1719:
1715:
1714:
1705:
1692:
1688:
1687:
1680:
1671:
1667:
1666:
1657:
1652:
1648:
1647:
1644:
1641:
1630:
1627:
1625:
1622:
1612:
1609:
1580:
1577:
1540:
1537:
1514:Portuguese Goa
1426:
1423:
1407:Siam (1547â49)
1316:
1313:
1284:
1283:Break from Ava
1281:
1238:Sithu Kyawhtin
1232:In 1470, King
1226:Main article:
1223:
1220:
1176:Sittaung river
1154:Ananda Thuriya
1127:
1124:
1122:
1119:
1113:
1110:
1104:áá±áŹááșáááșáž áá±ááș
1072:
1069:
1067:
1064:
981:Toungoo Empire
979:or simply the
949:
948:
946:
945:
938:
931:
923:
920:
919:
906:
905:
904:
903:
902:
901:
891:
886:
881:
876:
868:
867:
866:
865:
864:
863:
857:
851:
845:
839:
824:
823:
822:
821:
820:
819:
813:
807:
801:
786:
785:
784:
783:
777:
771:
770:
769:
763:
751:
750:
749:
743:
737:
731:
730:
729:
723:
720:Kingdom of Ava
717:
711:
708:Pinya Kingdoms
690:
689:
688:
673:
672:
671:
670:
663:
662:
658:Thaton Kingdom
652:
651:
644:
643:
629:
628:
622:
621:11,000â200 BCE
613:
612:
604:
603:
593:
592:
589:
588:
585:
584:
577:
571:
570:
563:
557:
556:
549:
543:
542:
535:
526:
523:
522:
517:
509:
508:
503:
495:
494:
489:
481:
480:
475:
467:
466:
461:
453:
452:
447:
439:
438:
433:
421:
420:
415:
405:
404:
395:
391:
390:
387:
386:
383:
380:
377:
376:
373:
367:
364:
363:
360:
354:
351:
350:
347:
341:
338:
337:
334:
328:
325:
324:
321:
318:
315:
314:
311:
305:
302:
301:
298:
297:
294:
290:
289:
284:
280:
279:
276:
275:
270:
267:
264:
263:
258:
255:
252:
251:
246:
243:
240:
239:
234:
231:
228:
227:
224:
223:
220:
216:
215:
211:
210:
205:
200:
195:
189:
188:
185:
184:
177:
173:
172:
168:
167:
155:
143:
131:
119:
111:
90:
89:
86:
85:
78:
74:
73:
62:
58:
57:
52:
48:
47:
44:
36:
35:
31:
30:
27:
24:
15:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
7923:
7912:
7909:
7907:
7904:
7902:
7899:
7897:
7894:
7892:
7889:
7887:
7884:
7882:
7879:
7877:
7874:
7872:
7869:
7867:
7864:
7862:
7859:
7857:
7854:
7852:
7849:
7848:
7846:
7829:
7828:Soviet empire
7826:
7824:
7821:
7820:
7818:
7817:
7815:
7813:Miscellaneous
7811:
7805:
7802:
7800:
7797:
7795:
7792:
7790:
7787:
7785:
7782:
7778:
7775:
7774:
7773:
7770:
7769:
7767:
7763:
7753:
7750:
7748:
7745:
7743:
7740:
7738:
7735:
7731:
7728:
7727:
7726:
7723:
7721:
7718:
7716:
7713:
7711:
7708:
7706:
7703:
7701:
7698:
7696:
7693:
7691:
7688:
7686:
7683:
7681:
7678:
7674:
7671:
7669:
7666:
7665:
7664:
7661:
7659:
7656:
7654:
7651:
7650:
7648:
7646:
7642:
7634:
7631:
7629:
7626:
7624:
7621:
7619:
7616:
7614:
7611:
7610:
7609:
7606:
7604:
7601:
7597:
7594:
7593:
7592:
7589:
7587:
7584:
7580:
7577:
7575:
7572:
7570:
7567:
7566:
7565:
7562:
7560:
7557:
7553:
7550:
7548:
7545:
7544:
7543:
7540:
7536:
7533:
7531:
7528:
7526:
7523:
7521:
7518:
7516:
7513:
7512:
7511:
7508:
7504:
7501:
7499:
7496:
7495:
7494:
7491:
7489:
7486:
7484:
7481:
7479:
7476:
7472:
7469:
7467:
7464:
7462:
7459:
7457:
7454:
7452:
7449:
7448:
7447:
7444:
7440:
7437:
7435:
7432:
7431:
7430:
7427:
7425:
7422:
7418:
7415:
7413:
7412:German Empire
7410:
7409:
7408:
7405:
7401:
7398:
7396:
7393:
7392:
7391:
7388:
7384:
7381:
7379:
7376:
7375:
7374:
7371:
7369:
7366:
7362:
7359:
7357:
7354:
7352:
7349:
7347:
7344:
7342:
7339:
7338:
7337:
7334:
7332:
7329:
7325:
7322:
7320:
7317:
7316:
7314:
7312:
7309:
7307:
7304:
7302:
7299:
7297:
7294:
7292:
7289:
7288:
7286:
7284:
7280:
7274:
7271:
7269:
7266:
7264:
7261:
7257:
7254:
7252:
7249:
7247:
7244:
7242:
7239:
7237:
7234:
7232:
7229:
7227:
7224:
7223:
7222:
7219:
7217:
7214:
7210:
7207:
7205:
7202:
7200:
7197:
7195:
7192:
7190:
7187:
7185:
7182:
7181:
7180:
7177:
7173:
7170:
7168:
7165:
7163:
7160:
7158:
7155:
7154:
7153:
7152:Turco-Persian
7150:
7148:
7145:
7143:
7140:
7138:
7135:
7133:
7130:
7128:
7125:
7123:
7120:
7118:
7115:
7113:
7110:
7106:
7103:
7101:
7098:
