1967:"With the outbreak of the war, five concessions, two German, two Russian and one Austro-Hungarian – in Tientsin and Hankow – were liquidated and taken over by the Chinese government. Of the remaining fourteen developed concessions, the British held six, the French four, Japan two and Italy and Belgium one each. Between the outbreak of the Nationalist Revolution of 1925 and the beginning of the Sino-Japanese hostilities of 1931, another five concessions were taken over by the Chinese. Britain surrendered her areas in Hankow, Chinkiang, Kiukiang and Amoy, and Belgium in Tientsin. Of the remaining nine concessions – four in Tientsin, one in Shanghai, two in Hankow and two in Shameen (Canton) – four are French, two (in Tientsin and Shameen) are British, two (in Tientsin and Hankow) Japanese, and one (in Tientsin) Italian." Kurt Bloch,
339:
3420:
271:, and various other western commercial institutions sprang up in the concessions. In the case of Japan, its own traditions and language naturally flourished. Some of these concessions eventually had a more advanced architecture of each originating culture than most cities back in the countries of the origin of the foreign powers. Over time, and without formal permission, Britain, France, Japan and the United States established their own postal systems within their concession and trade areas. Following Chinese complaints over the loss of postal revenue and the lack of customs inspections, all of them were abolished at the end of 1922.
3140:
1750:
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3310:
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3126:
251:
ports. In addition to the 23 formally established concessions, Great
Britain, Japan, and the United States were granted rights to concessions in several treaty ports but these rights were never exercised. On the eve of World War II, four Powers still possessed concessions: Great Britain (two, at Canton and Tientsin); Japan (three, at Hangchow, Hankow, and Tientsin); France (four, at Canton, Hankow, Shanghai, and Tientsin); and Italy (one, at Tientsin). For his part, Kurt Bloch listed a total of 19 established national concessions.
3175:
3475:
217:, Gong Muiju, to designate an area for their establishment there. This dovetailed with the Daotai's intentions, since following two violent incidents between local Chinese and foreigners, he had endeavored to limit contacts between Chinese and foreigners. This was formalized in 1845 with the delimitation of a segregated area north of Yangjingbang, a creek that ran north of the Chinese city. Later that year Gong Muiju and Balfour concluded an agreement called the Land Regulations (
25:
3200:
122:
3412:
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247:(1899–1901). While the settlements at Shanghai had been set up in cooperation with the local authorities and with the tacit, but not explicit, consent of the central Chinese government, the concessions that were established later had a more definitive treaty basis and their development as well as the extension of their boundaries has been regularized by agreements with the Chinese government.
319:(1899–1901) would lead to participants being rewarded with concessions taken from the Qing dynasty, in the years following the conflict. It also led the foreign powers to station barracks and troops in the existing concessions, especially Tianjin, and increased the immigration of entire families to the concessions.
2448:
The circumstances surrounding the eventual abolition of extraterritoriality in China are full of ironies. The
Japanese, who had given the treaty port system a "new lease on life" in the wake of the First Sino-Japanese War, would render the practice inoperative in large parts of the country following
282:
Each concession also had its own police force and different legal jurisdictions with their own separate laws. Thus, an activity might be legal in one concession but illegal in another. Many of the concessions also maintained their own military garrison and a standing army. Military and police forces
239:
Local French representatives had agreed to amalgamate the French settlement with the other two but this was not accepted by the French
Government and, as a consequence, a French concession was to exist alongside the International Settlement until World War II. The International Settlement began with
196:
between China and Great
Britain stated that "British Subjects, with their families and establishments, shall be allowed to reside, for the purpose of carrying on their mercantile pursuits, without molestation or restraint at the cities and towns of Canton, Amoy, Foochow-fu, Ningpo and Shanghai", but
250:
An inventory of all the concessions along with a survey of their status done by W. C. Johnstone in 1937 shows that, aside from the two international settlements at
Shanghai and Kulangsu (Amoy), there had been grants by the Chinese government of 23 national concessions to eight nations in 10 Chinese
240:
the 138 acres of the
British settlement, which was increased to 470 acres in 1848. The addition of the American area and a number of subsequent additions brought the total area to 5,584 acres. Including the 2,525 acres of French Concession, the total area was eventually to reach 12.66 square miles.
401:
within the cities. Underdeveloped economies under a foreign government led many laborers without opportunities to be recruited by triads, who developed a subculture inspired by other eras that China was under foreign domination. Secret societies controlled drug trade, gambling, and prostitution in
2731:
After the Sino-Japanese War, Japan had won jurisdiction over concessions in ports such as
Tianjin, Mukden, Hankou, Hangzhou, Suzhou, Shashi, and Chongqing. Those at Tianjin and Hankou were seen by the Japanese Government as 'developed' concessions, while those at Suzhou, Hangzhou, and Chongqing
567:
On
January 10, 1902, the consuls of Great Britain, the United States, Germany, France, Italy, Spain, Denmark, the Netherlands, Sweden-Norway, Japan and other eight countries signed the "Gulangyu delimitation charter" in the Kulangyu Japanese Consulate. Subsequently, in January 1903, the Kulangsu
236:, although it was not to be delineated until 1863. In September of the same year, the British and American settlements were amalgamated into a single Foreign Settlement. A Municipal Council, officially known as "The Council for the Foreign Community of Shanghai", was established.
197:
nothing was said, including in the supplementary treaty of the following year, about separate residential areas for foreigners in those ports, let alone their right to govern themselves. However, the imperial commissioner who had negotiated the supplementary treaty reported to the
371:
in the 1920s, the concessions saw a sharp increase in immigration both from surrounding
Chinese territory, and from the West and Japan. The population of Chinese residents eventually surpassed foreigners inside the concessions. With international travelers, culture took on an
2449:
their full-scale invasion of China in 1937. Later, as the
Japanese government and the Allies were clamoring to win the support of the Chinese, extraterritoriality was officially abolished in both the Nationalist and Japanese-occupied areas with great fanfare in early 1943.
