2077:
30:
2331:
137:
370:
113:
153:
486:– the first phase. Pristine environments are the states ocean ecosystem were in before fishing made strong impacts. Some outlier areas of the South Pacific may still be pristine. For most of the world what these pristine states may have been can only be inferred from archaeological data, historical accounts and anecdotes. In pristine ocean environments, the
295:. This data was fed into an Ecopath model, which then described the energy flow, in terms of food, as it moved from the primary producers up the food web to the apex predator. Such models allow scientists to compute the complex effects that occur, both direct and indirect, from the interactions of the many ecosystem components.
685:
fisheries scientist
Konstantinos Stergiou and colleagues argue that the "fact that the capacity of tuna farms greatly exceeds the total allowable catch indicates lack of conservation planning in development of the tuna-fattening industry, which, ideally, should have been linked to fisheries management policies, and may lead to
352:
marine fisheries concluded that in the examined area, the decline of mean catch trophic level was connected to climate-driven fluctuations in biomass of low trophic level species rather than predator collapses, and suggested that similar dynamics might be in play in other instances of reported food web degradation.
684:
As an example, the table above shows trends in the trophic levels of fish farmed in the
Mediterranean. However, the farming of bluefin tuna is restricted to a fattening process. Juvenile tuna are captured from the wild and put in pens for fattening. Wild stocks of bluefin are now threatened, and the
331:
was shifting to less desirable species further down the food chain. This "fishing down the food web", said Pauly, would in time reduce people to a diet of "jellyfish and plankton soup". The colourful language and innovative statistical modelling by Pauly's team triggered critical reactions. Later in
351:
A 2006 study suggested that in a number of examined ecosystems, catches of species at high trophic level did not decline, but rather that low trophic level fisheries were added in parallel over time, resulting in confounding landing data through a related but different mechanism. A study on
Alaskan
298:
The model showed that over the last 50 years the mean trophic level of fish catches has declined by somewhere between 0.5 and 1.0 trophic levels. This decline applied both globally, on a worldwide scale, and more locally on a scale specific to oceans, that is, for the separate FAO subareas: the
468:
is reduced. Consequently, over time, small fishes start to dominate the fisheries catches, and the mean trophic level of the catches declines. Recently the market value of small forage fishes and invertebrates, which have low trophic levels, has sharply increased to the point where they can be
464:. The trophic level of fishes usually increases with their size, and fishing tends to selectively capture the larger fishes. This applies both between species as well as within species. When the fishing is intense, the relative abundance of the larger fish positioned high in the
347:
The concerns raised by the FAO were further countered by Pauly and others in 2005. Other researchers have established that "fishing down" also applies to smaller, regional areas, such as the
Mediterranean, the North Sea, Celtic Sea, and in Canadian, Cuban and Icelandic waters.
708:
that humans would otherwise consume directly. In addition to ecological issues, this raises ethical issues. Much of the fish suitable for direct human consumption is being used to grow higher trophic level fish to indulge a relatively small group of affluent consumers.
448:"It consists of a gradual loss of large organisms, species diversity, and structural diversity, and a gradual replacement of recently evolved, derived groups (marine mammals, bony fishes) by more primitive groups (invertebrates, notably jellyfishes, and bacteria)." –
340:. They argued that Pauly's team had oversimplified the situation and may have "misinterpreted the FAO statistics". The response of Pauly's team was published in the same paper, claiming that the corrections suggested by the FAO, such as accounting for
244:, then moving through the primary consumers at level 2 that eat the primary producers to the secondary consumers at level 3 that eat the primary consumers, and so on. In marine environments, trophic levels range from two to five for the
536:– the second phase. Exploited is the phase we are currently in. It is characterized by declines in the biomass of large predator fish, declines in the diversity, size and trophic level of captured fish, and declines in the benthos.
393:
of fisheries catch as one of eight indicators for immediate testing. They renamed it the "Marine
Trophic Index" (MTI), and have mandated that member countries report over time on changes in ocean trophic levels as a primary
540:
progressively destroy the biogenic structures built over many years on the seafloor by the filter and detritus feeders. As these structures and animals that were filtering the phytoplankton and consuming the detritus
599:. One hundred and fifty years ago, the oysters formed giant reefs and filtered the waters of Chesapeake Bay every three days. Because the oysters are gone, pollution entering the estuary from rivers now produces
1038:
563:
is the biological endpoint of a fully degraded marine ecosystem. The dead zone is a zone with excessive nutrients in the water column, resulting in the depletion of oxygen and the elimination of
1125:
287:
at the top of the food web and collected data on their feeding behaviour, what they ate and how much. Likewise, they collected feeding data on the other organisms in the food chains down to the
1696:
763:
2667:
923:
692:
Also, fish farming in the
Mediterranean is a net fish consumer. Large amounts of animal feed are needed to feed a high trophic fish like the bluefin tuna. This feed consists of
212:. "We are eating bait and moving on to jellyfish and plankton", says Pauly. Beyond this, the overall global volume of fish captured has been declining since the late 1980s.
2320:
545:) disappear, they are replaced with the polyp stages of jellyfish and other small errant benthic animals. Storms resuspend the marine snow, and the water column gradually
1665:
553:
compensate these declines with the emergence of new fisheries for opportunistic feeders, such as squid, shrimp and other invertebrates. But eventually this decline also.