7097:
7096:
7093:
7089:
7086:
7084:
7081:
7079:
7076:
7074:
7071:
7069:
7066:
7064:
7061:
7060:
7059:
7056:
7053:
7051:
7048:
7046:
7043:
7041:
7038:
7034:
7031:
7029:
7026:
7024:
7021:
7020:
7019:
7016:
7012:
7009:
7007:
7004:
7002:
6999:
6997:
6994:
6993:
6992:
6989:
6987:
6984:
6982:
6979:
6977:
6974:
6972:
6969:
6967:
6964:
6960:
6957:
6955:
6952:
6950:
6947:
6945:
6942:
6941:
6940:
6937:
6933:
6930:
6928:
6925:
6923:
6920:
6918:
6915:
6914:
6913:
6910:
6906:
6903:
6901:
6898:
6896:
6893:
6892:
6891:
6888:
6886:
6883:
6881:
6878:
6876:
6873:
6871:
6868:
6864:
6861:
6859:
6856:
6854:
6851:
6850:
6849:
6846:
6844:
6841:
6837:
6834:
6832:
6829:
6827:
6824:
6822:
6819:
6817:
6814:
6812:
6809:
6808:
6807:
6804:
6800:
6797:
6795:
6792:
6791:
6790:
6787:
6783:
6780:
6778:
6775:
6773:
6770:
6768:
6765:
6764:
6763:
6760:
6758:
6755:
6751:
6748:
6747:
6746:
6743:
6739:
6736:
6734:
6731:
6730:
6728:
6726:
6723:
6721:
6718:
6716:
6713:
6711:
6708:
6706:
6703:
6701:
6698:
6696:
6693:
6692:
6690:
6688:
6684:
6676:
6673:
6672:
6671:
6668:
6666:
6663:
6659:
6656:
6654:
6651:
6650:
6649:
6646:
6642:
6639:
6638:
6637:
6634:
6630:
6627:
6625:
6622:
6620:
6617:
6615:
6612:
6610:
6607:
6605:
6602:
6601:
6600:
6597:
6595:
6592:
6590:
6587:
6583:
6580:
6578:
6575:
6573:
6570:
6568:
6565:
6564:
6563:
6560:
6556:
6553:
6551:
6548:
6547:
6546:
6543:
6541:
6538:
6534:
6531:
6529:
6526:
6524:
6521:
6519:
6516:
6514:
6511:
6510:
6509:
6506:
6504:
6501:
6499:
6496:
6492:
6489:
6487:
6484:
6482:
6479:
6478:
6477:
6474:
6472:
6469:
6465:
6462:
6460:
6457:
6455:
6452:
6451:
6450:
6447:
6443:
6440:
6438:
6435:
6433:
6430:
6429:
6428:
6425:
6421:
6418:
6416:
6413:
6412:
6411:
6408:
6406:
6403:
6401:
6398:
6397:
6395:
6392:
6387:
6383:
6379:
6372:
6367:
6365:
6360:
6358:
6353:
6352:
6349:
6337:
6334:
6332:
6331:
6326:
6322:
6320:
6319:
6310:
6308:
6307:
6298:
6297:
6294:
6282:
6279:
6278:
6277:
6274:
6272:
6269:
6267:
6264:
6262:
6259:
6257:
6254:
6252:
6249:
6247:
6244:
6242:
6239:
6237:
6234:
6232:
6229:
6227:
6224:
6222:
6219:
6217:
6214:
6212:
6209:
6207:
6204:
6202:
6199:
6197:
6194:
6192:
6189:
6187:
6184:
6182:
6179:
6177:
6174:
6172:
6169:
6168:
6166:
6164:
6160:
6154:
6151:
6149:
6146:
6144:
6141:
6139:
6136:
6134:
6131:
6129:
6126:
6124:
6121:
6119:
6118:Ethnic groups
6116:
6114:
6111:
6109:
6106:
6104:
6101:
6099:
6096:
6095:
6092:
6089:
6087:
6083:
6073:
6070:
6068:
6065:
6063:
6060:
6058:
6055:
6053:
6050:
6048:
6045:
6043:
6040:
6038:
6035:
6034:
6031:
6028:
6026:
6022:
6010:
6007:
6006:
6005:
6002:
5998:
5995:
5994:
5993:
5990:
5988:
5985:
5981:
5978:
5977:
5976:
5973:
5969:
5966:
5964:
5963:military rule
5961:
5960:
5959:
5956:
5954:
5951:
5949:
5946:
5942:
5939:
5937:
5934:
5933:
5932:
5929:
5927:
5924:
5922:
5919:
5917:
5914:
5912:
5909:
5907:
5904:
5903:
5900:
5897:
5895:
5891:
5881:
5878:
5876:
5873:
5871:
5868:
5866:
5863:
5861:
5858:
5856:
5853:
5851:
5848:
5846:
5843:
5841:
5838:
5836:
5835:Deforestation
5833:
5831:
5828:
5826:
5823:
5821:
5818:
5817:
5814:
5811:
5809:
5805:
5797:
5794:
5792:
5789:
5788:
5787:
5784:
5782:
5779:
5777:
5776:2007 protests
5774:
5772:
5769:
5767:
5766:8888 Uprising
5764:
5762:
5759:
5757:
5754:
5752:
5749:
5747:
5744:
5742:
5739:
5737:
5734:
5732:
5729:
5727:
5724:
5720:
5717:
5716:
5715:
5712:
5710:
5707:
5705:
5702:
5700:
5699:Prome Kingdom
5697:
5695:
5692:
5690:
5687:
5685:
5684:Pinya Kingdom
5682:
5680:
5677:
5675:
5674:Pagan Kingdom
5672:
5670:
5667:
5665:
5662:
5660:
5657:
5656:
5654:
5652:
5648:
5640:
5634:
5630:
5626:
5622:
5615:
5610:
5608:
5603:
5601:
5596:
5595:
5592:
5583:
5579:
5575:
5571:
5567:
5563:
5558:
5554:
5550:
5546:
5542:
5538:
5534:
5530:
5526:
5522:
5518:
5516:9780521663700
5512:
5508:
5504:
5500:
5496:
5494:9780810864115
5490:
5486:
5482:
5478:
5474:
5469:
5465:
5463:9780700715312
5459:
5455:
5450:
5446:
5441:
5437:
5435:9780877277156
5431:
5427:
5422:
5418:
5414:
5410:
5406:
5400:
5396:
5392:
5388:
5384:
5383:
5378:
5374:
5370:
5364:
5360:
5356:
5352:
5348:
5346:0-691-05407-X
5342:
5338:
5334:
5330:
5326:
5325:
5320:
5316:
5312:
5310:1-57607-770-5
5306:
5302:
5298:
5293:
5289:
5287:9780191641473
5283:
5279:
5274:
5270:
5266:
5262:
5258:
5257:
5251:
5236:
5232:
5228:
5224:
5220:
5213:
5208:
5204:
5202:9789971693046
5198:
5194:
5189:
5185:
5183:974-7534-58-4
5179:
5175:
5171:
5166:
5162:
5156:
5152:
5147:
5143:
5137:
5133:
5128:
5127:
5113:
5104:
5095:
5086:
5077:
5068:
5066:
5064:
5054:
5052:
5043:
5036:
5027:
5018:
5016:
5014:
5004:
4995:
4986:
4977:
4968:
4959:
4950:
4941:
4939:
4929:
4927:
4925:
4915:
4906:
4897:
4888:
4879:
4877:
4875:
4865:
4863:
4853:
4851:
4841:
4832:
4830:
4820:
4818:
4808:
4799:
4797:
4795:
4793:
4783:
4781:
4771:
4762:
4753:
4751:
4741:
4739:
4729:
4720:
4718:
4716:
4706:
4697:
4688:
4679:
4677:
4667:
4658:
4649:
4640:
4631:
4629:
4619:
4617:
4607:
4598:
4589:
4587:
4585:
4575:
4573:
4563:
4554:
4545:
4543:
4541:
4539:
4529:
4527:
4525:
4515:
4513:
4511:
4501:
4492:
4490:
4480:
4471:
4469:
4459:
4450:
4441:
4432:
4423:
4414:
4405:
4396:
4387:
4385:
4383:
4381:
4371:
4362:
4353:
4351:
4341:
4339:
4329:
4327:
4317:
4308:
4306:
4296:
4287:
4278:
4269:
4260:
4258:
4248:
4239:
4230:
4221:
4212:
4210:
4200:
4191:
4182:
4173:
4171:
4161:
4152:
4150:
4148:
4138:
4136:
4126:
4117:
4108:
4106:
4096:
4094:
4092:
4090:
4088:
4086:
4076:
4074:
4072:
4062:
4060:
4058:
4056:
4054:
4044:
4035:
4033:
4023:
4021:
4019:
4017:
4007:
4005:
3995:
3993:
3983:
3974:
3965:
3956:
3947:
3938:
3929:
3920:
3911:
3909:
3907:
3905:
3895:
3886:
3877:
3868:
3859:
3850:
3841:
3832:
3823:
3814:
3805:
3803:
3801:
3799:
3789:
3780:
3771:
3762:
3753:
3744:
3742:
3732:
3730:
3720:
3711:
3702:
3700:
3690:
3688:
3678:
3676:
3674:
3672:
3662:
3660:
3658:
3656:
3654:
3652:
3650:
3645:
3632:
3628:
3627:Mohnyin Thado
3622:
3613:
3603:
3594:
3585:
3578:
3572:
3563:
3556:
3550:
3543:
3537:
3527:
3520:
3516:
3509:
3502:
3498:
3492:
3482:
3473:
3464:
3454:
3444:
3440:
3430:
3427:
3425:
3422:
3420:
3417:
3415:
3412:
3411:
3405:
3403:
3397:
3393:
3389:
3385:
3376:
3367:
3365:
3360:
3347:
3343:
3333:
3330:
3324:
3320:
3318:
3314:
3310:
3306:
3302:
3298:
3294:
3290:
3279:
3276:
3272:
3268:
3264:
3254:
3245:
3242:
3238:
3237:
3226:
3222:
3220:
3215:
3214:Kalyani Thein
3209:
3206:
3200:
3198:
3194:
3190:
3182:
3177:
3163:
3161:
3156:
3154:
3150:
3146:
3142:
3141:
3136:
3135:
3130:
3129:
3122:
3120:
3119:
3112:
3110:
3099:
3097:
3093:
3089:
3084:
3074:
3070:
3066:
3064:
3061:
3060:
3056:
3051:
3049:
3046:
3045:
3041:
3039:
3036:
3035:
3029:Social class
3027:
3024:
3016:
3014:
3011:
3010:
3006:
3004:
3001:
3000:
2996:
2994:
2991:
2990:
2986:
2982:
2978:
2973:
2969:
2967:
2964:
2963:
2955:
2952:
2950:
2946:
2935:
2933:
2929:
2925:
2924:
2917:
2908:
2906:
2900:
2898:
2892:
2890:
2886:
2882:
2878:
2877:Ramanya-Detha
2874:
2866:Ethnic groups
2863:
2859:
2840:
2838:
2834:
2829:
2825:
2814:
2811:
2810:Setthathirath
2800:
2798:
2794:
2790:
2786:
2782:
2774:
2769:
2760:
2758:
2755:
2751:
2741:
2738:
2734:
2728:
2718:
2706:
2694:
2689:
2684:
2681:
2669:
2658:
2651:
2647:
2635:
2632:
2630:
2627:
2625:
2622:
2620:
2617:
2615:
2612:
2610:
2607:
2605:
2602:
2600:
2597:
2595:
2592:
2590:
2587:
2585:
2582:
2580:
2577:
2575:
2572:
2570:
2567:
2565:
2562:
2560:
2557:
2555:
2554:Lan Na (1558)
2552:
2550:
2547:
2545:
2544:Ava (1554â55)
2542:
2540:
2537:
2535:
2532:
2530:
2527:
2525:
2524:Ava (1538â45)
2522:
2520:
2517:
2515:
2512:
2510:
2507:
2506:
2503:
2498:
2488:
2483:
2481:
2476:
2474:
2469:
2468:
2465:
2460:
2450:
2448:
2444:
2440:
2436:
2435:
2430:
2426:
2422:
2411:
2401:
2398:
2395:
2394:
2390:
2386:
2382:
2379:
2376:
2375:
2370:
2366:
2363:
2360:
2359:
2355:
2354:Mughal Empire
2351:
2347:
2344:
2341:
2338:
2337:
2326:
2323:
2314:
2311:
2307:
2303:
2299:
2289:
2285:
2281:
2277:
2274:
2272:
2268:
2264:
2261:
2260:
2257:
2254:
2252:
2248:
2245:
2244:
2241:
2238:
2235:
2234:Xishuangbanna
2231:
2228:
2227:
2223:
2220:
2216:
2212:
2208:
2205:Southwestern
2204:
2201:
2200:
2197:
2194:
2192:
2189:northwestern
2188:
2185:
2184:
2181:
2178:
2176:
2172:
2169:
2168:
2165:
2161:
2157:
2153:
2150:
2148:
2145:
2142:
2141:
2137:
2133:
2130:
2128:
2124:
2121:Northwestern
2120:
2117:
2116:
2112:
2110:
2107:
2105:
2102:
2101:
2090:
2087:
2085:
2081:
2076:
2074:
2070:
2066:
2061:
2057:
2053:
2052:
2041:
2039:
2035:
2024:
2019:
2018:Nokeo Koumane
2014:
2013:Sen Soulintha
2009:
2004:
2001:
1999:
1995:
1994:Luang Prabang
1991:
1988:
1985:
1983:
1980:
1979:
1975:
1970:
1967:
1965:
1961:
1958:
1955:
1953:
1950:
1949:
1945:
1940:
1939:Visuddha Devi
1935:
1932:
1929:
1925:
1921:
1917:
1914:
1911:
1909:
1906:
1905:
1901:
1896:
1891:
1888:
1886:
1883:
1880:
1876:
1872:
1869:
1868:
1864:
1859:
1854:
1851:
1849:
1845:
1841:
1838:
1835:
1831:
1830:Magway Region
1827:
1824:
1823:
1819:
1814:
1811:
1806:
1803:
1799:
1795:
1792:
1791:
1777:
1774:
1765:
1763:
1759:
1755:
1751:
1747:
1746:Saw Lagun Ein
1737:
1733:
1730:
1728:
1724:
1720:
1717:
1716:
1713:
1709:
1706:
1704:
1700:
1696:
1693:
1690:
1689:
1685:
1681:
1679:
1675:
1674:Yangon Region
1672:
1669:
1668:
1665:
1661:
1658:
1656:
1653:
1650:
1649:
1638:
1635:
1621:
1618:
1608:
1606:
1600:
1598:
1592:
1585:
1576:
1573:
1568:
1565:
1561:
1552:
1548:
1546:
1536:
1534:
1530:
1527:
1523:
1519:
1518:Mughal Empire
1515:
1510:
1507:
1503:
1497:
1493:
1491:
1487:
1483:
1479:
1475:
1471:
1467:
1464:
1460:
1456:
1452:
1444:
1439:
1431:
1422:
1418:
1416:
1412:
1408:
1404:
1400:
1396:
1391:
1387:
1382:
1380:
1375:
1369:
1367:
1363:
1359:
1355:
1351:
1347:
1343:
1336:
1335:
1329:
1321:
1312:
1310:
1304:
1302:
1298:
1289:
1280:
1278:
1277:Binnya Ran II
1274:
1268:
1266:
1262:
1257:
1255:
1251:
1247:
1243:
1239:
1235:
1229:
1219:
1217:
1213:
1209:
1205:
1200:
1198:
1193:
1187:
1185:
1181:
1177:
1167:
1163:
1159:
1155:
1151:
1147:
1138:
1133:
1118:
1109:
1099:
1093:
1063:
1061:
1055:
1053:
1049:
1045:
1041:
1037:
1033:
1029:
1025:
1021:
1017:
1013:
1008:
1006:
1002:
998:
994:
990:
986:
982:
978:
974:
969:
960:
956:
944:
939:
937:
932:
930:
925:
924:
922:
921:
918:
908:
907:
900:
899:Military rule
897:
896:
895:
892:
890:
887:
885:
882:
880:
877:
875:
872:
871:
870:
869:
861:
858:
855:
852:
849:
846:
843:
840:
837:
834:
833:
832:1948âpresent
831:
828:
827:
826:
825:
817:
814:
811:
808:
805:
802:
799:
796:
795:
793:
790:
789:
788:
787:
781:
778:
775:
772:
767:
764:
761:
758:
757:
755:
752:
747:
744:
741:
738:
735:
732:
727:
726:Prome Kingdom
724:
721:
718:
715:
712:
709:
705:
702:
701:
699:
698:Upper Myanmar
696:
695:
694:
691:
686:
683:
682:
680:
679:Pagan Kingdom
677:
676:
675:
674:
668:
665:
664:
659:
654:
653:
650:825?â1057? CE
649:
646:
645:
640:
636:
631:
630:
626:
623:
620:
617:
616:
615:
614:
610:
606:
605:
602:
599:
598:
578:
576:
573:
572:
564:
562:
559:
558:
550:
548:
545:
544:
536:
534:
531:
530:
527:
521:
518:
511:
510:
507:
504:
497:
496:
493:
490:
483:
482:
479:
476:
469:
468:
465:
462:
455:
454:
451:
448:
441:
440:
437:
434:
427:
426:
423:
422:
419:
416:
414:
411:
410:
406:
403:
399:
396:
392:
388:
384:
378:
374:
365:
361:
352:
348:
339:
335:
326:
322:
316:
312:
303:
299:
295:
291:
288:
285:
281:
277:
274:
271:
265:
262:
259:
253:
250:
247:
241:
238:
235:
229:
225:
221:
217:
209:
206:
204:
201:
199:
196:
194:
191:
190:
183:
178:
174:
164:
159:
156:
152:
147:
144:
140:
135:
132:
128:
123:
120:
117:(Lower Burma)
115:
112:
108:
103:
99:
95:
92:
91:
84:
79:
75:
71:
66:
63:
59:
56:
53:
49:
42:
37:
32:
22:
19:
7579:Contemporary
7429:Indo-Persian
7417:Nazi Germany
7361:Contemporary
7318:
7263:Vijayanagara
7162:Great Seljuk
7073:Thessalonica
7001:Golden Horde
6641:Carthaginian
6420:Neo-Assyrian
6405:Neo-Sumerian
6328:
6316:
6304:
6148:Prostitution
6103:Demographics
6042:Central bank
5931:Human rights
5911:Constitution
5746:British rule
5718:
5638:
5577:
5573:
5561:
5552:
5551:, U (2010).
5540:
5528:
5506:
5484:
5472:
5453:
5444:
5425:
5416:
5394:
5382:Yazawin Thit
5380:
5358:
5336:
5324:Maha Yazawin
5322:
5321:, U (1724).
5303:. ABC-CLIO.
5300:
5297:Keat Gin Ooi
5277:
5268:
5255:
5242:. Retrieved
5235:the original
5222:
5218:
5192:
5173:
5150:
5131:
5123:Bibliography
5112:
5103:
5094:
5085:
5076:
5041:
5035:
5026:
5003:
4994:
4985:
4976:
4967:
4958:
4949:
4914:
4905:
4896:
4887:
4840:
4807:
4770:
4761:
4728:
4705:
4696:
4687:
4666:
4657:
4648:
4639:
4606:
4597:
4562:
4553:
4500:
4479:
4458:
4449:
4440:
4431:
4422:
4413:
4404:
4395:
4370:
4361:
4316:
4295:
4286:
4277:
4268:
4247:
4238:
4229:
4220:
4199:
4190:
4181:
4160:
4125:
4116:
4043:
3982:
3973:
3964:
3955:
3946:
3937:
3928:
3919:
3894:
3885:
3876:
3867:
3858:
3849:
3840:
3831:
3822:
3813:
3788:
3779:
3770:
3761:
3752:
3719:
3710:
3630:
3621:
3612:
3602:
3593:
3584:
3571:
3562:
3549:
3536:
3526:
3508:
3491:
3481:
3472:
3463:
3453:
3443:
3398:
3394:
3390:
3386:
3382:
3373:
3363:
3345:
3339:
3325:
3321:
3299:(Portuguese
3285:
3260:
3251:
3234:
3232:
3223:
3213:
3210:
3204:
3201:
3186:
3159:
3157:
3153:Natshinnaung
3144:
3138:
3132:
3126:
3123:
3116:
3113:
3105:
3095:
3091:
3087:
3082:
3080:
3072:
3068:
3062:
3054:
3047:
3037:
3032:Description
3022:
3012:
3002:
2992:
2984:
2980:
2976:
2971:
2965:
2960:Description
2949:hsin-ye-tha,
2948:
2944:
2941:
2931:
2927:
2921:
2918:
2914:
2904:
2901:
2893:
2889:Rakhine Pyay
2888:
2884:
2880:
2876:
2873:Talaing-Pyay
2872:
2869:
2860:
2856:
2837:Ekathotsarot
2827:
2823:
2820:
2806:
2793:Natshinnaung
2781:Thado Minsaw
2777:
2754:muzzleloader
2747:
2736:
2732:
2729:
2716:
2704:
2692:
2685:
2679:
2667:
2664:
2661:Organisation
2655:
2438:
2432:
2424:
2420:
2417:
2408:
2320:
2309:
2305:
2301:
2297:
2294:
2229:Maha Nagara
2170:Thiri Rahta
2147:Kachin State
2083:
2079:
2077:
2072:
2068:
2064:
2049:
2047:
2030:
2008:Maha Ouparat
1895:Minkhaung II
1813:Thado Minsaw
1771:
1761:
1742:
1632:
1614:
1601:
1593:
1590:
1569:
1557:
1542:
1531:
1511:
1498:
1494:
1480:(1562), the
1448:
1419:
1383:
1370:
1358:Tabinshwehti
1339:
1332:
1305:
1294:
1269:
1258:
1242:Minkhaung II
1231:
1201:
1188:
1156:governor of
1146:Pagan period
1143:
1115:
1094:
1088:áá±áŹááșáá° áá±ááș
1074:
1056:
1024:Pagan Empire
1016:Tabinshwehti
1009:
980:
976:
972:
963:áá±áŹááșáá° áá±ááș
954:
952:
862:2021âpresent
759:
648:Mon kingdoms
418:Succeeded by
417:
412:
249:Tabinshwehti
198:Christianity
18:
7167:Khwarezmian
7100:Carolingian
6905:Rashtrakuta
6609:Shaishunaga
6508:Hellenistic
6491:New Kingdom
6481:Old Kingdom
6037:Agriculture
5875:Earthquakes
5736:Shan States
3519:Binnya Dala
3497:Minye Sithu
3305:Masulipatam
3257:Agriculture
3219:Eid al-Adha
3197:Hanthawaddy
3088:hsin-ye-tha
3069:phrai luang
3048:phrai luang
2881:Myanma-Pyay
2824:phrai luang
2425:Kosaungchok
2361:Sein Taing
2278:(Onbaung),
2271:Kayah State
2098:Key states
2060:Shan states
1964:Phitsanulok
1924:Chiang Saen
1879:Kayin State
1877:, northern
1875:Bago Region
1848:Tharrawaddy
1834:Bago Region
1754:Binnya Dala
1703:Kayin State
1701:, southern
1697:, northern
1686:(Thanlyin)
1678:Bago Region
1676:, southern
1662:(Pathein),
1646:Key cities
1629:Core Region