209:, that is, a system that strictly confined foreigners to a segregated zone that also was off-limit to Chinese subjects. At Shanghai, there was initially an attempt by imperial officials to keep the foreigners out as much as possible and the first British consul, Captain
385:
In major cities like Shanghai and Tianjin, due to the existence of numerous jurisdictions, criminals could commit a crime in one jurisdiction and then easily escape to another. This became a major problem during the Republican period, with the rise of the post–Imperial
2759:"CHINA'S GRANTS TO RUSSIA; Leases of Port Arthur and Talien-wan and the Railway Concession Signed at Pekin. CONTROL TO BE GIVEN TO-DAY China to Retain Sovereign Rights, but Russia to Take the Forts and Collect the Customs – A New Treaty Port"
545:
Covering some 3 acres and including 11 foreign embassies, the entire Legation Quarter was considered foreign sovereign ground and was off limits for Chinese citizens who were not allowed to take up residency within the legation grounds
376:
character of many influences—including both language and architecture. This effect was exemplified in the Shanghai International Settlement and the multi-concessions in Tianjin. Writings from the time period indicate that both the
381:
and Russians were seen as acting culturally British. The wealthy built opulent buildings with multiple European and Chinese inspirations. Some Chinese entrepreneurs became very wealthy and hired foreign designers and architects.
3104:
205:), an intent however that was not clearly stated in the English-language version of the treaty. The Qing rulers, by wishing to confine the "barbarians" to an officially designated special zone, hoped to resurrect the old
523:
Formed from the British and American concessions. It was initially ruled by: Austria-Hungary, Denmark, France, Italy, The Netherlands, Norway-Sweden, Portugal, Russia, Spain, the United Kingdom, and the United States.
473:. Italy surrendered its special treaty rights, including its concession at Tientsin, and rights in the international settlements at Shanghai and Amoy (Xiamen) in its peace treaty with the Allies in 1945.
228:, the French consul at Shanghai, and the Daotai Lin’gui agreed in 1849 that a French settlement be established on a strip of land between the Chinese city and the British settlement. The American consul
213:, could not even find a house for the consulate upon his arrival in 1843. The British finally decided to locate themselves in the northern suburbs of the walled Chinese city and they asked the
1846:"The treaties that followed the Opium Wars only gave foreigners the right to reside in the newly-opened ports and said nothing about separate foreign settlements as such." P. K. Cassel,
3633:
3111:
2840:
447:
World War II would spell the end for the concessions in Tianjin, as well as extraterritoriality as a whole. While Japanese forces avoided attacking foreign concessions prior to the
274:
The Shanghai International Settlement became a major place of refuge for European immigrants, notably from Slavic and Baltic regions, and American travelers and displaced persons.
243:
Additional foreign concessions were set up in other treaty ports especially following the 1858 and 1860 Anglo-Chinese treaties, and from the mid-1890s to 1902, following the
201:
that by signing the treaty he had successfully arranged that in the treaty ports "the boundaries of an area should be designated which foreigners are not allowed to exceed" (
393:
Some efforts were made by the foreign powers to have the different police forces cooperate and work together, but not with significant success. The image of gangsters and
232:
was dissatisfied with the fact that the British and the French had obtained the best plots of land in the area, and after lengthy deliberations, the Americans established
425:—who pushed foreign powers such as Britain to return some of their concessions from 1925 to 1927—to turn against his former Soviet ally in 1927, seizing Soviet
2512:
3449:
2758:
1210:
1833:"However, not a single word on concession was found in the treaties, not to mention its establishment and government." Wanshu Cong, Frédéric Mégret,
137:
1859:"The Chinese version of the Bogue Treaty actually carried this wording, but the tone was not clearly reflected in the English version". Hanchao Hu,
356:
would be another major incident changing the ownership of concessions in China with Japanese expansion. Concessions were partially curtailed in the
3097:
390:
and the collapse of central authority in the 1920s and the 1930s. Crime often flourished, especially organized crime by different warlord groups.
2416:
3016:
3398:
2921:
402:
Shanghai. Western outlaws also created organized crime groups, in one instance creating an "orientalist mini crime empire" in 1930s Shanghai.
3259:
42:
1983:
89:
2653:
61:
3628:
2009:
440:(1937–1945), the standing army in the Japanese concessions would be used against the Chinese forces. However the inland concession of
338:
3084:
2312:
68:
353:
3608:
3184:
944:
578:
2489:
1547:
75:
3001:
2897:
2716:
2568:
2538:
2472:
2441:
2375:
2348:
2296:
2269:
2242:
2210:
2183:
2106:
2076:
2019:
1173:
800:
709:
2642:
The concession was commercial (M. Marinelli. "Italy’s Encounters with Modern China: Imperial Dreams, Strategic Ambitions")
57:
462:
Shanghai's status as a safe haven ended, as Jews who sought refuge in the city from 1933 to 1941, were forced into the
2631:
3159:
3149:
3068:
1523:
1470:
551:
507:
452:
347:
145:
108:
3234:
1793:
409:
to 1927, diplomats of the Soviet Union would promise to revoke concessions in China, but the Soviets secretly kept
2040:
3603:
3289:
1924:
Bulletin of International News, Vol. 14, No. 12 (Dec. 11, 1937), Royal Institute of International Affairs, p. 5.
259:
In these concessions, the citizens of each foreign power were given the right to freely inhabit, trade, perform
3643:
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3613:
3574:
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3512:
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1530:
1506:
1348:
825:
233:
46:
3598:
3538:
3527:
3459:
3329:
3209:
3033:
1773:
1453:
1307:
1107:
729:
601:
308:
214:
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evangelization, and travel. They developed their own sub-cultures, isolated and distinct from the intrinsic
3381:
3294:
3244:
1768:
890:
466:
in 1943, most survived the war due to the deeply established community with Chinese residents before 1941.