248:. The mean trophic level can then be calculated for fishery catches by averaging trophic levels for the overall catch using the datasets for commercial fish landings.
587:
estuary, also display features associated with a fully degraded marine ecosystem. In the
Chesapeake Bay, overfishing eliminated the benthic filter feeders such as
104:. However, many of the world's most lucrative fisheries are crustacean and mollusk fisheries, which are at low trophic levels and thus result in lower MTI values.
1610:
1582:
2061:
1632:
1085:
1166:
1735:
1842:
2677:
2303:
2350:
17:
1191:
2453:
2298:
1311:
Stergiou, KI (2005). "Fisheries impact on trophic levels: long-term trends in
Hellenic waters". In Papathanassiou, E; Zenetos, A (eds.).
728:
792:
931:
420:
of a country’s fish resources. It can indicate the extent that the fishing effort within a country's fishing grounds is modifying its
1312:
1102:
2795:
2425:
718:
2586:
815:
276:
to track the direction and influence of the many factors controlling the ecosystem. The original
Ecopath model was applied to a
1421:
100:
selected the mean trophic level of fisheries catch, renamed the "Marine
Trophic Index" (MTI), as one of eight indicators of
2308:
1835:
1618:
2483:
2360:
373:
85:
has been systematically "fishing down the food web", targeting fish species at progressively decreasing trophic levels.
1574:
382:
97:
571:
rather than by the benthic animals. These dead zones are currently growing throughout the world in places such as the
432:
are being caught. A zero or positive change in the Marine Trophic Index indicates the fishery is stable or improving.
2682:
2415:
2410:
1770:
786:
1891:
743:
1642:
2612:
2468:
1828:
1007:
1946:
1015:
1183:
2581:
2571:
2478:
1976:
1802:
1338:
Caddy, JF; Csirke, J; Garcia, SM; Grainger, JRJ (1998). "How Pervasive Is "Fishing Down Marine Food Webs"?".
2652:
2561:
2056:
2011:
2066:
1284:
494:
are 10 to 100 times greater than their present biomass. This implies a large supporting biomass of small
49:
on top of the food web, turn to increasingly smaller species, finally ending up with previously spurned
2790:
2607:
2496:
1637:
273:
2761:
2756:
2733:
2642:
2448:
1209:
2647:
2380:
2355:
2026:
2001:
1762:
1366:
550:
2738:
2400:
2293:
1971:
1926:
1911:
1528:
1243:
814:
Pauly, Daniel; Christensen, Villy; Dalsgaard, Johanne; Froese, Rainer; Torres, Francisco (1998).
2662:
2522:
2195:
564:
2076:
2546:
2420:
2046:
1941:
1792:
2405:
2385:
2345:
2315:
2262:
1482:
1258:
1053:
965:
877:
830:
402:
395:
54:
1321:
1126:"Background and interpretation of the 'Marine Trophic Index' as a measure of biodiversity"
8:
2566:
2556:
2489:
2458:
2443:
2270:
2266:
2230:
1986:
1956:
1756:
600:
560:
61:
1486:
1262:
1057:
969:
881:
834:
2751:
2527:
2370:
2150:
1727:
1677:
1505:
1470:
1399:
1153:
1077:
989:
900:
865:
738:
733:
527:
457:
406:
390:
221:
117:
93:
1529:"Shopping list gets longer -- not less choosy -- in some of world's largest fisheries"
1320:. Athens, Greece: Hellenic Centre for Marine Research. p. 326-329. Archived from
2632:
2617:
2100:
2021:
1951:
1896:
1881:
1865:
1766:
1719:
1715:
1681:
1510:
1455:
1436:
1391:
1374:
1244:"Ecopath, Ecosim, and Ecospace as tools for evaluating ecosystem impact of fisheries"
1235:
1158:
1081:
1069:
981:
905:
846:
782:
487:
233:
161:
68:
1731:
2713:
2517:
2512:
2220:
2140:
1936:
1921:
1916:
1711:
1555:
1500:
1490:
1403:
1383:
1351:
1347:
1266:
1148:
1140:
1061:
993:
973:
895:
885:
838:
774:
476:
413:
and an indication of how abundant and rich the large, high trophic level fish are.
288:
224:
is calculated by assigning each fish or invertebrate species a number based on its
101:
82:
416:
Changes in the Marine Trophic Index over time can function as an indicator of the
96:
of fisheries as a tool for measuring the health of ocean ecosystems. In 2000, the
45:
is the process whereby fisheries in a given ecosystem, "having depleted the large
2718:
2576:
2365:
2155:
2110:
2095:
1996:
1387:
945:
842:
686:
537:
460:
is explained by the relationship between the size of the fish captured and their
265:
866:"Global fishery development patterns are driven by profit but not trophic level"
2708:
2637:
2551:
2200:
2180:
2160:
2135:
2085:
2016:
2006:
1966:
1906:
1869:
1546:
Litzow, M. A.; Urban, D. (2009). "Fishing through (and up) Alaskan food webs".