1488:(1564) and
1466:Shan states
1342:Taka Yut Pi
1297:Narapati II
1273:Hanthawaddy
1158:Kanba Myint
1112:Place names
1040:Shan states
740:Shan States
464:Shan states
436:Ava Kingdom
413:Preceded by
402:silver kyat
283:Legislature
273:Nanda Bayin
127:Shan states
28:áá±áŹááșáá°áá±ááș
7845:Categories
7737:Portuguese
7618:Revival Le
7608:Vietnamese
7251:Later Tran
7221:Vietnamese
7117:Singhasari
7105:Holy Roman
6729:Bulgarian
6665:Satavahana
6636:Phoenician
6572:Achaemenid
6533:Indo-Greek
6513:Macedonian
6427:Babylonian
6246:Literature
6201:Censorship
6181:State Seal
5975:Parliament
5916:Corruption
5840:Ecoregions
5659:Prehistory
5580:. London:
5549:Thaw Kaung
5481:Stuart-Fox
5377:Maha Sithu
5244:25 October
3641:References
3370:Conditions
3193:Dhammazedi
3057:in Burma.
2923:cakkavatti
2848:Demography
2750:matchlocks
2514:Ava (1525)
2434:dhammathat
2399:Sri Lanka
2389:Thaw Kaung
2280:Nyaungshwe
2267:Shan State
2251:Shan State
2246:Khemawara
2191:Shan State
2175:Shan State
2127:Chin State
2025:(1596â99)
2020:(1591â95)
2015:(1589â91)
2010:(1574â88)
1976:(1569â84)
1971:(1564â68)
1946:(1579â97)
1941:(1565â79)
1936:(1558â63)
1920:Chiang Rai
1916:Chiang Mai
1902:(1584â97)
1892:(1540â49)
1865:(1589â95)
1860:(1551â88)
1855:(1542â50)
1820:(1587â93)
1815:(1555â84)
1736:Junkceylon
1611:Government
1533:Bayinnaung
1451:Bayinnaung
1390:Portuguese
1346:Bayin Htwe
1265:Mingyi Nyo
1184:Shan Hills
1166:Thawun Nge
1162:Thawun Gyi
1130:See also:
1066:Background
1028:Bayinnaung
1022:since the
830:Modern era
794:1824â1948
756:1510â1752
700:1297â1555
398:ganza kyat
261:Bayinnaung
237:Mingyi Nyo
219:Government
7730:Couronian
7368:Ethiopian
7356:Manchukuo
7311:Brazilian
7157:Ghaznavid
7127:Srivijaya
7078:Trebizond
7063:Byzantine
7045:North Sea
7040:Norwegian
7028:Almoravid
7011:Ilkhanate
6981:Majapahit
6954:Muromachi
6863:Solomonic
6848:Ethiopian
6762:Caliphate
6695:Aragonese
6523:Ptolemaic
6271:Tattooing
6231:Festivals
6226:Etymology
6133:Languages
6108:Education
5992:President
5921:Elections
5880:Volcanoes
5855:Mountains
5808:Geography
5796:Civil war
5786:2021 coup
5355:Lieberman
5333:Lieberman
5265:Htin Aung
5231:1479-8484
3577:Nyaungyan
3542:Vientiane
3319:by 1545.
3271:Mu valley
3181:Ayutthaya
3118:parabaiks
3063:phrai som
3013:paya kyun
2885:Shan Pyay
2797:Lieberman
2328:State(s)
2262:Kanbawza
2256:Keng Tung
2240:Keng Hung
2173:northern
2136:Thaungdut
2092:Province
1998:Champasak
1990:Vientiane
1960:Ayutthaya
1750:Smim Payu
1734:(Myeik),
1721:Southern
1695:Mon State
1691:Martaban
1664:Myaungmya
1640:Province
1579:Aftermath
1478:Keng Tung
1445:in Yangon
1425:Expansion
1415:Ayutthaya
1354:Thohanbwa
1254:Min Sithu
1180:Bago Yoma
1076:Period" (
993:Cambodian
860:SAC junta
856:2011â2015
850:1988â2010
844:1962â1988
838:1948â1962
818:1942â1945
812:1900â1948
806:1885â1895
800:1824â1885
782:1752â1885
776:1740â1757
768:1599â1752
762:1510â1599
748:1429â1785
742:1215â1563
728:1482â1542
722:1365â1555
716:1315â1365
710:1297â1365
704:Myinsaing
681:849â1297
669:788?â1406
344:Expansion
176:Religion
34:1510â1599
7710:Japanese
7673:Scottish
7653:American
7645:Colonial
7574:Imperial
7542:Moroccan
7478:Japanese
7456:Afsharid
7315:Burmese
7301:Austrian
7256:Later Le
7231:Early Le
7216:Venetian
7142:Tiwanaku
7055:Hellenic
7018:Moroccan
6949:Kamakura
6939:Japanese
6922:Saffarid
6875:Georgian
6789:Chalukya
6767:Rashidun
6757:Calakmul
6725:Bruneian
6604:Haryanka
6582:Sasanian
6577:Parthian
6528:Bactrian
6518:Seleucid
6498:Goguryeo
6476:Egyptian
6410:Assyrian
6400:Akkadian
6391:Colonies
6306:Category
6281:Weddings
6241:Folklore
6211:Clothing
6191:Calendar
6186:Capitals
6138:Religion
5958:Military
5948:Conflict
5894:Politics
5870:Wildlife
5791:Protests
5625:articles
5537:Than Tun
5527:(1983).