291:
Several wars would lead to the creation of colonial concessions taken from Qing China. These included the
82:
3239:
1169:
689:
430:
210:
3254:
2744:
1798:
644:
283:
of the Chinese government were sometimes present. Some police forces allowed Chinese, others did not.
3377:
3372:
2586:"The genesis of the Italian concession in Tianjin: a combination of wishful thinking and realpolitik"
911:
886:
759:
3618:
529:
437:
429:. The Soviets would later fight an armed conflict to keep control over the Chinese Eastern Railway
267:, and colonial administrations attempted to give their concessions "homeland" qualities. Churches,
229:
367:
Many foreigners arrived in the cities aiming primarily to get rich. During the first phase of the
141:
3429:
3419:
3194:
3154:
2433:
Grounds of Judgment: Extraterritoriality and Imperial Power in Nineteenth-Century China and Japan
1148:
936:
414:
357:
304:
35:
3139:
1987:
322:
Wars that changed the ownership of existing concessions between the foreign powers included the
3219:
2041:"Visa Investigation Records of the Shanghai Diaspora Communities, 1946–1951 – About the Series"
1778:
448:
3623:
2991:
2558:
2528:
2392:
2230:
342:
The Hong Kong and Shanghai Bank, built in 1923 and The Customs House, built in 1927, Shanghai
312:
1186:
2393:"[Plan of Tianjin, China with Foreign Concessions] Tianjin di tu / Map of Tientsin"
1822:
2340:
Diplomacy and Deception: The Secret History of Sino-Soviet Diplomatic Relations, 1917–1927
8:
1198:
470:
398:
323:
225:
164:
160:
148:, which were governed and occupied by foreign powers, and are frequently associated with
3559:
1835:
International Shanghai (1863–1931): Imperialism and private authority in the Global City
1824:, Journal of Comparative Legislation and International Law, Vol. 21, No 1 (1939), p. 39.
2972:
2964:
2937:"The Soviet Union's Secret Diplomacy Concerning the Chinese Eastern Railway, 1924–1925"
2915:
2868:
2821:
2738:
2711:. Chiharu Inaba, J. W. M. Chapman. Folkestone, UK: Global Oriental. 2007. p. 187.
2613:
2154:
1783:
1215:
1202:
915:
406:
378:
327:
3274:
1938:
3496:
3064:
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2813:
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2605:
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2437:
2410:
2371:
2344:
2292:
2265:
2238:
2206:
2179:
2146:
2102:
2072:
2015:
1299:
1258:
1238:
368:
361:
193:
3344:
3309:
3125:
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2852:
2803:
2597:
2524:
2138:
1788:
1763:
1495:
932:
820:
296:
189:
3387:
3339:
3169:
2887:
2706:
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2431:
2365:
2338:
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1234:
1057:
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881:
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316:
300:
292:
264:
244:
3174:
3119:
3517:
3469:
3438:
3304:
3048:
2585:
1282:
1274:
1082:
1072:
410:
185:
3454:
2856:
1935:
The Status of Foreign Concessions and Settlements in the Treaty Ports of China
1181:
397:
connected with the major cities and concessions of the period is often due to
3592:
3554:
3474:
3269:
2960:
2907:
2864:
2817:
2808:
2791:
2770:
2726:
2609:
2150:
1733:
754:
394:
206:
1555:
Additionally, there were more concessions were planned but never completed.
1940:
The American Political Science Review, Vol. 31, No. 5 (Oct. 1937), p. 946).
1755:
1099:
1077:
624:
268:
198:
126:
2632:
Italy’s Encounters with Modern China: Imperial Dreams, Strategic Ambitions
1861:
Beyond the Neon Lights - Everyday Shanghai in the Early Twentieth Century
387:
373:
168:
153:
149:
2068:
Beyond the Amur: Frontier Encounters between China and Russia, 1850–1930
1922:
2968:
2936:
2158:
2126:
260:
221:), which set forth the institutional basis for the British settlement.
2708:
Rethinking the Russo-Japanese War, 1904-5. Vol. 2, The Nichinan papers
1971:
3544:
3533:
3507:
3355:
2098:
Harbin to Hanoi: The Colonial Built Environment in Asia, 1840 to 1940
1478:
1399:
1394:
1374:
1369:
1243:
993:
988:
674:
669:
629:
456:
441:
418:
2952:
2288:
City of Devils: The Two Men Who Ruled the Underworld of Old Shanghai
2142:
749:
After the French, WWII saw a significant influx of American troops.
469:
In 1943 Italy surrendered its treaty rights in cooperation with the
24:
3361:
3324:
1511:
1458:
1353:
1036:
1031:
848:
649:
512:
426:
3199:
1277:
remained under British control as a separate territory until 1940
3522:
3411:
3249:
3224:
1720:
1715:
1704:
1699:
1675:
1670:
1633:
1628:
1607:
1602:
1594:
1589:
1581:
1576:
1535:
1390:
1312:
1112:
949:
920:
830:
805:
764:
738:
733:
714:
665:
606:
583:
534:
2989:
2235:
The Shanghai Green Gang: Politics and Organized Crime, 1919–1937
1973:, Far Eastern Survey, Vol. 8, No. 10 (May 10, 1939), p. 113–114.
121:
3502:
3491:
3444:
3433:
3393:
3367:
3284:
1691:
1686:
1662:
1657:
1649:
1644:
1484:
1438:
1420:
1333:
1328:
1287:
1263:
1157:
1152:
1133:
1128:
1087:
1015:
1010:
971:
966:
895:
866:
785:
780:
694:
556:
2792:"Sino-Soviet City: Dalian between Socialist Worlds, 1945–1955"
2397:
Barry Lawrence Ruderman Map Collection – Spotlight at Stanford
2390:
171:. All the concessions have been dissolved in the present day.