613:
584:
580:
546:
507:
417:
328:
308:
245:
185:
78:
46:
2257:
1285:"ECOPATH Modeling: Precursor to an Ecosystem Approach to Fisheries Management"
953:
778:
475:
has suggested a framework for the ecological impacts fishing down can have on
2784:
2728:
2723:
2627:
2390:
2288:
2258:
2145:
2130:
2115:
1991:
1440:
596:
515:
511:
491:
461:
425:
237:
225:
169:
121:
74:
1758:
Dynamic Changes in Marine Ecosystems: Fishing, Food Webs, and Future Options
1495:
890:
446:
Fishing down is a succession which reverses the usual evolutionary sequence.
29:
2210:
2125:
2105:
2051:
1961:
1931:
1723:
1514:
1395:
1270:
1239:
1162:
1144:
1073:
985:
909:
723:
675:
592:
576:
523:
519:
499:
472:
449:
386:
157:
64:
850:
140:
Fishermen are increasingly targeting lower trophic level fish, like these
2463:
2375:
2225:
2205:
2190:
2175:
2170:
2120:
1901:
1820:
1422:"Fishing down marine food webs: it is far more pervasive than we thought"
1195:
697:
664:
617:
542:
429:
421:
410:
341:
284:
189:
145:
50:
977:
2687:
2395:
2185:
2165:
949:
465:
324:
307:
Pauly's team argued in their 1998 paper that the larger, more valuable
299:
Atlantic, Indian and Pacific Oceans, and the Mediterranean-Black Seas.
277:
209:
129:
89:
2330:
627:
Production trends across different trophic levels in the Mediterranean
2657:
2622:
2235:
2215:
1065:
668:
572:
495:
269:
228:. The trophic level is a measure of the position of an organism in a
205:
177:
141:
120:
of the world fisheries catch has steadily declined because many high
1559:
2507:
2041:
2031:
1981:
693:
568:
280:
229:
201:
35:
1139:(1454). Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society: 415–423.
1108:. European Academy of Science, Advisory Council. 2004. p. 38.
136:
2703:
2672:
2602:
2502:
2036:
1851:
705:
701:
653:
645:
503:
320:
261:
241:
197:
193:
401:
The Marine Trophic Index is a measure of the overall health and
813:
649:
588:
374:
Change in the Marine Trophic Index (early 1950s to the present)
88:
The trophic level of a fish is the position it occupies on the
1787:
112:
1456:"Fishing Down the Mediterranean Food Webs? Executive Summary"
657:
389:
which has been adopted by 193 member countries, selected the
292:
152:
1468:
1367:"Daniel Pauly profile: Going to the Edge to Protect the Sea"
1469:
Essington, T. E.; Beaudreau, A. H.; Wiedenmann, J. (2006).
1289:
678:
has gone from almost zero in 1986 to 30,000 tonnes by 2005
671:
increased from 20 tonnes in 1983 to 140,000 tonnes in 2004
428:
are becoming depleted, and an increasing number of smaller
312:
181:
125:
1754:
1337:
954:"Rapid worldwide depletion of predatory fish communities"
864:
Sethi, Suresh A.; Branch, Trevor A.; Watson, Reg (2010).
567:. The abundant detritus and marine snow are processed by
333:
316:
257:
173:
1864:
1039:"Systematic distortions in world fisheries catch trends"
1233:
336:
argued a counter position in a paper also published in
1694:
1663:
1415:
1413:
616:
has been decreasing, the mean trophic level amongst
424:. A negative change generally indicates that larger
1410:
924:"Jellyfish for lunch? It's no joke, says scientist"
405:of a marine ecosystem or area. The index is also a
1548:Canadian Journal of Fisheries and Aquatic Sciences
67:and others in an article published in the journal
1664:Pauly, D; Tyedmers, P; Froese, R; Liu, Y (2001).
863:
2782:
1535:. 22 February 2006 – via sciencedaily.com.
92:. The article establishes the importance of the
2678:International Seafood Sustainability Foundation
2304:United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea
1475:Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences
870:Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences
168:Over the last 50 years, the abundance of large
1697:"Farming Up the Food Web in the Mediterranean"
1695:Stergiou, KI; Tsikliras, AC; Pauly, D (2009).
1611:"The ecology of fishing down marine food webs"
1453:
1419:
385:, an international treaty aimed at sustaining
1836:
510:which prevent resuspension of sediments, and
1803:"Fishing down food chain' fails global test"
1192:Yale Center for Environmental Law and Policy
764:"IV.10 Spatial Dynamics of Marine Fisheries"
479:. The framework distinguishes three phases:
2454:List of commercially important fish species
2299:Illegal, unreported and unregulated fishing
1615:Society for Conservation Biology Newsletter
1545:
1306:
1304:
1302:
1300:
1123:
1103:"A users' guide to biodiversity indicators"
1036:
761:
729:List of harvested aquatic animals by weight
469:considered to be subsidizing fishing down.
332:the same year, Caddy and his team from the
160:, if the trend continues, consumers may be
1850:
1843:
1829:
1666:"Fishing down and farming up the food web"
530:and of the nutrients that leach from them.