5525:Than Tun
3448:example.
3408:See also
3336:Currency
3205:sawbwas'
3166:Religion
3109:Tipitika
2977:ahmudans
2897:entrepĂŽt
2833:Naresuan
2744:Firearms
2737:ahmudans
2733:ahmudans
2674:áĄááŸáŻáááșáž
2453:Military
2310:sawbwa's
2288:Mong Pai
2284:Mong Nai
2265:Western
2249:Eastern
2196:Mong Mit
2118:Mawriya
2113:Manipur
2023:Vorapita
1982:Lan Xang
1870:Toungoo
1768:Kingdoms
1708:Martaban
1651:Bassein
1597:Naresuan
1492:(1565).
1490:Lan Xang
1484:(1563),
1476:(1560),
1472:(1558),
1468:(1557),
1459:Tai-Shan
1350:Narapati
1248:(1480),
1246:Yamethin
1150:Sithu II
1036:Lan Xang
874:Timeline
687:849â1044
561:Lan Xang
506:Lan Xang
394:Currency
222:Monarchy
203:Hinduism
186:Minority
179:Official
151:Lan Xang
87:Regional
80:Official
7777:largest
7772:Empires
7752:Swedish
7747:Spanish
7742:Russian
7705:Italian
7680:Chinese
7668:English
7663:British
7658:Belgian
7633:Vietnam
7623:Tay son
7569:Tsarist
7564:Russian
7559:Ottoman
7525:Dzungar
7520:Khoshut
7493:Mexican
7488:Maratha
7471:Pahlavi
7451:Safavid
7446:Iranian
7373:Haitian
7336:Chinese
7296:Ashanti
7268:Wagadou
7194:Eastern
7189:Western
7172:Timurid
7132:Tibetan
7122:Songhai
7112:Serbian
7033:Almohad
7023:Idrisid
6927:Samanid
6917:Tahirid
6912:Iranian
6890:Kannauj
6870:Genoese
6806:Chinese
6799:Eastern
6794:Western
6782:Fatimid
6777:Abbasid
6772:Umayyad
6745:Burmese
6705:Ayyubid
6700:Angevin
6670:Xianbei
6658:Eastern
6653:Western
6599:Magadha
6562:Iranian
6555:Xiongnu
6540:Hittite
6449:Chinese
6437:Kassite
6386:Ancient
6378:Empires
6318:Commons
6216:Cuisine
6163:Culture
6086:Society
6062:Tourism
6025:Economy
5845:Islands
5830:Climate
5820:Borders
5651:History
5621:Myanmar
5503:Tarling
5391:Myint-U
5299:(ed.).
5168:Prince
3402:Myint-U
3342:coinage
3313:Gujarat
3301:Pulicat
3293:Sumatra
3289:Malacca
3263:Kyaukse
3248:Economy
3055:ahmudan
2985:ahmudan
2981:ahmudan
2972:kyundaw
2966:ahmudan
2828:ahmudan
2680:ahmudan
2668:ahmudan
2396:Ceylon
2298:sawbwas
2219:Lincang
2215:Baoshan
2156:Mogaung
2152:Mohnyin
2109:Manipur
2104:Manipur
2084:sawbwas
2056:Manipur
2051:sawbwas
1885:Toungoo
1798:Sagaing
1718:Mergui
1660:Bassein
1506:Mogaung
1502:Mohnyin
1474:Manipur
1463:Salween
1455:Manipur
1411:Mrauk-U
1374:Saw Lon
1362:Min Bin
1171:áá±áŹááșáá°
1121:History
1058:statesâ
1020:Myanmar
991:to the
989:Manipur
959:Burmese
884:Leaders
375:1584â99
370:Decline
368:âą
362:1568â76
357:Defense
355:âą
349:1550â65
342:âą
336:1534â49
329:âą
306:âą
293:History
287:Hluttaw
193:Animism
163:Manipur
158:Meithei
94:Siamese
83:Burmese
65:Toungoo
61:Capital
7715:Mongol
7700:German
7695:French
7685:Danish
7628:Dainam
7603:Tongan
7591:Somali
7586:Sokoto
7552:'Alawi
7530:Kalmyk
7510:Mongol
7503:Second
7483:Korean
7434:Mughal
7424:Indian
7407:German
7400:Second
7390:French
7383:Second
7319:Second
7291:Afghan
7283:Modern
7209:Kyrgyz
7204:Uighur
7199:Second
7179:Turkic
7147:Toltec
7083:Epirus
7068:Nicaea
6991:Mongol
6944:Yamato
6880:Huetar
6738:Second
6675:Rouran
6624:Shunga
6619:Maurya
6594:Kushan
6567:Median
6545:Hunnic
6503:Harsha
6330:Portal
6206:Cinema
6196:Zodiac
6176:Anthem
6123:Health
5865:Rivers
5825:Cities
5623:
5513:
5491:
5460:
5432:
5413:Phayre
5401:
5365:
5343:
5307:
5284:
5229:
5199:
5180:
5157:
5138:
3379:Legacy
3329:tonnes
3309:Bengal
3295:, the
3151:, and
3096:munnai
3092:munnai
3038:munnai
2928:thissa
2905:munnai
2817:Legacy
2757:cannon
2429:Wareru
2369:Mekong
2350:Ganges
2343:Cachar
2334:Notes
2306:sawbwa
2302:sawbwa
2276:Hsipaw
2211:Dehong
2207:Yunnan
2180:Hsenwi
2073:sawbwa
1934:Mekuti
1908:Lan Na
1825:Prome
1779:State
1732:Mergui
1684:Syriam
1682:Pegu,
1470:Lan Na
1212:Burman
1044:Ceylon
1001:Yunnan
997:Arakan
975:, the
478:Lan Na
296:
139:Lan Na
55:Empire
51:Status
7765:Lists
7720:Omani
7690:Dutch
7596:Isaaq
7547:Saadi
7515:Oirat
7498:First
7466:Qajar
7395:First
7378:First
7351:China
7324:Third
7184:First
7137:Tikal
7088:Morea
7058:Roman
6976:Latin
6971:Khmer
6966:Kanem
6932:Buyid
6858:Zagwe
6853:Aksum
6843:Chola
6750:First
6733:First
6720:Bornu
6715:Benin
6710:Aztec
6648:Roman
6629:Gupta
6614:Nanda
6550:White
6256:Music
6251:Media
6221:Dance
6143:Women
6098:Crime
5850:Lakes
5639:Burma
5238:(PDF)
5225:(1).