2523:
931:
Acquisition from Germany was acknowledged by China in 1915,
3485:
3319:
2313:"These Rogue Gangsters Ruled the Streets of 1930s Shanghai"
2127:"Japan's "Special Interests" and the Washington Conference"
1620:
1615:
1415:
568:
International Settlement Municipal Council was established
2258:
Kelly, Robert J.; Chin, Ko-lin; Schatzberg, Rufus (1994).
2175:
International Relations and the Origins of the Pacific War
444:
was abandoned by the Japanese as they began the invasion.
2467:. The Chinese University of Hong Kong Press. p. 21.
1837:, Leiden Journal of International Law (2021, 34), p. 918.
2530:
Foreigners and Foreign Institutions in Republican China
2205:. Enrich Professional Publishing Limited. p. 139.
2014:. Enrich Professional Publishing (S) Private, Limited.
179:
3634:
Foreign relations of the Republic of China (1912–1949)
2990:
Fiona de Londras; Siobhán Mullally (4 December 2014).
2101:. Hong Kong University Press. pp. 95–96, 98–100.
1819:
The Status of the International Settlement at Shanghai
346:
The foreign concessions continued to exist during the
2654:"The Surprisingly Important Role China Played in WWI"
1969:
The Basic Conflict Over Foreign Concessions in China,
234:
their own settlement in Hongkew northeast of Shanghai
2391:
University, © Stanford; Stanford; California 94305.
1745:
1494:
Still standing, with bullet holes. British diplomat
3085:
Treaty ports and extraterritoriality in 1920s China
2983:
2889:
The 1929 Sino-Soviet war : the war nobody knew
2257:
1004:Abandoned at outbreak of Second Sino-Japanese War.
354:
The Asia and Pacific theatre of the First World War
49:. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.
2490:"How China saved more than 20,000 Jews during WW2"
2367:The Geography of China: Sacred and Historic Places
3061:The China Coast: Trade and the First Treaty Ports
1498:was murdered here in 1875. Consulate built 1921.
364:attempting to reaffirm the sovereignty of China.
3590:
2556:
2370:. The Rosen Publishing Group, Inc. p. 247.
2261:Handbook of Organized Crime in the United States
2095:Victoir, Laura; Zatsepine, Victor (2013-01-01).
2094:
1863:, University of California Press (1999), p. 31.
2517:
2513:Treaty ports& extraterritoriality in China
3105:
2436:. Oxford University Press, USA. p. 179.
2224:
2222:
471:Japanese controlled puppet Nanking government
188:was an indirect offshoot of the 19th century
3017:San Men bay and the start of Boxer rebellion
2841:"Imagining the Russian Concession in Hankou"
2464:A Time and A Tide: Charles K. Kao ─ A Memoir
2343:. M.E. Sharpe. pp. 134, 165, 168, 174.
421:, barracks, and Orthodox churches. This led
2552:
2550:
2415:: CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (
2264:. Greenwood Publishing Group. p. 234.
451:, afterwards they invaded and occupied the
333:
3112:
3098:
2920:: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (
2879:
2563:. Hong Kong University Press. p. 28.
2219:
1168:Re-occupied by the Soviet Union after the
2807:
2583:
2487:
2202:Unequal Treaties and China (2-Volume Set)
2064:
109:Learn how and when to remove this message
2838:
2651:
2560:Wartime Macau: Under the Japanese Shadow
2547:
2363:
2198:
2007:
1949:William C. Johnstone (1937), p. 943–944.
1850:, Oxford University Press (2012), p. 64.
1211:Russian concession of Liaodong Peninsula
337:
184:The emergence of foreign concessions in
120:
3063:. Hong Kong: Joint Publishing Company.
2934:
2336:
982:Kept by Japan until WWII capitulation.
960:Kept by Japan until WWII capitulation.
935:was held until 1922, ceded to China in
3591:
3185:Austro-Hungarian concession of Tianjin
2885:
2429:
2284:
2228:
579:Austro-Hungarian concession of Tianjin
476:
16:European spheres of influence in China
3093:
3058:
3053:Asia and Western dominance, 1498–1945
2996:. Bloomsbury Publishing. p. 24.
2701:
2699:
2697:
2430:Cassel, Par Kristoffer (2012-01-11).
2171:
2124:
2120:
2118:
2090:
2088:
2035:
2033:
2031:
2011:Unequal Treaties and China (Volume 1)
1958:William C. Johnstone (1937), p. 943).
1730:Italian concession in Sanmen islands
3523:British concession of Shamian Island
2789:
2557:Geoffrey C. Gunn (1 November 2016).
180:Emergence of the foreign concessions
47:adding citations to reliable sources
18:
3250:French concession of Shamian Island
2993:Irish Yearbook of International Law
2460:
13:
3042:
2928:
2694:
2678:"Chongqing – History | Britannica"
2584:Marinelli, Maurizio (2010-09-01).
2237:. University of California Press.
2115:
2085:
2028:
14:
3655:
3160:Shanghai International Settlement
3150:Kulangsu International Settlement
3078:
2590:Journal of Modern Italian Studies
1524:Shanghai International Settlement
1471:Shanghai International Settlement
552:Kulangsu International Settlement
508:Shanghai International Settlement
453:Shanghai International Settlement
3558:
3473:
3418:
3410:
3343:
3308:
3273:
3235:Leased Territory of Guangzhouwan
3223:
3198:
3173:
3138:
3124:
2065:Zatsepine, Victor (2017-03-09).
1984:"U.S. Postal Agency in Shanghai"
1881:P. K. Cassel (2012), p. 64.
1794:Chinese Maritime Customs Service
1748:
23:
3290:Kiautschou Bay Leased Territory
3027:
3010:
2832:
2783:
2751:
2670:
2645:
2636:
2630:The concession was commercial (
2624:
2577:
2506:
2481:
2454:
2423:
2384:
2357:
2330:
2305:
2278:
2251:
2229:Martin, Brian G. (1996-04-15).
