704:
235:. During Rome's height, it is estimated that the city itself needed 150,000 tons of grain and millions of liters of water and wine every year to survive. It was traditionally the responsibility of the Roman government to guarantee that there was enough food for distribution among the people. In times of shortages, bad harvests, or interference by pirates, the government made sure to fulfill its obligation to food distribution. Officials would sometimes buy food themselves and then sell it back to the people at little to no cost. When Rome eventually established its Empire, foreign lands would send taxes in grain to Rome, which helped decrease the chance of a food distribution crisis.
1163:
82:
406:
418:, warehouses, factories, and commercial retailers comprise the bulk of US food distribution. It is estimated that food served in the United States may travel close to 1,500 miles between growers and consumers. While many products, specifically meat and grain, are distributed in different fashions, there are common trends to the distribution of most modern foods. An increase in the use of technology for farming has transformed the small local farm of the 1940s in to large production facilities. Several federal agencies, such as the
24:
166:, and volunteer organizations function in the United States to safeguard the well-being of the US food distribution system. Within the United States, there is an issue of food insecurity where food distribution is one of the key solutions to target food insecurity. This creates a "food bank industry" where many organizations use tactics of business and trade skills within the food distribution sector to give food to communities that are in need.
638:
552:, but these measures ultimately did not supply the Japanese people with enough food for survival. The average ration allowance consisted of a flour mixture which was often unhealthy and barely edible. Normal consumers age 16 to 60 received an average 330 g of ration per day in May 1943, and the situation only became more desperate as the war progressed.
745:, and 95% of all workers within the American Red Cross are volunteers. In the case of all crises, whether food related or not, the American Red Cross in engaged in relieving disaster victims. The Red Cross coordinates with local communities to provide essentials such as food, water, and hot meals for those in need during a crisis.
446:
and improved variety in diet that comes from purchasing food with other families. Consumer cooperatives differ from consumer purchasing organizations in that they are constituted by groups of individuals who work together to secure high quality food for low prices. The cooperatives are analogous to a
313:
The physical distribution of foods throughout the Roman Empire varied by location and type of food. Some foods were shipped by boat and then distributed once they reached port. Others, specifically meat, were transported by land and brought into urban areas. Special regulations were put in place for
511:
Japanese food distribution drastically decreased from the effects of World War Two and the country's economic shortcomings. The need for food during the 1920s and 1930s rose drastically as Japan's population and average lifestyle increased. Japan was importing large amounts of rice, sugar, soybeans,
458:
who operate as one economic body. These groups form contracts to work under, but are economically independent of one another. Retailer purchasing organizations are groups of retailers who purchase products as though they were a single buyer. Members within these organizations are all involved in the
757:
are the proper term to call these kind of organizations where they use "government sector, private sector, and civil society" to distribute and recover food that will ultimately go to waste. In the United States, there are many organizations all over the country that have the same similar goal
608:
class, including the exploitation of peasant agriculture and in removal of peasants from their land. The weather and environmental issues regarding the Sub-Saharan
African food distribution crisis also have roots in failed colonial policy. Labor migration cycles used during colonial times were
214:
have developed in unique ways, and faced different problems in the past century. The United States' food distribution system is vast in size and strength, and is dominated by corporations and industry. Current methods of food distribution in the US rely on the country's advanced network of
332:
The United States' food distribution system has experienced major changes in the past hundred years. Food distribution primarily relied on small, local farms in the 1940s, but quickly grew to become a large business in the 1960s. Three economic advances that allowed for the growth in food
758:
however, there is not much effective collaboration between all organizations because it is challenging to coordinate efficient communication within one another. There is one large organization that focuses on distributing food to people who need it in the United States,
318:
during his reign from 192 to 211 CE. His distribution policy lasted for at least a few centuries, but scholars are unsure if the policy continued thereafter. Wine was not as freely distributed as olive oil, but was sold for a very low price starting around 300 CE.
694:
to afflicted areas. The
Salvation Army receives federal supplies from FEMA and the USDA, and then works on the local level to distribute necessary goods. All food given to civilians during a crisis is typically distributed at mass emergency feeding stations.