435:
256:Pauly's team used the catch data from the
60:The process was first demonstrated by the
1604:
1602:
1600:
1598:
1596:
1594:
1592:
1504:
1494:
1462:
1152:
944:
899:
889:
73:in 1998. Large predator fish with higher
2426:Regional fishery management organisation
1364:
1314:State of the Hellenic marine environment
1310:
1297:
809:
807:
805:
719:2010 Biodiversity Indicators Partnership
151:
135:
111:
28:
1800:
1572:
355:
14:
2783:
1589:
2256:
1863:
1824:
1608:
1575:"Fishing Down the Food Web Turns 10!"
1119:
1117:
1115:
802:
607:
302:
215:
2309:United Nations Fish Stocks Agreement
1801:Cressey, Daniel (10 November 2010).
188:now increasingly pursue the smaller
2484:Future of Marine Animal Populations
2361:Fishery Resources Monitoring System
2351:Monitoring control and surveillance
1585:from the original on 14 March 2011.
1454:Briand, F.; Stergiou, K.I. (2000).
1420:Pauly, D.; Palomares, M.L. (2005).
1124:Pauly, Daniel; Watson, Reg (2005).
1037:Watson, Reg; Pauly, Daniel (2001).
762:Pauly, Daniel; Watson, Reg (2009).
591:, and most predators larger than a
549:. In the early part of this phase,
398:of marine biodiversity and health.
24:
1755:National Research Council (2006).
1748:
1471:"Fishing through marine food webs"
1112:
660:in 1970 to 100,000 tonnes in 2004
383:Convention on Biological Diversity
98:Convention on Biological Diversity
25:
2807:
2683:Sea Shepherd Conservation Society
2416:National Marine Fisheries Service
2411:European Fisheries Control Agency
1796:. University of British Columbia.
1780:
456:Ecologically, the decline in the
344:, actually made the trend worse.
264:model. Ecopath is a computerised
2329:
2075:
1892:Population dynamics of fisheries
1716:10.1111/j.1523-1739.2008.01077.x
1670:Conservation Biology in Practice
1008:"In The News: Eating Jellyfish?"
744:Population dynamics of fisheries
612:While the mean trophic level in
368:
2796:Environmental impact of fishing
2613:Aquaculture Stewardship Council
2469:Environmental impact of fishing
1788:"Fishing Down Marine Food Webs"
1688:
1657:
1625:
1566:
1539:
1521:
1447:
1358:
1331:
1277:
1227:
1202:
1188:Environmental Performance Index
1176:
816:"Fishing Down Marine Food Webs"
2587:U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service
1947:Otolith microchemical analysis
1352:10.1126/science.282.5393.1383a
1251:ICES Journal of Marine Science
1095:
1030:
1016:University of British Columbia
1000:
938:
916:
857:
771:The Princeton Guide to Ecology
755:
583:. Some estuaries, such as the
268:system. The functioning of an
13:
1:
2582:European Environmental Agency
2572:Grey nurse shark conservation
2479:Destructive fishing practices
1977:Pop-up satellite archival tag
749:
656:, increased from about 2,000
18:Fishing down marine food webs
2562:Marine conservation activism
2012:Climate change and fisheries
1388:10.1126/science.296.5567.458
930:. 4 May 2004. Archived from
843:10.1126/science.279.5352.860
7:
712:
443:Development of fishing down
323:, had been systematically
232:, starting at level 1 with
107:
10:
2812:
2608:Marine Stewardship Council
2401:EU Common Fisheries Policy
1638:Conference Board of Canada
1429:Bulletin of Marine Science
928:Seattle Post-Intelligencer
551:ecological cascade effects
251:
184:, has dropped 90 percent.
2762:Glossary of fishery terms
2757:Index of fishing articles
2747:
2696:
2595:
2539:
2474:Fishing down the food web
2449:Maximum sustainable yield
2436:
2338:
2327:
2281:
2277:
2252:
2084:
2073:
2007:Match/mismatch hypothesis
1880:
1876:
1859:
779:10.1515/9781400833023.501
625:
526:, free of both suspended
367:
362:
43:Fishing down the food web
2648:Save Our Seas Foundation
2381:Individual fishing quota
2356:Vessel monitoring system
2002:Hydrographic containment
1763:National Academies Press
1533:University of Washington
1365:Malakoff, David (2002).
575:in China, the northern
208:, that are lower on the
2294:Exclusive economic zone
1972:GIS and aquatic science
1927:Standard weight in fish
1496:10.1073/pnas.0510964103
891:10.1073/pnas.1003236107
636:Intermediate predators
565:multicellular organisms
559:– the third phase. The
502:. On the seafloor, the
436:Ecology of fishing down
327:, with the result that
272:can be described using
2523:Turtle excluder device
2196:Shoaling and schooling
1633:"Marine Trophic Index"
1271:10.1006/jmsc.2000.0726
1194:. 2008. Archived from
1184:"Marine Trophic Index"
1145:10.1098/rstb.2004.1597
674:The production of the
453:
165:
149:
133:
77:have been depleted in
39:
2547:Marine protected area
2421:Regional fishery body
2047:Census of Marine Life
1942:Catch per unit effort
1793:Sea Around Us Project
1091:on 28 September 2011.
620:has been increasing.
440:
283:. Scientists tracked
260:which it fed into an
155:
139:
115:
32:
2386:Minimum landing size
2346:Fisheries management
2321:Magnuson–Stevens Act
2316:Fisheries Convention
2067:Fisheries scientists
1741:on 16 November 2009.