2192:
2165:
2058:
2001:
1976:
1961:
1952:
1943:
1927:
1919:The Internal Status of Shanghai
1911:
1507:American concession of Shanghai
912:Kiautschou Bay leased territory
845:Italian Concession of Shanghai
760:Kiautschou Bay leased territory
224:Following the British example,
34:needs additional citations for
3575:American concession of Tianjin
3570:American Concession (Shanghai)
3528:British concession of Shanghai
3513:British Concession of Jiujiang
3399:Japanese concession of Tianjin
3325:Italian concession of Shanghai
2790:Hess, Christian (2018-01-01).
2461:Kao, Charles K. (2010-12-20).
2131:The American Historical Review
2008:Jianlang, Wang (22 May 2015).
1902:
1893:
1884:
1875:
1866:
1853:
1840:
1827:
1811:
1531:American concession of Tianjin
1489:Late 19th/early 20th century.
1454:British concession of Shanghai
1349:British Concession of Jiujiang
945:Japanese concession of Tianjin
167:inside key cities that became
58:"Foreign concessions in China"
1:
3629:Republic of China (1912–1949)
3609:European colonisation in Asia
3539:British concession of Tianjin
3460:Russian concession of Tianjin
3330:Italian concession of Tianjin
3210:Belgian concession of Tianjin
3055:, London: G. Allen and Unwin.
2199:Jianlang, Wang (2015-11-27).
1908:Fraser (1939), pp. 29, 42–43.
1804:
1774:Chinese concession of Incheon
1548:British concession in Tianjin
1435:British concession of Dalian
1308:British concession of Tianjin
1108:Russian concession of Tianjin
826:Italian concession of Tianjin
645:French concession of Shanghai
602:Belgian concession of Tianjin
309:Russian invasion of Manchuria
254:
140:that existed during the late
3382:South Manchuria Railway Zone
3295:German concession of Tianjin
3260:French concession of Tianjin
3121:Foreign concessions in China
2941:The Journal of Asian Studies
2602:10.1080/1354571X.2010.501975
1769:List of Chinese treaty ports
891:South Manchuria Railway Zone
801:German concession of Tianjin
710:French concession of Tianjin
134:Foreign concessions in China
7:
3285:German concession of Hankou
3240:French concession of Hankou
2886:Walker, Michael M. (2017).
2285:French, Paul (2018-07-03).
1890:P. K. Cassel (2012), p. 64.
1741:
863:Italian Concession of Amoy
690:French concession of Hankou
10:
3660:
3320:Italian concession of Amoy
3255:Shanghai French Concession
2935:Elleman, Bruce A. (1994).
2732:were called 'undeveloped'.
2364:Pletcher, Kenneth (2010).
2337:Elleman, Bruce A. (1997).
1799:Tangier International Zone
1300:Weihaiwei leased territory
1259:Weihaiwei leased territory
1230:
350:of the Republic of China.
174:
125:Territorial losses of the
3553:
3468:
3407:
3378:Kwantung Leased Territory
3373:Kiautschou Bay concession
3338:
3303:
3268:
3218:
3193:
3168:
3135:
3034:Battle of Beiping–Tianjin
2857:10.1017/S0018246X17000528
2533:. Routledge. p. 27.
2178:. Springer. p. 108.
1872:Hanchao Hu (1999), p. 31.
1681:
1639:
1571:
1502:
1170:1929 Sino-Soviet conflict
1071:
887:Kwantung Leased Territory
880:
819:
753:
620:
503:
203:yiding jiezhi, buxu yuyue
3245:Kunming–Haiphong railway
2809:10.1177/0096144217710234
2796:Journal of Urban History
2652:Boissoneault, Lorraine.
2527:; Douglas Brown (2013).
2172:Unoki, Ko (2016-04-08).
530:Beijing Legation Quarter
438:Second Sino-Japanese War
413:concessions such as the
334:Republic of China period
219:Shanghai zudi zhangcheng
3430:Chinese Eastern Railway
3392:Japanese concession of
3386:Japanese concession of
3366:Japanese concession of
3360:Japanese concession of
3354:Japanese concession of
3155:Peking Legation Quarter
2839:Crawford, Alan (2018).
2231:"The French Connection"
1714:American concession of
1669:Japanese concession of
1656:Japanese concession of
1643:Japanese concession of
1567:Location (modern name)
1197:Acquired from Japan in
1149:Chinese Eastern Railway
1051:Japanese concession of
1030:Japanese concession of
1009:Japanese concession of
987:Japanese concession of
965:Japanese concession of
937:Washington Naval Treaty
490:Location (modern name)
415:Chinese Eastern Railway
358:Washington Naval Treaty
305:First Sino-Japanese War
286:
277:
3604:Concession territories
3543:British concession of
3501:British concession of
3490:British concession of
3484:British concession of
3443:Russian concession of
3059:Nield, Robert (2010).
2845:The Historical Journal
2743:: CS1 maint: others (
1933:William C. Johnstone,
1779:Century of humiliation
1627:British concession of
1614:British concession of
1601:British concession of
1588:British concession of
1575:British concession of
1477:Trading warehouses at
1414:British concession of
1389:British concession of
1368:British concession of
1327:British concession of
1127:Russian concession of
906:Obtained from Russia.
449:attack on Pearl Harbor
343:
315:'s suppression of the
130:
3644:20th century in China
3639:19th century in China
3614:Enclaves and exclaves
3532:British consulate of
2125:Asada, Sadao (1961).
1698:French concession of
1685:French concession of
1226:Included Port Arthur
779:German concession of
664:French concession of
341:
313:Eight Nation Alliance
124:
3599:Concessions in China
2892:. Lawrence, Kansas.