357:. It was reported in 1929 that chain stores accounted for 39% of all grocery sales in the United States. Chain stores' success is related to their ability to undersell smaller distributors. An anti-chain movement arose in response to the success of the
157:
Special organizations exist today to prevent any total collapses in food distribution, assist in developing food distribution and food systems in underdeveloped areas, and respond to food distribution crises. At the international level, the
516:
by 1935, and had a dependence on colonial possessions to distribute food to her people. 95% of
Japanese rice between 1936 and 1938, just a few years before major conflict arose with the United States, was imported from its colonies in
162:(FAO) plays a key role in facilitating the growth of food distribution systems all over the world. At the national level different countries have developed more complex support systems; by example, a mixture of federal,
198:
became a prominent aspect in Roman food distribution. As the Empire expanded and the accessibility to certain foods changed, the demand for grain and wine drastically increased, and became a defining aspect of Roman
766:. There are more organizations that focus on distributing food that work independently and are not as big as Feeding America that contribute to distributing food to help with the issue of food insecurity.
413:
Modern food distribution in the United States is a result of continued growth since the 1960s. In an increasingly connected world, food distribution efforts in the US reach from coast to coast. A network of
442:, voluntary chains, and retailer purchasing associations. Consumer purchasing organizations are groups of families who buy food together. The benefits of joining one of these organizations are the reduced
670:
Several different organizations exist to mitigate and respond to food distribution crises in the United States. Prominent contributors to large-scale food distribution effort in the US include the
503:. Two prominent examples of risk factors' negative effect on a society's food distribution system are the situation in Japan during World War II and Africa during the late 1970s and early 1980s.
544:
programs, ran by Japan's
Central Foodstuff Corporation and Local Foodstuff Corporations, were an attempt to distribute food equally among the general population. Changes in tax collection and
123:
in all societies, and recordings of food distribution date back for thousands of years. Most governments and societies are highly shaped by the systems created to support food distribution.
600:. Colonial policy supported the exportation of goods, even if it meant decreasing the amount of food for the local economy. Components of these colonial policies continued to be used after
499:, and weather conditions. Each of these factors affects individual groups of people differently, but all share the common attribute of being detrimental to local food distribution and
397:
of large-scale supermarkets after the end of World War I. Supermarkets officially began gaining prominence in the 1930s and steadily continued their growth into the post-WWII era.
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accounted for 7% to 8% of the food market in 1930, and an increase in their popularity with independent food distributors rose retail cooperative's market share to 13% by 1958.
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601:
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the distribution of olive oil, as the Empire made contracts with olive oil producers all over the
Mediterranean. Free daily distributions of olive oil were enacted by
270:
was originally organized between 500 and 50 BCE, and gained increasing influence in the centuries to come. The practice of specifically distributing grain to the
206:
Societies prominent after the fall of the Romans continued to deal with the ever-present dilemma of food distribution. The distribution systems of the
753:
Organizations that are founded to target food insecurity have relied on food distribution to serve people in need of regular nutritious foods.
34:
604:
gained their freedom from
European nations. The usage of these failed policies caused malignant consequences on the economic situation of the
624:
The world’s farmers produce enough food to feed 12 billion people, but the inequal food distribution leaves hundreds of millions hungry.
389:
The third and final change to US food distribution in the first half of the 20th century involved the establishment of supermarkets. The
434:
Food distribution in Latin
America is mainly dominated by large distributors and chains. Efforts have been made to compete with the
231:
The traditional Roman diet consisted of grain, fruits, olive oil, meat and wine. Of all these, grain was extremely important to the
1135:
742:
675:
419:
377:. These organizations were founded by groups of individual food distributors who saw the benefits of using chain-style pricing.
451:
that actively works to secure the rights of its consumers. Voluntary chains are organizations of privately owned retailers and
568:, the food distribution crisis of the 1970s and 1980s was a result of a multitude of food distribution risk factors including
962:
438:
of the food distribution system through the establishment of four types of organizations: consumer purchasing organizations,
1277:"Fresh Produce Donations in California: Opportunities for and Challenges to Increasing Volume and Reducing Food Insecurity"
707:
An
American Red Cross volunteer explains a program to people visiting their display during FEMA's Hurricane Awareness Day.