1704:Conservation Biology
1573:Jacquet, JL (2008).
1172:on 23 February 2012.
773:. pp. 501–510.
639:Top-level predators
601:harmful algal blooms
356:Marine Trophic Index
2663:Defying Ocean's End
2567:Salmon conservation
2557:Marine conservation
2497:The End of the Line
2490:The Sunken Billions
2459:Sustainable seafood
2444:Sustainable fishery
2057:Fisheries databases
1987:Age class structure
1957:Fisheries acoustics
1807:Scientific American
1621:on 3 November 2010.
1487:2006PNAS..103.3171E
1263:2000ICJMS..57..697P
1198:on 9 February 2008.
1133:Biological Sciences
1058:2001Natur.414..534W
978:10.1038/nature01610
970:2003Natur.423..280M
882:2010PNAS..10712163S
876:(27): 12163–12167.
835:1998Sci...279..860P
667:of species such as
579:, and the northern
266:ecosystem modelling
124:fish, such as this
81:. As a result, the
62:fisheries scientist
2752:Outline of fishing
2371:Fisheries observer
2022:Aquatic ecosystems
1609:Pauly, D. (2005).
1579:Shifting Baselines
739:Ecological release
734:Shifting baselines
644:The production of
608:Farming up the web
458:mean trophic level
391:mean trophic level
303:Critical rejoinder
222:mean trophic level
216:Mean trophic level
166:
150:
134:
118:mean trophic level
94:mean trophic level
40:
2791:Fisheries science
2778:
2777:
2774:
2773:
2770:
2769:
2734:Threatened sharks
2633:Ocean Conservancy
2618:Friend of the Sea
2248:
2247:
2244:
2243:
2156:Lobster fisheries
2101:Diversity of fish
1897:Shifting baseline
1866:Fisheries science
1382:(5567): 458–461.
1052:(6863): 534–536.
964:(6937): 280–283.
829:(5352): 860–863.
682:
681:
477:marine ecosystems
379:
378:
289:primary producers
234:primary producers
34:Fishing down the
16:(Redirected from
2803:
2714:Marine pollution
2518:Cetacean bycatch
2513:Incidental catch
2333:
2279:
2278:
2254:
2253:
2221:Humboldt current
2079:
1997:Trophic cascades
1937:Data storage tag
1922:Fish measurement
1917:Stock assessment
1878:
1877:
1861:
1860:
1845:
1838:
1831:
1822:
1821:
1817:
1815:
1813:
1797:
1776:
1743:
1742:
1740:
1734:. Archived from
1701:
1692:
1686:
1685:
1661:
1655:
1654:
1652:
1650:
1645:on 6 August 2020
1641:. Archived from
1629:
1623:
1622:
1617:. Archived from
1606:
1587:
1586:
1570:
1564:
1563:
1543:
1537:
1536:
1525:
1519:
1518:
1508:
1498:
1481:(9): 3171–3175.
1466:
1460:
1459:
1451:
1445:
1444:
1426:
1417:
1408:
1407:
1371:
1362:
1356:
1355:
1335:
1329:
1328:
1327:on 21 July 2011.
1326:
1319:
1308:
1295:
1294:
1281:
1275:
1274:
1248:
1231:
1225:
1224:
1222:
1220:
1210:"FAO Statistics"
1206:
1200:
1199:
1180:
1174:
1173:
1171:
1165:. Archived from
1156:
1130:
1121:
1110:
1109:
1107:
1099:
1093:
1092:
1090:
1084:. Archived from
1066:10.1038/35107050
1043:
1034:
1028:
1027:
1025:
1023:
1018:. 5 October 2006
1004:
998:
997:
946:Myers, Ransom A.
942:
936:
935:
920:
914:
913:
903:
893:
861:
855:
854:
820:
811:
800:
799:
798:on 11 June 2012.
797:
791:. Archived from
768:
759:
623:
622:
506:is dominated by
372:
371:
360:
359:
162:eating jellyfish
102:ecosystem health
83:fishing industry
21:
2811:
2810:
2806:
2805:
2804:
2802:
2801:
2800:
2781:
2780:
2779:
2766:
2743:
2739:Threatened rays
2719:Mercury in fish
2692:
2591:
2577:Shark sanctuary
2535:
2432:
2366:Catch reporting
2334:
2325:
2273:
2240:
2146:Krill fisheries
2111:Coral reef fish
2096:Ocean fisheries
2087:
2080:
2071:
1912:Condition index
1883:
1872:
1855:
1849:
1811:
1809:
1786:
1783:
1773:
1751:
1749:Further reading
1746:
1738:
1710:(11): 230–232.
1699:
1693:
1689:
1662:
1658:
1648:
1646:
1631:
1630:
1626:
1607:
1590:
1571:
1567:
1560:10.1139/F08-207
1544:
1540:
1527:
1526:
1522:
1467:
1463:
1452:
1448:
1424:
1418:
1411:
1369:
1363:
1359:
1336:
1332:
1324:
1317:
1309:
1298:
1283:
1282:
1278:
1246:
1236:Christensen, V.