2658:Smithsonian Magazine
1848:Grounds for Judgment
436:At the start of the
159:The concessions had
43:improve this article
1564:Planned concession
1199:Triple Intervention
1098:Re-occupied by the
477:List of concessions
399:extraterritoriality
324:Triple Intervention
226:Charles de Montigny
161:extraterritoriality
3450:Liaodong Peninsula
2763:The New York Times
2682:www.britannica.com
2488:O'Connell, Ronan.
1784:Scramble for China
1203:Russo-Japanese War
1187:LĂĽshunkou District
916:Shandong Peninsula
407:Karakhan Manifesto
344:
328:Russo-Japanese War
131:
3583:
3582:
3497:British Weihaiwei
3003:978-1-84946-975-3
2899:978-0-7006-2375-4
2718:978-90-04-21332-6
2570:978-988-8390-51-9
2540:978-0-415-52865-8
2474:978-962-996-972-1
2443:978-0-19-979205-4
2377:978-1-61530-134-8
2350:978-0-7656-0142-1
2298:978-1-250-17058-3
2271:978-0-313-28366-6
2244:978-0-520-91643-2
2212:978-1-62320-119-7
2185:978-1-137-57202-8
2108:978-988-8139-42-2
2078:978-0-7748-3412-4
2045:National Archives
2021:978-1-62320-066-4
1739:
1738:
1553:
1552:
1298:Formerly part of
493:Year established
369:Chinese Civil War
362:Nine Power Treaty
307:(1894–1895), and
194:Treaty of Nanking
146:Republic of China
119:
118:
111:
93:
3651:
3563:
3562:
3478:
3477:
3423:
3422:
3415:
3414:
3348:
3347:
3313:
3312:
3278:
3277:
3228:
3227:
3203:
3202:
3178:
3177:
3143:
3142:
3129:
3128:
3114:
3107:
3100:
3091:
3090:
3074:
3036:
3031:
3019:
3014:
3008:
3007:
2987:
2981:
2980:
2932:
2926:
2925:
2919:
2911:
2883:
2877:
2876:
2836:
2830:
2829:
2811:
2787:
2781:
2780:
2778:
2777:
2755:
2749:
2748:
2742:
2734:
2703:
2692:
2691:
2689:
2688:
2674:
2668:
2667:
2665:
2664:
2649:
2643:
2640:
2634:
2628:
2622:
2621:
2581:
2575:
2574:
2554:
2545:
2544:
2525:Anne-Marie Brady
2521:
2515:
2510:
2504:
2503:
2501:
2500:
2485:
2479:
2478:
2458:
2452:
2451:
2427:
2421:
2420:
2414:
2406:
2404:
2403:
2388:
2382:
2381:
2361:
2355:
2354:
2334:
2328:
2327:
2325:
2324:
2309:
2303:
2302:
2282:
2276:
2275:
2255:
2249:
2248:
2226:
2217:
2216:
2196:
2190:
2189:
2169:
2163:
2162:
2122:
2113:
2112:
2092:
2083:
2082:
2062:
2056:
2055:
2053:
2052:
2037:
2026:
2025:
2005:
1999:
1998:
1996:
1995:
1986:. Archived from
1980:
1974:
1965:
1959:
1956:
1950:
1947:
1941:
1931:
1925:
1915:
1909:
1906:
1900:
1897:
1891:
1888:
1882:
1879:
1873:
1870:
1864:
1857:
1851:
1844:
1838:
1831:
1825:
1815:
1789:Sick man of Asia
1764:Unequal treaties
1758:
1753:
1752:
1751:
1558:
1557:
1496:Augustus Margary
1174:returned in 1952
481:
480:
297:Second Opium War
190:unequal treaties
136:were a group of
114:
107:
103:
100:
94:
92:
51:
27:
19:
3659:
3658:
3654:
3653:
3652:
3650:
3649:
3648:
3619:Former enclaves
3589:
3588:
3586:
3584:
3579:
3557:
3549:
3472:
3464:
3417:
3416:/ Soviet Union
3409:
3403:
3342:
3334:
3307:
3299:
3272:
3264:
3222:
3214:
3197:
3189:
3172:
3170:Austria-Hungary
3164:
3137:
3131:
3123:
3118:
3081:
3071:
3049:Panikkar, K. M.