703:
134:, and weather conditions all play a role in determining the efficiency of any food system. Two recent examples of war and
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682:. FEMA and the USDA work together during food distribution crises to coordinate the procurement and transportation of
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As war engulfed Japan after 1941, food distribution efforts began to suffer. Japan lost a tremendous amount of
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ecologically damaging to the local environment and failed to create new areas for growing crops. As a result,
1188:
895:. Mosaburo Hosoda and Yoshio Kusumi. Stanford: Stanford University Press. pp. 45–49, 166–170, 202–204.
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Groups like FEMA, the USDA, and the
Salvation Army could not operate without help from volunteers and small
1333:
423:
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and lower income areas that do not receive priority from large food distribution groups during a crisis.
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One of the largest organizations working to avoiding food distribution crises on the global stage in the
182:. Many Roman rulers and emperors sought to determine the best method of distributing food throughout the
439:
98:
378:
374:
338:
119:
behind food distribution varies by location. Food distribution has been a defining characteristic of
50:
223:. In less developed parts of the world like Latin America, food distribution differs from the US.
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and the
American Rainbow Rapid Response (ARRR). These organizations typically focus on supplying
220:
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1233:"World Has 7.5 Billion People And Produces Food For 12 Billion, But Still Millions Go Hungry!"
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during the late 1970s and early 1980s. In both cases, food distribution was hindered and the
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Prominent risk factors that can affect the food distribution within a society include war,
42:
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changed in time, so too did their leaders’ plans. In the few centuries after the death of
8:
1110:. Rome: Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations. 1994. pp. 1, 8–15.
830:"Chapter 3 - The food system and factors affecting household food security and nutrition"
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486:
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became the administrative term for governmental bread and grain distribution. Over time,
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is one of the four "ABCD" companies that dominate world agricultural commodity trading.
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The first indication of a collective, organized food distribution system within the
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Osland, Travis J.; Baker, Gregory A.; Osland, Travis J.; Baker, Gregory A. (2020).
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362:
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One clear and defined documentation of historical food distribution comes from the
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groups. Prominent contributors to local food disaster efforts include groups like
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657:, and actively works to improve food distribution in countries that need support
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924:. Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations. 2016. Archived from
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365:, but caused little detriment to the success and profitability of the chains.
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There are a multitude of risk factors that can affect food distribution. War,
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Another response to the success of the chain stores was the development of
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426:, manage and sustain the productivity of the US food distribution system.
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Chain stores did not become popular in the United States until the end of
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impacting food distribution includes the decline of food distribution in
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VOLUNTAS: International Journal of Voluntary and Nonprofit Organizations
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278:, gained prominence around 120 BCE and supplemented the efforts of the
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Risk factors affecting food distribution and examples of failed policy
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is the process where a general population is supplied with food. The
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and a lack of state involvement with rural development. Some of the
1215:"Experts say Ukraine war shows we need a new way to feed the world"
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were reduced even further in July 1945, just before the war's end.
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957:. United States of America: SAGE Publications. pp. 225–228.
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came to represent the distribution of all pertinent foods in the
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90:
1138:. Bath Royal Literacy and Scientific Institution. Archived from
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were down, which cut off Japan from its primary source of food.
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836:. Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations. 2016
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522:
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distribution between 1910 and 1960 were the establishment of
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191:
1081:
McNair, Malcolm; Applebaum, William; Salmon, Walter (1964).
1043:. Amsterdam: J.C. Gieben. pp. 1–13, 303, 361, 388–391.
981:
Mook, Laurie; Murdock, Alex; Gundersen, Craig (2020-10-01).
621:, which then in turn negatively affected food distribution.