5215:(PDF)
3555:Akbar
3486:1565.
3435:Notes
3364:ganza
3352:áááșááŹ
3346:ganza
3282:Trade
3267:Minbu
3160:phrai
2932:kyezu
2711:áĄáá±áŹáș
2705:ahsaw
2699:áĄááŒááș
2693:akyat
2447:tical
2385:Annam
2164:Bhamo
2132:Kalay
2080:taing
1844:Salin
1840:Prome
1670:Pegu
1560:Nanda
1558:King
1526:Kandy
1522:Kotte
1250:Salin
1204:Prome
1192:Pinya
1052:Nanda
208:Islam
102:Khmer
7535:Bogd
7461:Zand
7439:Sikh
7346:Qing
7341:Ming
7273:Wari
7241:Tran
7226:Dinh
6996:Yuan
6986:Mali
6895:Pala
6885:Inca
6836:Yuan
6826:Song
6821:Liao
6816:Tang
6589:Kush
6471:DÊżmt
6236:Flag
6009:list
5997:list
5936:LGBT
5570:Yule
5511:ISBN
5489:ISBN
5458:ISBN
5430:ISBN
5399:ISBN
5363:ISBN
5341:ISBN
5319:Kala
5305:ISBN
5282:ISBN
5246:2015
5227:ISSN
5197:ISBN
5178:ISBN
5155:ISBN
5136:ISBN
3631:ayek
3517:and
3458:etc.
3311:and
3269:and
3145:yadu
3140:yadu
3131:and
3073:kyun
3003:kyun
2993:athi
2835:and
2791:and
2423:and
2069:raja
2065:raja
1952:Siam
1800:and
1793:Ava
1762:smim
1758:Mons
1524:and
1504:and
1486:Siam
1413:and
1405:and
1379:Pegu
1315:Rise
1208:Shan
1164:and
1032:Siam
953:The
706:and
400:and
331:Rise
313:1485
134:Yuan
122:Shan
107:Siam
70:Pegu
7613:Mac
7050:Oyo
6959:Edo
6831:JÄ«n
6811:Sui
6464:Jin
6459:Han
6454:Qin
6171:Art
3307:),
3236:nat
3195:of
3083:min
2945:min
2875:or
2773:DSA
2723:áĄááČ
2717:ake
2431:'s
2071:a "
1928:Nan
1334:Nat
1197:Ava
1108:).
1092:).
1012:Ava
999:to
146:Lao
114:Mon
98:Mon
7847::
7246:Ho
7236:Ly
5578:27
5576:.
5221:.
5217:.
5062:^
5050:^
5012:^
4937:^
4923:^
4873:^
4861:^
4849:^
4828:^
4816:^
4791:^
4779:^
4749:^
4737:^
4714:^
4675:^
4627:^
4615:^
4583:^
4571:^
4537:^
4523:^
4509:^
4488:^
4467:^
4379:^
4349:^
4337:^
4325:^
4304:^
4256:^
4208:^
4169:^
4146:^
4134:^
4104:^
4084:^
4070:^
4052:^
4031:^
4015:^
4003:^
3991:^
3903:^
3797:^
3740:^
3728:^
3698:^
3686:^
3670:^
3648:^
3356:,
3303:,
3291:,
3265:,
3221:.
2787:,
2783:,
2286:,
2282:,
2269:,
2236:)
2221:)
2217:,
2213:,
2162:,
2158:,
2154:,
2134:,
2125:,
1996:,
1992:,
1962:,
1926:,
1922:,
1918:,
1881:)
1846:,
1842:,
1836:)
1804:)
1752:,
1748:,
1725:,
1712:Ye
1710:,
1417:.
1256:.
1186:.
1034:,
965:,
961::
637:,
100:,
96:,
6393:)
6389:(
6370:e
6363:t
6356:v
5613:e
5606:t
5599:v
5584:.
5519:.
5497:.
5466:.
5438:.
5407:.
5371:.
5349:.
5313:.
5290:.
5248:.
5223:3
5205:.
5186:.
5163:.
5144:.
3348:(
2719:(
2707:(
2695:(
2670:(
2486:e
2479:t
2472:v
2209:(
1100:(
957:(
942:e
935:t
928:v
660:)
656:(
641:)
633:(
165:)
161:(
153:)
149:(
141:)
137:(
129:)
125:(
109:)
105:(
Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License. Additional terms may apply.