3045:
3043:Further reading
3040:
3039:
3032:
3028:
3023:
3022:
3015:
3011:
3004:
2988:
2984:
2953:10.2307/2059842
2933:
2929:
2913:
2912:
2900:
2884:
2880:
2837:
2833:
2788:
2784:
2775:
2773:
2757:
2756:
2752:
2736:
2735:
2719:
2705:
2704:
2695:
2686:
2684:
2676:
2675:
2671:
2662:
2660:
2650:
2646:
2641:
2637:
2629:
2625:
2582:
2578:
2571:
2555:
2548:
2541:
2522:
2518:
2511:
2507:
2498:
2496:
2486:
2482:
2475:
2459:
2455:
2444:
2428:
2424:
2408:
2407:
2401:
2399:
2389:
2385:
2378:
2362:
2358:
2351:
2335:
2331:
2322:
2320:
2311:
2310:
2306:
2299:
2283:
2279:
2272:
2256:
2252:
2245:
2227:
2220:
2213:
2197:
2193:
2186:
2170:
2166:
2143:10.2307/1846262
2123:
2116:
2109:
2093:
2086:
2079:
2063:
2059:
2050:
2048:
2039:
2038:
2029:
2022:
2006:
2002:
1993:
1991:
1982:
1981:
1977:
1966:
1962:
1957:
1953:
1948:
1944:
1932:
1928:
1916:
1912:
1907:
1903:
1898:
1894:
1889:
1885:
1880:
1876:
1871:
1867:
1858:
1854:
1845:
1841:
1832:
1828:
1816:
1812:
1807:
1754:
1749:
1747:
1744:
1572:United Kingdom
1546:Merged to form
1522:Merged to form
1469:Merged to form
1235:New Territories
1231:United Kingdom
1076:
574:Austria-Hungary
496:Year dissolved
479:
464:Shanghai Ghetto
423:Chiang Kai-Shek
395:Triad societies
348:mainland period
336:
326:(1895) and the
317:Boxer Rebellion
301:Sino-French War
293:First Opium War
289:
280:
265:Chinese culture
257:
245:Boxer Rebellion
182:
177:
115:
104:
98:
95:
52:
50:
40:
28:
17:
12:
11:
5:
3657:
3647:
3646:
3641:
3636:
3631:
3626:
3621:
3616:
3611:
3606:
3601:
3581:
3580:
3578:
3577:
3572:
3566:
3564:
3551:
3550:
3548:
3547:
3541:
3536:
3530:
3525:
3520:
3518:Liugong Island
3515:
3510:
3505:
3499:
3494:
3488:
3481:
3479:
3470:United Kingdom
3466:
3465:
3463:
3462:
3457:
3452:
3447:
3441:
3439:Russian Dalian
3436:
3426:
3424:
3405:
3404:
3402:
3401:
3396:
3390:
3384:
3375:
3370:
3364:
3358:
3351:
3349:
3336:
3335:
3333:
3332:
3327:
3322:
3316:
3314:
3301:
3300:
3298:
3297:
3292:
3287:
3281:
3279:
3266:
3265:
3263:
3262:
3257:
3252:
3247:
3242:
3237:
3231:
3229:
3216:
3215:
3213:
3212:
3206:
3204:
3191:
3190:
3188:
3187:
3181:
3179:
3166:
3165:
3163:
3162:
3157:
3152:
3146:
3144:
3136:International
3133:
3132:
3117:
3116:
3109:
3102:
3094:
3088:
3087:
3080:
3079:External links
3077:
3076:
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3044:
3041:
3038:
3037:
3025:
3024:
3021:
3020:
3009:
3002:
2982:
2947:(2): 459–486.
2927:
2898:
2878:
2851:(4): 969–989.
2831:
2782:
2765:. 1898-03-28.
2750:
2717:
2693:
2669:
2644:
2635:
2623:
2596:(4): 536–556.
2576:
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2473:
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2319:. 21 June 2018
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1901:
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1817:C. F. Fraser,
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1711:United States
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1503:United States
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1279:
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1275:Liugong Island
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1172:. Railway was
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1139:
1136:
1131:
1124:
1123:
1121:
1118:
1115:
1110:
1104:
1103:
1102:in 1945–1950.
1096:
1093:
1090:
1085:
1083:Russian Dalian
1080:
1069:
1068:
1066:
1063:
1060:
1055:
1048:
1047:
1045:
1042:
1039:
1034:
1027:
1026:
1024:
1021:
1018:
1013:
1006:
1005:
1002:
999:
996:
991:
984:
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980:
977:
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952:
947:
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929:
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741:
736:
730:French Railway
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712:
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625:Kwang-Chou-Wan
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504:International
501:
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494:
491:
488:
485:
478:
475:
405:From the 1919
335:
332:
288:
285:
279:
276:
256:
253:
211:George Balfour
186:Imperial China
181:
178:
176:
173:
142:Imperial China
117:
116:
31:
29:
22:
15:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
3656:
3645:
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3640:
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3110:
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3072:
3070:9789620429873
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3035:
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3026:
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417:, as well as
416:
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370:
365:
363:
359:
355:
351:
349:
340:
331:
330:(1904–1905).
329:
325:
320:
318:
314:
310:
306:
303:(1884–1885),
302:
299:(1856–1860),
298:
295:(1839–1842),
294:
284:
275:
272:
270:
269:public houses
266:
262:
252:
248:
246:
241:
237:
235:
231:
230:George Seward
227:
222:
220:
216:
212:
208:
207:Canton system
204:
200:
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191:
187:
172:
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166:
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110:
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91:
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84:
81:
77:
74:
70:
67:
63:
60: –
59:
55:
54:Find sources:
48:
44:
38:
37:
32:This article
30:
26:
21:
20:
3624:Qing dynasty
3585:
3120:
3060:
3052:
3029:
3012:
2992:
2985:
2944:
2940:
2930:
2888:
2881:
2848:
2844:
2834:
2799:
2795:
2785:
2774:. Retrieved
2762:
2753:
2730:
2707:
2685:. Retrieved
2681:
2672:
2661:. Retrieved
2657:
2647:
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2626:
2593:
2589:
2579:
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2529:
2519:
2508:
2497:. Retrieved
2493:
2483:
2463:
2456:
2447:
2432:
2425:
2400:. Retrieved
2396:
2386:
2366:
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2339:
2332:
2321:. Retrieved
2317:www.vice.com
2316:
2307:
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2260:
2253:
2234:
2201:
2194:
2174:
2167:
2137:(1): 62–70.
2134:
2130:
2097:
2067:
2060:
2049:. Retrieved
2047:. 2016-08-15
2044:
2010:
2003:
1992:. Retrieved
1988:the original
1978:
1968:
1963:
1954:
1945:
1934:
1929:
1918:
1913:
1904:
1895:
1886:
1877:
1868:
1860:
1855:
1847:
1842:
1834:
1829:
1818:
1813:
1756:China portal
1554:
1100:Soviet Union
1078:Soviet Union
468:
461:
446:
435:
404:
392:
384:
366:
352:
345:
321:
311:(1900). The
290:
281:
273:
258:
249:
242:
238:
223:
218:
202:
199:Qing emperor
183:
169:treaty ports
158:
133:
132:
127:Qing dynasty
105:
96:
86:
79:
72:
65:
53:
41:Please help
36:verification
33:
3455:Port Arthur
2802:(1): 9–25.
2494:www.bbc.com
2291:. Picador.