983:"Food Banking and Food Insecurity in High-Income Countries"
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443:
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system between 8 and 14 CE. He established the position of
1189:"Commodity trader Louis Dreyfus posts higher 2014 profit"
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Low-cost urban food distribution systems in Latin America
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Another group that works out of the United States is the
660:
327:
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525:. Only 2% of Japan's rice came from foreign countries.
294:, Prefect of the Annona. Up to this point in time, the
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1085:. Homewood, Illinois: Richard D. Irwin. pp. 1–9.
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429:
111:(FAO) considers food distribution as a subset of the
1330:
Oceans of Grain: How American Wheat Remade the World
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298:was handled by local government officials called
1340:
459:purchasing of goods, but do not form contracts.
323:Food distribution in the 20th and 21st centuries
676:United States Department of Agriculture (USDA)
641:Logo of the Food and Agriculture Organization.
400:
952:
861:World Recession and the Food Crisis in Africa
393:performed the first experiment regarding the
31:The examples and perspective in this article
1303:"How Do Food Banks Work? | Feeding America"
462:
953:Statler, Matthew; Penuel, Bradley (2011).
665:
588:affecting food distribution included poor
254:. Originally meaning "yearly return", the
998:
741:. The American Red Cross is part of the
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69:Learn how and when to remove this message
893:Japanese Food Management in World War II
890:
858:
702:
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409:Logo of the Food and Drug Administration
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80:
1257:. The American National Red Cross. 2016
1164:"Meal deal; American food distribution"
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863:. London: James Currey. pp. 6–7.
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661:Organizations within the United States
532:and was surrounded by an effective US
368:
328:US food distribution from 1900 to 1960
306:oversaw all transportation, weighing,
154:in these areas consequently suffered.
1281:Journal of Food Distribution Research
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749:Food Distribution and Food Insecurity
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672:Federal Emergency Management Agency
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430:Food distribution in Latin America
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955:Encyclopedia of Disaster Relief
628:Food distribution organizations
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653:). The FAO is a branch of the
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1:
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424:Food and Drug Administration
420:US Department of Agriculture
186:, and as the demands of the
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401:Modern US food distribution
302:. Augustus’ Prefect of the
45:, discuss the issue on the
10:
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1083:Cases in Food Distribution
1000:10.1007/s11266-020-00219-4
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632:
596:can be traced back to the
548:were also created to feed
282:to feed the Roman people.
169:
99:Long Island City, New York
1039:Sirks, Boudewijn (1991).
140:Japan during World War II
1328:Nelson, Scott Reynolds.
1134:Morley, Neville (2005).
891:Johnston, B. F. (1953).
859:Lawrence, Peter (1986).
506:
463:Global food distribution
1289:10.22004/AG.ECON.309027
743:International Red Cross
666:Federal and large-scale
286:officially changed the
226:
1307:www.feedingamerica.org
1136:"Feeding Ancient Rome"
806:Agricultural marketing
727:The American Red Cross
708:
642:
469:Archer Daniels Midland
410:
101:
717:Emergency Communities
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640:
536:for most of the war.
497:political instability
481:Louis Dreyfus Company
440:consumer cooperatives
408:
84:
796:Retail concentration
590:agricultural pricing
51:create a new article
43:improve this article
33:may not represent a
699:Volunteer and local
619:agricultural sector
580:. The heart of the
512:and wheat from its
379:Retail cooperatives
375:retail cooperatives
369:Retail cooperatives
339:retail cooperatives
1349:Transport by cargo
1255:American Red Cross
739:American Red Cross
733:American Red Cross
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684:nonperishable food
643:
594:political problems
582:political problems
578:weather conditions
570:political problems
566:Sub-Saharan Africa
560:Sub-Saharan Africa
554:Rationing programs
411:
391:Ford Motor Company
292:praefectus annonae
148:Sub-Saharan Africa
132:political problems
115:. The process and
102:
97:at a warehouse in
95:refrigerated truck
1251:"Disaster Relief"
1177:– via Gale.
964:978-1-4129-7101-0
602:African countries
586:economic failures
574:economic failures
436:industrialization
105:Food distribution
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78:
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53:, as appropriate.
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1239:. 27 March 2017.
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85:A man using a
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