1234:Pauly, Daniel;
1232:
1228:
1218:
1216:
1208:
1207:
1203:
1182:
1181:
1177:
1169:
1128:
1122:
1113:
1105:
1101:
1100:
1096:
1088:
1041:
1035:
1031:
1021:
1019:
1006:
1005:
1001:
943:
939:
934:on 1 June 2013.
922:
921:
917:
862:
858:
818:
812:
803:
795:
789:
766:
760:
756:
752:
715:
696:processed from
687:illegal fishing
610:
538:Bottom trawlers
518:down. Thus the
514:which keep the
508:deposit feeders
454:
452:
447:
445:
438:
369:
358:
305:
254:
218:
186:Fishing vessels
110:
38:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
2809:
2799:
2798:
2793:
2776:
2775:
2772:
2771:
2768:
2767:
2765:
2764:
2759:
2754:
2748:
2745:
2744:
2742:
2741:
2736:
2731:
2726:
2721:
2716:
2711:
2709:Fish slaughter
2706:
2700:
2698:
2697:Related issues
2694:
2693:
2691:
2690:
2685:
2680:
2675:
2670:
2665:
2660:
2655:
2650:
2645:
2640:
2638:Ocean Outcomes
2635:
2630:
2625:
2620:
2615:
2610:
2605:
2599:
2597:
2593:
2592:
2590:
2589:
2584:
2579:
2574:
2569:
2564:
2559:
2554:
2552:Marine reserve
2549:
2543:
2541:
2537:
2536:
2534:
2533:
2525:
2520:
2515:
2510:
2505:
2500:
2493:
2486:
2481:
2476:
2471:
2466:
2461:
2456:
2451:
2446:
2440:
2438:
2437:Sustainability
2434:
2433:
2431:
2430:
2429:
2428:
2418:
2413:
2408:
2403:
2398:
2393:
2388:
2383:
2378:
2373:
2368:
2363:
2358:
2353:
2348:
2342:
2340:
2336:
2335:
2328:
2326:
2324:
2323:
2318:
2313:
2312:
2311:
2301:
2296:
2291:
2285:
2283:
2275:
2274:
2267:sustainability
2250:
2249:
2246:
2245:
2242:
2241:
2239:
2238:
2233:
2228:
2223:
2218:
2213:
2208:
2203:
2201:Marine habitat
2198:
2193:
2188:
2183:
2178:
2173:
2168:
2163:
2161:Shrimp fishery
2158:
2153:
2151:Kelp fisheries
2148:
2143:
2138:
2136:Crab fisheries
2133:
2128:
2123:
2118:
2113:
2108:
2103:
2098:
2092:
2090:
2082:
2081:
2074:
2072:
2070:
2069:
2064:
2059:
2054:
2049:
2044:
2039:
2034:
2029:
2024:
2019:
2017:Marine biology
2014:
2009:
2004:
1999:
1994:
1989:
1984:
1979:
1974:
1969:
1967:Coded wire tag
1964:
1959:
1954:
1949:
1944:
1939:
1934:
1929:
1924:
1919:
1914:
1909:
1907:Fish mortality
1904:
1899:
1894:
1888:
1886:
1874:
1873:
1870:wild fisheries
1857:
1856:
1854:science topics
1848:
1847:
1840:
1833:
1825:
1819:
1818:
1798:
1782:
1781:External links
1779:
1778:
1777:
1771:
1750:
1747:
1745:
1744:
1687:
1656:
1624:
1588:
1565:
1554:(2): 201–211.
1538:
1520:
1461:
1446:
1435:(2): 197-211.
1409:
1357:
1346:(5393): 1383.
1330:
1296:
1276:
1257:(3): 697–706.
1226:
1201:
1175:
1111:
1094:
1029:
999:
937:
915:
856:
801:
787:
753:
751:
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726:
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680:
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672:
661:
641:
640:
637:
634:
630:
629:
614:wild fisheries
609:
606:
605:
604:
595:, the current
585:Chesapeake Bay
581:Gulf of Mexico
557:Fully degraded
554:
531:
512:filter feeders
441:
439:
437:
434:
418:sustainability
377:
376:
365:
364:
363:External image
357:
354:
329:fishing effort
309:predatory fish
304:
301:
253:
250:
246:apex predators
217:
214:
109:
106:
79:wild fisheries
75:trophic levels
47:predatory fish
33:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
2808:
2797:
2794:
2792:
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2749:
2746:
2740:
2737:
2735:
2732:
2730:
2729:Shark finning
2727:
2725:
2724:Shark culling
2722:
2720:
2717:
2715:
2712:
2710:
2707:
2705:
2702:
2701:
2699:
2695:
2689:
2686:
2684:
2681:
2679:
2676:
2674:
2671:
2669:
2666:
2664:
2661:
2659:
2656:
2654:
2653:Sea Around Us
2651:
2649:
2646:
2644:
2641:
2639:
2636:
2634:
2631:
2629:
2628:Seafood Watch
2626:
2624:
2621:
2619:
2616:
2614:
2611:
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2606:
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2558:
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2553:
2550:
2548:
2545:
2544:
2542:
2538:
2532:
2530:
2529:Shrimp-Turtle
2526:
2524:
2521:
2519:
2516:
2514:
2511:
2509:
2506:
2504:
2501:
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2417:
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2404:
2402:
2399:
2397:
2394:
2392:
2391:Pulse fishing
2389:
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2367:
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2314:
2310:
2307:
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2302:
2300:
2297:
2295:
2292:
2290:
2289:Fisheries law
2287:
2286:
2284:
2280:
2276:
2272:
2268:
2264:
2260:
2259:Fisheries law
2255:
2251:
2237:
2234:
2232:
2229:
2227:
2224:
2222:
2219:
2217:
2214:
2212:
2209:
2207:
2204:
2202:
2199:
2197:
2194:
2192:
2189:
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2184:
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2179:
2177:
2174:
2172:
2169:
2167:
2164:
2162:
2159:
2157:
2154:
2152:
2149:
2147:
2144:
2142:
2141:Eel fisheries
2139:
2137:
2134:
2132:
2131:Cod fisheries
2129:
2127:
2124:
2122:
2119:
2117:
2116:Demersal fish
2114:
2112:
2109:
2107:
2104:
2102:
2099:
2097:
2094:
2093:
2091:
2089:
2083:
2078:
2068:
2065:
2063:
2060:
2058:
2055:
2053:
2050:
2048:
2045:
2043:
2040:
2038:
2035:
2033:
2030:
2028:
2025:
2023:
2020:
2018:
2015:
2013:
2010:
2008:
2005:
2003:
2000:
1998:
1995:
1993:
1992:Trophic level
1990:
1988:
1985:
1983:
1980:
1978:
1975:
1973:
1970:
1968:
1965:
1963:
1960:
1958:
1955:
1953:
1950:
1948:
1945:
1943:
1940:
1938:
1935:
1933:
1930:
1928:
1925:
1923:
1920:
1918:
1915:
1913:
1910:
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1905:
1903:
1900:
1898:
1895:
1893:
1890:
1889:
1887:
1885:
1879:
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1871:
1867:
1862:
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1853:
1846:
1841:
1839:
1834:
1832:
1827:
1826:
1823:
1808:
1804:
1799:
1795:
1794:
1789:
1785:
1784:
1774:
1772:9780309100502
1768:
1764:
1760:
1759:
1753:
1752:
1737:
1733:
1729:
1725:
1721:
1717:
1713:
1709:
1705:
1698:
1691:
1683:
1679:
1675:
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1667:
1660:
1644:
1640:
1639:
1634:
1628:
1620:
1616:
1612:
1605:
1603:
1601:
1599:
1597:
1595:
1593:
1584:
1580:
1576:
1569:
1561:
1557:
1553:
1549:
1542:
1534:
1530:
1524:
1516:
1512:
1507:
1502:
1497:
1492:
1488:
1484:
1480:
1476:
1472:
1465:
1457:
1450:
1442:
1438:
1434:
1430:
1423:
1416:
1414:
1405:
1401:
1397:
1393:
1389:
1385:
1381:
1377:
1376:
1368:
1361:
1353:
1349:
1345:
1341:
1334:
1323:
1316:
1315:
1307:
1305:
1303:
1301:
1292:
1291:
1286:
1280:
1272:
1268:
1264:
1260:
1256:
1252:
1245:
1241:
1237:
1230:
1215:
1211:
1205:
1197:
1193:
1189:
1185:
1179:
1168:
1164:
1160:
1155:
1150:
1146:
1142:
1138:
1134:
1127:
1120:
1118:
1116:
1104:
1098:
1087:
1083:
1079:
1075:
1071:
1067:
1063:
1059:
1055:
1051:
1047:
1040:
1033:
1017:
1013:
1009:
1003:
995:
991:
987:
983:
979:
975:
971:
967:
963:
959:
955:
951:
947:
941:
933:
929:
925:
919:
911:
907:
902:
897:
892:
887:
883:
879:
875:
871:
867:
860:
852:
848:
844:
840:
836:
832:
828:
824:
817:
810:
808:
806:
794:
790:
788:9781400833023
784:
780:
776:
772:
765:
758:
754:
745:
742:
740:
737:
735:
732:
730:
727:
725:
722:
720:
717:
716:
710:
707:
703:
699:
698:forage fishes
695:
690:
688:
677:
673:
670:
666:
662:
659:
655:
651:
647:
643:
642:
638:
635:
632:
631:
628:
624:
621:
619:
615:
602:
598:
597:apex predator
594:
590:
586:
582:
578:
574:
570:
566:
562:
558:
555:
552:
548:
544:
539:
535:
532:
529:
525:
521:
517:
516:phytoplankton
513:
509:
505:
501:
500:invertebrates
497:
493:
492:predator fish
490:of the large
489:
485:
482:
481:
480:
478:
474:
470:
467:
463:
462:trophic level
459:
451:
444:
433:
431:
427:
426:predator fish
423:
419:
414:
412:
408:
404:
399:
397:
392:
388:
384:
381:In 2000, the
375:
366:
361:
353:
349:
345:
343:
339:
335:
330:
326:
322:
318:
314:
310:
300:
296:
294:
290:
286:
282:
279:
275:
274:path analysis
271:
267:
263:
259:
249:
247:
243:
239:
238:phytoplankton
235:
231:
227:
226:trophic level
223:
213:
211:
207:
203:
199:
195:
191:
187:
183:
179:
175:
171:
170:predator fish
163:
159:
156:According to
154:
147:
143:
138:
131:
127:
123:
122:trophic level
119:
114:
105:
103:
99:
95:
91:
86:
84:
80:
76:
72:
71:
66:
63:
58:
56:
55:invertebrates
52:
48:
44:
37:
31:
27:
19:
2540:Conservation
2528:
2495:
2488:
2473:
2271:conservation
2226:Algal blooms
2211:Water column
2126:Pelagic fish
2106:Coastal fish
2052:OSTM/Jason-2
2027:Bioeconomics
1962:Acoustic tag
1932:Fish counter
1810:. Retrieved
1806:
1791:
1757:
1736:the original
1707:
1703:
1690:
1673:
1669:
1659:
1647:. Retrieved
1643:the original
1636:
1627:
1619:the original
1614:
1578:
1568:
1551:
1547:
1541:
1532:
1523:
1478:
1474:
1464:
1449:
1432:
1428:
1379:
1373:
1360:
1343:
1339:
1333:
1322:the original
1313:
1288:
1279:
1254:
1250:
1229:
1217:. Retrieved
1213:
1204:
1196:the original
1187:
1178:
1167:the original
1136:
1132:
1097:
1086:the original
1049:
1045:
1032:
1020:. Retrieved
1011:
1002:
961:
957:
940:
932:the original
927:
918:
873:
869:
859:
826:
822:
793:the original
770:
757:
724:Biodiversity
691:
683:
676:bluefin tuna
626:
611:
593:striped bass
577:Adriatic Sea
556:
533:
524:oligotrophic
522:tends to be
520:water column
483:
473:Daniel Pauly
471:
455:
450:Daniel Pauly
442:
415:
409:measure for
400:
387:biodiversity
380:
350:
346:
337:
306:
297:
285:tiger sharks
255:
219:
167:
158:Daniel Pauly
128:, have been
87:
69:
65:Daniel Pauly
59:
42:
41:
26:
2464:Overfishing
2376:Catch share
2206:Marine snow
2191:Sardine run
2176:Fish screen
2171:Fish ladder
2121:Forage fish
1012:UBC Reports
950:Worm, Boris
665:mariculture
633:Herbivores
618:farmed fish
543:marine snow
496:prey fishes
430:forage fish
422:fish stocks
411:overfishing
342:aquaculture
190:forage fish
164:sandwiches.
146:forage fish
2785:Categories
2688:Greenpeace
2396:Slot limit
2339:Management
2263:management
2231:Dead zones
2186:Salmon run
2166:Eel ladder
2062:Institutes
1902:Fish stock
1240:Walters, C
750:References
648:, such as
547:eutrophies
466:food chain
325:overfished
311:, such as
291:, such as
278:coral reef
236:, such as
210:food chain
192:, such as
172:, such as
144:and other
130:overfished
90:food chain
51:small fish
2658:WorldFish
2623:SeaChoice
2236:Fish kill
2216:Upwelling
2181:Migration
2088:fisheries
1882:Fisheries
1812:3 January
1682:127706851
1676:(4): 25.
1441:0007-4977
1082:205023890
1022:2 January
706:anchovies
669:sea bream
573:Bohai Sea
561:dead zone
534:Exploited
528:particles
403:stability
396:indicator
270:ecosystem
206:anchovies
178:swordfish
142:anchovies
2668:HERMIONE
2596:Advocacy
2508:Discards
2042:FishBase
2032:EconMult
1982:EcoSCOPE
1732:14832803
1724:18950470
1649:22 March
1583:Archived
1515:16481614
1396:11964458
1242:(2000).
1219:22 March
1214:FishBase
1163:15814354
1074:11734851
986:12748640
952:(2003).
910:20566867
713:See also
702:sardines
694:fishmeal
646:bivalves
569:bacteria
484:Pristine
281:food web
230:food web
202:menhaden
198:sardines
194:herrings
108:Overview
36:food web
2704:CalCOFI
2673:PROFISH
2603:FishAct
2503:Bycatch
2037:Ecopath
1952:Biomass
1884:science
1852:Fishery
1506:1413903
1483:Bibcode
1404:8501655
1375:Science
1340:Science
1259:Bibcode
1154:1569461
1054:Bibcode
994:2392394
966:Bibcode
901:2901455
878:Bibcode
851:9452385
831:Bibcode
823:Science
654:oysters
650:mussels
589:oysters
504:benthos
488:biomass
338:Science
321:grouper
262:Ecopath
252:Ecopath
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2643:Oceana
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1739:(PDF)
1728:S2CID
1700:(PDF)
1678:S2CID
1425:(PDF)
1400:S2CID
1370:(PDF)
1325:(PDF)
1318:(PDF)
1247:(PDF)
1170:(PDF)
1129:(PDF)
1106:(PDF)
1089:(PDF)
1078:S2CID
1042:(PDF)
990:S2CID
819:(PDF)
796:(PDF)
767:(PDF)
700:like
407:proxy
293:algae
2531:case
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2086:Wild
1868:and
1814:2023
1767:ISBN
1720:PMID
1651:2010
1511:PMID
1437:ISSN
1392:PMID
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1070:PMID
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