1302:since 1898
1182:Port Arthur
1095:1905; 1950
1092:1898; 1945
487:Concession
388:Warlord era
192:. The 1842
154:imperialism
150:colonialism
138:concessions
3593:Categories
3130:by country
2776:2022-05-02
2687:2022-05-02
2663:2022-04-27
2499:2022-05-03
2402:2022-05-03
2323:2022-05-03
2051:2022-05-02
1994:2020-01-02
1805:References
1481:(Tengyue)
1201:, lost in
933:concession
419:consulates
261:missionary
255:Operations
129:up to 1911
69:newspapers
3545:Zhenjiang
3534:Tengchong
3508:Hong Kong
3356:Chongqing
2977:162586404
2961:0021-9118
2916:cite book
2908:966274204
2873:159946531
2865:0018-246X
2826:149414746
2818:0096-1442
2771:0362-4331
2739:cite book
2727:755068887
2618:144357230
2610:1354-571X
2151:0002-8762
1700:Jiangning
1590:Jiangning
1479:Tengchong
1400:Guangzhou
1395:Guangzhou
1375:Zhenjiang
1370:Zhenjiang
1244:Hong Kong
1239:Hong Kong
994:Chongqing
989:Chongqing
675:Guangzhou
670:Guangzhou
630:Zhanjiang
457:Hong Kong
442:Chongqing
427:legations
379:Prussians
163:and were
99:July 2008
3362:Hangzhou
2411:cite web
1742:See also
1561:Country
1512:Shanghai
1459:Shanghai
1354:Jiujiang
1216:Liaodong
1037:Hangzhou
1032:Hangzhou
849:Shanghai
650:Shanghai
598:Belgium
513:Shanghai
484:Country
374:eclectic
360:and the
165:enclaves
144:and the
3408:Russia
3270:Germany
3195:Belgium
3051:(1953)
2969:2059842
2159:1846262
1917:H. L.,
1721:Wenzhou
1716:Wenzhou
1705:Nanjing
1682:France
1676:Yingkou
1671:Yingkou
1634:Wenzhou
1629:Wenzhou
1608:Yichang
1603:Yichang
1595:Nanjing
1582:Yingkou
1577:Yingkou
1536:Tianjin
1391:Shamian
1313:Tianjin
1113:Tianjin
950:Tianjin
921:Qingdao
831:Tianjin
806:Tianjin
765:Qingdao
755:Germany
739:Kunming
734:Kunming
715:Tianjin
666:Shamian
621:France
607:Tianjin
584:Tianjin
535:Beijing
431:in 1929
411:tsarist
175:History
83:scholar
3503:Hankou
3492:Dalian
3445:Hankou
3434:Harbin
3394:Suzhou
3388:Shashi
3368:Hankou
3220:France
3067:
3000:
2975:
2967:
2959:
2906:
2896:
2871:
2863:
2824:
2816:
2769:
2725:
2715:
2616:
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2440:
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2347:
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2241:
2209:
2182:
2157:
2149:
2105:
2075:
2018:
1727:Italy
1692:Yantai
1687:Yantai
1663:Xiamen
1658:Xiamen
1650:Fuzhou
1645:Fuzhou
1640:Japan
1485:Yunnan
1439:Dalian
1421:Xiamen
1334:Hankou
1329:Hankou
1288:Weihai
1264:Weihai
1158:Harbin
1153:Harbin
1134:Hankou
1129:Hankou
1088:Dalian
1073:Russia
1058:Shashi
1053:Shashi
1016:Suzhou
1011:Suzhou
972:Hankou
967:Hankou
896:Dalian
867:Xiamen
786:Hankou
781:Hankou
695:Hankou
557:Xiamen
215:Daotai
85:
78:
71:
64:
56:
3340:Japan
3305:Italy
2973:S2CID
2965:JSTOR
2869:S2CID
2822:S2CID
2614:S2CID
2155:JSTOR
1543:1902
1540:1860
1519:1863
1516:1848
1466:1863
1463:1846
1446:1860
1443:1858
1428:1930
1425:1852
1407:1945
1404:1861
1382:1929
1379:1861
1361:1929
1358:1861
1341:1927
1338:1861
1320:1945
1317:1860
1295:1940
1292:1930
1271:1930
1268:1898
1251:1997
1248:1898
1223:1905
1220:1898
1194:1905
1191:1895
1165:1952
1162:1896
1141:1924
1138:1896
1120:1924
1117:1900
1065:1943
1062:1898
1044:1943
1041:1897
1023:1943
1020:1897
1001:1937
998:1897
979:1945
976:1898
957:1945
954:1898
928:1922
925:1914
903:1945
900:1905
882:Japan
874:1943
871:1902
856:1943
853:1902
838:1947
835:1901
821:Italy
813:1917
810:1895
793:1917
790:1895
772:1914
769:1898
746:1940
743:1904
722:1946
719:1861
702:1946
699:1896
682:1946
679:1861
657:1946
654:1849
637:1946
634:1898
614:1931
611:1902
591:1917
588:1902
564:1945
561:1903
542:1945
539:1861
520:1945
517:1863
499:Note
90:JSTOR
76:books
3486:Amoy
3065:ISBN
2998:ISBN
2957:ISSN
2922:link
2904:OCLC
2894:ISBN
2861:ISSN
2814:ISSN
2767:ISSN
2745:link
2723:OCLC
2713:ISBN
2606:ISSN
2565:ISBN
2535:ISBN
2469:ISBN
2438:ISBN
2417:link
2372:ISBN
2345:ISBN
2293:ISBN
2266:ISBN
2239:ISBN
2207:ISBN
2180:ISBN
2147:ISSN
2103:ISBN
2073:ISBN
2016:ISBN
1621:Wuhu
1616:Wuhu
1416:Amoy
455:and
287:Wars
278:Laws
152:and
62:news
2949:doi
2853:doi
2804:doi
2598:doi
2139:doi
1937:,
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106:(
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39:.
Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License. Additional terms may apply.
